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NONYMES, WITH COPIOUS ILLUSTRA 


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ENGLISH SYNON 


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WITH *y 


COPIOUS ILLUSTRATIONS AND EXPLANATIONS, 


DRAWN FROM THE BEST WRITERS. 


BY GEORGE CRABB, M.A, 


AUTHOR OF THE “UNIVERSAL TECHNOLOGICAL DICTIONARY,” AND THE “UNIVERSAL 
HISTORICAL DICTIONARY.” 


enth Bvtitton. 


FROM THE LAST QUARTO EDITION. 


NEW YORK: 


HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, 
329 & 331 PEARL STREET, 


FRANKLIN SQUARE. 


1858. 


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~~ TF. to OF 


PREFACE 


TO 


THE FIRST EDITION. 


It may seem surprising that the English, who have employed their talents 
successfully in every branch of literature, and in none more than in that of 
philology, should yet have fallen below other nations in the study of their 


synonymes: it cannot however be denied that, while the French and Germans 


have had several considerable works on the subject, we have not a single writer 
who has treated it in a scientifick manner adequate to its importance: not that 
I wish by this remark to depreciate the labours of those who have preceded 
me ; but simply to assign it as a reason why I have now been induced to some 
forward with an attempt to fill up what is considered a chasm in English 
literature. 

In the prosecution of my undertaking, I have profited by every ry thing which 
has been written in any language upon the subject; and although I always 
pursued my own train of thought, yet whenever I met with any thing deserving 
of notice, I adopted it, and referred it to the author in a note. I had not pro- 
ceeded far before I found it necessary te restrict myself in the choice of my 
materials; and accordingly laid it down as a rule not to compare any words 
together which were sufficiently distinguished from each other by striking fea- 
tures in their signification, such as abandon and quit, which require a compari- 
son with others, though not necessarily with themselves; for the same reason I 
thought fit to limit myself, as a rule, to one authority for each word, unless 
where the case seemed to require farther exemplification. 

Although a work of this description does not afford much scope for system 
and arrangement, yet I laid down to myself the plan of arranging the words 
according to the extent or universality of their acceptation, placing those first 
which had the most general sense and application, and the rest in order. By 


this plan I found myself greatly aided in analyzing their differences, and I trust _ 
that the reader will thereby be equally benefited. In the choice of authorities © 


I have been guided by various considerations ; namely; the appropriateness of 
the examples; the classick purity of the author; the justness of the sentiment ; 
and, last of all, the variety of the writers: but I am persuaded that the reader 
will not be dissatisfied to find that I have shown a decided preference to such 
authors as Addison, Johnson, Dryden, Pope, Milton, &c. At the same time it 
is but just to observe that this selection of authorities has been made by an 
actual perusal of the authors, without the assistance of Johnson’s dictionary. 
For the sentiments scattered through this work I offer no apology, although I 
am aware that they will not fall in with the views of many who may be vom- 


290 


nad 


v1 PREFACE. 


petent to decide on its literary merits. I write not to please or displease any 
description of persons; but I trust that what I have written according to the 
dictates of my mind will meet the approbation of those whose good opinion I 
am most solicitous to obtain. Should any object to the introduction of morality 
in a work of science, I beg them to consider, that a writer, whose business it 
was to mark the nice shades of distinction between words closely allied, eould 
not do justice to his subject without entering into all the relations of society, 
and showing, from the acknowledged sense of many moral and religious terms, 
what has been the general sense of mankind on many of the most important 
questions which have agitated the world. My first object certainly has been 
to assist the philological inquirer in ascertaining the force and comprehension 
of the English language; yet I should have thought my work but half com- 
pleted had I made it a mere register of verbal distinctions. While others seize 
every opportunity unblushingly to avow and zealously to propagate opinions 
destructive of good order, it would ill become any individual of contrary senti- 
ments to shrink from stating his convictions, when called upon as he seems to be 
by an occasion like that which has now offered itself. As to the rest, I throw 
myself on the indulgence of the publick, with the assurance that, having used 
every endeavour to deserve their approbation, I shall not make an appeal « 
their candour in vain. 


ADVERTISEMENT 


TO THE LONDON QUARTO EDITION. 


A FourTH edition of the ENcttsu Synonymes having now become desirable, 
the Author has for some time past occcupied himself in making such additions 
and improvements, as he deems calculated materially to enhance its value as a 
work of criticism. ‘The alphabetical arrangement of the words is exchanged 
for one of a more scientifick character, arising from their alliance in sense or from 
the general nature of the subjects: thus affording the advantage of a more con- 
nected explanation of terms, more or less allied to each other. At the same 
time the purpose of reference is more fully answered by an index so copious 
that the reader may immediately turn to the particular article sought for. ‘The 
subject matter of several articles has been considerably enlarged, and such 
amplifications admitted as may serve to place the SynonyMEs in a clearer pomt 
of view, particularly by comparmg them with the corresponding words in the 
original languages whence they are derived. ‘The English quotations have 
likewise undergone several alterations both in their number and order, so as to 
adapt them to the other changes which have been introduced throughout the 
work, 


INDEX. 


Page 

* TO ABANDON—to abandon, desert, forsake, re- 
linquish .... 2.2... Seletayny'etelala eibkeln c's wee aet 

TO ABANDON—to abeadone resign, renounce, 
abdicate ...-.ceesee Sitar icin aiceleisienicinseicls « 243 

TO ABANDON—to give up, abandon, resign, 
POLED alee saisitiisis © vin nivieiaisie!sisins vin'ob.o,a'<ia'e cies «1 DED 


ABANDON ED profligate, Crantoned: reprobate 249 *ABUNDAN' T—plentiful, plenteous, abundant, co- 


TO ABASE—to abase, humble, degrade, disgrace, 
ae - 106 
TO ABASH—to abash, confound, confuse....... 107 
*TO ABATE—to aha‘e, lessen, diminish, decrease 351 
TO ABATE—to subside, abate, intermit......... 271 

> TO ABDICATE—to abandon, resign, renounce, 


eee recesses ereore sere see soon 


BUUIGALe iene cine tietarisle sulaiivarc'oak nee saree) each 
TO ABDICATE—to abdicate, desert.......+.2++ 253 
ABETTOR—abettor, accessary, accomplice ..... 365 


» TO ABHOR—to abhor, detest, abominate, loathe 138 
TO ABIDE—to abide, sojourn, dwell, reside, in- 
habit 
ABILITY—ahility, capacity..... 610 Siatie's\ssie'e's<'s 
ABILIT Y—faculty, ability, talent ......-...+... 
ABILITY—dexterity, address, ability... 
ABJECT--low, mean, abject .. 
TO ABJURE—to abjure, recant, retract, revoke, 
TeCall.....ceeeseece . 247 
TO ABOLISH—to abolish, abrogate, repeal, re- 
voke, annul, cancel...+.e-..eeeseeeee - VAT 
ABOMINABLE—abominable, detestable, execra- 
DlGiecdacase rs sien eas Musa ee ke cole snistiat sts 138 
TO ABOMINATE—to abhor, detest, Spolninth, 
loathe! oes cs Lo. sos’ sie 
ABORTION—failure, miscarriage, abortion 
ABOVE--above, over, upon, beyond.......++2.. 279 
“TCO ABRIDGE—to abridge, curtail, contract ..... 178 
TO ABRIDGE—to deprive, debar, abridge....... 506 
TO ABROGATE—to abolish, abrogate, repeal, 
revoke, annul, cancel........+-+. iidcivistaiaiwive 
ABRUPT--abrupt, rugged, rough ..... pinmitele wie 
TO ABSCOND—to abscond, steal away, secrete 
one’s Self sscci sce scdss ccs Paiabioeeics's ciale-cigtete 520 
ABSENT—absent, abstracted, diverted, distracted 484 
TO ABSOLVE—to absolve, acquit, clear 182 
TO ABSOLVE—to forgive, pardon, esate re- 
Titaetose k's Chivcieest elec see bahaeteud se sew ee AO 
ABSOLUTE—absolute, despotick, arbitrary. .... 188 
ABSOLUTE—positive, absolute, peremptory-... 188 
*TO ABSORB—to absorb, swallow up, ingulf, en- 
gross ... 
TO ABST AIN—to abstain, forbear, refrain...... 
ABSTEMIOUS-—abstinent, sober, abstemious, 
temperate. igawte eae 
ABSTINENCE—abstinence, fast ...6...2.s0 87 
ABSTINENT—abstinent, sober, abstemious, 
LEMPEFAte --.-ceervncvecescccssecvcssccees 244 


263 
67 
68 
68 

147 


Seeeseseessee ese osses eee eseesseesseeeee 


eos evese 
eee Br eee seseeves 


eeseresees eset oeseseses 


eereseseeeveseen 


weeeo 


509 
244 


eee eeeereeseoseseseoeteoerseeeseeeen 


SSS SeR See esBeZ ESS SSTER EH EES 


Page 

TO ABSTRACT—to abstract, separate, distin- 

ABSTRACTED—absent, abstracted, diverted, 
CISTFACTEMS <ss0.0-c sn alee clo cones cecbe sees se tame aee 

ABSURD-—irrationa!. ‘oolish, absurd, preposte- 
TOUS:<(6Seccesisses! of feest ve Siok cosine cocccsss 91 
PIOUS) AMPEG. c25 ase cie sous secasie telas ds some tts 341 
‘TO ABUSE—to abuse, misuse........ss0eee200. 399 
ABUSE—abuse, invective.......¢..seeeseeecees 109 
ABUSIVE--reproachful, abusive, scurrilous..... 109 
ABYSS—gulf, abysg 52.2253 52232652508 sbeeeese. 403 
“ACADEMY-—school, academy.......20seseee00+ 197 

TO ACCEDE—to accede, consent, comply, acqui- 
esce, agree..... wa Unictars cee eee deeceseoeses Lol 

TO ACCELERATE—to hasten, accelerate, speed, 
expedite, despatch........... Mieid eletatersle’ are ose 261 
»sACCENT—stress, strain, emphasis, accent ...... 22] 
*TO ACCEPT-—-to take, receive, accept .......+.- 233 
#\CCEPTABLE—acceptable, grateful, welcome.. 234 

ACCEPTANCE : 

ACCEPTATION acceptance, acceptation..... 234 
*ACCESS— admittance, access, approach...-..... 238 

ACCESSION-—increase, addition, accession, aug- 
Mentation <Seecces se Sees vise wee’ owcccios see GA 


ACCESSARY—abettor, accessary, accomplice... 365 
2A CCIDENT--accident, chance.... - 171 
ACCIDENT—accident, contingency, casualty... 172 
ACCIDENT—event, incident, accident, adven- 
TUTE; OCCUITENCET- es. G ce eric coedyee weyers - 172 
ACCIDENTAL—accidental, incidental casual, 
Contingent <. 2. -<. wastes dae cee ats We Siauratls - 172 
AOCLAMATION—applause, acclamation, plau- 
Ohis) abiosespese Srinb Ine Gonoriggne.t Wilevseees 1a0 
TO ACCOMMODATE—+to fit, suit, adapt, accom- 
modate, adjust... eces 104 
ACCOMPANIMENT—accompaniment, compa- 
nion, concomitant « .+eceesccose vieseessewece 493 
TO ACCOMPANY—to accompany, attend, es- 
Cort, Wait ON«.esseeseee 493 
ACCOMPLICE—abettor, accessary, accomplice.. 365 
ACCOMPLICE—ally, confederate, accomplice.. 491 
70 ACCOMPLISH—to accomplish, effect, exe- 


ees ertceoorves 


CoOereeseerrsrebeeoveeess 


eee se receeesesseseceoss 


Cute, ACHIEVE . es cececcecccscccceeesccecsces LOG 
TO ACCOMPLISH—to fulfil, accomplish, realize 2&9 
ACCOMPLISHED—accomplished, perfect ...... 288 
ACCOMPLISHMENT—qualification, | accom- 

plishment ......-00-seeveesceoeeece dia bgrsion OOO 
TO ACCORD—to agree, accord, SUIt ...cce..ee - 152 


ACCORDANCE—melody, harmony, accordance 155 
ACCORDANT—consonant, accordant, consistent 153 
*”CCORDINGLY—therefore, consequently, ac- 
cordingly ...+.+++- DO edebives coancetommeme 
TO ACCOST—to accost, salute, address ..-.--. 461 


Will 

Page 
ACCOUNT—acconnt, reckoning, bill .....+++++* 433 
ACCOUNT—account, narrative, description..... 467 


ACCOUNT—sake, account, reason, purpose, end 535 
110 ACCOUNT--to calculate, compute, reckon, 


count or account, number..-«-++++ ABS SOnC - 432 

ACCOUNTABLE—answerable, responsible, ac- 
countable, amenable .-.-+++-++e+e+s sacle ne - 183 

TO ACCUMULATE—to heap, gis RO 
amass . OG sans eaeeisiees = apeiemnseteOau 
©ACCURATE—accurate, exact, precise. -.---+- «. 203 
ACCURATE—correct, accurate ...+--+s- Daisies cats 202 
ACCUSATION—complaint, accusation...«.--++ 112 

TO ACCUSE—to accuse, charge, impeach, ar- 
TAIQN .ceerceescrceesserrcsessseonecereeees 111 


TO ACCUSE—to accuse, CCNSUIE.-.eecer eee 
ACHIEVE—to accomplish, effect, execute, achieve 288 


ACHIEVEMENT—deed, paelt achievement, 
TERE epics ajcieaiiniatds pinteleim bras aie cicinisibix' a) #leictaleiers 295 

TO ACKNOWLEDGE—to acknowledge, own, 
CONFESS, AVOW ++ eee eeeee a elearetals siapaieitiaisie tata bie 442 

TO ACKNOWLEDGE—to recognise, acknow- 
ledge -+.+scsseecccncencseeecceescessoress -- 442 

TO ACQUAINT—to sisal make known, ac- 
quaint, apprize...+-eeees supisis(duwisuss'o PLO 

MOH AINT AN OH acadatntance, familiarity, 
intimacy .-cesseeeeees » Se daltia gersleis.eva s-visierane 195 

TO ACQUIESCE—to accede, consent, comply, 
ACQUIESCE, BALE... seeeseeereeesececrereees 151 

«TO ACQUIRE—to acquire, obtain, gain, win, 
CATT hve sic ole vbeeisceciesiscctnvovisineseweceseve 396 


TO ACQUIRE—to acquire, attain...... owieesiain'e GOO 
ACQUIREMENT } acquirement, acquisition.... 396 
ACQUISITION 

TO ACQUIT—to absolve, acquit, clear .....-+.- 182 
ACRIMON Y—acrimony, tartness, asperity, harsh- 


ness . Lok delsltiaw w/sls state nemiem pore ate © 383 
TO ACT—to Se do, act...-- “Sao nae asiteranees 294 
ina ON action, act, deed ....--+eeeeee< eecee 294 
ACTION —action, gesture, gesticulation, posture, 
Attitude ...escsccccccccccccscccscnsccccecee 295 
ACTION—action, agency, operation...-+.se.ee- 296 
ACTIVE—active, diligent, industrious, assiduous, 
Jab OLlOUBS.+\ civ iaisie ies hic rcsiee nie nude vee wineeisce sinh. 296 
“ACTIVE—active, brisk, agile, nimble ...... csece 207 
ACTIVE—active, busy, officious...--+++. cba lang 297 
ACTOR—actor, agent...--s.sesceeeccese Sete aie 298 
ACTOR—actor, player, performer ..-+-+eeseress 298 
ACTUAL—actual, real, positive ...-.+seseeesee- 298 
TO ACTUATE—to actuate, impel, induce ...... 309 
*ACUTE—acute, keen, shrewd .......+.- Saeaiew er 401 
ACUTE—sharp, acute, keen.....-..-eeeee- cs oo) 402 


ACUTENESS— penetration, acuteness, sagacity.. 401 
ADAGE—axiom, maxim, aphorism, apophthegm, 


saying, adage, proverb, by-word, saw ...-..- 210 
TO ADAPT—+to fit, suit, adapt, accommodate, ad- 

JUSt 0. ceccecseeceerecceesccesececes Pati laees 154 
TO ADD—to add, join, unite, coalesce .......-- « 418 
TO ADDICT--to addict, devote, apply .-.---+++6 421 
ADDITION—increase, addition, accession, aug- 

IDENLAHON: «060 i0i5 6:0 PUR ceed pee cecwivsescvenie 347 
TO ADDRESS—to accost, salute, address....... 461 
TO ADDRESS—to address, apply...--+++----e06 422 


ADDRESS—address, speech, harangue, oration. ~ 461 


INDEX. 


Page 
ADDRESS—direction, address, superscription.... 213 
ADDRESS—dexterity, address, ability......... -» 68 


TO ADDUCE—to adduce, allege, assign, advance 420 
eos Lape Meroe, a ae ade 
quate.. 
TO ADHERE—to adhere, attach see 
TO ADHERE-—to stick, cleave, adhere 
ADHERENCE—adhesion, adherence........ 
ADHERENT—follower, adherent, partisan... 
ADHESION—adhesion, adherence 
ADJACENT—adjacent, adjoining, contiguous... 
ADJECTIVE—epithet, adjective .......0.-.++06 
ADJOINING—adjacent, adjoining, contiguous... 
TO ADJOURN—to prorogue, adjourn. .....+.+. 
TO ADJUST-—to fit, suit, adapt, accommodate, 
adjust paeae) Loe 
TO ADMINISTER—to minister, administer, con- 
tribute ........- Shee? Stee wis celemicemiae LOT 
ADMINISTRATION—government, administra- 


eee et orsceoesceeseseseseseos eres ee 
eeeceeee 


- 420 
ee. 419 


ereeeecoseose 


eoeveoresr es essere seseeoes arsed eeesene 


ADMIRATION—wonder, admiration, surprise, 
astonishment, amazeMeNt ...+-etseerseesees 403 
ADMISSION—admittance, adinission.....-.+.+. 235 
TO ADMIT--to admit, receive....... onit:siorn Siete: 
TO ADMIT—to admit, allow, permit, suffer, tole- 
157 
TO ADMIT—to admit, allow, grant..... a. alcivn epmdend 
ADMITTANCE—admittance, access, approach.. 235 
ADMITTANCE—admittance, admission....... 
TO ADMONISH—to admonish, advise.......... 193 
ADMONITION--admonition, warning, caution . 93 
TO ADORE—to adore, worship 31 
TO ADORE—to adore, reverence, venerate, re- 


Bee esse eesee: ceoeereseeesesseeeseee sesso 


eercseesesecsesen 


«TO ADORN—to adorn, decorate, embellish..... 509 

ADROIT—clever, skilful, expert, dexterous, adroit 69 
TO ADULATE —to adulate, flatter, compliment.. 526 
TO ADVANCE. -to advance, proceed..... .. .. 301 
TO ADVANCE—to encourage, advance, promote, 


prefer, forward cs ones, 0<a shel e's a visabie ee 312 
TO ADVANCE—to adduce, allege, assign, ad- 

VANCE hase wid coblsisinm sin siisine sows ap as at wane 42¢ 
ADVANCE progress, progression, ad- 
ADVANCEMENT } vance, advancement..... 204 
ADVANTAGE—good, benefit, advantage....... 397 
ADVANTAGE—advantage, profit....-0+.0.+-.. 398 


ADVANTAGE—advantage, benefit, utility, ser- 


Vice, Avail, USC. 60 sec bsccowesvesees sie weiner Que 
ADVENTURE—event, incident, accident, adven- 
HUT} OCCUTTENCE. <i/4'5.46/0i'uosaisigareielsioeele ate Page Whos 


ADVENTUROUS—enterprising, adventurous... 173 
ADVENTUROUS—foolhardy, adventurous, rash 321 
ADVERSARY—enemy, foe, adversary, opponent, 
antagonist 134 
ADVERSE—adverse, contrary, opposite... 135 
ADVERSE—adverse, inimical, hostile, repugnant 135 


ADVERSE—adverse, averse ........- PAG Occ sents 136 
ADVERSITY—adversity, distress ........ vesvee AOU 
TO ADVERTISE—to announce, proclaim, pub- 
lish, advertise....... oS aie\n,spjs Liele! 6 a(es\er eae « 445 
‘ADVICE—advice, counsel, instruction .......... 194 


ADVICE—information, intelligence, notice, ad- 


VICE isi6s oss o'e 5:6 dieu ele oe vulva eae 6 v0 ce eee - 195 
TO ADVISE—to admonish, advise . - 193 


INDEX. 1X 
Page Page 
ADVOCATE—defender, advocate, pleader...... 180 | AIR—appearance, air, aspect....... seseeeee coe 478 
AFFABLE—affable, courteous ....--e.s.ceeeee+ 200 ALACRITY—alertness, alacrity .......... OU cals 297 
AFFAIR—affair, business, concern ............. 332 xALARM—alarm, terrour, fright, consiernation.... 305 
TO AFFECT—to affect, concern .......-seesee 332 ALERTNESS—alcrtness, alacrity ........ els).e, 297 
TO AFFECT—to affect, assume.........esee002 230] ALIEN : i 
TO AFFECT—to affect, pretend to ........es02. 229| TO ALIENATE PERO REE FOFRIBseIy Benin oe Orr 
AFFECTING—moving, affecting, pathetick..... 301 ALIKE—equal, even, equable, like or alike, uni- 
»AFFECTION—affection, love .....ccccceccovess 378 FOTM oss 000 200 Risluistels alnisidle! aa seslecoy.cese sees ASD 
AFFECTION—attachment, affection, inclination 379 |@ALL—all, whole........esceescececccaccecsceee Q52 
AFFECTIONATE—affectionate, kind, fond..... 379 | ALL—all, every, cach.....scescccucesseceeccces 252 
AFFINITY—alliance, affinity ...... Sennen - 492; TO ALLAY—to allay, sooth, appease, assuage, 
AFFINITY —kindred, Specht affinity, con- Mitigate Soeiewes ss sce sige tele Rees ig masse COL 
sanguinity .. Paelbote seeeseerseeeeeee 497) TO ALLEGE—to adduce, allege, assign, advance 420 
3%TO AFFIRM—to <tr aideverale, assure, vouch ALLEGORY —fig ure, metaphor, allegory, emblem, 
VEE -PIOLESE ccucieens jars awe vee se crcccescee 44] By MbOL, tUPe a lenie'seeieln's we ste Meee coe we neat 531 
TO AFFIRM—to affirm, assert . secseeesee 441] ALLEGORY—parable, allegory .........2eceees 532 
TO AFFIX—to affix, subjoin, deine annex -.... 419} TO ALLEVIATE—1o alleviate, relieve ......... 361 
TO AFFLICT—to afilict, distress, trouble....... 408 ALLIANCE—alliance, league, confederacy...... 492 
AFFLICTION—affliction, grief, sorrow......... 408 ALLIANCE—alliance, affiNity scl de sietspienee cies c's 492 
9AFFLUENCE—riches, wealth, opulence, afflu- TO ALLOT—to allot, assign, apportion, distribute 168 
GHOS aS EE NB CARER OBIE o Ripa ae erbacs 340 | TO ALLOT—to allot, appoint, destine.......... 169 
TO AFFORD—to afford, yield, produce ......... 330 pTO ALLOW—+to give, grant, bestow, allow ..... 162 
‘TO AFFORD—to give, afford, spare ............ 163} TO ALLOW—to admit, allow, permit, suffer, tole- 
AFFRAY—dquarrel, broil, feud, affray or fray.... 133 PALO ie ab caves crsicsotra dito cage eiewiatere preedantaten - 157 
AFFRONT—affront, insult, outrage.......-...0. 121 | 'TO ALLOW —to admit, allow, grant ........... 157 
AFFRONT —offence, trespass, transgression, mis- TO ALLOW —to consent, permit, allow ........ 156 
demeanour, misdeed, affront ..........esee0 120} ALLOWAN Se That 0 pies salary, 
AFRAID—afraid, fearful, timorous, timid ....... 307 wages, hire, pay... os Sei -.- 164 
AFTER—after, behind............0. AUCO MERAY 279 | TO ALLUDE—to adluides fs bint, suggest..... 326 
AGE—generation, age..-e.eeeeecseccreccecseces 270| TO ALLUDE TO—to glance at, alludeto ....... 327 
AGE—time, period, age, date, era, epocha...... - 267; TO ALLURE—to allure, tempt, seduce, entice, 
AGED—elderly, aged, Old .....sesesseccscccscee 269 DECOY, wee/nnavic ies patie asvetanid tae ae BaRGA oe - 319 
AGENCY—action, agency, operation ........... 296 | TO ALLURE—to attract, allure, invite, engage.. 3198 
AGENT —actor, agent ....-ccscceesccccecceces 298 | ALLUREMENTS—attractions, allurements, 
AGEN T—minister, spite seccccrevseccee V5 CRAFMNS ie'a:9)« c5; neieiven, che Sit, 0)3.0/a\m e/slnal oleranieieioe - 318 
AGENT—factor, agent.. sessevensecceeese 338| ALLY—ally, confederate, accomplice......... -» 491 
TO AGGRAVATE—to Aigratateh ini pro- ALMANACK—calendar, almanack, ephemeris .. 434 
voke, exasperate, tantalize .......ecsecccssee 121} ALONE—alone, solitary, lonely............000% » 259 
TO AGGRAVATE—to heighten, raise, aggravate 355~p A LSO—also, likewise, too................ Areas} 
AGGRESSOR—aggressor, assailant.......+2++.+ 116| TO ALTER—to change, alter, vary............. 283 
AGILE—active, brisk, agile, nimble............. 297 | ALTERCATION—difference, dispute, altereuiong 
TO AGITATE—to shake, agitate, toss ...... ss. 304 quarrel ......... ofka = aidicis\eysletoys boi cictel acters - 133 
AGITATION—agitation, emotion, trepidation, ALTERNATE—successive, alternate ........+.. 272 
tremour - San sameus seeceeesccees 308|A LWA YS—always, at all times, ever........ salet 208 
AGONY—distress, anxiety, suiguish. agOny..... - 407 | AMASS—to heap, pile, accumulate, amass ..... - 340 
AGONY—pain, pang, agony, anguish .......... - 407 *AMAZEMENT—wonder, admiration, surprise, 
TO AGREE—to agree, accord, suit......++02ee0e 152 astonishment, amazement......... rte - 403 
TO AGREE—to beh hog raat tk acqui- AMBASSADOR—ambassador, envoy, plenipoten- 
esce, agree.. wis Sew ene? LOL Tary; CEPULY .'s'-.'ebn's 25)6/e.osje/coe'sie era tna s 214 
TO AGREE—to ¢ agree, cates concur. - 151| AMBIGUOUS—ambiguous, equivocal........... 527 
» AGREEABLE—agreeable, pleasant, phaaatipe ++» 152} AMENABLE—answerable, responsible, account- 
AGREEABLE—conformable, agreeable, suitable 153 able;amenablests sion sjistahcaels lo ceelenccte -» 183 
AGREEMENT—agreement, coniract, abies TO AMEND—to amend, correct, reform, rectify, 
cempact, bargain.. . «. 152 emend, improve, mend, better.............0. Qu1 
AGRICULTURIST—farmer, husbandmon, agri- AMENDS—testoration, restitution, reparation, 
culturist . sow Shogo Sale videle'c Seicieee ORO amends ..-..+-.- sielaeielaeierdieieta a alata ele cclsiatens 439 
»*TO AID—to help, assist, aid, succour, relieve.... 364] AMENDS—compensation, satisfaction, amends, 
AIM—aim, object, end . imtYalatere sheid's slate pate Gee remuneration, recompense, requital, reward.. 438 
AIM—tendency, drift, scope, ath weseeeis mealies 325 | AMIABLE—amiable, lovely, beloved............ 378 
TO AIM—to aim, point, level...........++++++0« 324] AMICABLE—amicable, friendly ............+.- 378 
TO AIM—to aim, aspire........... Welgrere tle Sersieta 325 | AMOROUS—amorous, loving, fond.......-e+2+- 378 
TO AIM—to endeavour, aim, strive, struggle .... 321 | AMPLE—ample, spacious, capacious .....--++.. 350 
> AIR—all, MANNE Se Pew cgissieliss suideivcetesvsess vee. JO ee iyi SR ye 
* ATR—air, mien 100K... cece ccceccsercees coe 193 | AMPple 6c. cccewecescecce coves See dee wale G4] 


a 


TO AMUSE—to amuse, divert, entertain. <..+-. 
TO AMUSE—to amuse, beguile ..-.+-2++++++ee% 391 
AMUSEMENT—amusement, entertainment, di- 
version, sport, recreation, pastime.----+++e+- 391 
i aaa aa baa curse, Byers 
execration, anathema . sin cho blstaiere &2 
AN CESTORS—forefathers, piodeintors ancestors 269 
ANCIENT—old, ancient,’ antique, antiquated, 


old-fashioned, obsolete «+. +'-eeessereeee -- 268 
formerly, in times past, old 
ANCIENTLY 4 
f n- 
ANCIENT TIMES times or days of yore, a 


ciently or in ancient times 269 
ANECDOTE—anecdote, story, tale...+..e+sseee 467 
ANECDOTES—anecdotes, memoirs, chronicles, 


annals s/.. ses Bits atslofcieia te bine sein de.cewe Re 466 
ANGER—anger, resentment, wrath, ire, indigna- 
tion Ceo eee vec eee eoree oe eeeseeeeserees eevecoce 118 


ANGER—anger, ‘toe: Tage, FUT. ceecsseccess 
ANGER—displeasure, anger, disapprobation.....« 
ANGLE—corner, angle...ccsescecvececcces whees 
ANGRY—angry, passionate, hasty, irascible.....» 
ANGUISH—distress, anxiety, anguish, agony.... 
ANGUISH—pain, pang, agony, anguish......... 
ANIMADVERSION—animadversion, «criticism, 

RETICTUY CE sin corey is ec onde sos ures co cccevleesusese 
TO ANIMADVERT—to censure, animadvert, 

criticise ..... ise west 
ANIMAL—animal, brute, beast....sccccsevcsces 
TO ANIMATE—to animate, inspire, enliven, 


119 
118 
499 
119 
407 
407 


eeeeeesoe 


cheer, exhilarate.. se siscccescccecvecees secs 359 
TO ANIMATE—to encourage, animate, incite, 
impel, urge, stimulate, instigate «6..0...+ese 311 


ANIMATION—animation, life, vivacity, spirit.. 356 
ANIMOSITY—enmity, animosity, hostility...... 135 
ANNALS—anecdotes, memoirs, chronicles, annals 466 
TO ANNEX—to affix, subjoin, attach, annex.... 419 
ANNOTATION—temark, observation, comment, 


note, annotation, commentary .......e..ee0. 451 
TO ANNOUNCE—to announce, proclaim, pub- 
lish, advertise... s.seccceccccucccoccesccessns 443 


TO ANNOY—to inconvenience, annoy, molest.. 417 
TO ANNUL—to abolish, abrogate, repeal, re- 
voke, annul, cancels. sii ue's edule sé steals soeee 247 
ANSWER—answer, reply, rejoinder, response... 460 
ANSWERABLE—answerable, responsible, ac- 


countable, amenable .......csecccescccccces 183 
ANSWERABLE—correspondent, answerable, 
suitable ......06. weelolale'y He's vee be een ie sveee 155 


ANT IST—enemy, foe, adversary, oppo- 


nent; antagonist. .s/ecevssiesieediiessseee 134 


ANTECEDENT antecedent, preceding, forego- 
ANTERIOR ing, previous, anterior, prior, 
former... 320.63. wi eleeielete Q72 


ANTICIPATE—to prevent, anticipate.......... 
ANTIPATHY—aversion, antipathy, dislike, ha- 
tred, repugnance ........... cesses 136 
ANTIQUATED ae ancient, antiquated, an- 
ANTIQUE tique, old-fashioned, obsolete 268 
ANXIETY—care, solicitude, anxiety...........6 425 
ANXIETY—distress, anxiety, anguish, agony.... 407 
ANY—some, any . Siai8'b's eid on bo'e 250 
APARTMENTS—lodgings, apaienndies eptien une - 499 
APATHY — indifference, insensibility, apathy.... 375 
TO APE—to imitate, mimick, mock, ape ........ 529 


259 


eeererrreoce 


eee ree ereeesesees 


INDEX. 


Page 
APERTURE--opening, aperture, Cavity......+.. 402 


APHORISM—axiom, maxim, aphorism, apoph- 
thegm, saying, adage, proverb, by-word, saw 210 
TO APOLOGIZE—to. apologize, defend, justify, 
exculpate, excuse, plead .+..+eseseseeeeesess 18] 
APOPHTHEGM—-axiom, maxim, — aphorism, 
asus sas adage, proverb, by-word, 
SAW sens Hotere spon isioret Bis pune cinta S Sake owe DIC 
TO APPAL—to Hieies daunt,; appal .....-+--.- 306 
APPAREL—apparel, attire, array.. os eed 
APPARENT—apparent, visible, clear, plain, ob- 


ee eseneeee® 


vious, evident, manifest... -.ceessserceeceses 478 
APPARITION—vision, apparition, phantom, 

spectre, ghost »..+. vcldbinc calblsieed apaptawet ma se onan 
TO APPEAR—to look, appear...-++seceeeeeeee+ 481 
TO APPEAR—to seem, appear --+.-2eeseeee+eee 483 


APPEARANCE—appearance, air, aspect------ «> 478 
APPEARANCE—show, outside, appearance, 

Semblance -cecreceseooes ac aeeesieeh phcsio 400 
TO APPEASE—to appease, calm, pacify, quiet, 


Blillscassickisc costes sence cievoeeccnasiviene 361 
TO APPEASE—to allay, sooth, appease, assuage, 
Mitigate ..ccerscceeee Bey cieeie > seven esieces SOL 
APPELLATION—name, appellation, title, deno- 
mination.. Rasesonn yp! 
TO APPLAUD—to Mere commend, applaud, 
extol.. ascconscee JOU 
APPLAUSE—applause, oe ieenpen plaudit .-.. 130 
APPLICATION—attention, application, study... 423 
TO APPLY—to addict, devote, apply -. owe 421 
TO APPLY—to address, apply....-see-seceerece 422 
TO APPOINT—to allot, appoint, destine ....-+e« 169 
TO APPOINT—to appoint, order, prescribe, ordain 184 
TO APPOINT—to constitute, appoint, depute...» 214 
TO APPORTION—to ee assign, apportion, dis- 
{rIDWtCs accuse ple see sestes - 168 
TO APPRAISE to appraise or appreciate, 
TO APPRECIATE $ estimate, esteem.....-... 432 
TO APPREHEND—to apprehend, fear, dread... 307 
TO APPREHEND—to conceive, apprehend, sup- 
pose, imagine ...... oc cvccesecere cosevseccee 
TO APPRIZE—to inform, make known, acquaint, 
APprIZe Wares cess wiaesee oeveahoees b de cete wee LOH 
APPRIZED—aware, on one’s guard, apprized, 
conscious - 426 
APPROACH—admittance, access, approach ..... 235 
TO APPROACH—to approach, approximate. ....° 235 
APPROBATION—assent, consent, approbation, 
CONCUITENCE. 20. sec e cess cccccccncs - 156 
APPROPRIATE—peculiar, appropriate, _ parti- 
CUAL ood Gec sete ee eceecusecenvas eu seseinenaeeenl 
TO APPROPRIATE—to appropriate, usurp, arro- 
gate, assume, ascribe ......-eeseee alnib eset ine - 230 
TO APPROPRIATE—to appropriate, impropriate 231 
TO APPROXIMATE—to approach, approximate 235 
APT—ready, apt, prompt........ ose end 
APT—fit, apt, meet ......eee . 155 
AR BITER—judge, umpire, arbiter, arbitrator.... 211 
ARBITRARY—absolute, despotick, arbitrary.... 18? 
ARBITRATOR—judge, umpire, arbiter, arbitrator 211 
ARCHITECT—architect, builder. .....seeeessees 499 
ARCHIVE—record, register, archive..........+. 469 
ARDENT—hot, fiery, burning, ardent.........+. 475 
ARDOUR—fervour, ardour ...,. 0.06 ccssescsecses 475 
ARDUOUS—hard, difficult, arduous «..+esee++++ 364 


©e Shee esesaseseseovereneese 


75 


eeeesee reas 


eereeerece 


eoreseeres scene ces 


INDEX. 


TO ARGUE—1to argue, dispute, debate........ 
TO ARGUF—to argue, evince, prove ...- 
ARGUMENT—argument, reason, proof .. 
TO ARISE—to arise or rise, mount, ascend, climb, 
pealaiiea crane cess: -usshass, 
ro ARISE—to arise, proceed, issue, spring, flow, 
emanate ..eeesre-- 
ARMS—arms, weapons. 
ARMY—army, host. .. weleee 
TO ARRAIGN—to accuse,charge,impeach,arraign 
TO ARRANGE—to class, arrange, range...-.-+06 
FO ARRANGE—to dispose, arrange, digest ..... 
ARRAY—apparel, attire, array o.s.+.secceeecee ; 
TO,ARRIVE—to come, arrive. ....essecsceccees 
ARROGANCE—arrogance, presumption ........ 
ARROGANCE—haughtiness, disdain, arrogance 
TO ARROGATE—to appropriate, usurp, arrogate, 
ASSUME, ASCTIDE oesceereserecee ooh ose owerese 
ART—art, cunning, deceit ....ssessceccsccvecese 
ART—business, trade, profession, art ......-s.s0 
ARTFUL—artful, artificial, fictitious «........... 
_ ARTICLE—article, condition, term ......0ssse0- 
TO ARTICULATE—to utter, speak, articulate, 
PRONOGHCE 5 0 Sicie Waie sciele ves ei Vee 8 sincaina womicle = 
ARTIFICE—artifice, trick, finesse, stratagem .... 
ARTIFICIAL—artful, artificial, fictitious ........ 
ARTIFICER 
ARTISAN 
ARTIST 
ASCENDANCY— influence, authority, ascend- 
ancy, sway -.- Waaie se bc siees 
TO ASCEND—to arise or rise, mount, ascend, 
Climb, scale .. see seve ses 
£0 ASCRIBE—to appropriate, usurp, arrogate, 
ASSUME, ASCTIDE < 6 voce lowe sed scececccssesees 
TO ASCRIBE—to ascribe, attribute, impute ..... 
TO ASK—to ask, beg, request «....seeesee 
TO ASK—to ask or ask for, claim, demand ...... 


e@eseeesrereareeeese 


eereeersecocevrenese ee 


artist, artisan, artificer, mechanick 


eee eee eoresevees 


eeseee 


o> 302 


Xi 

Page Page 

114 | TO ASSERT—to assert, maintain, vindicate.... 44] 

77 | TO ASSERT—to affirm, assert ..........s6..... 442 

77 | ASSESSMENT—tax, rate, assessment ......... - 168 
TO ASSEVERATE—to affirm, asseverate, assure, 

VOUCH, AVEF, PLOtest ..00-see-seceeceecconeee AAT 
ASSIDUOUS—active, diligent, industrious, assi- 

291 Guous, laborious... sso eseeceeevcocesevsoss 206 

141 | ASSIDUOUS—sedulous, diligent, assiduous...... 297 


TO ASSIGN—to adduce, allege, assign, advance 420 
TO ASSIGN—to allot, assign, apportion, distribute 168 
TO ASSIST—to help, assist, aid, succour, relieve 364 
ASSISTANT—colleague, partner, coadjutor, as- 
SIStaNtikesisanescesibicuss 49] 
ASSOCIATE—associate, companion.» ...s.2s0+% 488 
ASSOCIATION—association, society, company, 
partnership ..+-esceeses « 488 
ASSOCIATION—association, combination...... 
TO ASSUAGE—to allay, sooth, appease, as- 
suage, mitigate....... --- 361 
TO ASSUME—to affect, assume ..++-.-2--0+-++- 230 
TO ASSUME—to appropriate, usurp, arrogate, 
ASSUME, ASCTIDE «200 -ceeceee ee. 230 
ASSURANCE—assurance, confidernce......6-2+. 415 
ASSURANCE—assurance, impudence........-- 415 
TO ASSURE—-to affirm, asseverate, assure, 
vouch, aver, protest....... «> 44] 
ASTONISHMENT—wonder, admiration, sur- 
prise, astonishment, amazement.......-..++. 403 
ASTROLOGY 
ASTRONOMY 
ASYLUM—asylum, refuge, shelter, retreat...... 518 
AT ALL TIMES—always, at all times, ever..... 258 
$e spelen drastly, at last, at length ......... 270 
TO ATONE FOR—to atone for, expiate......... 87 
ATROCIOUS—heinous, flagrant, flagitious, atro- 
sEainla aierecor ple elb leit UE Siatate Sisiad' arp stove eoseee 249 
TO ATTACH—to affix, subjoin, attach, annex... 419 
TO ATTACH—to adhere, attach..............-. 40 


141 
111 
277 
277 
277 
301 
231 
101 


eee esoeeereseseessene 


Coes orsesseoeservecse 


230 
521 
331 
521 
335 


Qpree ecco e res eesseoes 


459 
521 
521 


e@recrerecae essence 


336 
astronomy, astrology...-e-.-e9. 338 


186 


157 
228 


TO ASK—to ask, inquire, question, interrogate .. 97 APT AGHALENT.tiarbinent affection, inclina- 
ASPECT—appearance, air, aspect.......0s..00. « 478 dan Sipe nat WE BEN ie. Th ce OS 
ie wa tartness, rouighek harsh- TO ATT ACK —15 attack, assail, assault, en- 
TICS so-so cece eseee sce ecesececeseseccesesees 383 counter « Oo aliig 1) ha es a ome 
TO ASPERSE—to z asperse, detrace defame? slan- ATT ACK —attack, assault, encounter, onset, 
der, calumniate.. ere ee eee ee ice a 105 charge .. eeeies te 5 eee o pecs ecsseceee 116 
TO ASPIRE—to aim, aspire...........0. meas - 325] TO ATTACK —toi impugn, Ni aa vipa cise Caan 
TO ASSAIL—to attack, assail, assault, encounter 116 | TO ATTAIN—to acquire, attain.........ce..26+ 396 
ASSAILANT—aggressor, assailant ...........-. 116 ATTEMPT—attempt, trial, endeavour, essay, 


TO ASSASSINATE—to kill, murder, assassinate, 
Slay-or Slatighter ss. cvs cists Sede ccseecscsecs 
TO ASSAULT—to attack, assail, assault, en- 
COMNLEE sc oe sete hse oer sels dsa'leel eicles'se Boe! 
ASSAULT—attack, assault, encounter, onset, 
charge........ Sisieis clei deleeloisie 
ASSEMBLAGE—assembly, assemblage, group, 
collection ... Wisrliteee in Cele(viesle ss ea 
TO ASSEMBLE—to assemble, muster, collect... 
TO ASSEMBLE—to assemble, convene, convoke 


ASSEMBLY—assembly, assemblage, group, col- 
léction: 6.2. 3% 


eee osererresecce 


eeeeceen 


eevee oreeneersencereresvesee 


ASSEMBLY—assembly, company, meeting, con- 
gregation, parliament, diet, congress, conven- 
tion, synod, convocation, council . seesee 


ASSENT—assent, pias Spprobadion: concur- 
rence 


ee ereee eeeesseresseooe & ee 


° 489 


effort seve 320 
ATTEMPT—attempt, undertaking, enterprise.... 320 
TO ATTEND—to accompany, attend, escort, 


eeecessseeorcecesessessece eeeeeee 


WAIT Oli. snes culate sis isle cidineetc ices sa cidnis etna 493 
TO ATTEND TO—to attend to, mind, regard, 
116 heed: notice sea e's osc p's 30 4rd savlonehe aah 422 
- TO ATTEND—to attend, hearken, eee mouse Bee 
4 


ATTENTION—attention, application, study..... 4 

ATTENTION—heed, care, attention.... neato 420 

ATTENTIVE—attentive, careful....e.s.eeeeees 424 

ATTIRE—apparel, attire, array...... - 277 
ATTITUDE—action, gesture, gesticulation, pos- 

ture, attitude, position ..... begceue 208 

| TO ATTRACT—to attract, allure, invite, engage 318 
- 490 ATTRACTIONS——attractions,  allurements, 


490 


490 


156 TO ATTRIBUTE—to ascribe, attsibute, impute.. 23) 


xil 


Page 
ATTRIBUTE—quality, property, attribute .-.... 232; 
AVAIL—advantage, benefit, utility, service, avail, 

TSC. 22000 shapeiasehtSiort fale aisle sincera cie'slo\e vabwede ee 398 
AVAIL—signification, avail, importance, conse- 

gvence, weight, moment...-...+++s+eeeceeee 456 
AVARICE—covetousness, cupidity, avarice ..-. 160 
AVARICIOUS—avaricious, miserly, parsimoni- 


us, Niggardly ..--++eseeeeeseeeeseecsecesees 1EL 
AUDACITY—audacity, sventeny pasainoda or 
hardiness, boldness ...++..-sceeeenceees eseee 140 


TO AVENGE—to avenge, revenge, vindicate.... 119 


TO AVER—to affirm, asseverate, assure, vouch, 
AVET, PYOLESl ..0- see eseeeeseeecercccccecces « 441 
AVERSE—adverse, AVCFS€ --.0.ceesseccsscorsee 136 
AVERSE—averse, unwilling, backward, loath, 
VEHUCAML co sicsinisvslccsle.c se miclo'e siete wiaitis sicleaibre ele a 136 
“AVERSION—aversion, antipathy, dislike, hatred, 
YEPUQNANCE.... eve ecccesccecscsccecsscscccs 136 
AUGMENTATION—increase, addition, acces- 
SION, AUMMENtATION ...-. ees eecee cere ceose 348 
TO AUGUR—to augur, presage, forebode, betoken, 
POTLEN..00.0 acccccecscceweccene ses pec eoseee 94 
AUGUST—magisterial, majestick, stately, pom- 
pous, august, dignified ........ececeeeee lowe 404 
AVIDITY—avidity, greediness, eagerness....... 162 
AVOCATION—-business, occupation, employ- 
ment, engagement, avocation.....-.-.ssceeee 331 
TO AVOID—to avoid, eschew, shun, elude...... 527 


TO AVOW—to acknowledge, own, confess, avow 442 
AUSPICIOUS—favourable, propitious, auspicious 190 
~ AUSTERE—austere, rigid, severe, rigorous, stern 382 


AUTHOR—writer, author .....seesseeccssscceee 336 
AUTHORITATIVE—commanding,, imperative, 
imperious, authoritative .........ccceecceees 185 
AUTHORITY—influence, authority, ascendancy, 
RW AN ieee se Ruta te nine wie sleiticlersluiceicia's ee eiele'e «6 186 
AUTHORITY—power, strength, force, authority, 
PIMENTEL OM cotareataiessiaislerdle's src eralavs elses civic esi sia'e - 186 
TO AUTHORIZE—to commission, authorize, em- 
BOWer Oise One. Ite Ue Rs as - 186 


1'O AWAIT—to await, wait for, look for, expect 415 
TO AWAKEN—to awaken, excite, provoke, 


POUSE REIT UP) vielocciclelein's's's'w'w'cleic’n's slottia ste aclsic's - 3il 
4WARE—aware, on one’s guard, apprized, con- 
RCIONS Focermiainetoiersieb sole lststelaite sed. cuncla acters ¢eie 426 
AWE—awe, reverence, dread .........0.sceeeee 307 
AWKWARD—awkward, clumsy..........0.05. 315 
AWKWARD—awkward, cross, untoward, 
crooked, froward, perverse ..........seee006 315 
AWRY—hent, curved, crooked, awry ..........- 316 
AXIOM—axiom, maxim, aphorism, apophthegm, 
saying, adage, proverb, by-word, saw........ 210 


TO BABBLE—to babble, chatter, chat, prattle, 


PEALE ae alsideinewwia yess cv elovesccccceesaveecce » 459 
ae Arp } back, backward, behind ....+... 279 
BACKWARD—averse, unwilling, backward, 

loath, reluctant........... a aisstu a's sislefaccinia’ as'e 136 
BAD—bad, wicked, €Vil 0... 0.0. ccccccccsesces 127 
BADGE—mark, badge, stigma.........seeeceee - 44 
BADLY—hadly, ill........... pian nti nee knee 197 


TO BAFFLE—to baffle, defeat, discontvert con- 
found. eeeeeeoeecets eeoe 143 


INDEX. 


TO BALANCE—to poise, balance ....se5e. sseoe S70 
BALL—globe, ball . sedcccccseses DOU 
BAND—band, company, crew, gang---ereereeess 492 
BAND—chain, fetter, band, shackle..... cd cca da 
BANE—bane, pest, ruin... vives Jelteele OUd 
TO BANISH—to banish, exile, expel.....-.- + bole eo 
BANKRUPTCY-— insolvency, failure, bankruptcy 125 
BANQUET—feast, banquet, carousal, entertain- 


exeeoeeosece 


eeeosceoese 


MENE,. TLEAL-\o sin ceisis vieois als sisheae vessels ae - 513 
TO BANTER—to deride, mock, ridicule, rally, 

DAN tenis ois!sisiseis cialis ise ateintela ste yee stan are siccee 103 
BARBAROUS—cruel, inhuman, Be bru- 

tal, savage.. oseisWidve vical seniseslesestes Ole 
BARE—bare, ced: sha CF bile Uipeelene ele mele eee 
BARE—bare, scanty, destitute ...e.-sseeeescecee 250 


BARE—bare, mere... ..cesesscececccccee ee atele 200 
BAREFACED—glaring, barefaced ........-s00+ 476 
BARGAIN—agreement, contract, covenant, com- 


Pact, Dargai. .:..0<ccce.x'sipsswenile icielalveleisiee 6 158 
TO BARGAIN—-to buy, purchase, bargain, 
CHEBPEN |. « sieiw stain ns olsisle*\en ini see dvevese son's 335 
TO BARTER—to change, exchange, barter, sub- 
SULUte ess = sieisesie-eis nian’ SWiceehine pias ete iceaistas 334 
TO BARTER—to ae barter, truck, com- 
INUtO ss 4ciein weam's slo's sivin nite Wrasigiteu s cleisto ce em eeeenrOe 
BASE—base, Vile, Mean...e.e0e cecevesccaccece 148 
BASiS—foundation, ground, basis.....+..+0+ e- 498 
BASHFUL—modest, bashful, diffident.......+++. 148 
BATTLE—battle, combat, engagement.....-.se. 141 
TO BE—to be, exist, subsist .....-0+eesccescee «+ 239 
TO BE—to be, become, Zrow ..-.-ececsevscccees 240 
TO BE ACQUAINTED WITH—to know, be 
acquainted With .....+.-e.. wes tvaleaclvawe eee 196 
BEAM--gleam, glimmer, ray, beam ..-..-.ee- eee 476 
TO BEAR—to bear, yield ...........- ierometatones -- 330 


TO BEAR—o bear, carry, convey, transport..... 330 
TO BEAR—to suffer, bear, endure, support--..-. 149 
TO BEAR DOWN—to overbear, bear down, 


overpower, overwhelm, subdue.....-... eves 144 
BEAST—animal, brute, beast........+. iuodtoues 511 
TO BEAT—to beat, strike, hit......-eessseeeee - 142 


TO BEAT—to beat, defeat, overpower, rout, over- 
throw ininctich esis ‘ . 143 
BEATIFICATION—beatification, canonization.. 


85 

BEATITUDE—happiness, felicity, bliss, blessed- 
ness, beatitudé,. soca'smse sss aieeieess/sepie oss. 394 
BEAU—gallant, beau, spark ......s.sccseceeees 381 
BEAUTIFUL—beautiful, fine, handsome, pretty 313 
TO BECOME—to be, become, grow ..-++-e+.++- 240 

BECOMING—becoming, decent, seemly, fit, suit 
Mle ete vases sisiniente os a.d:0is os siniain Helpereera teen 246 
BECOMING—becoming, comely, graceful.......- 313 


TO BE CONSCIOUS—to feel, be sensible, be con- 


SCIOUS 6+ -cvcreccerpccncstsecveccesccevecses G10 
TO BE DEFICIENT—to fail, fall short, be defi- 

CIENL Saivons <n pial oisiniers begeoeses bie wdabig be o's woes LO 
TO BEDEW—to sprinkle, bedew © ecccccesees as 5 
TO BEG—to beg, desire........ GU Si9ln bio care ie seem 


TO BEG—to beg, beseech, solicit, entreat, suppli- 
Cate, implore, Crave... ove sso bvcccssecciocs Hae 
TO BEG—to ask, beg, request....-.ssesseseeee 157 
TO BEGIN—to begin commence, enter upon .... 292 
BEGINNING—origin, ere beginning, rise, 
SOUICE ...6 «- <\ca's os eab eee iee ein ee 


INDEX. 
Page ; 


TO BEGUILE—-to amuse, beguile ........+.... 
~BEHAVIOUR—behaviour, conduct, carriage, de- 
Portment, deMEANOULs 2.2 -seeceeesevceesscce 
BEHIND—after, behind....e.-.csessescceccrces 
BEHIND—back, backward, behind.. 
TO BEHOLD—to look, see, behold, view, eye... 
BEHOLDER —looker-on, spectator, beholder, ob- 
SEIVEr ..-.- 
BELIEF—belief, credit, trust, faith.......ccee. 
TO BELIEVE—to think, suppose, imagine, be- 
lieve, deem ....-... Wa aieicn ale'viels acs ae saierecie 
BELOVED—amiable, lovely, beloved 
BELOW—under, below, beneath ......-scessee 
TO BEMOAN—to bewail, bemoan, lament, de- 


eee eecereeeeseseseseseeos 200008 


PlOre « sccccccecccccvcvvcccccevescsecsencs 


BEND—bend, bent.. 
TO BEND—to lean, incline, bend.......... 
TO BEND—to turn, bend, twist, distort, wring, 

WYESt, WENCH ov eveccccccccccccassceccesce 
BENEATH—under, below, beneath....... 
BENEFACTION—gift, present, donation, bene- 

faction ...-. 
BENEFICE—living, benefice....... 
BENEFICENCE—benevolence, beneficence. .... 
BENEFICENT—beneficent, bountiful or bounte- 

ous, munificent, generous, liberal... 
BENEFIT—benefit, favour, kindness, civility.... 
BENEFIT—benefit, service, good office... +... 
BENEFIT—advantage, benefit, utility, service, 

BVAll USC’ oc coe ceccasc ete euescdseccdess 
BENEFIT—good, benefit, advantage.... 
BENEVOLENCE—benevolence, beneficence.... 
BENEVOLENCE—benevolence, benignity, hu- 

manity, kindness, tenderness... e.csssosesees 
BENIGNITY—benevolence, benignity, humanity, 

kindness, tenderness....-.e.+: 
BENT—bend, bent. ...cccccccccccscccccsscccece 
BENT—bent, curved, crooked, awry ...+-+seeeee 
BENT—bent, bias, inclination, prepossession ...- 
BENT —turn, bent ...-sscccccceces 
BENUMBED—numb, benumbed, torpid......... 
TO BEQUEATH—to devise, bequeath .......0. 
TO BEREAVE—to bereave, deprive, strip ..... 


TO BE RESPONSIBLE to guarantee, be secu- 


Seer ee eG oe es F828 F988859008 


oe 


@eoreceee 


eveessen 


TO BE SECURITY rity,.be responsible, 
Warrant .... 


TO BE SENSIBLE—to feel, be sensible, con- 
scious .. 
“TO BESEECH—to beg, beseech, solicit, entreat, 
supplicate, implore, Crave.......cccsccceseee 
BESIDES—besides, moreover.... 
BESIDES—besides, except .... 
TO BESTOW—to give, grant, bestow, allow.... 
TO BESTOW —to confer, bestow ......esevesee 
BETIMES—soun, early, betimes .........sseeee. 
TO BETOKEN—to augur, presage, forebode, be- 
token, portend... 

TO BETTER—to amend, correct, reform, rec- 
tify, emend, improve, mend, better .......... 

TO BEWAIL—to bewail, bemoan, lament, de- 
POPE eo re PeTa gar en cand spamschb cxes lacs sces 
BEYOND-— above, over, upon, beyond........... 
BIAS—bent, bias, inclination, prepossession...... 
BIAS—bias, prepossession, prejudice ... 


eecveeevece 


391 


192 
279 
279 
482 


482 
78 


75 
378 
279 


410 
316 
159 


316 
279 


164 
239 
165 


165 
166 
166 


398 
397 
165 


165 


165 
316 
316 
159 
316 
372 
164 
505 


183 


376 


158 
251 
251 
162 
167 
262 


94 
201 
410 
279 


159 
160 


xii) 


Page 


TO BID—to call, bid, summon, invite..... ...... 46¢ 


TO BID—to offer, bid, tender, propose .......... 167 
TO BID ADIEU to leave, take leave, bid 
TO BID FAREWELL ; farewell or adieu.... 255 
BIG—great, large, big ............ Sidi odc's sie'n'elstery - 349 
BILL—account, reckoning, bill......... Vanes dec 433 
BILLOW—wave, billow, surge, breaker... «+ 353 
TO BIND—to bind, tie.........cccceecceeeesees 216 
TO BIND—to bind, oblige, ean Peeccesccccese VG 
BISHOPRICK—bishoprick, diocess ............. 85 
TO BLAME—to blame, reprove, reproach, up- 
braid, censure, condemn .......6..0+ see Ae 


TO BLAME—*to find fault with, blame, dee to 112 
BLAMELESS—-blameless, irreproachable, un- 


blemished, unspotted or spotless ........ oscee 129 
BLAST—breeze, gale, blast, gust, storm, tempest, 
DUTTICANCiviee ei cltiarcisiteiheeieianatesieindi terawireeacloe 3903 
TO BLAZE—flame, blaze, flash, flare, glare .... 476 
BLEMISH—blemish, stain, spot, speck, flaw..... 127 
BLEMISH—blemish, defect, fault.............. « 127 
TO BLEND—to mix, mingle, blend, confound... 284 
BLESSEDNESS—happiness, felicity, bliss, bless- 
edness, beatitude...o.cceccecccncesecscoesese 394 
BLIND—cloak, mask, blind, veil..........2ce0e0 51€ 
BLISS—happiness, felicity, bliss, blessedness, bea- 
PtUdericsesedeuducisncees vans euee sete eecee 394 
BLOODY sanguinary, bloody, blood- 
BLOOD-THIRSTY thivstyicie ns aiciew 4 aealaleee 507 
TO BLOT OUT—to blot out, expunge, rase or 
erase, efface, cancel, obliterate ........eeeee 248 
BLOW—blow, stroke. ...cescsecceccscvccccssees 142 
BLUNDER—errour, mistake, bibider tee Caietars 2a + 126 
TO BOAST—to glory, boast, vaunt..........0:- 526 
BOATMAN—waterman, boatman, ferryman .... 337 
BODILY—corporal, corporeal, bodily .......... « 510 
BODY—body, corpse, Carcass...c0.ss0esccceeee - 510 
BOISTEROUS—violent, furious, boisterous, vehe- 
ment, impetuous .....0--.+. ie a etatete socersee 219 
BOLD—bold, fearless, intrepid, undaunted...... - 306 
BOLD—daring bold) (co jec see Me tete cceeeeeat 4d 
BOLD—strenuous, bold......02.sccececeees vovee 14) 
BOLDNESS—audacity, effrontery, hardihood or 
hardiness, boldness......... TUE EET bee et 140 
BOMBASTICK—turgid, tumid, bombastick...... 464 
BONDAGE—servitude, slavery, bondage........ 328 
BOOTY—booty, spoil, prey ..-..sesseoceeee core 506 
BORDER—border, edge, rim or brim, brink, mar- 
BIN, VETYCssceesscccsrecscccccscercesccncses 1G 


TO BORE—to penetrate, pierce, perforate, bore.. 402 
TO BOUND—to bound, limit, confine, circum- 


~cribe; restritt ss es. Fue eset cee cwe's eae aA os by 
BOUNDARY—bounds, boundary.....:........ - (177 
BOUNDARY—term, limit, boundary........ eos 177 
BOUNDLESS—boundless, unbounded, unlimited, 
infinite’.....0... Sevbaecediee desecd pe ecse Vay LT 
BOUNDS—bounds, boundary.......scseeesseves 177 
BOUNTEOUS beneficent, apache or eta: 
BOUNTIFUL ous, muni sate. generous, li- 2 
beral...... Precgucerssecses oF 108 
BRACE—couple, brace, pair......seccoceescsees 434 


TO BRAVE —to brave, defy, dare, challenge.... 138 
BRAVERY—bravery, courage, valour, gallantry.. 139 
BREACH 


BREAK ' breach, break, gap, chasM.-.++-++e.+ 50) 


xiv 


4‘C BREAK—to break, rack, rend, tear 
TO BREAK—to break, bruise, squeeze, pound, 
OTS sice siyeiess Sheccadce GOL 
TO BREAK—to break, burst, crack, split...+.... 502 
BREAKER—wavye, billow,. surge, breaker..++++.- 353 
TU BREED—to breed, engender...+...+sese+e00 497 
BREED—race, generation, breed.....- aipraivrelniete e+ 497 
BREEDING—education, instruction, breeding ... 197 
BREEZE—breeze, gale, blast, gust, storm, tem- 
pest, hurricane ....-- abanewiemeses ebee ud 
BRIEF—short, brief, concise, succinct, summary 286 
BRIGHT—clear, lucid, bright, Vivid.....+<e.see2 476 
BRIGHTNESS ) brightness, lustre, splendour, 
BRILLIANCY ; Deiliancyscciseosccies e+ eocee 474 
BRILLIANCY—radiance, brilliancy .......++s0« 475 
BRIM—border, edge, rim or brim, brink, margin, 
VEIZE «se eccee seseoe 176 
TO BRING—to bring, fetch, carry..-e.seerreces 330 
BRINK—border, edge, rim or brim, brink, margin, 
VETLE ce ansincecasalinvacencagie sacespersebesese LUO 
BRISK—active, brisk, agile, nimble...-.eeee.s20 297 
BRITTLE—fragile, frail, brittle.....-cescecceees S02 
BROAD—large, wide, broad.g...s.eseeesceeeese 349 
BROIL—quarrel, broil, fead, affray 01 fray ...... 133 
TO BRUISE—to break, bruise, squeeze, pound, 
CTS ata tela eins siatas dapeideinialawiseyel miners: ciel cists sees OO 
BRUTAL—cruel, inhuman, barbarous, brutal, 
SAVALC wh cawacrstctgowecics cess vsssinsssgesee OO 


eeeeseeeseereee 


BRUTE—animal, brute, beast ....cce-seccccscce DIL 
TO BUD—to sprout, budieissds eseece eeorsecesass 353 
BUFFOON—fool, idiot, buffoon serecoscaeessecse 400 


TO BUILD—to build, erect, construct.......-+.» 498 
TO BUILD—to found, ground, rest, build........ 498 
BULK—-size, magnitude, greatness, bulk........+ 348 
BULK Y—bulky, massive or massy..secsee-seeee 348 
BURDEN—weight, burden, load...... aaaininpeeste tOvO 
BURDEN—freight, cargo, lading, load, burden... 338 
BURDENSOME—heavy, burdensome, weighty, 
PONdErOUS «.eeveeeces 
BURIAL—burial, interment, sepulture .......- 
BURLESQUE—wit, humour, satire, irony, bur- 
TESQUE ncecccccssecseee 69 
BURNING—hot, fiery, burning, ardent......+e«. 475 
TO BURST—to break, burst, crack, split......++ 502 
BUSINESS—business, occupation, employment, 
ENgageMeNt, AVOCALION evecseerscees awe edeas (OO) 
BUSINESS—husiness, trade, profession, art ..... 331 
BUSINESS—business, office, duty .ccccceeseseee Sal 
BUSINESS—affair, business, concern ...-ee0sss- J32 
BUSTLE—bustle, tumult, uproar ...sescseesseee 220 
BUSY—active, busy, Officious.....ceesseescecsee 297 
BUTCHERY—carnage, slaughter, butchery, mas- 
SACTO ie cdiu ence sro tale was eviewss oywesiatsases ive BIO 
BUT T—mark, Dutt. o.ccccsccccccscsccssssdeses 4409 
TO BUY—to buy, purchase, bargain, cheapen... 335 
BY-WORD—axiom, maxim, aphorism, apoph- 
thegm, saying, adage, proverb, by-word, saw 210 


@eeeeseeeeeseeeeseeeesess 376 


84 


Seerssesereeceseseseoes 


CABAL—combination, cabal, plot, conspiracy... 489 
TO CAJOLE—to coax, wheedle, cajole, fawn... 525 
CALAMITY—calamity, disaster, misfortune, mis- 
chance Mishap.rcceseescsecssecsecescseseee 406 
TO CALCULATE—tocalculate,compute, reckon, 
count or secount, NUMbET......eeesceeevesee 432 


Page 
CALENDAR- calendar, almanack, ephemeris... 434 


TO CALL—to call, bid, summon, invite.....-.. 469 
TO CALL—to cry, exclaim, Cail.....+.+-+e+++0- 470 


TO CALL—to name, call ..... shbk woenipetey ceee 471 
CALLOUS—hard, callous, hardened, obdurate .. 373 
CALM—calm, composed, collected......... sesee aOR 


CALM—calm, placid, serene.....seecses-coecees JOB 
TO CALM—te appease, calm, pacify, quiet, 

Still ania ce cccndniteicgmarania deine dues shee weee BOL 
CALM—peace, quiet, calm, tranquillity ......... 361 
TO CALUMNIATE—to asperse, detract, defame, 

slander, calumniate ......... css pevele LUG 
GAN=-maJ,.CAN, ++ saisnis «vt neh pinie poitaipwine ahistels ERE 
TO CANCEL—to abolish, abrogate, repeal, re- 

voke, annul, cancel ..++++<« 
TO CANCEL—to blot out, expunge, rase or erase, 
efface, cancel, obliterate .. « 248 


eeseeece 


247 


seereeevreseeoee 


- CANDID—candid, open, sincere ........+- seecee 430 


CANDID—frank, candid, ingenuous, free, open, 
plain .....+ oie oA Bineaes HP emo i srels cemamacy deere ak 

CANONIZATION—beatification, canonization.. 85 

CAPACIOUS—ample, spacious, capacious ...-.- 350 


CAPACIOUSNESS capacity, capaciousness... 174 


CAPACITY — 

CAPACITY—ability, capacity..ccseccscccecovee 67 

CAPRICE—humour, caprice ..--cceeccees vocese 380 

CAPRICIOUS—fanciful, fantastical, whimsical, 
CAPLICIOUS + o0sesceeecccceseccosceess eeeseee SOO 

CAPTI[OUS—captious, cross, peevish, petulant, 
fretful..... tancmanesisnaedse8 ces 5 ssenantateinme en 


TO CAPTIVATE—to charm, enchant, fascinate, 
ENTAPLUTE, CAPLIVALE.o-sencrecvesceceseasoese GIVE 
TO CAPTIVATE—to enslave, captivate ....... 318 
CAPTIVIT Y—confinement, imprisonment, capti- 
w to nad nien on chic clei pipe as emnle 
CAPTURE—capture, seizure, prize.....e++see+6 506 
CARCASS—-body, corpse, carcass...s+eee.0+--+- 510 
CARE—care, solicitude, anxiety ...+.eccsccescee 425 
CARE—care, concern, regard ...e2cecrsecscevevie 425 
CARE—care, charge, management......eesccsceees 425 
OARE—heed, Care, attention .....sescccrececcce 4296 
CAREFUL—careful, cautious, provident...«e.e» 425 
CAREFUL—attentive, careful.....coessseccsees 424 
CARELESS—indolent, supine, listless, careless.. 300 
CARELESS—negligent, remiss, careless, thought- 
less, heedless, inattentive ...0...ssecescccene 424 
TO CARESS—to caress, fondle occeccerccseceee SIT 
CARGO—freight, cargo, lading, load, burden .... 338 
OARNAGE—carnage, slaughter, butchery, mas- 
BACTE evince cic te cic Gldene Nielsen $0.58 gist palpieny EO 
CAROUSAL—feast, banquet, carousal, entertain- 
MEN, treat oorcercceccccercsscesecereccsese DID 
TO CARP—to censure, carp, cavil........--.00. 112 
CARRIAGE—carriage, gait, walk .......-..- ese 192 
CARRIAGE—behaviour, conduct, carriage, de- 
portment, demeanourecesccocsscccccccnsesee 192 
TO CARRY—to bear, carry, convey, transport... 330 
TO CARRY—to bring, fetch, carry ....-ccsseoe. 330 
CASE—case, Cause .c-secccccrcecveccscccsccses 230 
CASE—situation, condition, state, predicament, 
Plight, CASE ...sscccveccsecccrcscccccccsccece DIG 
CASH—money, Cash.o-seccceccrcccccccccsessce JAD 
TO CAST—+o cast, throw, hurl ..cccseasccoss--- 304 
CAST—cast, turn, description, character. .«.. ..467 


INDEX. xv 


Page Page 

CASUAL -~accidental, incidental, casual, contin- CHARMS—attractions, allurements, charins..... 318 
ZEN ceveccccccccccncsersenctonscecenscsess 172 | OHASE—forest, chase, park ....++-.ssseeseeeeee QI 
CASUAL—occasional, casual .........s000. sees 418 | CHASE—hunt, chase -.-++-e++eeesesseenee veces Q71 
CASUALTY—accident, contingency, casualty... 172 | CHASM—breach, break, gap, chasm ........ soe 501 
CATALOGUE—list, roll, catalogue, register..... 468 | TO CHASTEN—to chasten, chastise ..-.-..+.++ 204 
TO CATCH—to lay or take hold of, catch, seize, CHASTITY—chastity, continefice, modesty ..... 245 
snatch, grasp, gripe..... Sos eRe seeee 237| TO CHASTISE—to chasten, chastise......-.. ++ 204 
TO CAVIL—to censure, carp, cavil............ 112 | TO CHAT—to babble, chatter, chat, prattle, prate 459 


CAVITY—opening; aperture, cavity............ 402'| CHATTELS—goods, furniture, chattels, movea- 


CAUSE—case, CaU9¢ ....eceeescseeecseeeecsees 200] Dies, effects..+esseerseeeserreererneaereesees 339 
CAUSE—cause, reason, motive.......s+sseeee2. 77 | TO CHATTER—to babble, chatter, chat, prattle, 
TO CAUSE—to cause, occasion, create......... 294 PYAte sje ceive cd olds Honlelecedege tad atitebonn ESO 


CAUTION—admonition, warning, caution...... 193 | TO CHEAPEN-—-to buy, purchase, bargain, 
CAUTIOUS—careful, cautious, provident....... 425 t CHEAPEN) s'> Yeung a toadeve ee damecuniidenh ice 335 
CAUTIOUS—cautious, wary, circumspect ...... 425 | TO CHEAT—to cheat, cefraud, trick ...-..+..++ 525 


TO CEASE—to cease, leave off, discontinue, desist 257 TO CHECK—to check, curb, control raatinhven ee 222 
TO CEDE—to give up, deliver, surrender, yield, TO CHECK—to. check; chide, reprimand, re- 
Geode, COhcede! sg. cc etetiel es co liade lee. 242 PFOVE, TEDUKE «seo sures vevaeesonwencsors cern 110 
CELEBRATED—famous, celebrated, renowned, TO CHECK—to check, stop-.cosccorssecseessse 208 
illustrious. ...... secteresseesneesseececssezs 473 | LO CHEER—to animate, inspire, enliven, cheer, 
CELERITY—quickness, swiftness, fleetness, ce- EXhilarate ..cccovcecccccvcccccscccecsesceces sa 
lerity, rapidity, velocity....ssesesecscvccccce 262 TO CHEER—to cheer, encourage, comfort. +. ++ 36 
CELESTIAL—celestial, heavenly .......e0eee+. 81 | CHEERFUL—cheerful, merry, sprightly, gay -.. 389 


TO CENSURE—to censure, animadvert, criticise 111 CHEERFUL—glad, pleased, joyful, armen dy S 
TO CENSURE—to accuse, censure .......e-006 IL TO CHEBISH-to nourish; nurture; cherish. ++ +..877 


TO CENSURE—+to censure, carp, cavil.......+. 112! TQ CHERISH:--to. foster cherish): harbour, » in; 

TO CENSURE—to blame, reprove, reproach, up- dulge eeeee shabbcnetiasy gbitiatln AE hie Da GBIT Wika eel 377 
braid, censure, condemN.....c-scccccscccoes 110! FO CHIDE--to.eheck, chide, reprimand, repian a 
CEREMONIOUS—formal, ceremonious......+.. 994 : ‘. dba 5 Dat: eeese raced ipsa peesee e@eosene ss 

CEREMONY—form, ceremony, rite, observance 83 CHEE ables, peinctpet PEO eer . 
CERT AIN—certain, sure, secure .....2+-.+e++00 366 CHIEF chief, leader, siitethetn Batts Oh aoe ecg ii 
CESSATION—cessation, stop, rest, intermission 257 erin why eclaliy,; pextiqulariy» -prinesgally; 206 
TO CHA ies ages Ban ee eoeereees ee eseee eee se see eseosgeseeosee@ 

Bare Faia cali et Halbsoy 1 309 | CHIEFTAIN—chief, leader, chieftain, head ..... 206 
CHAGRIN—vexation, mortification, chagrin..... 122 Ae ap : 

: OHILDISH—childish, infantine.....--+..+2.0s - 401 
CHAIN—chain, fetter, band, shackle ...... Seeeeenol? ; 
TO CHALLENGE—to brave, defy, dare, chal- CHILL—chill, cold...0ss-ccesveeccvcccensiaees - 514 
lenges : ; * 138 TO CHOKE—to suffocate, stifle, smother, choke 22 

CHAMPION-—combatant, champion .sv.cass 2606 TBE | Coro ne ales «panes San anedieer Fi as 2e8 


as Sect sesieantek Li 
CHANCE—chanee, fortune, fate......see+seeeee 170 Ae RMON oe ine bi 933 
CHANCE—chancee, probability ...... Secccccccee 170 We Ne ae ee, 


OHANCH=chiatica: hazard v.2366200 iam TO CHOOSE—to choose, pick, select ......¢s+++' 234 
CHANCE~—accident. ch TO CHOOSE—to choose, elect......2ssseccseees 34 

apr ed ba Rae a wae eA ee CHRONICLES—anecdotes, memoirs, chronicles, 
TO CHANCE—to happen, chance ........+se006 171 


GUDOIS so vice ca sl caciep edule’ se « cobivnassce': 406 
TO CHANGE —to change, alter, vary. -»-++--«« 983 | CEITRCH—temple, church s--<ess0«<esa+¢sctunss) & 
[0 CHANGE—to change, exchange, barter, sub- CIRCLE—circle, aphere, orb, globe.....+.+.++- HM; 


BEIUILC area's cisib-0'nnis algun cit's ainlginsinic. cpio Zac bie 6 acene 
OHANGE—change, variation, vicissitude........ 283 
CHARACTER—character, letter.......s.seeeee2 197 
CHARACTER—cast, turn, description, character 467 
CHARACTER—charaeter, reputation .......... 472 
TO CHARACTERIZE—to name, denominate, 

style, entitle, designate, characterize......... 471 
CHARGE—care, charge, management ....-+.00« 425 
CHARGE—attack, assault, encounter, onset, 

Re eke ceded ced cse0 cava baecss'essep, LIC 
CHARGE—cost, expense, price, charge......-.+. 436 
CHARGE —office, place, charge, function........ 333 
TO CHARGE—to accuse, charge, impeach, ar- 

TRIO sac peas Cilsiva eet sie «tpisnicasasceans coi LL 
OCHARM—grace, charm .....cosesecccccsccperse 314 
CHARM —pleasure, joy, delight, charm......+.+. 393 

TO CHARM—to charm, enchant, fascinate, en- 

FAPthire, CAPLIVALE cece scccscccccccccsesccess B17 

CHARMING—delightful, charming ............. 313 


CIRCUIT—circuit, tour, round...eessscesssesses 175 
TO CIRCULATE—to spread, circulate, propa- - 
gate, disseminate. ....ssesccceeccseresensses G40 
TO CIRCUMSCRIBE—to circumscribe, enclose 175 
TO CIRCUMSCRIBE—to bound, limit, confine, 
circumscribe, restrict ..--cecccrsssesserescos 176 
CIRCUMSPECT—cautious, wary, circumspect.. 425 
CIRCUMSTANCE—circumstance, situation..... 173 
CIRCUMSTANCE—incident, fact ....se.sse+002 172 
CIRCUMSTANTIAL—circumstantial, particu- 
TAT, MINULEs..- sj asr cccrcceccsecssscevegacioe Lid 
TO CITE—to Cite, quote ...0-.seceercceceesveee 469 
TO CITE—to cite, summon ...sseeeeseeeesrreee 469 
CIVIL—civil, polite.......ceccsccsccocccsersoes 198 
CIVIL—civil, obliging, complaisant .....-.+++++- 199 
CIVILITY—benefit, favour, kindness, civility.--- 166 
CIVILIZATION—cultivation, culture, civiliza-. 
tion, refinement .....scecceeseeessecccsesens 198 
CLAIM—right, claim, privilege ...++.+s+sseesee+ 228 


Ce AGREES Stee SS, SRE a ALE Se EE ot CE i Ee a see i eae 


xvl 
Page 
CLAIM—pretension, claim ..... + 229 
TO CLAIM—to ask, or ask for, claim, demand... 228 
CLAMOROUS—loud, at RNIN: cla- 


morous . coe vecesens coccccccccsrccce AG] 
CLAMOUR—noise, cry, ontheg binanolate - 470 
CLANDESTINE—clandestine, secret..........- 520 
TO CLASP—to clasp, hug, embrace .-.........- 377 


CLASS—class, order, rank, degree -..esseesseree 276 

TO CLASS—to class, arrange, range.....-- Q77 

CLEAR—apparent, visible, clear, plain, obvious, 
evident, Manifest.....seeveccccrccccccsecs 


478 


CLEAR—clear, lucid, bright. vivid.............. 476 
CLEAR—fair, clear --.+ ..-secccccccccsscsesess 477 
TO CLEAR—to absolve acquit, clear.......... 122 
CLEARLY—clearly, distinctly .......+.sceessee 477 
CLEARNESS—clearness, perspicuity...... eee e ATT 
TO CLEAVE—to stick, cleave, adhere ......... 419 
CLEMENCY—clemency, lenity, mercy.... ..... 358 


CLERGY MAN—clergyman, parson, priest, minis 


Poy OASIS ES SLES A slaiebiem kine wipiats cate'nicle Ofeld eutey YOO 
CLEVER—clever, skilful, expert, dexterous, 

AGLOI istee'es peieiciicieleieciside’s aclcp elaceesesiceeec 6? 169 
TO CLIMB—to arise or rise, mount, ascend, climb, 

Sale... sss ie'sen oe ceccesescccccccccccccsescs DUG 
CLOAK—cloak, mask, blind, veil ........ss000 - 516 
TO CLOG—to clog, load, encumber....... Sess YS) 
CLOISTER—cloister, convent, monastery....... 86 
CLOSE—sequel, close...... ela. detstenieis seesipicicee s O04 
CLOSE—close, compact........... he caelgw cere « 285 
CLOSE—close, near, nigh ......eeee wb ebwise cee « 285 
TO CLOSE—to close, shut .......ssceecceses oes 286 
TO CLOSE—to close, finish, conclude .......... 286 
TO CLOSE—to end, close, terminate............ 285 


CLOW N—countryman, peasant, swain, hind, rus- 

tick; CIOWD «2.6 Feiss ens se 
TO CLOY—-satisfy, satiate, glut, cloy.... 
CLUMSY—awkward, clumsy .-.0+-ceeecscocese 
COADJUTOR—colleague, partner, coadjutor, as- 


eeceeeseeeceseosec eens 


SSSA nce io cies wices's cust sie gala ee cteWees vices eee 401 
TO COALESCE—to add, join, unite, coalesce... 418 
COARSE—coarse, rough, rude...+..-.-eeeceeee 201 
COARSE—gross, coarse.........00 dusotuasie ges 201 
TO COAX—to coax, wheedle, cajole, fawn...... 525 


TO COERCE—to coerce, restrain. ........sss008 
COEV AL—coeval, contemporary ..... 
COGENT—cogent, forcible, strong .....seees00-s 
TO COINCIDE—to agree, coincide, concur...... 
COLD—chill, cold.......cssceeeee a pie tieels 
COLD—cool, cold, frigid .........6.ceeseees 
COLLEAGUE—colleague, itor eakajutbe ak as- 
sistant - «- 491 
TO COLLECT—to bissérable! viii’ tists - 489 
TO COLLECT—to gather, collect.........ees05 294 
COLLECTED—calm, composed, collected ...... 362 
COLLECTION—assembly, assemblage, group, 


INDEX. 


Pagt 
COMBAT—conflict, combat, contest ........+... 14% 
TO COMBAT—to combat, oppose ..... otrecensipintee Ao 


COMBATANT—combatant, champion.......... 134 
COMBINATION—association, combination ..... 488 
COMBINATION—combination, cabal, plot, con- 
Spiracy ..... voted en cece secsiccsisecescteds - 489 
TO COMBINE—to connect, combine, unite ..... 419 
TO COME—to come, arrive.... sovseoe SOL 
COMELY—becoming, comely, graceful.......+.+ 313 
COMELY—graceful, comely, elegant...........- 315 
COMFORT—comfort, pleasure ........sseeeee00 357 
TO COMFORT—to cheer, encourage, comfort... 356 
TO COMFORT—to console, solace, comfort..... 356 
COMICK laughable, ludicrous, ridiculous, co- 
COMICAL ; mical or comick, droll... .. bites 
COMMAND—command, order, injunction, pre- 
cept, mandate. 
COMMANDING—commanding, imperative, im- 
perious, authoritative.......sessscccceeccess 189 
TO COMMENCE—tobegin,commence,enter upon 292 
TO COMMEND—to praise, commend, applaud, 
oxtol ..... vavceee « 134 
COMMENDABLE—laudable, praiseworthy, com- 
MENGAHI eC o:s:ejc'0.o.0.0 sas ppinsaicier siceecieeepameae neal 
COMMENSURATE-—proportionate, adequate, 
COMMENSUTALE oeeescoeecrves sao pigs bheses - 434 
COMMENT remark, observation, com 


COMMENTARY ( ™CBh note, commentary, 
ANNOTATION 2... cccecssceee 45} 


COMMERCE — intercourse, communication, con- 


103 


eeeceeeeesessces eons 


seer cess eseoaseess eeeses 


nexion, commerce......- AS Aric Saath ote esses ddd 
COMMERCE—trade, commerce, traffick, dealing 337 
COMMERCIAL—mercantile, commercial ....... 339 


COMMISERATION—sympathy, commiseration, 
compassion, condolence... «s+ 
TO COMMISSION—to praca | authorize, 
EMPOWET «cceeevesesccers coccecces 106 
TO COMMIT—to consign, baaeeeed intrust...... 415 
TO COMMIT—to perpetrate, commit....-...+.. 296 
COMMODIOUS—commodious, convenient, suita- _ 
Dl@ ‘ess cawteesietsce's Marscig $6 rect ouedai 
COMMODITY—commodity, goods, merchandise, 
WATE) desewes loan bee 08 0: nie nieie Wietanie eae aneten 
COMMON—common, vulgar, ordinary, mean ... 323 
COMMONLY—commonly, generally, frequently, 
USUAII]Y ooccccevccevcccscces 
COMMONWEALTH—state, realm, common- 
Wealth...e.es- aves as 100 
COMMOTION—commotion, disturbance .......- 417 
TO COMMUNICATE—to communicate, impart 486 
COMMUNICATION—-intercourse, communica- 
tion, connexion, commerce.........6+ sis einivinie socked 
COMMUNICATIVE—communicative, free ..... 487 
COMMUNION—communion, converse.........- 487 
COMMUNION—Lord’s supper, eucharist, commu- 


357 


ceoceeseseen 


eoeserse ese sr eeee 


Seerceseseseeeseeeseee 


collection ....... souaseeee Sorter eeleisetetaee 400 nion, sacrament...... male aialsioieals aed <o00 6 semana 
COLLOQUY—conversation, dialogue, colloquy, COMMUNITY—community, society....... sevee 487 
CONFETENCE.20 4. se cececseeccsescorccsceseses 460} TO COMMUTE—to exchange, barter, commute, 
TO COLOUR—to colour, dye, tinge, stain....... 516 CFUCK seis es es Sieh tee 0 6G secre ve o.c.scle sone een 
COLOUR—colour, hue, tint.......0.sseeess+eeee 516) COMPACT—agreement, contract, covenant, com- 
COLOURABLE—colourable, specious, ostensible, pact, bargain...-.cecccccccccccsee secsecnce LID 
plausible, feasible ........-seccsesesseesesee 016, COMPACT—Close, Compact .....ececececcsccees 208 


COLUMN—pillar, column. eeerorsee cee eo eseeseooe 499 COMPANION—accompaniment, companion, con Z 


COMBAT—battle combat, engagement.......... 


141 © 


comitant..... eos COO Dee e Genseasssee 493 


INDEX. 


Page | 


UCOMPANION—associate, companion........ +». 488 
COMPANY—assembly, company, meeting, con- 

gregation, parliament, diet, congress, conven- 

tion, synod, convocation, council........... ee 
COMPAN Y—association, society, company,, part- 

nership..+.+- A vlcsese svecseee ceeewicetis cess 
COMPANY—band, company, crew, gang...... we 
COMPANY—society, company ........ceeeeeee : 
COMPANY—troop, company........ earey ee eee 
COMPARISON—comparison, contrast ........+. 
COMPARISON-—simile, similitude, comparison. . 
COMPASSION-—-pity, compassion ........-.. 
COMPASSION—sympathy, commiseration, com- 


490 


488 
492 
487 
492 
135 
532 
358 


passion, Condolences.......6sseeeceecseevees 357 
COMPATIBLE—compatible, consistent......... 153 
TO COMPEL—to compel, force, At necessi- 

tate. eves eee 219 
COMPEN SATION—compensation, euslinaeton: 

amends, remuneration, recompense, requital, 

SePOREO: Su iva eae Sida TS cute Ue Set aven 438 
COMPETENT—competent, fitted, qualified ..... 154 
po oN Ai a ta ae emula- 

tion... wrote {Cenieoc - 131 


TO COMPLAIN—to baptist Hien tenon: - 409 


TO COMPLAIN—to complain, murmur, repine.. 409 

COMPLAINT—complaint, accusation .......... 112 

COMPLAISANCE-——complaisance, condescen- 
BION AEFETENCE! /Svesis ws os iccecscecgsseesete 200 


COMPLAISANT—civil, obliging, complaisant... 199 
pinta: cat ame courtly, complai- 


XVii 

Page 

TO COMPUTE—to estimate, compute, rate..... 432 

TO CONCEAL—to conceal, dissemble, disguise. . 519 

TO CONCEAL—to conceal, hide, secrete...... - 519 

CONCEALMENT—concealment, secrecy ..... -- S19 
TO CONCEDE—to give up, deliver, surrender, 

yield, cede, CONCEdE’. veieciccssete tect cccensee 242 

CONCEIT—conceit, fancy ..... Pacer sateianens - 99 

CONCEIT—pride, vanity, conceit ...........+.- 100 


CONCEITED—opiniated, opiniative, conceited, 


egoistical ....... Ga /sefalctentelaisietwrate sl Wale) aisvela'ers 100 
TO CONCEIVE—to conceive, apprehend, sup- 

pose, imagine..........005 sia bet eivleles Bie eaves ots 74 
TO CONCEIVE—to ise understand, com- 

PIGHENM soe decline sess doele ecus cies sais Helene 74 
CONCEPTION aie en NOLION vee acts cqes 75 
CONCEPTION—perception, idea, conception, no- 

HOMGocs Be telmesias suiactelis s plates sole 75 
CONCERN—affair, business, concern........-. - 332 
CONCERN—care, concern, regard ..--+.+eeesees 425 
CONCERN—interest, COnCErN. 2. +eeseeeeeeees - 332 
TO CONCERN—to affect, concern.........20206 332 
TO CONCERT-—-to concert, contrive, manage... 533 
TO CONCILIATE—to conciliate, reconcile..... 153 


CONCISE—short, brief, concise, summary, suc- 


CINGHistaciuta sis cre stelnuisrsieinisluia aeehe BRistaie seieta be eres 86 
TO CONCLUDE—to close, finish, conclude..... 286 
TO CONCLUDE UPON—to decide, determine, 

CONCITEE WHOM \a'sc cle cece homie mtcleee se seaictaes 223 


CONCLUSION—conclusion, inference, deduction 78 
CONCLUSIVE—conclusive, decisive, convincing 225 


sant . sans sfemtetoraldbewisis ot hi. hetuieiraisia oe 3's) geare 199 |} CONCLUSIVE—final, conclusive. ...-.....-..-+ 224 
COMPLETE Sa ee pare finished ....... 287 ' CONCOMITANT—accompaniment, companion, 
COMPLETE—whole, entire, eae total, in- concomitant ..... efalisheloyeleicteiais 5 Papaslcuidestasis 493 

Prac! Se eee eer eee Daisies 288 | CONCORD—concord, harmony.........s--+0-- « 155 
TO COMPLETE—to completo, auish; terminate 287; TO CONCUR—to agree, coincide, concur....... 15] 


OOMPLETION—consummation. completion . «+. 287; CONCURRENCE—assent, consent, approbation, 
COMPLEX—compound, complex ........-sees6- 218 CONCUIYENCE vecsecssccevcecccccece Sieisisisieete + 6 
COMPLEXITY ; complexity, complication, in- CONCUSSION—shock, concussion . o See! B08 
COMPLICATION LEICACW aol Ease sleigsg oleae cic 218; TO CONDEMN—to blame, reprove, sephana 
COMPLIANT—compliant, yieldiag, submissive... 151 upbraid, censure, condemn.. estab eR LTG 
TO COMPLIMENT—to adulate flatter, compli-.. | TO CONDEMN—to reprobate, Londen wemecihtes 108 
MLLOM EH s otasaaloth)s cisreters tootatee WolRruthe niche uieielsighe 526 | TO CONDEMN—to sentence, condemn, doom... 169 
TO COMPLY—to comply, Seiten Wed. submit 150 | CONDESCENSION—complaisance, paren 
TO COMPLY—to accede, consent, comply, acqui- SION MLCLETENCE + vis ae cieidoe cw ctielecie waltanies tele 20C 
ESCE, AZTEC - se sere ceeeeeeceeces Vislorete’ olen! atote gts 151 | CONDITION— article, condition, term........... 335 
TO COMPOSE—to compose, settle ....s.seeeees 227° SONDITION—condition, station .........--+.0. 280 
TO COMPOSE—to compound, compose......-.- 219 | CONDITION—siituation, condition, state, predica- 
TO COMPOSE—to form, compose, constitute.... 294 meiit, plight, CASE... .scecccceces saree tatavete 270 
COMPOSED—composed, sedate. ....-...seeeeeee 227 | CONDOLENCE—sympathy, compassion, com- 
COMPOSED—calm, composed, collected ........ 362 miseration, condolence ........ese.esee-eee - 357 
COMPOUND—compound, complex ...........0 218 | TO CONDUCE—to conduce, contribute......... 168 
TO COMPOUND—to compound, compose ...... 219 | CONDUCT--behaviour, conduct, carriage, deport- 
TO COMPREHEND—to comprise, comprehend, MeNt, dEMEANOUL «eee essecesececs oaldaetadats 192 
embrace, contain, include........sscesesesne 174| TO CONDUCT—to conduct, guide, lead........ 191 
TO COMPREHEND—to conceive, understand, TO CONDUCT—to conduct, manage, direct .... 191 
COMIMMEMANER AES sale dist sive Wes. 40-04 616 idis,ce ae 74| CONFEDERACY—alliance, league, confederacy 492 


COMPREHENSIVE—comprehensive, extensive. 171} CONFEDERATE—ally, confederate, accomplice 491 


TO COMPRISE—to comprise, comprehend, em- TO CONFER—to confer, bestow.......---++.+ 167 
brace, CONfaimInelUde ... 2... cccecssensecce 174| CONFERENCE—conversation, dialogue, coufe- 
COMPULSION—constraint, compulsion ........ 220 FENCE, CONOQUY oosersecscccescencesevsecers 460 


COMPUNCTION—repentance, hae contri- 


TO CONFESS—to acknowledge, own, confess, 


tion, compunction, remorse ... paws aees © CC M2 avows BR ney Per igi mnee Be ee ice gens sac Gs 
ro COMPUTE—*to ealculate, Saiaite Rains TO CON FIDE—to leounaes trUSts cer econ se - 414 
count or account, NUMber..........000002065 432} CONFIDENCE—assurance, confidence . - «- 415 


INDEX, 


xvill 
Page Page 
CONFIDENCE-—hope, expectation, trust, confi- CONSEQUENT—subsequent, consequent poste- 
LETC ORs oaks e alain dic! Sidigvata bis sha; wlnieina'e'sig Meee LS TIGE Ds sieicib ie winsle's k.cinelshoyslete oe 6's Qin eae Nite wee 
CONFIDENT—confident, dogmatical, positive... 414 | CONSEQUENTLY—naturally, consequently, in 
TO CONFINE—to bound, limit, confine, circum- COULSC,.Of .COUTSE:',00015 ose ecsecew ents slatoerete ye 
Scribe, restrict... 2... ececeeeceseeeere eoeeee 176 | CONSEQUENTLY —+therefore, consequently, ac- 
CONFINED—contracted, confined, narrow....-- 177 COTAITIC] Vue damstelertn ais theca pias eriaiee va seiotane 7a 
CONFINEMENT—confinement, imprisonment, TO CONSIDER—to consider, reflect... « «..-« 7 
CAPLIVIty ...ccaceesecsccccccsnceesecsceeces 178 | TO CONSIDER—to consider, regard......0.2++. V7 
TO CONFIRM—to confirm, corroborate........- 225 | CONSIDERATE—thoughtful, considerate, deli- 
TO CONFIRM—to confirm, establish........... 25 DGFBLG,; x «0s cise ce eiere eis eve RaSaleielcte's acs wrataleee 424 
CONFLICT—conflict, combat, contest.......... 142 | CONSIDERATION—consideration, reason...... 77 
TO CONFORM—to comply, conform, yield, sub- TO CONSIGN—to consign, commit, intrust..... 415 
Mit...¢s ee clageewlsints \iatlahetets rete (a Siaia ait sieeve ioe 150 | CONSISTENT—compatible, consistent...-...... 153 
CONFORMABLE—conformable, agreeable, suita- CONSISTENT—consonant, accordant, consistent 153 
Plein vsicieinja Gy ee'eidinn sis sles Bea hpietaiateveinieisisivias dieiaty 153 | TO CONSOLE—to console, solace, comfort..... 356 


293 | CONSONANT—consonant, accordant, consistent 152 
107 ; CONSPICUOUS—distinguished, noted, conspicu- 


CONFORMATION—form, figure, conformation. . 
TO CONFOUND—to abash, confound, confuse. . 


TO CONFOUND—to baffle, defeat, disconcert, OUS, eMinent, I]UStLIOUS ..-.... eee eecee reece 473 
confound ...... rea aicte ate Persia's A akeraiatec sible pe 143 | CONSPICUOUS—prominent, conspicuous....... 474 
TO CONFOUND—to confound, confuse........ 281 | CON ben gravy. genes cabal, plot, conspi- 
TO CONFOUND—to mix, mingle, blend, con- racy.-. aolaierstertove nates siete KcipUeeiete ae ool OD 
Maiti eel sh HaDLAe We bes ie eRe Peew kee Ue Rakes 284 | CON STAN (i saanaee stability, steadiness, 
TO CONFRONT—to confront, faces.........+. 142 HTIMNCES, sine a slings wa echacie die welcomes éaieuieoaee 
TO CONFUSE—to confound, confuse ......-... 981 | CONSTANT—continual, perpetual, constant .... 266 
TO CONFUSE—to abash, confound, confuse.... 107 | CONSTANT—durable, constant ..........-.+-+ Qe 
CONFU SED— indistinct, confused .-.ceseseecuse 263. | CON Ptr | dpe pase fright, con- 
CONFUSION—confusion, disorder .....-..,.2.. 282 sternation. wikis oolais si aiteerahey othe 
TO CONFUTE—to confute, refute, oppugn, dis- 6X0) CONSTITUTE—to conetlintes aR de- 
TUK OWE veins sin ole sikivitiaro\ phe Wp siplesmielia wrote wleraie elea: 6 115 PULE. sce rere rene reer ec cree seveeeecenee eee Qy 
TO CONGRATULATE—to felicitate, congratu- TO CONSTITUTE—to form, compose, vaiill 
PEE lcia actin dele wdialesisleimts Nee aldemlanl ese tte eles 395 CULE - 0 cere cnerecerenceccs tt ee eee eee ene 294 
assembly, company, meet- CONSTITUTION ~—fraine, temper, temperament, 
i ing, congregation, par- CODSALEUELOM ' <!s50'is nibs « 0:6 vidlois eye cote visa letanen eines 384 
1 alaiaeesy gate liament, diet, congress, CONSTITUTIGN—government, constitution.... 207 
convention, synod, con- CONSTRAINT—constraint, compulsion......... 2% 
vocation, council ...... 490 | CONSTRAINT—constraint, restraint, restriction 228 
CONJECTURE—conjecture, supposition, sur- CONSTRUCT—to build, erect, conatruct........ 498 
NLUIBE aise euvis nis je dip wines orate mle aie aie nib ug ero eee aoe 94| TO CONSULT—to consult, deliberate, debate,. 114 
TO CONJECTURE—to guess, conjecture, divine 95|'TO CONSUME—to consume, destroy, waste.... 505 
CONJUNCTURE—conjuncture, crisis .......... 173 | CONSUMMATION—consummation, completion 287 
TO CONNECT—to connect, combine, unite..... 419 | CONSUMPTION—decay, decline, consumption. . 363 
CONNECTED—connected, related .......-0.00- 419; CONTACT—contact, touch .....-0.0.ss+eceoss « 129 
UCONNEXION—intercourse, communication, con- CONTAGION—contagion, infection ............ 129 
MORIA. (COMIMIETCE a 010.5510) 0's s,sfe aleraveiaiels save. seaiele 333 | CONTAGIOUS—contagious, epidemical, pestilen- 
TO CONQUER—to conquer, vanquish, subdue, idl. spe byserere hee sie rene pee seeee seoee 129 
OVEFCOME, |AILMOUN Ean wisielccaitl le’ sMinsisese Ges vice 144| TO CONT AIN—to contain, hold ............. -- 174 
CONSANGUINIT Y—kindred, ee ee affi- TO CONTAIN—to comprise, comprehend, em- 
nity, consangt inity - at: - 497 brace, contain, include ..... + iidose eee ieee 174 
CONSCIENTIOUS-—conseientious, Pecipalonnds 88 | TO CONTAMINATE—to contaminate, defile, 
CON SCIOUS—aware, on one’s guard, apprized, pollute, taint, COrrupt. .cecscccesesee seecsee 129 
CONSGIOUS)-o's Gee cae’ o wid o oislatetoeten an ieie hw eile ge 426 | TO CONTEMN—to contemn, despise, scorn, dis- 
TO BE CONSCIOUS—to feel, be sensible, con- GAIN 5p s.osiia-siaes's's sbia'siaisia, vss! die ta oie eet Sea ee 101 
SCLOUS Maeisnsitis: she 3 duleseikis dive a. a8 pe ARROR IIS a ete 376 | TO CONTEMPLATE—to contemplate, meditate, 
ro CONSECRATE—to dedicate, devote, conse- TOUSE |. 5. 0v eee vans oo nee en eeeenessescesedses 76 
CYALE AN OW vi oinish\iG2 hb lore nis wuheie Sele e eines 82; CONTEMPORARY—coeval, contemporary ..... 267 
TO CONSENT—to ctrment, permit, allow ...... 156 | CONTEMPTIBLE t contemptible conten pRieanine 
TO CONSENT—to accede consent, comply, ac- CONTEMPTUOUS ; P 
quiesce, agree..... Meso aoieewiciatdeistcs stints - 151 apes maal: SNe apes scornful, dis- 
CONSENT—assent, cor:sent, approbation, concur- - dainful . Cee et « see Rieke 
PEMIOG Et se isiste ro pies pawn pans tele eens ches 3 156 | CON TEMPTIBLE—eontemptbe desplassitlt pi- 
CONSEQUENCE—effect consequence, ea is- tiful . vee cecccccsscssencces 102 
sue, event......6. Seuss - 290 | TO CONTEN D—to. aoa strive, vie.....--.- 131 
CONSEQUEN OU sc eiaiichsions Lait iaabires TO CONTEND—to contend, contest, dispute... 131 
ance, consequence, We'g..., MOMeNt......- Strife auteatsspemieene kao 


INDEX. 


Page 
CONTEN'!] iON—dissension, contention, discord, 


AETILG; «<< s skva nn waeenty sais ss Spo sil tb iste a: 
CONTENTMENT —contentment, satisfaction... 
CONTEST—conflict, combat, contest ..-....... - 142 


TO CONTEST—to contend, contest, dispute.... 131 
CONTIGUOUS—adjacent, adjoining, contiguous 420 


x1X 
Page 
CONVINCING—conclusive, decisive, convincing 225 
CONVIVIAL—convivial, social, sociable........ 487 


CONVOCATION—assembly, company, meeting, 
congregation, parliament, diet, congress, con- 
vention, synod, convocation, council........ 49@ 

TO CONVOKE—to assemble, convene, convoke 490 


CONTINENCE—chastity, continence, modesty.. 245 | COOL—cool, cold, frigid....-...sseesssesseenees S14 
CONTINGENCY—-accident, casualty, contin- COOL —dispassionates COOL.» woes saris saidielaicv'cs « 119 
PEONCYaeme ssn ois hath vbetetels{sioiatniclsta. Siw nig aeeiete ine 172 | COPIOUS—plentiful, plenteous, abundant, copi- 
CONTINGENT —accidental, incidental, casual, OUS AM plete sc ste cc se ces eae ree Se Ase 341 

(COPRAZON fess ens! are ermini a Sic eislal a's ods Siaiwie'y cial dials fate 172 | COPIOUSLY—largely, copiously, fully.......... 842 
CONTINUAL—continual, perperdl, constant... 265 | COPY—copy, model, pattern, specimen.......... 530 
CONTINU AL—continual, continued............ 265 | TO COPY—to copy, transcribe..........ceeee0- 530 
CONTINUANCE continuance, duration, con- TO COPY—to imitate, copy, counterfeit ........ 529 
CONTINUATION {AMUALLOTES cin since ates cis o'ste is 265 OOQUET —coguet, jilt ori vecunvecenaielicvslare « 526 
CONTINUATION—continuation, continuity.... 266} CORDIAL—hearty, warm, sincere, cordial...... 43) 
TO CONTINUE—to continue, remain, stay -.... 263/ CORNER—corner, angle ...........eeceseeeeese 499 
TO CONTINU E—to continue, persevere, persist, CORPORAL 

pursue, prosecute ...-.... candies Opp 264} CORPOREAL ; edd lage pont mia nian tttanyie Me A 
CONTINUED— continual, continued...........- 265 | CORPOREAL—corporeal, material .......... 510 
CONTINUITY—continuation, continuity....... 266 | CORPSE—body, corpse, carcass’.............65- 510 
CONTRACT—agreement, contract, covenant, CORPULENT—corpulent, stout, lusty .......... 51) 

EOMPAGE DATPAIN o15\s sero cnne ccc bys in eas ees. 152| TO CORRECT—to amend, correct, reform, rec- 

TO CONTRACT—1to abridge, curtail, contract.. 178 tify, emend, improve, mend, better .... ..... 201 
CONTRACTED—contracted, confined, narrow.. 177| CORRECT—correct, accurate - Bie » 202 
TO CONTRADICT—to contradict, oppose, deny 113 | CORRECTION—correction, decile aoe 
CONTRARY—adverse, contrary, opposite ...... 135, BS) Tae Ge Peas Verein Be Per ER GPE ORV MO 204 
CONTRAST—comparison, contrast...........+. 135 | CORRECT NESS—justness, correctness......... 202 
£0 CONTRIBUTE—to conduce, contribute .... 168} CORRESPONDEN 2 OVER auyene 

ro CONTRIBUTE—to minister est salad con- answerable - a eeianaee ~ 155 

tribute . ASEOBE - 167; TO CORROBORATE—to conden Piso pies » 225 
CON TRIBUTION —tax, pit sh Piast “tolled im- TO CORRUPT—to contaminate, defile, pollute, 

post, tribute, contribution........ssse..+ eee 168 TBING. COMMUPL cee «aie ate oicitien sige sia'cla ohare seats 129 
CON TRITION—repentance, penitence, contrition, TO CORRUPT—1o rot, putrefy, COITUPt>.-0» de. S04 

COMPUNCLION, TEMOLSE ..+-- ee sere cesses eeess 88 Pere area cae ous ssid dine corrup- 
CONTRIVANCE—device, contrivance.........- 533}, . tion. ee Se.nine viviaiwiee 128 
TO CONTRIVE—to contrive, devise, invent.... 532 COST—cost, expense, price, apes Arecoun tater SANS - 436 
TO CONTRIVE—to concert, contrive, manage.. 533 | COSTLY—valuable, precious, costly............ 437 
TO CONTROL—to check, curb, control ........ 222 | COVENANT—-agreement, contract, covenant, 
TO CONTROVERT—+to controvert, dispute .... 114 COMPAct, Paral: <. si icctein) secieiste coher sienaie sees OOS 
CONTUMACIOUS—obstinate, stubborn, conta- TO COV ER—to’ cover, Hide... «0.2 ascnasesvcmenanly 

macious, headstrong, heady .......+.+.e+++++ 209 | COVER—cover, shelter, screen .......seeeeeeeee 517 
CONTUMACY—contumacy, rebellion .......... 210 | COVERING—tegument, covering...........+00. 518 
CONTUMELY—+reproach, contumely, obloquy.. 108 } TO COVET—to desire, long for, hanker Bie 
TO CONVENE—to assemble, convene, convoke 490 covet . Paveais sleemele ae -» 159 
CONVENIENT—commodious, convenient, suita- COVETOUSNESS—covetousness, " notiege ava- 

Citar tetris rel teicher a tiala We cists citiaiiais ale 417 TO Gis se icig) aie aterm aS te ey win eat aplatte heise 160 
CONVENT—cloister, convent, monastery ....... 86 | COUNCIL—assembly, company, meeting, congre- 
CONVENTION—assembly, company, meeting, gation, parliament, diet, congress, convention, 

congregation, parliament, diet, congress, con- synod, convocation, council........ Deweauanel 490 

vention, synod, convocation, council......... 490 | COUNSEL—advice, counsel, instruction ........ 194 
CONVERSATION—conversation, dialogue, con- TO COUNT—to calculate, compute, reckon, count 

Bee COUOGUY 6:10. t on > 6 - sel sno yess nase’ ve 460, OF ACCOUNL, NUMDET.... eee eeesceeeeeeeeeces 432 
CONVERSE—communion, converse....-....+.+ 487 | TO COUNTENANCE—to encourage, sanction, 
TO CONVERSE—to speak, talk, converse, dis- COUNTENADCE, SUPPLE, » «« ¢ <ius « ooh pels slnepiorine 310 

COMMER OME Se deletes e Saeie ties tee osetia oe. seks 459 | COUNTENANCE—face, countenance, visage... 479 
Be pier copier) ee? jocular, COUNTERFEIT—spurious, suppositious, coun- 

DICASTICDSO ee ic ltinioe eis ss coos 5 sot acer ese AGL USrPe Lie iaeiae se ve%s Biol cre ve] asctatevsrefaia laren RAC aloe Nt c 529 
SONVERT—convert, Cleave setatetgs ettie si sie \ciels's 86 | TO COUNTERFEIT—to imitate, copy, counter- 

TO CONVEY—to bear, carry, convey, transport 330 FIGs caters teas ta SySae cleiee alos bre stops ccuis'h tie esaiters 429 
FO CONVICT—to convict, detect, discover..... 445 | COUNTRY—land, Country... +-.eeee seer eeeeees 497 
CONVICT—criminal, culprit, malefactor, felon, COUNTRYMAN—countryman, peasant, swain, 

CONVICE «0.0 seurenteeree tee Bi sefe ts widisa'x's eiseisisieminece hind, rustick, ClOWN ...-.seceeeereee cose eee 336 

CONVICTION—conviction, persuasion........+ 79 | COUPLE—couple, brace, pair...-.- an ecucvaiieieeneeeee 


INDEX. 


xx 
Page Page 

COURAGE—courage, fortitude, resolution -..-.. 140 | CURSE—malediction, curse, imprecation, execra- 
COURAGE—bravery, courage, valour ---.++++.. 139 tion, anathema..... waleve's ate o Seaiels seinen gaitepa Ge 
COURSE—eourse, race, passage ...-+++e. saieotets - 275 | CURSORY—cursory, hasty, slight, desultory .... 262 
COURSE—way, road, route or rout, course..... - 275 | TO CURTAIL—to abridge, curtail, contract .... 178 
COURSE—series, course ..-.-ssesceeceseccce «e+ 275 | CURVED—bent, curved, crooked, awry--------- 316 
COURSE—way, manner, method, mode, course, CUSTODY—keeping, custody ......+..+0- seeeee 179 

means - : sececcceccessceeecees 20 | CUSTOM—custom, habit ...0...sseeedeeeceseee S22 
COURTEOUS—affable, c courteous . +++ 200 | CUSTOM—custom, fashion, manner, practice...- 324 
COURTLY  {COUreoUS compaisant cOUrIye+ 199 Scebution sates ccurcccceesreess 18 
TO CRACK—to break, burst, crack, split........ 502 | CUSTOM—usage, custom, prescription.......-.+ 324 
CRAFTY—cunning, crafty, subtle, sly, wily ..... 522 


TO CRAVE—to beg, beseech, solicit, entreat, sup- 


plicate, implore, crave ......e....+-.. 158 
TO CREATE—to cause, occasion, create ......- 294 
TO CREATE—to make, form, produce, create .. 292 
CREDIT—credit, favour, influence........+..0 190 
CREDIT—belief, credit, trust, faith.............. 78 
CREDIT—name, reputation, repute, credit ...... 472 
CREED—faith, creed ......eeecsesecesccerccccs 79 
CREW—band, company, crew, gang .........e06 492 
CRIME—crime, vice, Sin .--....cee cee ceccceccee 122 
CRIME—crime, misdemeanour .......2-.eeeeee -. 122 
CRIMINAL—criminal, guilty.......ecseeesercee 123 
CRIMINAL—criminal, culprit, malefactor, felon, 

GONVICU Wien sssia siti wisn as afm <ineialcin elon wore's 123 
CRISIS—conjuncture, crisis ...-.-..seeeceecceee 173 
CRITERION—criterion, standard...........+++. 225 


CRITICISM—animad version, criticism, stricture. 112 
TO CRITICISE—to censure, animadvert, criti- 


IRE s et atelesiess sivieik ea Rip Sisteinya bisieibs Shes celelemaric ere lil 
CROOKED—awkward, cross, untoward, crooked, 

TOW, PEIVETSE <..\idcee sca ecisseiies ce se tee 315 
CROOKED—hent, curved, crooked, awry ....... 316 
CROSS—awkward, cross, untoward, crooked, fro- 

ward, perverse. . Bretese Bvefuicieleeinsie iss eisinatsan od} 


CROSS—captious, cross, peev vish, petulant, fretful 315 


CROW D—muititude, crowd, throng, swarm..... 494 
CRUEL—cruel, inhuman, barbarous, bravals sa- 
WAG Gi ieiotels sinlu siclalnie wicsc.a's e Wie Release omniselcrise\s 6 6 6 373 
CRUEL—hardhearted, cruel, unmerciful, merci-  . 
RAG seteokstert csateleatsuaic ase (s:c «10: fies eileleck scats oc eaetas ote 373 
TO CRUSH—to break, bruise, squeeze, pound, 
CEU a n'a ie't ote aie cigsleis.c «6a vine telecine ss iciee setenOUL 
TO CRUSH—to overwhelm, crush...........00 504 
CRUTCH —staff, stick, crutch........ 5 ASE E ORES 239 
CRY—noise, cry, outcry, clamour:. ....s.ceecees 470 
TO CRY—to cry, weep ........... Seah aay 470 
TO CRY—to cry, scream, shriek.............00 470 
ZO CRY—to cry, exclaim; call....<c...0ssecccae 470 
CULPABLE—culpable, faulty.. 123 


CULPRIT—criminal, culprit, malefactor, felon, 


convict 123 


wee eer eseeveee cece nesecesceseceeeeocne 


OULTIVATION—cultivation, tillage, husbandry 337 
CULTIVATION 9 cultivation, culture, civiliza- 

CULTURE tion, refinement........... 198 
CUNNING—art, cunning, deceit..............0. 521 
CUNNING—cunning, crafty, subtle, sly, wily.... 522 
CUPIDITY—covetousness, cupidity, avarice..... 160 
TO CURB—to check, curb, control............. « 222 
TO CURE—to cure, heal, remedy ...........00 365 
CURE—cure, remedy .....esccccceccscccscccccs 365 
CURIOUS—curious, inquisitive, prying........ «- 99 
CURRENT--stream, current, tide...... le. dak ect 352 


DAIL Y—daily, diurnal.......s.eecceecceeensees 
DAINTY—dainty, delicacy........-seeseeeesees 
DAMAGE—loss, damage, detriment........---+. 404 
DAMAGE—injury, damage, hurt, harm, mischief 404 


DAMPNESS—moisture, humidity, dampness.... 515 
DANGER—danger, peril, hazard....-+.+e+++e0+- 171 
TO DARE—to brave, dare, defy, challenge -..... 138 
DARING—daring, bold. ......seceesseceesescces 14] 
DARK—dark, obscure, dim, mysterious ........- 480 
DARK—opague, dark..........- Vise cee se emncn 481 
TO DART—to shoot, dart.....+.-++- eocenssens 305 
DATE—time, period, age, date, era, epocha...... 267 
TO DAUB—to smear, daub ....-..-.2.seeeereee 515 
TO DAUNT—to dismay, daunt, appal.......... 306 
DAYS OF YORE—formerly, in times past, or 

old times, days of yore, anciently or ancient 

LUNES ee we ee eee a dyads ca euliad pattem eins 269 
DEAD—lifeless, dead, inanimate... .eeesseeoeee 356 


DEADLY—deadly, mortal, fatal ...-.... 
DEAI.—deal, quantity, portion. ....+-s.+seceseee 486 
DEALING—trade, commerce, traffick, dealing... 333 
DEARTH—scarcity, dearth .......+sseesese eee 290 
DEATH—death, departure, decease, demise ..... 371 
TO DEBAR—to deprive, debar, abridge......... 506 
TO DEBASE—to abase, humble, degrade, debase, 
GISZTACE ose ccie eenies es vce es ess wep ieisivic selulsiniy 
TO DEBATE—to argue, dispute, debate ........ 114 
TO DEBATE—consult, deliberate, debate.-.... - 115 
TO DEBILITATE—to weaken, enfeeble, debili- 
tate, enervate, invalidate. ........e.+sesseees 368 
DEBILITY—debility, infirmity, imbecility....... 367 
DEBT—debt, due ....... sees seeeee esl kae viemieleie 217 
DECAY—decay, decline, consumption ........ 
TO DECAY—to perish, die, decay....+.+s++++-- 71 
DECEASE—death, departure, decease, demise .. 371 
DECEIT—art, cunning, deceit... Me cee eae 


eeceseee dll 


DECEIT—deceit, deception -.....- wsevases Odd 
DECEIT--deceit, duplicity, double- aeabee aus cae 523 
DECEIT—<ceceit, fraud, guile .. Sane eA 


DECEITFUL fallacious, deceitful, fiaudslens - 523 


TO DECEIVE—to deceive, delude, impose upen 522 


DECEIV ER—deceiver, impostor....... err. - 522 
DECENCY—decency, decorum .......-+0- ene 246 
DECENT —becoming, decent, seemly, fit, suitabie 246 
DECEPTION—deceit, deception.....-.eceeee soe O23 
TO DECIDE—to decide, determine, conclude 
UPON Goce ccdecimsacsinessccecccoes seccugsese Wee 
DECIDED—decided, determined, resolute ..-...« 224 
DECIDED—decided, decisive............. coves Och 
DECISION—decision, judgement, sentence.-.- - 224 


DECISIVE—decided, decisive .........ss-eeee0+ 224 
DECISIVE—conclusive, decisive, convincing .... 22a 


INDEX. 


Page 

TO DECLAIM—to declaim, inveigh............ 109 

TO DECLARE—to declare, publish, proclaim... 442 
TO DECLARE—to express, declare, signify, tes- 

tify, utter .....- « 455 

TO DECLARE—to discover, manifest, declare.. 444 


See eo sese ess eseseereessesses 


TO DECLARE—to profess, declare.......+2+++- 442 
DECLINE—decay, decline, consumption........ 368 
TO DECLINE—to refuse, decline, reject, repel, 
TODUe a stand cr!p cdisasicgicrogucdcavadecde 232 
TO DECORATE—to adorn, decorate, embellish. 500 
DECORUM—decency, decorum........e..ese00% 246 
TO DECOY—to allure, tempt, seduce, entice, de- 
COV eness detoccncopore poatisiaiclssisises careretet GLO 
TO DECREASE—to abate, lessen, diminish, de- 
CECHEC erie oalole Wels slo cs tiosa clecieilebis aloaclsiviaa’ o 351 
DECREE—decree, edict, proclamation .......... 443 
TO DECRY—to disparage, detract, traduce, de- 
preciate, degrade, decry .......seesesesesees 105 
TO DEDICATE—to dedicate, devote, consecrate, 
hallow ...+-+- SAL GOOHG ONG DBLOOG 3a Do TR Ie ahON 82 
TO DEDUCE—to derive, trace, deduce.......... 449 
TO DEDUCT—to deduct, subtract............+. 421 
DEDUCTION—conclusion, inference, deduction. 78 
DEED—deed, exploit, achievement, feat.....-.... 295 
DyEED—action, act, deed ....... sia eaoel ety 22 bier 294 
TO DEEM—to think, suppose, imagine, believe, 
GECMiaes scawede we etecleels oe Su sole ga diecteseca chs CO 
TO DEFACE—to deface, disfigure, deform...... 503 
TO DEFAME—to asperse, detract, slander, de- 
fame, Calummiate...+..eseeeccseeceeeerece 105 
TO DEFEAT—to beat, defeat, overpower, rout, 
Overthrow... ..eceeee Se Vinidigaivictpiin siaiceie'e 6 zeae 143 
TO DEFEAT—to saath defeat, disconcert, con- 
AOUTIL cios sre iia etiaatene Sewine ede cela caclenen Gels 143 
TO DEFEAT—to defeat, foil, disappoint, frus- 
tLALE ce cecececvece Sec c ccc cc eccrvecccsscse 143 
DEFECT—imperfection, defect, fault, vice...... 124 
DEFECT—blemish, defect, fault.........-s0-e+ 127 
DEFECTIVE—defective, deficient........+.+.+. 127 
TO DEFEND--t0 apologize, defend, justify, excul- 
pate, excuse, plead ...--+.0.wecseeececsccees 18] 
TO DEFEND—to defend, pratecks vindicate..... 179 
TO DEFEND—to guard, defend, watch ........ 180 
can A ; defendant, defender.....--- «e- 180 
DEFENDER—defender, advocate, pleader...... 180 
een ele defensible, defensive ......... - 180 
DEFENSIVE 
TO DEFER—to delay, defer, postpone, procrasti- 
nate, prolong, protract, retard....+-.++..+++- 260 
DEFERENCE—complaisance, condeseension, de- 
PEVERIGOR ae eiciais ticiae ciclslsmaieeasietel s cinticas' sie ve.s 200 
DEFILE—to contaminate, defile, pollute, corrupt, 
Pelbrag Meee ts ginte)=’s\=.n10 2c8hs(omiereln oie CIS SU Cx EEO 129 
DEFICIENT—defective, deficient.............+ 127 
DEFINITE—definite, positive .........+.+-s2++6 458 
DEFINITION—definition, explanation.........- 458 
TO DEFORM—to deface, disfigure, deform...... 503 


T'O DEFRAUD—to cheat, defraud, trick........ 525 
TO DEFY—to brave, defy, dare, challenge...... 138 
TO DEGRADE—to disparage, detract, traduce, 


depreciate, degrade, decry .......+sse+-00-+- 105 
TO DEGRADE—to abase, humble, degrade, dis- 
grace, debase...eeseereccevsersccecrseeesees 106 


XX. 
Page 
TO DEGRADE—to disparage, derogate, degrade. 105 
TO DEGRADE—to humble, humiliate, degrade. 146 
DEGREE—class, order, rank, degree ......-..... 276 
DEITY—deity, divinity 81 
DEJECTION—dejection, depression, melancholy 413 
TO DELAY—to delay, defer, postpone, procrasti- 
nate, prolong, protract, retard...........+..++ 260 
DELEGATE—delegate, deputy......-..s++-eeee 214 
TO DELIBERATE—to consu!t, deliberate, debate 115 
DELIBERATE—thoughtful, considerate, delibe- 


SC oseesseee eeee sss esesene 


TALE) sce aclnss eo 0 elvicls sip wieleelbiate Ctoleng armies sith 424 
DELICACY—dainty, delicacy.......ecseeceeees 314 
DELICATE—fine, delicate, nice........e+se+ees 314 


DELIGHT—pleasure, joy, delight, charm.. 
DELIGHTFUL—delightfui, charming.. tite, 
TO DELINEATE—to paint, depict, detincaté, 
sketch 
DELINQUENT— offender, delinquent 
TO DELIVER—to deliver, rescue, save...---..- 
TQ DELIVER—to give up, deliver, surrender, 
yield, cede, concede 
DELIVERANCE 
DELIVERY 
TO DELUDE—to deceive, delude, impose upon. 522 
TO DELUGE—to overflow, inundate, deluge... 352 
DELUSION—fallacy, delusion, illusion ......... 523 
TO DEMAND—to ask, or ask for, claim, demand 228 
TO DEMAND—to demand, require.. tale 228 
DEMEANOUR—behavicur, conduct, carriage, dé. 
portment, demeangur aces «cde e's caesar 
DEMISE—death, departure, decease, demise .... 
TO DEMOLISH—to demolish, raze, dismantle, 


er ee se eeser eases esos esses sessesssesese 


242 


cee esse oe see eases soreseen 


deliverance, delivery.....-.. 240 


destroy ....... ma opie eresdie Sielaiatshel stale ee weterch OM )at 
DEMON—dewil, deition palace snare ems wctere otueniate,« 92 
TO DEMONSTRATE—to prove, demonstrate 

OVINGE, MANILEStes suis csi ale sticelesios'c vlacivie’ oe 444 
TO DEMUR—to demur, hesitate, pause......... 96 
DEMUR—demur, doubt, hesitation, objection.... 96 


TO DENOMINATE—to name, denominate, style, 
entitle, designate, characterize ..... voesle 401 
DENOMINATION—name, appellation, title, de- 


POMMIPAL ONG -/eis Size eracldrnee areca cicigeclslectsielnete 71 
TO DENOTE—to denote, signify; imply ........ 456 
DENSE—thick, dense..... 22.2.2. cc ceceeeeeees 351] 
TO DENY—to contradict, oppose, deny.....--.- 113 
TO DENY—to deny, refuse .......sccccececeees 232 


TO DENY—to deny, disown, disclaim, disavow. 113 
DEPARTURE—death, departure, decease, demise 371 
DEPARTURE—exit, departure...... sine aietaaenee 372 


DEPENDENCE—dependence, reliance.......... 416 
TO DEPICT—to paint, depict, delineate, sketch.. 338 
TO DEPLORE—to bewail, bemoan, lament, de- 
DIOL Gna serd «0 de ho efealtta al ei visa are'g sce cles eles vee» 410 
DEPONENT—deponent, evidence, witness...... 445 
DEPORTMENT—behaviour, conduct, carriage 
deportment, demeanour.......eceeccccessees 192 
DEPOSITE—deposite, pledge, security .......... 183 
DEPRAVITY depravity, depravation, cor- 
DEPRAVATION } TUPBUOT eels sclera tests cas sie 128 
TO DEPRECIATE—to disparage, detract, tra- 
duce, depree’ate, degrade, decry...-....++++- 1035 
DEPREDATION -denredation, robbery..-..... - 505 
DEPRESSION- Sr pyc rs a melan- 
choly.. BIR ie baw saver ess che tomer aie 


xxl 


Page 
«+ 505 
- 506 


TO NEPRIVE—to bereave, deprive, strip------ 
TO DEPRIVE—to deprive, debar, abridge -. 
DEPTH—depth, profundity.......+-++++eeee+se+ 350 
TO DEPUTE—to constitute, appoint, depute.... 214 
DEPUTY—ambassador, envoy, plenipotentiary, — 


Deputy... cerececeecsecceercreecssevceeceve 214 
DEPUTY —delegate, deputy .. Ne Wisisiettels (O14 
TO DERANGE—to disorder, aerauge! dissentisre 

GISCOMPOSE . +++ eeeeeseseecsnereeecesecseens 280 
DERANGEMENT—derangement, insanity, luna- 

CY, MAAMNESS, MANIA +--+ seeeseeesers Sense e 281 
''O DERIDE—to deride, mock, ridicule, banter, 

LAY. css ce cecesecee cess ccsccscccenseece «- 103 
TO DERIVE—to derive, trace, deduce ....-...+-- 449 


TO DEROGATE—to disparage, derogate, degrade 105 
TO. DESCRIBE—to relate, recount, describe .... 466 
DESCRIPTION—account, narrative, description. 467 
DESCRIPTION—cast, turn, description, charac- 

ter 


ses esoo esses eee e es BeBe SesESFosEeSoe FS EOS 


ESPYs cee cece cccccsseccsceccccvosccescceeres 445 
TO DESERT—to abandon, desert, forsake, relin- 

UIST o's lo ble araleie: eieiole!sie)eicin's e'nie eine Seivicealbled 243 
TO DESERT—to abdicate, desert ....-..-ss+00 253 
DESERT—desert, merit, Worth.....+eeeeeesees - 438 
DESERT—solitary, desert, desolate .....-...-++- 203 


TO DESIGN—to design, purpose, intend, mean.. 533 


DESIGN—design, plan, scheme, project .....-+0- 534 
YO DESIGNATE—to name, denominate, style, 

entitle, designate, characterize .......+-..+0 471 
TO DESIRE—to beg, desire.-......0.seeseceeee 158 


TO DESIRE—to Pes wish, long a hanker 


after, covet - ae ies. 1o9 
TO DESIST—to cease, ave off, meet! disdow? 

PENUC Sere nel e isla ew > el atew Bir trisc ioiseee edot 257 
DESOLATE—solitary, desert, desolate.......... 263 


DESOLATION—ravage, desolation, devastation 506 | 


DESPAIR—despair, desperation, despondency..-- 413 
DESPATCH—to hasten, accelerate, speed, expe- 


Cite, despatch .....erecesceccccncscesenevecs 261 
DESPERATE—desperate, hopeless .....-.+eene- 413 
DESPERATION—despair, despondency, despe- 

PAVOM Whereas ic viele eoition cgieleente ple ttamtnrelee - 413 


DESPICABLE—centemptible, despicable, pitiful 102 
TO DESPISE—to contemn, despise, scorn, dis- 


dain. - Ein tie ann iehtdle e lylsicmeeseptone ots sete LOL 
DESPONDENCY—despair, despondency, despe- 
TAULOM 2 iiniers loa ois sei ie-6 Mia We rity os SSA AEE - 413 
DESPOTICK—ahsolute, arbitrary, despotick..... 188 
DESTINATION—destiny, destination .... -- 169 
TO DESTINE—to allot, appoint, destine....... - 169 
DESTIN Y—destiny, fate, lot, doom.......s..006 169 
DESTIN Y—destiny, destination .....see-seeee0- 169 
_ DESTITUTE—hbare, scanty, destitute .......... 250 
JESTITUTE—forsaken, forlorn, destitute ...... 248 


TO DESTROY—to consume, destroy, waste... 
uO) PESTER O Mets demolish, raze, dena ae 
SLEOV, suka ais ee Cider bitin ares oak ciearietate g Messi vere 503 
OP ee CHON desraction, ruin.. 
DESTRUCTIVE—destructive Mok peck 
cious . see 904 
DESULTORY —cursory, aeelte ‘plies desultory. 262 
CO DETACH—to separate, sever, disjoin, detach 421 
TO DET AIN—to hold, xecy, Getain, retain ..... 236 


- WS 


seeovee eo eee reer sce 


‘DIET—food, diet, regimen. ........ 


INDEX. 


Page 
TO DETECT—to convict, detect, discover...... 445 
TO DETER—to deter, discourage dishearten... 312 
TO DETERMINE—to decide, determine, con- 
clude upon.. X oats gente eee 
TO DETERMINE—to saianidine: Heusive 223 
TO DETERMINE—to fix, determine, settle, limit 227 
DETERMINED—decided, determined, resolute. . 224 
TO DETEST—to abhor, detest, abominate, loath 138 
TO DETEST—to hate, detest 137 

DETESTABLE—abominable, detestable, execra- 
DQ) 2 eect cael ts crate IPR a arate ole Re Bereta cte ate ce erat 138 

TO DETRACT—1+o asperse, detract, slander, de- 
fame; calummniate <~ s...2cthntuneees sess 105 
TO DETRACT—to disparage, detract, traduce, 
depreciate, degrade, decry...s......--60. NS 
DETRIMENT—disadvantage, injury, burt, detri- 
ment, prejudice 
DETRIMENT—loss, damage, detriment 

DEVASTATION--ravage, desolation, devasta- 
CHOm sates AA ER ee een o- 507 
TO DEVELOPE—to unfold, unravel, develope... 21° 
TO DEVIATE—to deviate, eaavitons swerve, stray 126 


105 


sore eee sees esses oer ees oeensene 


TO DEVIATE—to digress, deviate .......- elelevelet ALG 
DEVICE-—device, contrivance....-.++..-se+e-- - O33 
DEVIL—devil, demon: i. ss. is. ecccccseecceesass 92 
TO DEVISE--to contrive, devise, invent........ 532 
TO DEVISE—to devise, bequeath ......... vowes 164 
DEVOID—empty, vacant, void, devoid..--.-.-. + 343 
TO DEVOTE—*to addict, devote, apply ...-.. ewe 421 
TO DEVOTE--to dedicate, devote, consecrate, 

Tra llG Wpiciels Bike o's ote ecto seve eels) clas ete erg ereneiane eves” G2 
DEVOUT —holy, pious, devout, religious....... - 89 
DEXTERITY—abiliiy, dexterity, address....... 68 
DEXTEROUS—clever, skilful, expert, dexterous, 

BOLOIL SP eta ised cides sl ornlal fe lktcral a name 68 
DIALECT—language, tongue, speech, idiom, dia- 

LeGhavoscd sites SSE se htt bsg ots iy A8i 
DIALOGUE—conversation, dialogue, conference, 

colloquy ..+... Pererane Mi ese d te bE tS -- 466 
TO DICTATE—to dictate, prescribe.... ......- 184 
DICTATE—dictate, suggestion ....0s.....desess 184 
DIOTION—diction, style, phrase, phraseology - 463 
DICTIONARY—dictionary, encyclopedia-...... 463 


DICTIONARY—dictionary, lexicon, vocabulary, 
glossary, Nomenclature or. --ee.eescceveee eee 464 
TO. DIE—to die, expire... s.cs.ssee. cece ee eens Bll 
TO DIE—to perish, die, decay...... - 37] 
Jerse obi ee 
DIET—assembly, company, meeting, congrega- 
tion, parliament, diet, congress, convention, 
synod, convocation, council .......... -» 490 
TO DIFFER—to differ, vary, disagree, dissent... 132 
DIFFERENCE—difference, ‘Variety, diversity, 


ees 


MERION, <.-secev cwswncvenes Unwselyes s\e coeseces 282 
DIFF ZRENCE—4ifference, distinction..... stisee 282 
DIF FERENCE—4difference, dispute, altercation, 

QUATLEl 0. cece es cececeenescevsnctecces osecee 133 
DIFFERENT—different, distinet, separate ...... 282 
DIFFEREN T—different, several, divers, sundry- 

various . eh 2 Ae bocce cece ame 283 


DIFFERENT—difforent, Siritine 3 oad Seem ER EeeS 

DIFFICULT~—1axd, difficult, aeaooal a ate cilelsjctee (04 

DIFFICULTIES—-difficulties, embarrassments, 
troubles .. 


INDEX. 


Page 
DIFFICULT Y—difficulty, obstacle, impediment. 259 
DIFFICULT Y—objection, difficulty, exception -. 112 
DIFFIDENT—distrustful, suspicious, diffident... 416 


DIFFIDENT—modest, bashful, diffident........ 148 
DIFFUSE—diffuse, prolix..........00... Secale’ 464 
TO DIFFUSE—to spread, expand, diffuse stdigiarsiene 345 
TO DIGEST—1to dispose, arrange, digest.. Q277 
DIGNIFIED—magisterial, majestick, sintely, 
pompous, august, dignified .......0.se.ceeees 454 
DIGNITY—honour, dignity .......s.ssceecseees 429 
DIGNITY—pride, haughtiness, pee icons 100 
TO DIGRESS—to digress, deviate . Sane lis 
TO DILATE—to dilate, expand ........ss0.-. 345 
DILATORY—slow, dilatory, tardy, tedious ..... 260 
DILIGENT—active, diligent, industrious, assidu- 
RIS TADOTICUS Tce etena Sette wos be eae Soca 6 296 
DILIGENT—diligent, expeditious, prompt..... e+ 262 
DILIGENT—sedulous, diligent, assiduous....... 297 
DIM—dark, obscure, dim, mysterious....-.-.+-.6 480 
TO DIMINISH—to vine lessen, diminish, de- 
crease - Ub Ribs Sonic le asp se were took 
DIMINUTIVE —iittle, siiiat; dhiviinutivds) 390 
DIOCESS—hishoprick, diocess.......-.-.eseeee. 86 
TO DIRECT—to direct, dispose, regulate........ 191 
TO DIRECT—to conduct, manage, direct....... 191 
DIRECT—straight, right, direct........-scseeess 430 


DIRECTION—direction, address, superscription. 213 
DIRECTION—direction, order.........-seesee0e 213 
DIRECTLY—directly, immediately, instantly, in- 


BLAMTANCOUBTY sewn vee vs gases sce veusidecesieae 262 
DISABILIT Y—inability, disability..........0+ 69 
DISADVANTAGE—disadvantage, injury, hurt, 

detriment, prejudice.......ccssesceesee ec eee 404 
DISAFFECTION—disaffection, disloyalty....... 210 


TO DISAGREE—to differ, vary, disagree, dissent 132 


TO DISAPPEAR—to disappear, vanish ........ 481 
TO DISAPPOINT—to defeat, foil, disappoint, 
frustrate...... welslserenseivie sutidchpenecsstanes 143 
DISAPPROBATION—displeasure, anger, disap- 
WORAION ies de awe cee hace eeaeccese Seae es 118 
TO DISAPPROVE—to disapprove, dislike Lyte 120 
DISASTER—calamity, disaster, misfortune, mis- 
Chance, Mishap.....seessecssveecee a eee eeeee 406 
TO DISAVOW—to deny, disown, disclaim, dis- 
BVOW secs cece ccccncccccns ceerccsencccccccce 113 
DISBELIEF—disbelief, unbelief................ 79 


TO DISCARD—to dismiss, discharge, discard ... 254 
TO DISCERN—to perceive, discern, distinguish. 483 
DISCERNMENT —discernment, penetration, dis- 
crimination, judgement.............scseeeee 71 
TO DISCHARGE—to dismiss, discharge, discard 254 
DISCIPLINE—correction, discipline, punishment 204 


DISCIPLE—scholar, disciple, pupil............. 197 
TO DISCLAIM—deny, disown, disclaim, dis- 
REMEEWY MPaistat sid ots ositisie Gisbra's ss! sa /ce’s'a ela sites c's 113 
#0 DISCLOSE—to publish, promulgate, divulge, 
FEVER AMISCLOSC Rais chars cceis'c a eaiclciere's c, ease elas 443 
TO DISCLOSE—to uncover, discover, disclose.. 444 


TO DISCOMPOSE—to disorder, derange, discon- 
COLT, MISCUMMMORE sen tuicls v1 chek nicccecieccssccccee 
TO DISCONCERT—to bafile, defeat, disconcert, 
confound ..-...... Mists ieisicir owes ceie see nlonses - 143 
TO CC ee ae ne discon- 


cert, discompose.. sales | 9en 


XX 
Page 
TO DISCONTINUE—to cease, leave off, discon- 
tinue, UESiSt..0ccceccceversecseccoveses cose 257 
DISCORD—dissension, ainesuiens laesta strife 133 
TO DISCOVER—to convict, detect, discover.... 445 
TO DISCOVER—to discover, manifest, ibiane - 444 
TO DISCOVER—*O find, find out, discover, espy, 


TO DISCOVER—to uncover, discover, disclose.- 444 
TO DISCOURAGE—to deter, discourage, dis- 
TORT MES iSazeloye:ie's (avpisicia ea ab ste wicleteea Metmielorerntals ; 
TO DISCOURSE—to speak, talk, converse, dis- 
. course. «o> 459 
DISCREDIT—discredit, reproach, seuisane dis 
grace - diets ais ‘i ves LOT 
DISCRETION—judgement, discretion, peace 400 
TO DISCRIMINATE—to distinguish, discrimi- 


eeeereoee oases orsee 


eeereeoseeeseecoe 


DISCRIMINATION—discernment, penetration, 
discrimination, judgement 
TO DISCUSS—to discuss, examine.....-...+e06 
DISDAIN—haughtiness, disdain, arrogance...... 101 
TO DISDAIN—to contemn, despise, scorn, disdain 101 
DISDAINFUL—contemptuous, scornful, disdain- 
fialcwai SLRS renee athe aloe ulsteretatwier tiklelete saleiel ete 
DISHASE—disorder, disease, distemper, malady. 
DISEASED—-sick, sickly, diseased, morbid..... . 
TO DISENGAGE to disengage, disentangle, 
TO DISENTANGLE extricate: sce 3. 21S 
TO DISFIGURE—to deface, disfigure, deform... 503 
DISGRACE—dishonour, disgrace, shame........ 107 
DISGRACE—diseredit, reproach scandal, dis- 
grace. 
TO DISGRA CR—to abase, humble, dasekde: dis- 
grace, debase 
TO DISGUISE—to conceal, dissemble, disguise. . 
DISGUST—disgust, loathing, nausea..........06 
DISGUST—dislike, displeasure, dissatisfaction, 
distaste, dISPUSE .\0- vec Meee ee seeesece secees 
TO DISHEARTEN—to oe discourage, dis- 
hearten . Eales bolas 6 s.5 bin onions awe Rtee eraLe 
DISHON EST—dishonest, beastish BR AAF Is: 818) 
DISHONOUR—dishonour, disgrace, seta deen ew LO? 
DISINCLINATION—dislike, disinclination ..... 118 
TO DISJOIN—to separate, sever, disjoin, detach 421 


eoeseerene sees eo eseos 


102 
367 
367 


107 


eee eoecesoseort sess teosose eees 


106 
519 
120 


eos oseseeeseeseeseersesnescenes 


TO DISJOINT—to disjoint, dismember......... 421 
DISLIKE—aversion, antipathy, dislike, hatred, 
TEPUGNANCE soecvisee ceciew cc ccsea conse ase - 136 
TO DISLIKE—to disapprove, dislike........... 120 
DISLIKE—dislike, displeasure, dissatisfaction, 
distaste, disgust $0. . 02. ese eee veeesscec cece 117 
DISLIKE—dislike, disinclination .......+2+sss06 118 
DISLOYALTY—disaffection, disloyalty ........ 219 
DISMAL—dull, gloomy, sad, dismal......-.--.+- 410 
TO DISMANTLE—to demolish, raze, dismantle, 
UCHR OY 's'aialelere sit ale wieioieleletotabarnip Eble ve ialinliare 505 
TO DISMAY—to dismay, daunt, appal......--- 306 
TO DISMEMBER—to disjoint, dismember....-. 421 
TO DISMISS—to dismiss, discharge, discard.... 254 
DISORDER—confusion, disorder. ..-..-+++++++ o- 282 
TO DISORDER—to disorder, derange, disconcert, 
GiSCOMPOSE «2. -ee sess eens e seer reeset eeees 280 


DISORDER—wlisorder, disease, distemper, malady 


R&IV 


Page 
DISORDERLY— irregular, ee mea 


intemperate. . were - 284 
TO DISOWN—to pf Bena) aisolalme, dina! 
VOW =e eb seit c valcyainincwminil ale ee vn vieis celeinsinisiet 113 


TO DISPARAGE—to disparage, detract, traduce, 
depreciate, degrade, decry ..-+-+e+++ eeccese 105 
TO DISPARAGE-—to disparage, derogate, de- 
BTADA. ccc cece ccccesencocsoves se seccees voeee 105 
DISPARITY—disparity, inequality ........s-+0+ 435 
DISPASSIONATE—dispassionate, cool .-...-++- 119 
TO DISPEL—to dispel, disperse, dissipate 345 
TO DISPENSE—to dispense, distribute......... 485 
TO DISPERSE—to dispel, disperse, dissipate.... 345 
TO DISPERSE—to spread, scatter, disperse..-... 344 


TO DISPLAY—to show, exhibit, display........ 452 
TO DISPLEASE—to displease, offend, vex...... 117 
DISPLEASURE—dislike, displeasure, dissatisfac- 
tion, distaste! disgust:< ici. o sees sel ace ces 118 
Ce ue ee anger, Rigen 
tion . . seteits «se LIS 
DISPOSAL —disposal, iepositios. \aavees csteine cies’ 277 


ove QUT 
278 


TO DISPOSE—to dispose, arrange, digest.... 
TO DISPOSE—to place, dispose, order.......+.. 


TO DISPOSE—to direct, dispose, regulate ...... 191 
DISPOSITION—disposition, temper ...-...--... 387 
DISPOSITION—disposition, inclination......... 388 


DISPOSITION—disposal, disposition. . voce Q77 
TO DISPROVE—to ae refute, disprove 

oppugn . - - 115 
TO DISPUTE—to argue, bas nohate sitelevelsfats 114 
TO DISPUTE—to contend, contest, dispute ..... 131 
TO DISPUTE —to controvert, dispute..........- 114 
TO DISPUTE—-to doubt, question, dispute...... 95 
TO DISPUTE—difference, dispute, altercation, 

ATU LEH serclals eilva id ings n\e (olofeiaieminaials Sieitie © aos iehe 133 
TO DISREGARD—to disregard, ~eglect, slight.. 423 
DISSATISFACTION—dislike, displeasure, dissa- 

tisfaction, distaste, disgust ...-. soy Db 


TO DISSEMBLE—to conceal, dissemble, disguise 519 


DISSEMBLER—hypocrite, disserbler .......... 520 
DISSEMINATE—to spread, circulate, propagate, 
CLISSETUITAED Wromic oidarey< o's ck gitnieeicen/e sipetre dss 345 


DISSENSION—dissension, contention, discord .. 
TO DISSENT—to differ, vary, disagree, dissent. 132 
DISSENTER—heretick, schismatick, sectarian, 
dissenter, nonconformist 
DISSERTATION—essay, treatise, tract, disserta- 
tion 
DISSIMULATION—simulation, dissimulation .. 
TO DISSIPATE—to dispel, disperse, dissipate .. 
TO DISSIPATE—to bread or ecules ill dis- 


cece eesseeeeeesorcee 


329 
520 
345 


eee eseoce ses ereeseseeecoreseresreesenesere 


sipate, squander.. -. 344 
DISSOLUTE—loose, vague, “ey niece toons 

IOUS casnisix blue ici ose nis winiees Gis bila nareiet aptapbiee 256 
DISTANT—distant, far, remote . nin. sine aT Re 
DISTASTE—dislike, displeasure, ‘dlssadatnetion, 

Gistaste, GISGUSt .....0.-ceeceeencvceccceee vecie 117 
DISTEMPER—disorder, disease, malady, distem- 

PEF ewer cscs eccc cece cree ceccecves ei diviah tgctake - 367 
DISTINCT—different, distinct, separate........ 282 
DISTINCTION—difference, distinction ......... 282 


DISTINCTION—of fashion, of quality, of dis- 
FHI CTIORE GEES eee iele bieis 6 <iaja/siclelelvale.e's m6 dees 474 
DISTINCTLY—clearly, distinctly ..-..........- 477 


INDEX. 


TO DISTINGUISH—to distinguish, discriminate a 
TO DISTINGUISH—to Ea, — distin- 
guish.. oo% sok eaee Rese. 
TO DISTIN GUISH—to: Manalizes distin aay - 474 
TO DISTINGUISH—to abstract ke hb distins 
guish. . - eves 420 
DISTINGUISHED—distinguishéd, possi 
noted, eminent, illustrious . sino ulsinhie's Sua 
TO DISTORT—to turn, bend, ure wring, wrest, 
distort, WIENCH» »a/«,ss sissies /sis'emiswictsalm alcisls'y Sale 
DISTRACTED—absent, abstracted, diverted, dis- 
{KACtEd -<-\|sne wisleo «5 wein alee lajs aimee eae ae 
DISTRESS—adversity, distress.......... 
DISTRESS—distress, anxiety, anguish, agony .. 
TO DISTRESS—to afflict, distress, trouble 
TO DISTRESS—to distress, harass, perplex.... 
TO DISTRIBUTE—to allot, assign, apportion, 


GISTEIDUEE: ic icine ort in aje tetris elpisinic iw aiel ates eee 168 
TO DISTRIBUTE —to dispense, distribute ...... 485 
TO DISTRIBUTE—to divide, distribute, share.. 485 


DISTRICT—district, region, tract, quarter....... 498 
DISTRUSTFUL—distrustful, suspicious, diffident 416 


TO DISTURB—to disturb, interrupt............ 417 
TO DISTURB—to trouble, disturb, molest ...... 412 
DISTURBANCE—commotion, disturbance...... 417 
TO DIVE—to plunge, dive. .s.+000en=s00sas0seas0and 
TO DIVE INTO—to pry, scrutinize, dive into.. 99 
DIVERS—different, several, divers, sundry, vari- 
OUSs sic oa side ss se.nisles se cisie wa slesinin ene teem 283 
DIVERSION—amusement, entertainment, diver- 
sion, sport, recreation, pastime.............- 391 
PINE ae Pee ase avin ais, diver- 
sity.. ais eekiie i ocah . coves 282 
TO DIVERT—to amuse, dipper entertain....... 390 
DIVERTED—absent, abstracted, divemeal dis- 
CEACTEG 12 als vs once elnrerays: sige eieieiseuns GE sescee 484 
TO DIVIDE—to divide, separate, part.......... 484 
TO DIVIDE—to divide, distribute, share........ 485 
DIVINE—godlike, divine, heavenly .........+.++ 90 
DIVINE—holy, sacred, divine ........+..eses00 - 89 
DIVINE—ecclesiastick, divine, theologian...... - 8&6 
TO DIVINE—to guess, conjecture, divine....... 95 
DIVINITY —deity, divinity ........:cseesecses - 81 
DIVISION—part, portion, division, share........ 485 
DIURNAL—daily, diurnal ....5 <2... @eeenaee 268 
TO DIVULGE—to publish, promulgate, divulge, 
reveal, Gisclose?\s: mies <a casas «cee sree meee - 443 
TO DO—to make, do, act. +00 ov+e esos sions sav scie 294 
DOCILE—docile, tractable, ductile.............. 360 
DOCTRINE—4doctrine, precept, principle........ 8Q 
i } doctrine, dogma, tenet............ 80 
DOGMATICAL—confident, dogmatical, positive. 414 
DOLEFUL—-piteous, doleful, wofui, rueful...... 4il 
DOMESTICK—servant, domestick, frases me- 
nial . selenide «+ 328 
DOMINEERING—imperious, Tory, ‘domiingam 
ing, overbearing...........- 5 cesees 185 
DOMINION—empire, reign, Rta Brel fcy/ 
DOMINION—power, strength, force, anthoeem 
dominion . os6icceis aie nee 
DOMINIONS—territory, anise ohne 1s cele -.- 189 
DONATION—gift, present, donation, benefaction 164 
DOOM—destiny, fate, lot, doom......scceusscece 168 


INDEX. 


Page 
TO DOOM—to sentence, doom, condemn........ 169 
DOUBLE-DEALING—deceit, duplicity, double- 
dealing .. ieee Sastelec ssh cet dence 
DOUBT—demur, joa thesitation, objection 96 
TO DOUBT—+to doubt, question, dispute. . 95 
DOUBT—doubt, suspense ...+-..0sseeeeeeceeees 95 
DOUBTFUL—doubtful, dubious, uncertain, pre- 
CATnIECe Aras Sos cess cicowtedea ses se eee sess 96 


TO DOZE—to sleep, slumber, doze, drowse, nap. 300 
TO DRAG—to draw, shee haul or ie biel tug, 


pluck......... Sosotcse 308 
TO DRAIN—to Shedd tiated Stain Seer eerers 344 
TO DRAW—to draw, drag, haul or hale, pluck, 

pull, tug ....... plcisietet era eitininl sie patelewole nce elely'e 303 
TO DREAD—to apprehend, fear, dread........- 307 
DREAD—awe, reverence, dread .......0.+eeeeee 307 
DREADFUL—fearful, dreadful, frightful, tremen- 

dous, terrible, terrifick, horrible, horrid ...... 306 
DPREADFUL—formidable, dreadful, shocking, ter- 

Wile menaetete cia civic seine e eit ees cc dices slaste tts 308 
DREAM—dream, reverie......... er creer ee 91 
DREGS—dregs, sediment, dross, scum, refuse ... 515 
TO DRENCH—to soak, drench, steep .-........ 512 


DRIFT—tendency, drift, scope, aim...-......... 
DROLL—laughable, ludicrous, ridiculous, comi- 


Calor COMICK, ArollssWepecccicleeee mse ewiceeie's 103 
TO DROOP—to flag, droop, languish, pine...... 368 
TO DROOP 


303 
515 


7 i ble.. 
TO DROP ¢ °2 fall: drop, droop, sink, tumble 


DROSS—dregs, sediment, dross, scum, refuse .... 
TO DROWSE—to sleep, slumber, doze, drowse, 


nap Soe ere veer ese ence eses cs ceensece esee 300 
DROWSY—heavy, dull, drowsy...........--.-- 300 
DROWSY—sleepy, drowsy, lethargick .......... 300 


DRUDGE—servant, domestick, menial, drudge .. 328 
DRUDGERY—work, labour, toil, drudgery, task. 328 
DRUNKENNESS—intoxication a Grutie edness, 1 in- 


PAU ME ONsercaininceleidosian sim aiciciesioe sic s% ce siticl oe 310 
DUBI1OUS—doubtful, dubious, uncertain, preca- 
PEGS so iars eel opajeeiate ce: eds vere savareip a sieta.k are eracereie SG 


DUCTILE—docile, tractable, ductile -........... 


DUP debt dueree ove. scales sweetacietee ats ta clan's 217 
DULL—heavy, dull, drowsy.......eeseereeeeeee 300 
DULL—insipid, dull, flat... ... cece ces cee cece 513 
DULL—dull, gloomy, sad, dismal ............... 410 
DULL— stupid, dull se. ccc en cee cuse 401 
DUMB —-silent, dumb, mute, speechless.......... 464 
DUPLICIT Y—deceit, duplicity, double-dealing.. 523 
DURABLE—durable, lasting, permanent........ 266 
DURABLE—durable, constant.......+.--..+..- 266 
DURATION—continuance, continuation, dura- 
Pipeiete einen tice vclets ae areas Cras viatae aia'e'e ie’ os 265 
DURATION—duration, time.............00.00. 266 
DUTIFUL—dutiful, obedient, respectful......... 150 
DUTY—duty, obligation 10. foo ee cece cece 150 
DUT Y—business, Office, duty...........0-eeeeee 331 
DUTY—tax, duty, custom, toll, impost, tribute, 
COMED MM esc a's kles aii's sisiciotticmclecss bcs 168 
TO DWELL—to abide, sojourn, dwell, reside, in- 
habitr-wemmmeeetaacse tees ste sce wets tes bes e's 263 
ro DYE—to colour, dye, tinge, stain ........... 516 
EHACH—all, every, each ...... SPeleictatatetee tates Wore 252 


EAGER—eager, earnest, serious .....seeee00%se. 392 


XxvV 
Page 
EAGERNESS—avidity, greediness, eagerness .., 162 
| EARLY—soon, early, betimes.........+.220-0005 262 
TO EARN—to acquire, obtain, gain, win, earn.. 396 
EARNEST—eager, earnest, serious.........-... 392 
EARNEST—earnest, pledge ......0..eeeeeeesees 184 
EASE—ease, quiet, rest, repose ...-.see-eeeeeees 362 
EASE s nih, 
EASINESS § &28% easiness, facility, lightness ... 363 
HASY—easy, ready. sss scescetces -- 363 
EBULLITION—ebullition, etierveaedvel’ fer- 
MONCAUIONs oc cle! ora'ainie' Siovcio'oee chulsierel sed ete tteit 309 
ECCENTRICK—particular, singular, odd, eccen- 
ALICKS SUVAMTE S dahl cae «a's s's's'sie'oscle' sala cholal nee eats 385 
ECCLESIASTICK—ecclesiastick, divine, theolo- 
BIA sciaelv cise clecd devas Cece a Neisasslerdels tam 86 
ECONOMICAL—-economical, saving, sparing, 
thrifty, penurious, niggardly............0+00- 161 
ECONOMY—economy, frugality, parsimony ...- 161 
ECONOMY—economy, management............ 161 
ECSTASY—ecstasy, rapture, transport ...-..... 318 
EDGE--border, edge, rim or brim, brink, margin, 
VENICE at cocie Pasiale le slalocctcretione cee oetetielein ate els 176 
EDICT—decree, edict, proclamation............ 443 


{ 


{ EF FECTIVE—effective, efficient, eietual; effica- 


EDIFICE—edifice, structure, fabrick............ 499 
EDUCATION—education, instruction, breeding. 197 
TO EFFACE—to blot out, expunge, rase or erase, 

efface, cancel, obliterate. . nies +e. 248 
EFFECT—effect, consequence, ereaiie event, is- 
TO EFFECT—to effect, produce, perform....... 
TO EFFECT—to at eae execute, achieve, ef- 

FEC ticle snnreie ab ects siaicoeie woe. 288 


cious . -- 290 
EFFECTS —goods, fardinase) ehisittels, milveahite: 
effects 
EFFECTUAL—effective, efficient, effectual, effi- 
cacious 
EFFEMINATE—female, feminine, effeminate... 
EFFERVESCENCE—ebullition, effervescence, 
fEPMeNtAlON ee sic 's coslee ad ed Meco eect 
EFFICACIOUS ) effective, efficient, efficacious, 
EFFICIENT , effectual 
EFFIG Y—likeness, picture, image, effigy........ 
EFFORT—endeavour, effort, exertion 321 
EFFORT—attempt, trial, endeavour, essay, effort 320 
EFFRONTERY—audacity, effrontery, hardihood 


soe eeees 


wees eseseseeezseeessecrssseeseseseseae 


290 
514 


Pee essre ses essere seeseeeeseeoeerseseen 


Ser oeeeeesee see esos 


eeceoees soe 


or hardiness, DoldNESS 2.0.2... csc ececcescccs 140 
EFFUSION—effusion, ejaculation .............. 462 
EGOISTICAL—opiniated or opiniative, conceited, 

ELOISTICAL Fos cal sora lenis e wis srefsiaeleis! sens cals tae 100 
EJACULATION—effusion, ejaculation ........ 462 
ELDER—senior, elder, older .. - 269 
ELDERLY—elderly, aged, old....-...-s.2.s200- 269 
ELECT—to choose, elect.. fe Peal nriateete 24 
ELEGANT—graceful, dobneiyt elegant Svaieletunee elas 315 
TO NLEVATE—to lift, raise, erect, elevate, exalt 354 
ELIGIBLE—eligible, preferable .......-....+0 234 
ELOCUTION )elocution, eloquence, rhetorick, 
ELOQUENCE ; OFALONY Naw cectacsetinesecedvete 462 
TO ELUCIDATE—to explain, illustrate, eluci- 

date..... rece bor SLLatalc ented alegiatel sere phere ete « 458 
TO ELUDE—to escape, elude, per Agen heyy 
TO ELUDE—to avoid, eschew, shun, elude...... 5%. 


XXVi 
Page 
TO EMANATE —to arise, proceed, issue, spring, 
FlOW, CMAMNALE . eee ceececcees. ceeeeerecceee 291 
TO EMBARRASS—to i bawnea! entangle, per- 
PIOK. ee ce cnserccnwterewrececccnceenens «- 412 
EMBARRASSMENTS—-difficulties, embarrass- 
ments, troubles.... +s... ease asioies . 413 


TO EMBELLISH--to en n, docarnee nibh 500 
EMBLEM—figure, metaphor, allegory, emblem, 
SYMDO], tyPe..ceeseeseeccveccccccvecvesecs - d3l 
TO EMBOLDEN—to encourage, embolden ..... 
TO EMBRACE—+to clasp, hug, embrace ........ 
TO EMBRACE—to comprise, comprehend, em- 


Dace, CONTAIN, INCIUOC ss 6 ae ic ss os erstaicinwicleraie sine 174 
EMBRY O—embryo, fetus .....ececcecercncoesss 510 
TO EMEND—to amend, correct, reform, rectify, 

emend, improve, mend, better ......-+ssee.0- 201 
TO EMERGE—to rise, issue, emerge «....+-.-0- 291 
EMERGENCY—exigency, emergency .« 173 
EMINENT —distinguished, conspicuous, ania 

EMINENT, TMISHIOUS.cqsuisica se. ceaissrsieiniigein aes 6 473 
BMISSARY—emissary, Spy. ..--eeececcccccccee 446 
TO EMIT—to emit, exhale, evaporate ......... 501 


EMOLUMENT-—gain, profit, emolument, lucre.. 
“EMOTION—agitation, emotion, tremour, trepida- 


PUT Ga eee deisein, Seal aalek <lereths orsierelneustya< ay seein e 398 
EMPHASIS—stress, strain, emphasis, accent..... 221 
EMPIRE—empire, kingdom .....00cescesceeesee 189 
EMPIRE—empire, reign, dominion.............. i87 
TO EMPLOY—to employ, use . “ - 398 
EMPLOY MENT—business, ERD employ 

ment, engagement, avocation.. siSsarertete Bad 
TO EMPOWER—to commission, ainbartite em- 

POWER “wc ov cciecmnclscccsiceseicecnseccsee sees 186 
EMPTY—empty, vacant, void, devoid........... 343 
EMPTY—hollow, empty «.0..cessceecsnscencsee 344 


EMULATION—competition, emulation, rivalry. 131 


TO ENCHANT—to charm, enchant, fascinate, 


enrapture, captivate ....-...ceeessecvccce ove Old 
TO ENCIRCLE—to surround, encompass, envi- 

ron, encircle...... Sin: Giciere fue tetnte cin oisieie tema aula os 175 
TO ENCLOSE—to circumscribe, enclose....... - 175 


TO ENCLOSE—+to enclose, include...........-+ 
ENCOMIUM—encomium, eulogy, panegyrick.... 
TO ENCOMPASS—to surround, encompass, en- 

VITOR, CNCATOTES p\s'2.s ois! aie cinta «sis wlaleiaipicinyoicin > einiohe 
ENCOUNTER—attack, assault, encounter, onset, 

NANO. ohn: clsrarcighayslnis'n oh ciolsia's oalinleratnia hie cy 9 safe 
TO ENCOUNTER—to attack, assail, assault, en- 

COUNLED A <>, o:n/si0 clusioielabietnlals sinaiptn elainpisivincisee'si LO 
TO ENCOURAGE—to cheer, encourage, comfort 356 
TO ENCOURAGE—to encourage, animate, in- 


116 


cite, impel, urge, stimulate, instigate......... 311 
TO ENCOURAGE—to encourage, advance, pro- 
mote, prefer, forward...0c0c<scsnerccscesese 312 


TO ENCOURAGE—to encourage, embolden.... 312 
TO ENCOURAGE—to encourage, countenance, 
sanction, support 
TO ENCROACH —to encroach, intrench, invade, 
intrude, infringe.......-e.ceesees Se06 SS DEH. 
TO ENCUMBER—to clog, load, encumber...... 370 
ENCYGLOPADIA—dictionary, encyclopedia .. 463 
END—aim, object, end ....-....+. NAY tence - 324 
TO END—to end, close, terminate ....-..0...00+ 285 


END—end, oxtremity 


Bee weseerecesseosseesereese 


INDEX. 


Lage 
END—sake, account, reason, purpose, end....... 535 

TO ENDEAVOUR—to attempt, trial, endeavour, 
essay, effort 

TO ENDEAVOUR—to endeavour, aim, strive, 
SECU BLE atarsivistniate yates soceistesa/s,0l6inieithp oles (eY ea ose OQ] 
ENDEAVOUR—endeavour, effort, exertion ..... 321 
ENDLESS—eternal, endless, everlasting...... ona (IO 
TO ENDOW—invest, endow or endue........-» 167 
ENDOWMENT —¢ift, endowment, talent......» 67 
ENDURANCE—patience, endurance, resignation 149 
TO ENDURE—to suffer, bear, endure, support .. 149 
ENEMY—enemy, foe, adversary, opponent, anta- 
POMS bc dip: fo olsiciereisse's opel cle epia ae man ie mn 
ENERGY—energy, force, vigour... ..s-.eesee 
TO ENERVATE) to weaken, e¢nfeeble, debili- 
TO ENFEEBLE } tate, enervate, invalidate .. 368 
TO ENGAGE—to attract, allure, invite, engage.. 318 
TO ENGAGE—to bind, engage, oblige.......... 216 
ENGAGEMENT —battle, combat, engagement .. 141 
ENGAGEMENT —business, pbc lacie 
ment, engagement, avocation.. ‘ son Bad 
ENGAGEMENT — promise, engagement, Sade » 217 
TO ENGENDER—to breed, engender .. ose 497 
TO ENGRAVE—to imprint, impress, engrave... 450 
ENGRAVING—picture, print, engraving........ 450 

TO ENGROSS—to absorb, swallow up, ingulf, 
engross 
ENJOY MENT—enjoyment, fruition, gratification 383 


see eeso eo eeo esos essere eee esse e sess 


Secor ese eee eores esses esses esersceressvnes 


rO ENLARGE—to enlarge, increase, extend.... 348 
TO ENLIGHTEN—to illuminate, illumine, en- 
LiSLON, -ccm nies, ninclpinsisin! sinc ime a «/ols seule iene 197 
TO ENLIST—to enrol, enlist or list, register, re- 
COTE is's\0'5 selnes oc n'mselalnotaiw ae nteis shine de ee 468 
TO ENLIVEN—to animate, inspire, cheer, en- 
Jiven :exbilarate .<:s/s sin oie ie.o sic is ini slelew eleienanas 355 
ENMITY—enmity, animosity, hostility ........ « 135 
ENMITY—hatred, enmity, ill-will, repugnance.. 137 
ENORMOUS—enormous, huge, immense, vast .. 349 
ENORMOUS—enormous, prodigious, monstrous. 350 
ENOUGH—enough, sufficient ...............26. 343 
ENRAPTURE—to charm, enchant, fascinate, en- 
KAapture, captivates «ni. ss.clceian sisi Ream Ree aa 
TO ENROL—to enrol, enlist or list, register, re- 
GOT. 6 ois.0 vite o's 0.0.5 5it ate oyna iain eae ee «» 468 
ENSAMPLE—example, pattern, onan vs Ool 
TO ENSLAVE—to enslave, captivate .......... 318 
TO ENSUE—to follow, succeed, ensue ...... sue, LI 
TO ENTANGLE-—to embarrass, entangle, per- 
PIOX. oe eee cecscececnscercer rece cecnreeceses 412 
TO: ENTANGLE—to insnare, entrap, entangle, 
UNVEICIE 9.0.2 .0.9 00.009 9 bas nine on sleivia die oP simarm ai 525 


ENTERPRISE—attempt, undertaking, enterprise 320 
ENTERPRISING—enterprising, adventurous ... 173 
TO ENTER UPON—to begin, commence, enter 
upon 
TO ENTERTAIN—to amuse, divert, entertain.. 390 
ENTERTAINMENT—amusement, diversion, en- 
tertainment, sport, recreation pastime....... 
ENTERTAINMENT—feast, banquet, carousal, 
entertainment, treat......cccscesceesccnee -- 513 
ENTHUSIAST—enthusiast, fanatick, visionary.. 91 
TO ENTICE—to allure, tempt, seduce, entice, 


es eee see eases eres er eeee see eseoeseseseeene 


TO ENTICE—to persuade, entice, prevail upon. 313 


INDEX. XEVA 
Page Page 
ENTIRE-—whole, entire, complete, total, integral 288 | ETERNAL—eternal, endless, everlasting........ 270 
TOC ENTITLE—to name, denominate, style, en- EKUCHARIST—Lord’s supper, eucharist, commu- 
title, designate, characterize .......s...seeee 471 NION, SACTAMENL +... se00sseveceeese ideas .c 83 
TO ENTRAP—to insnare, entrap, entangle, in- EULOGY—encomium, eulogy, panegyrick...,.. 130 
VEIGIE Sescareiene's cts ie lo eiele oc ety vieleivele wenlelece's 525 | TO EVADE—to evade, equivocate, prevaricate. 526 
TO ENTREAT—to beg, beseech, solicit, entreat, TO EVADE—to escape, elude, evade........... 527 
supplicate, implore -... 0s. sees cece eeeoucss 158 | TO EVAPORATE—to emit, exhale, evaporate... 501 
EN ne sana gs petition, 0 sige EVASION—evasion, shift, subterfuge ....... soe (526 
SUit, CLAVE... cee eees seeeeesee 87} EVEN—equal, even, equable, uniform, like or 
ENVIOUS-—invidious, E€NViOUS.......+- - 389 IU G sale laiyi as 3) cpu) She ararersiba.e'a br elet saw ayeemita pies eelsta's IoD 
. TO ENVIRON—to surround, encompass, environ, EVEN—even, smooth, level, plain ....s.+++08... 435 
ONGMCI ES! s'sis oka) nelle x serese 175} EVENT—event, incident, accident, adventure, oc- 
ENVOY—amhassador, envoy, fe ntentgoteuctary, CNITY ENCE! sce: cate sin.ots, ves cpere'sle nik de reee a ane aS 172 
GEPULY -.. eee reeccccercvecccarevecacecrecces 214] EVENT—event, issue, consequence...........-- 290 
ENVY—jealousy, ENVY, SUSPICION. «0. +..ee veces 389 | EVER—always, at all times, ever .........0.000. 258 
EPHEMERIS—calendar, almanack, ephemeris .. 434 | EVERLASTING—eternal, endless, everlasting. . 270 : 
EPICURE—sensualist, voluptuary, epicure...... 375 | EVERY —all, every, each... eccccccccceccccscces Q52 
EPIDEMICAL—contagious, epidemical, pestilen- EVIDENCE—deponent, evidence, witness ...... 445 
WAAL a Ae cea re ercios wa soe ole Gein oe sb cst ents 129 | EVIDENCE—proof, testimony, evidenea........ 444 
EPISTLE—letter, epistles ..5... ccc ccc ee sees 196 | EVIDENT—apparent, visible, clear, plain, obvi- 
EPITHET—epithet, adjective. . . - 420 OUS, EVident, MANILESt «6.0 a NUS sewn ciecie 473 
EPOCHA-—time, period, age, antares era, ce 267 | EVIL—evil or ill, misfortune, harm, mischief.... 405 
EQUABLE ) equal, even, equable, like or alike, EVIL—bad, evil, Wicked 00.6. ..ccceccccccccceee , 127 
EQUAL MIPIPOENM es wiels nn clancie Sees tetselaioaa 435 | TO EVINCE—to argue, evince, prove........-. 7G) 
TO EQUIP—to fit, equip, prepare, qualify ...... 154 | TO EVINCE—to prove, demonstrate, evince, ma- 
EQUITABLE—fair, honest, equitable, reasonable 428 NILEBE ¥s ra: sora claleicicraie tard elope clerols ales Weteateterciele. ete 444 
EQUITY —justice, equity ...... sce ccc c cece cess 212 | EXACT—accurate, exact, precise............... 203 
EQUIVOCAL—ambiguous, equivocal..........- 527 | EXACT —exact, nice, particular, punctual....... 203 
TO EQUIVOCATE—to evade, equivocate, pre- TO EXACT—to exact, OxtOrt 22.6.0 0 ves odicees 317 
WArICAle.spewiicse whee we Senet e aial Maerereiets 526 | TO EXALT—to lift, praise, erect, elevate, exalt. 354 
ERA—time, period, age, date, era, epocha....... 267 | EXAMINATION—examination, search, inquiry, 
TO ERADICATE—to eradicate, extirpate, exter- research, investigation, scrutiny............. 98 
SANG CODERS oO G1 SR ORSE UCHEICR fo Cire tarde ae a 503 | TO EXAMINE—to discuss, examine............ 98 
TO ERASE—to blot out, expunge, rase or erase, TO EXAMINE—to examine, search, explore.... 98 
efface, cancel, obliterate .......seecencenceee 248} EXAMPLE—example, pattern, ensample........ 531 
TO ERECT—to build, erect, construct .......... 498 | EXAMPLE—example, precedent ........ee.s02 531 
TO ERECT—*to institute, establish, found, erect. 213 |; EXAMPLE—example, instance..........esceees 531 
TO ERECT—+o lift, raise, erect, elevate, exalt... 354; TO EXASPERATE—to aggravate, irritate, pro- 
ERRAND—mission, message, errand. .....0+4. 215 ‘voke, exasperate, tantalize... 0.0 vecsccesece 121 
ERROUR—errour, mistake, blunder ............ 126] TO EXCEED ) to exceed, surpass, transcend, ex- 
ERROUR—errour, fault. ... 2... cccececcc cc ccese 125; TO EXCEL Cel MGUEAOs SFT ERIS - 273 
ERUDITION—knowledge, science, learning, eru- EXCELLENCE—excellence, superiority ........ 274 
AUIULOR i aia,0 «sete ateteietoa nae Gio, Salata canis wiel ae -- 196 | EXCEPT—besides, except.......0ceeescccccevee Q51 
ERUPTION—eruption, explosion........0..e.00. 501 | EXCEPT—unless, except.......- Sess Pormihele aiate ah 251 
TO ESCAPE—to escape, elude, evade.......... 527 | EXCEPTION—objection, difficulty, exception ... 112 
TO ESCHEW—to avoid, eschew, shun, elude... 527| EXCESS—excess, superfluity, redundancy....... 343 
TO ESCORT—to accompany, escort, wait on, at- EXCESSIVE—excessive, immoderate, intempe- 
BTA os ain tele WOH otereate NE ak eer Seelats ae cheittaleig 493 TALC traraveronranccateprclse ant atowne ah ele ae chee mislaate we O40 
ESPECIALLY—especially, particularly, princi- TO EXCHANGE—to change, exchange, barter, 
MMV CHIEN Y,<iatelstesaleate's Mracis Meel sisal We's a vss 206 BUDSBICUIE. 55 miele alee sin blawlel ete weletd ss eleta’ Siete totalelois's 334 
TO ESPY—to find, find out, discover, espy, descry 446} TO EXCHANGE—to exchange, barter, truck, 
ESSA Y—attempt, trial, endeavour, essay, effort.. 320 COMMUTE sicinisto wala «' iefalelalateloim 6s averes seveee Gao 
ESSAY—essay, treatise, tract, dissertation ..... . 329} EXCHANGE—interchange, exchange, reciprocity 334 
ESSENTIAL—-necessary, expedient, essential, TO EXCITE—to awaken, excite, provoke, rouse, 
POCA Gea Denise's ale sidmawejr ene tee case eens 417 SUL OSARG Oem Hen OM oprinoctor ck cicicbe bt caner 310 
TO ESTABLISH—to confirm, establish ........ 225; TO EXCITE—to excite, incite, provoke ........ 309 
TO ESTABLISH—to fix, settle, establish ....... 227; TO EXCLAIM—to cry. exclaim, call.........-- 470 
TO ESTABLISH—to institute, establish, found, TO EXCULPATE—to apologize, defend, justify 
CTECE ace wniciswinwlsninin nls stwinwaescsle's ecie's ee ee vic 213 exculpate, excuse, plead........seeceeeseeees 18] 
ESTEEM--esteem, respect, regard......2e+se0es 427| TO EXCULPATE—to exonerate, exculpate -..- 182 
TO ESTEEM—to value, prize, esteem........-. 436 IRL test al ramble, tour jarint, 
TO ESTEEM to apprize, appreciate, esti- trip.. ie aig lata siete pais dn Va aietemtenneeie 
TO ape Mate, ESsteEM ..60evaceees - 432,10 EXCUSE—to sab ties defend) justify, ex- 
TO ESTIMATE—to estimate, compute, rate.... 432 culp4te, excuse, plead sceessecereessceee 182 


Xxvili 

Page 
TO EXCUSE—to excuse, pardon 182 
EXCUSE—pretence, pretension, pretext, excuse.» 229 | 
EXECRABLE—abominable, detestable, execrable 138 | 
EXECRATION—malediction, curse, imprecation, 


INDEX. 


Page 


TO EXPRESS—to express, declare, signify tes- 


LifYAULEN Stora lcc ste cecvs melee cous Sistdisl eee are 455 
EXPRESSION—word, expression, term........ 
EXPRESSIVE—significant, expressive.......-.. 456 


| TO EXPUNGE—to blot out, expunge, rase or 


erase, efface, cancel, obliterate .........+. see 249 
TO EXTEND—+o enlarge, increase, extend...... 348 
TO EXTEND—to reach, stretch, extend ....... - 349 
EXTENSIVE—comprehensive, extensive ....... 174 
EXTENT —limit, extent... .s.cgcce cee sccveses - 177 
TO EXTENUATE—to extenuate, palliate...... 182 


EXTERIOUR—outward, external, exteriour.... 


execration, anathema ...-...e+++eseeerereee 82 
TO EXECUTE—to accomplish, effect, execute, 

WCHICVE, Ge vesccncnscccicce sce gteracvebivice 288 
TO EXECUTE—to execute, fulfil, perform...... 289 
EXEMPT —free, exempt. .....eecescceccsccecees 242 
EXEMPTION—privilege, prerogative, exemption, 

AMMUMNILY..\-5 0 vec wnevclnecuewwnese sovenecver 228 
TO EXERCISE—to exercise, practis€......+.-+- 322 
se neenaihe to exert, EXErcise ....+-22-+0- 322 
EXERTION—endeavour, effort, exerticn........ 321 
TO EXHALE—to emit, exhale, evaporate....... 501 
TO EXHAUST—to spend, exhaust, drain....... 344 
TO EXHIBIT—to give, present, offer, exhibit... 163 
TO EXHIBIT—to show, exhibit, display....-... 452 


EXHIBITION—show, mY Pe ee 
sight, spectacle. . +e 5 
TO EXHILARATE—to S ascica: inspire, ees 


enliven, exhilarate. . : : ove Boo 
TO EXHORT—to gion persuade. see eeececece - 312 
EXIGENCY—exigency, emergency .- vedee Glia 
TO EXILE—to banish, exile, penal: saistaveins aolel bib 205 
TO EXIST—to be, exist, subsist ........-..+-00+ 239 
TO EXIST—to exist, live ....-+.eeesesseecsnece 240 
EXIT—exit, departure. . aos ee 
TO EXONERATE—to OE OES peekiperar’ - 182 
TO EXPAND—te dilate, expand ........s+0.ee. 345 
TO EXPAND—to spread, expand, diffuse....... 345 


TO EXPECT—to await, wait for, look for, expect 415 | 


EXPECTATION—hope, eapecaiany confidence, 


ETAT Gale erate a arn scoie wie esieiayhis o's einintcicts alot selec iarece 414 
EXPEDIENT—expedient, resource .......-.--++ 535 
EXPEDIENT—expedient, fit ......sesssconesees 418 
EXPEDIENT—necessary, expedient  issential, 

ERCLISSILE oinisjo visinlo'alois'aln e's @/sieeiore Cris ciaie ates tts 417 
TO EXPEDITE—to hasten, accelerate, speed, ex- 

EMILE) MIESPALCH sje ele vicisiaeie irene iissinls'piie sols 261 
EXPEDITIOUS—diligent, expeditious, prompt.. 262 
TO EXPEL—to banish, exile, expel--.-.-.+...-- 205 
TO EXPEND—to spend or expend, waste, dissi- 

pate, squander ......... ersies's oma seaemiaswics, 344 
EXPENSE—cost, expense, price, charge ........ 436 
EXPERIENCE ¢ experience, experiment, trial, 
EXPERIMENT { PLOOL, TEst-\s.c cs vepalen esis ties 319 
EXPERT—clever, skilful, expert, dexterous, adroit 69 
TO EXPIATE—to atone for, expiate..........-. 87 
TO EXPIRE—to die, expire.. Risivieceishive s, O01 
TO EXPLAIN—to explain, Hea: inert J 457 
TO EXPLAIN—to explain, illustrate, elucidate.. 458 
EXPLANATION—definition, explanation ...... 458 
torr mittee explanatory, explicit, express 459 
EXPLOIT—deed, exploit, achievement, feat..... 295 
TO EXPLORE—to examine, search, explore.... 98 
EXPLOSION—eruption, explosion............+. 501 
EXPOSED—subject, liable, exposed, obnoxious.. 146 


TO EXPOSTULATE—to expostulate, remon- 


TO EXPOUND—to explain, expound, interpret. 457 
EXPRESS—explanatory, explicit, express 459 


eeerere 


TO EXTERMINATE-—to eradicate, extirpate, 

exterminate 
EXTERNAL—outward, external, exteriour ..... 
TO EXTIRPATE—to eradicate, extirpate, exter- 


pee eceresesesese ess eooesesesevere 


WIT ACO sisi lsiaie late! wre raic c/aiavis ple derelels ie wtel ole eieniee 502 
TO EXTOL—to praise, commend, applaud, extol 130 
TO EXTORT—to exact, extort... ..n00s> seeane 317 


EXTRANEOUS—extraneous, extrinsick, foreign 437 
EXTRAORDINARY—extraordinary, remarkable 451 
EXTRAVAGAN ruimtigeg S eer lavish, 


profuse .. aS a o's etal wae - 342 

| EXTREME ; 
EXTREMITY atte extreme....-.. eniateasis 285 
EXTREMITY—end, extremity .........0.20000. 285 


TO EXTRICATE—to disengage, disentangle, ex- 


{KICATC ss = peis\eles ainiog some veinbae ce siieeet eves 218 
EXTRINSICK--extraneous, extrinsick, foreign.. 437 
EXUBERANT—exuberant, luxuriant......... +e 343 
TO EYE—+to look, see, behold, view, eye ....... 482 
FABLE—fable, tale, novel, romance ............ 467 
FABRICK—edifice, structure, fabrick........... 499 


TO FABRICATE—to invent, feign, frame, fabri- 
cate, forge. = breWie eisisibiele QO 
FABRICATION—fietion, fabnicatiaes falsphonds 528 


TO FACE—to confront, face .<..s\.sess stele esis 142 
FACE—face, front .............. . - 478 
FACE—face, countenance, visage..........s.00. 479 
FACETIOUS—facetious, conversible, pleasant, 
JOCUIAL, jOCOSE 6.0% cnn. wrsietls new once Sorte 461 
FACILITY—ease, easiness, lightness, facility.... 363 
FACT—circumstance, incident, fact............. 172 
FACTION—faction, party ..0 2200. +ecsseaueew SOM 
FACTIOUS—factious, seditious ...........0ee- - 209 
FACTOR—factor, agent......2.-sceessesceeees - 338 
FACULTY—abitity, faculty, talent............. 68 
TO FAIL—to fail, fall short, be deficient........ 125 
FAILING—imperfection, weakness, frailty, fail- 
INF AOIDIE Ss sielecie ereieie tioles Stale estate ORE Fs eS 124 
ayers ek failure, failing »~s.0+-ceceeere-os4 coc 
FAYLURE—failure, miscarriage, abortion....... 125 
FAILURE—insolvency, failure, bankruptcy ..... 125 
FAINT —faint, languid.....scccsccccssecsccsece 369 
FAIR—fair, clear........--++-- waves bust se ae 477 
FAIR—fair, honest, equitable, reasonable..... eee, eS 
FAITH—belief, trust, credit, faith............. Fey ma} 
FAITH—faith, creed ....ccccccccccscccccvecs eee 79 
FAITH—faith, fidelity ..........cccccccccces e+. 416 
FAITHFUL—faithfil, trusty............00- cous 416 
FAITHLESS—faithless, unfaithful ............. 524 


FAITHLESS—faithless, perfidious, treacherous... 524 


INDEX. XX1X 


Page 
FO FALL—to fall, drop, droop, sink, tumble.... 303} TO FEIGN—to feign, pretend. ......ee+eeeseeee pe 
TO FALL SHORT—to fail, fall short, be deficient 125| TO FEIGN—to invent, feign, frame, fabricate 
FALLACIOUS—fallacious, deceitful, fraudulent 523 LOTEE eats setetsae ae .cs alae s atala tags es Bre Rech e 528 
FALLACY-—fallacy, delusion, illusion .......... 523 | TO FELICITATE—to felicitate, congratulate... 395 
FALSEHOOD—fiction, fabrication, falsehood.... 528 | FELICITY—happiness, por he bliss, blessedness, 


FALSEHOOD E i heatituded ahae atevaae cteiareateietae velar woe Gales o 394 
FALSITY {Utruth, falsehood, falsity, lie... 528 FELLOWSHIP—fellowship, society...-.--.. ves 489 
TO FALTER—to hesitate, falter, stammer, stutter 97 | FELON—criminal, culprit, malefactor, felon, con- 
FAME—fame, reputation, renown ...........0:- A7Q VitGas 5 ae seb pace ccd Saws cgpiice wert Ronciwnasicin Lad 
FAME—fame, report, rumour, hearsay.........+ 472 | FEMALE yet i 
FAMILIAR—free, familiar........-.-s-se+ee-e+ 241 | FEMININE ; female, feminine, effeminate’... 514 
FAMILIARITY—acquaintance, familiarity, inti- FENCE —-fence, guard, security...... weogisarures LOO 
VOC Visle'cn's' o's ee 91600 0's Reais Seite « lonaee sells e ne 195 | FERMENT ATION—ebullition, effervescence, fer- 
FAMILY—family, house, lineage, race.......... 495 FRCHCALLON  cete sing faves coisa a’ si ccate eveccccees SUL 
FAMOUS—famous, celebrated, renowned, illus- FEROCIOUS—ferocious, Berea! SAVALE cenecccas 374 
CET SS Sts Gositeoatidnc acces deeceececcesees 473 | FERRYMAN—waterman, boatman, ferryman... 337 
FANATICK—enthusiast, fanatick, visionary.... $1 | FERTILE—fertile, fruitful, prolific saireiels cleietaays 34i 
FANCIFUL—fanciful, fantastical, whimsical, ca- FERVOUR—fervour, ardour. .....20scceeccccnee 475 
PLICIOUS Pesce esos ea ectcune secness socceceseee Soo | FESTIVAL—feast, festival, holyday............ 85 
FANCY—conceit, fancy......-..csees. eocvccces, 99 | BESTIVITY-<festivity, mirth «2.5. 6c..e seco ee 392 
FANCY—fancy, imagination. ...7......06+2.... 73 |TO FETCH—to bring, fetch, carry ....0......-. 330 
FANTASTICAL—fanciful, fantastical, whims. FETTER—chain, fetter, band, shackle.......... 217 
Cal, CAPTICIOUS...-. cee veceeecccevccevccesees ve | FEUD—dquarrel, broil, feud, affray or fray....... 133 
FAR—distant, far, remote ........ Wakil s'alsscltsnctal 286 | FICTION—fiction, fabrication, falsehood........ 528 
FARE—fare, provision ......ceesceeccacceeeceee O13 | FICTITIOUS--artful, artificial, fictitious ....... 521 
FARMER—farmer, husbandman, agriculturist... 336 | FIDELITY—faith, fidelity .........eescoccesess 416 
ro FASCINATE—to charm, enchant, fascinate, FIERCE—ferocious, flerce, Savage.....eecsseeee 374 
enrapture, captivate...... at a tg ath esa sidi sie s +» 317 | FIER Y——hot, fiery, burning, ardent.....-.....-.. 475 
FASHION—custom, fashion, manner, practice .. 322 | FIGURE-—figure, metaphor, allegory, emblem, 
DF FASHION—of fashion, of quality, of distinc- SHIDO AYO « toc- csaeied naa s eee s coke ap sate 531 
TON. sete sla hangiaeian ea seyatam eet canes © eceee 474 | FIGURE—form, figure, conformation ..........+ 293 
rO FASHION—to form, ree mould, shape 293 | FILTHY—nasty, filthy, foul........ ah sisiajs etereveaste 515 
fAST—abstinence, fast . eg eHiea eoseees 87] FINAL—final, conclusive .....esscccccseccvses » 224 
TO FASTEN—to fix, fasten: stick cieiaia's ses eceee 226) FINAL—Iast, latest, final, ullimate.....ses.e0. -» 270 
FASTIDIOUS—fastidious, squeamish ......<..- 385 | TO FIND : ; 
FATAL—deadly, mortal, fatal..c.sesssecsseeses 31 |TO FIND ovr | find find out, discover, invent 446 
FATE—chance, fortune, fate... s.ieeveececees 170 | TO FIND ) to find, find out, discover, espy, 
FATE—destiny, fate, lot, doom ...-seeseeececens 169 TO FIND OUT’,  desery. -cecesss > ive: a asrnee 44a 
FATIGUE—fatigue, weariness, lassitude ......- 369 | TO FIND FAULT WITH —to find fault with, 
FAVOUR—hbenefit, favour, kindness, civility.... 166 blame, object to..... Bows alge ste wp suieausisatane ate 112 
FAVOUR—credit, favour, influence...........++ 190 | FINE—beautiful, fine, handsome, pretty......... 313 
FAVOUR— grace, favour... .ccescescccctcceses 190 | FINE—fine, delicate, nice............. SAS anaes 314 
FAVOURABLE—favourable, propitious, auspi- FINE—fine, mulct, penalty, forfeiture........... 204 
DIGLUSION Se pp ecelde seen sels asc cure Caek ee anise 190 | FINESSE—artifice, trick, finesse, stratagem ..... 521 
FAULT—blemish, defect, fault ....-.++.e.0-.-- 327 | FINICAL—finical, spruce, foppish -...........- 386 
FAULT —errour, fault.....-ccccccccesees am dane 125 | TO FINISH—to close, finish, conclude.........- 286 
FAULT—imperfection, defect, fault, vice....... Ait u TO FINISH—to complete, finish, terminate..... 287 
FAULTY—culpable, faulty ...see-cecscoeseces FINITE—finite, limited ..........+-. soon Socdel 178 
TO FAWN —to coax, wheedle, cajole, fawn.... Bt FIRE—fire, heat, warmth, glow.....---+-ss-seee 475 
TO FEAR—to apprehend, fear, dread ....-..... 307 | FIRM—hard, firm, solid.... .......- ae ee een ae 373 
FEARFUL—afraid, fearful, timorous, timid..... 307 | FIRM—firm, fixed, solid, stable ......0.-sseeeeee 226 
FEARFUL—fearful, dreadful, frightful, tremen- FIRM—strong, firm, robust, sturdy.............- 372 
dous, terrible, terrifick, horrible, horrid ...... 306 | FIRMNESS—constancy, stability, steadiness, firm- 
FEARLESS—bold, fearless, intrepid, undaunted 306 NOSH (otale/ale tere elobeieiaaterai «is slam cane ieinsis tiers & cae 226 
FEASIBLE—colourable, specious, ostensible, plau- FIT——fit, apt, meet...... yataierere PASS Sees tic eens 153 
sible, feasible. ........cceccecccccccceecesee O16) FIT—expedient, fit....... ereiavale Geet nielaersaverelbei oe 41a 
FEAS1T—feast, banquet, carousal, entertainment, FIT—-becoming, decent, seemly, fit, suitable ..... 246 
WAL sce scdobeececscseececcnsdvecsevecccees 513) UO FIT—to fit, equip, prepare; qualify. ....c0es. 154 
FEAST—feast, festival, holyday........es.eee-- 85, TO FIT—to fit, suit, adapt, accominodate, ad- 
FEAT-—deed, exploit, achievement, feat........ 295 | JUSt. screens cocececcercecverevscsssenseees 154 
FEEBLE--weak, feeble, infirm...........2..+-. 368, FITTED—competent, fitted, qualified .....--++++ 154 
TO FEEL—to feel, be sensible, conscious........ 376 | TO FIX—to fix, fasten, stick....++eeresererrere 226 
FEELING—feeling, sensation, sense........-- .. 376| TO FIX—to fix, settle, establish ...---++++ ee») 


VEELING—feeling, sensibility, susceptibility... 376 ,TO FIX—to fix, determine settle, limit .--.+.++. 27 


XXX 

Page 
FIXED—firm, fixed, solid, stable ...+-.secceeeees 226 
TO FLAG—to flag, droop, languish, pine.....-.. 368 
FLAGITIOUS ) heinous, flagrant, flagitious, atro- 
FLAGRANT COUR dive sis pede ciele’e's e's saben ae 
FLAME 
FL1RE > flame, blaze, flash, flare, glare........ 476 
FLASH 
FLAT —fiat, level. we ese 435 
FLAT—insipid, dul, fee’ . 513 


TO FLATTER—to adulate, datter, compliment 526 


FLATTERER—fatterer, sycophant, parasite.... 526 
FLAVOUR —taste, flavour, relish, savour........ 512 
FLAW-—blemish, stain, spot, speck, flaw.......- 127 
FLEETING—transient, transitory, fleeting, tem- 
POTATY = 20 cece ccccc cscs ccccsenccsceeresees o- 267 
FLEETNESS—quickness, swiftness, fleetness, c¢- 
lerity, rapidity, velocity....-..esseeeeeeveee + 262 


FLEXIBLE—flexible, pliable, pliant, supple ..... 360 
FLIGHTINESS—lightness, levity, flightiness, vo- 


latility, giddineSs.......esseesee ee ceeoners - 392 
FLIMSY—superficia], shallow, flimsy .........- 457 
TO FLOURISH—to flourish, thrive, prosper .-.. 335 
TO FLOW —to arise, proceed, iseue, epring, flow, 

ENIATIALCI cs ois cles Seis nes Sele sic pep edei ec siehe « 29% 
"=O FLOW—to flow, stream, gush....-..ees-eee 352 
<O FLUCTUATE—to ee pees fi.ctvere, 

waver . ° Sereieee oie tnee eka crave cite NN: 

#LUID—muid, Sonia’: Loni CMe Cee eb oe Meek slp les 302 


‘O FLUTTER—to pxlpitute, gute7, pant, gasp 305 
?OH—enemy, foe, adversary, epponent, antago- 


PAG L ramen cise clients k chp eae sieG.b eierelete ciestates 134 
FONT US—embrve, fascus 2. cscecccereccccececs 510 
ea ley w zal.ess, frailty, failing, 

foible . pcre tLe 
fC FOIL--10 as teil, seabonite frustrate .. 143 
+OLKS—people, persons, folks.....s.essess cece 495 

tO FOLLOW —+to follow, succeed, ensue.. ....- 271 
‘QO FOLLOW —to follow, pursue .-..-.e--eeree 271 
‘O FOLLOW—to follow, imitate...........00. 530 
tOLLOW ER—follower, adherent, partisan -.... 419 
“OLLY—folly, foolery .....sceseeececesescccees 400 
““OND—affectionate, kind, fond.........cseeseee 379 
POND——amorous, loving, fond ...--ses-cesseees 378 
YOND-—indulgent, fond ....-......0. os - 378 
YO FONDLE—to caress, fondle .....e.eeeeeseee 3v7 


FOOD—food, Giet, regimen ....--..-seereeoeeees 
FOOL—fool, idiot, buffoon ......... 
FOOLERY—folly, foolery......-seesseeeseees °° 
FOOLHARDY—foolhardy, adventurous, rash.... 
FOOLISH—irrational, foolish, absurd, preposte- 


FOUS/s/2'a acest saisice taseetslos is vate mcwisices ses 6's 91 
FOOLISH—simple, silly, foolish ...2-..eseecsees 401 
FGOTST EP--mark, trace, vestige, footstep, track 448 
FOPFISH—finical, spruce, foppish -............ - 386 
TO FORBEAR—to abstain, forbear, refrain..... 244 
TO FORBID—to forbid, prohibit, interdict..... - 223 
FORECAST—foresight, Tae eae forecast, pre- 

meditation - ae ASSESS IORI cL 
FORCE—energy, een VILOUL iv cicledewetaeteeee Sie 
FORCE— power, strength, force, authority, domi- 

VUOIG See eaEs atid cocb ens ee wukle e atelevieeeses 2O0 


FORCE—force, violence .........seesceeceee ew elo 
FORCE—straii sprain, stress, force .-. - 221 


TO FORCE --i* compel, force, oblige, necessitate 219 FRAIL—fragile, frail, brittle., 


INDEX. 


FORCIBLE—cogent, forcible, strong...... 
TO FOREBODE—to augur, presage, forbode, be- 


token, portend <...)3.... 2. cee ccee teveleson s. 94 
FORECAST —foresight, Bence premedita- 
tion, foreeast.. o's a sie 018 Sin RESO. 
FOREFATHERS—forefathers, progenitors, an- 
CESLOTSs ss'e's se. sfcee loins pinleles eitis nel diel y vie ee eee - 269 
FOREGO —to give up, abandon, resign, forego... 242 
FOREGOING—antecedent, preceding, foregoing, 
previous, anterior, prior, former..........+.. Q72 
FOREIGN—extraneous, extrinsick, foreign...... 437 
FOREIGNER—stranger, foreigner, alien........ 386 
FORERUNN ER—forerunner, precursor, messen- 
ger, harbinger... huiel's Solace ip ove Miata stelete iterate am 
FORESIGHT —foresight, forethouliie forecast, 
PLEMECHILALION. ewes ov e's sco veeners es eeemeee 399 
FOREST—forest, chase, park. . wsiate. cele ele 
TO FORETEL—to foretel, pedi ght 
prognosticate . Bore 5 94 
FORETHOUGHT foresight, forethought, ‘farts 
cast, premeditation .. igiviers Saat OS 
EFORFEITURE—fine, ohne penile’ forgettnred. 204 
TO FORGE--to invent, feign, frame, fabricate, 
FOYTO seach Faia: dias alarok oebsvoteiaterele islets oie vias alemtaneanetD 528 
FORGETFULNESS—forgetfulness, oblivion.... 72 


TO FORGIVE—to forgive, pardon, absolve, remit 87 


FORLORN—forsaken, forlorn, destitute........- 248 
FORM—form, figure, conformation.............. 293 
FORM—form, ceremony, right, observance ...... 83 
TO FORM—to make, form, produce, create ..... 292 
TO FORM—to form, fashion, mould, shape ..... 293 
TO FORM—to form, compose, constitute ....... 294 
FORMAL—formal, ceremonious............++., Q94 


FORMER—antecedent, preceding, foregoing, pre- 
vious, anterior, prior, former......... pies te 273 
FORMERLY—formerly, in times past or old times, 
in days of yore, anciently, or ancient times.. 269 
FORMIDABLE—formidable, dreadful, terrible, 
shocking 
TO FORSAKE—to abandon, desert, forsake, re- 
linquish .. mith. ‘ fi 
FORSAKEN —forsaken, Saat oa dvstitaenas Are, 
TO FORSWEAR—to forswear, perjure, suborn. $2 
TO FORTIFY —to strengthen, fortify, invigorate 372 
FORTITUDE—courage, fortitude, resolution.... 139 
FORTUITOUS >? fortunate, lucky, fortuitous, 
FORTUNATE prosperous, successful 
FORTUNATE--happy, fortunate 
FORTUNE—chance, fortune, fate «-.....-+... 
FORW ARD—onward, forward, progressive 
TO FORWARD—to encourage, advance, pro- 
mote, prefer, FOrWaATd . 0» sceccsevvsevecece 312 
TO FOSTER —to foster, cherish, harbour, indulge 377 
FOUL—nasty, filthy, foul 515 
TO FOUND—to found, ground, rest, build....... 498 
TO FOUND--to institute, establish, found, erect. 213 
FOUNDATION—foundation, ground, basis .... 498 


Pee ores sree esseeseveeerseeseeessees 


eoeoeoeee eee, e 


eeseesesereoeoe 


erceerereoe sees ese se resees 


FOUNTAIN—spring, fountain, source...... seebode 
FRACTION i 
FRACTURE : rupture, fraction, fracture...... 502 
FRAGILE—fragile, frail, brittle ........cs00- 3.6) 502 


FRAGRANCE—smell, scent, odour, perfume, fra- 
grance. O29 eee esceeoseeeaee 531 
cor eesereeae 502 


eneccoe eecee 


INDEX. 


Xxx1 
Page Page 
¥RAILTY—imperfection, weakness, frailty fail- TO GAIN—to get, gain, obtain, procure. ........ 396 
ing, foible..... phate tte ate Satsls ate asin beee 124| TO GAIN—to acquire, obtain, gain, win, earn... 396 
FRAME-—frame, temper, temperament, constitu- GAIT—carriage, gait, walk....-.s.cceeeeeeesees 192 
THON . coe cece cence rcee see eceeecsconecesesesee 300 | GALE—breeze, gale, blast, gust, storm, tempest, 
TO FRAME—to invent, feign, frame, fabricate, BUyTIGAI Gira) ors aeis sins tie oe kb ome bin lea,<.c sletbies 103 
forge Geaminems neem tce sass e's SG cate Wis a3 oak -» 528}; TO GALL—to rub, chafe, fret, gall.......-+... - 309 
FRANK—frank, a Fee free, open, GALLANT, vide GALLANTRY. 
plait npas seshletn seveeeee 431| GALLANT—gallant, beau, spark............... 381 
FRAUD—deceit, fraud, cou PRN trevor aes 523 | GALLANTRY—bravery, courage, valour, gal- 
FRAY—quarrel, broil, feud, affray or fray......- 133 lantry . Ktalsinca a Sicivaelsibalpiauisie/e lute ote LOO 
FRAUDULENT—fallacious, deceitful, fraudulent 523 GAMBOL—frolick, cera ino PR 2H Mai siniorsiais . 390 
FREAK—freak, whim ........... AAR O SEAS s aoade 384| GAME—play, game, sport........ wlohe diaesinens aie coed 
FREE—communicative, free .......+...+.+++++. 487 | GANG—band, company, crew, gang ...seceeesee 492 
FREE-—-frank, candid, ingenuous, free, open, plain 431 GAP—breach, break, gap, chasm......s.eessee- -- SU] 
FREE—free, exempt ...0scceccceccneccseccseess 22/TO GAPE—to gape, stare, gaze ..00.ceecesssece 479 
FREE—free, liberal.. steeeceeesesereserees 241 | GARRULOUS—talkative, loquacious, garrulous. 460 


FREE—free, familiar . sees seeesseccseceseree 241| TO GASP—to palpitate, flutter, ne GASP---.06 305 
TO FREE—to free, set free, motive deliberate... 24 ; TO GATHER —to gather, collect.. tale wes Sead 
FREEDOM—freedom, liberty.....-csesseecesees 4A2| GAUDY—showy, gaudy, gay-...seccesecscceees 453 
FREIGHT—freight, cargo, lading, load, burden.. 333 | GAY—cheerful, merry, sprightly, gay ....... ess. 309 
TO FREQUENT—to frequent, resort to, haunt-. 494 | GAY—showy, gaudy, Say -ccveccceeveereseccess 453 
FREQUENTLY—commonly, generally, usually, TO GAZE—-to gape, stare, gaze ......seeceusees 479 
PMEMITENILW Ap sicishesc1schahacmuctersiieieiotere Satataistas (ola dare 323 | GEN DER—gender, sex..... 2.00... rca ateieWysics sieve 514 
FREQUENTLY—often, frequently...........+ 268 | GENERAL—general, universal............+-:06 323 
FRESH—fresh, new, novel, recent, modern.-.... 268 | GENERALLY—commonly, generally, frequently, 
TO FRET—to rub, chafe, fret, gall......--..2.. 309 Usually ss lewetelwetesie's suc caeae pinche tale 323 
FRETFUL—captious, cross, peevish, petulant, GENERATION—generation, age............... 276 
PY Cth ia cee amoralawialecsinlenWiiciple i Weim ap eras elev orsis 315 | GENERATION—race, generation, breed........ 497 
FRIENDLY—amicable, friendly.......+.-....2. 378 ; GENEROUS—hbeneficient, bountiful, bounteous, 
FRIENDSHIP—love, frienpship .......-.+0..-- 380 munificent, generous, liberal......... siosrtonmte 165 
FRIGID—cool, cold, frigid........... padeasienrsn - 514| GENIUS—intellect, genius, talent........seeseee 67 
FRIGHT—alarm, terrour, fright, consternation.. 305! GENIUS—taste, genius ...... Spee sip setattatenle or 70 
TO FRIGHTEN—to frighten, intimidate........ 307 | GENTEEL—polite, polished, refined, genteel .... 199 
FRIGHTFUL—fearful, dreadful, frightful, tremen- GENTILE—gentile, heathen, pagan............ > 495 
dous, terrifick, horrible, horrid .............. 306 | GENT LE—gentle, tame.....0-sesccesceeccencce 360 
«yaaa co petty, frivolous, GENTLE—soft, mild, gentle, meek......-...-. » 359 
futile . Biataisie'e/ sit siain he sseeeccccceeee 457 | GENUINE—intrinsick, real, genuine, native..... 437 
FROLICK—frolick, eaictoe prank sais vaskinibyor ciara b, 6 « 390 GESTICULATION action; gesture, gesticulas 
FRONT-—face, front .......... - 478 GESTURE tion, posture, attitude, 
FROW ARD—awkward, cross, seicsked suite POSIHOT aii) < delnteias ca 295 
ed, froward, Perverse.. ceessecssscecescsees 315; TO GET—0 get, gain, obtain, procure .......... 396 
FRUGALITY—economy, frugality, parsimony.. 161 | GHASTLY—hideous, ghastly, grim, grisly....... 478 
FRUITFUL—fertile, fruitful, prolifick .......... 341 | GHOST—vision, apparition, phantom, spectre, 
FRUITION—enjoyment, fruition, gratification... 383 SHO a swe e549 sideialuioa Wal sloteicchindey cindtolann ge ema 479 
FRUITLESS—vain, ineffectual, fruitless........ 290 |GHOSTLY—spirituous, spirited, spiritual, ghostly 66 
FRUSTRATE—to defeat, foil, disappoint, frus- TO GIBE—to scoff, gibe, jeer, sneer-..+.......+ 104 
PTAt Cua oinsniersialeit seas lascieisied satiny city aad iny daft 143 | GIDDINESS—lightness, levity, flightiness, volati- 
TO FULFIL—to execute, fulfil, perform......... 289 lity, Ziddiness.....+sseeseeereeeeeee eee cese 390 
TO FULFIL—to fulfil, accomplish, realize...... 289 | GIF T—¢ift, present, donation, benefaction....... 164 
TO FULFIL—to keep, observe, fulfil........... 239 | GIF T—gift, endowment, talent .......scesscceee 67 
FULLY—largely, copiously, fully............ --. 342|TO GIVE—to give, grant, bestow, allow ........ 162 
FULNESS—fulness, plenitude........0--se00s «. 341 | TO GIVE—to give, afford, spare.......2.....0 163 
FUNCTION—office, place, ee function...... 332 | TO GIVE—to give, present, offer, exhibit ....... 163 
FUNERAL—funeral, obsequies -. weeeeeee 84/TO GIVE UP—to give up, deliver, surrender, 
FURIOUS—violent, furious, ees hmpet- Yield, cede, CONCEdE ...0ssseeeoeceessccceees 242 
GUS PMS ME MILE Hep ple ciate]eieins isle's lord atw'e Sie (alos. cisic 219| TO GIVE UP—togive up, abandon, resign, forego 242 
FURNISH—to provide, procure, furnish, supply.. 399 | GLAD—glad, pleased, joyful, cheerful........... 393 
FURNITURE--goods, furniture,. chattels, move- GLADNESS—joy, gladness, mirth........ Bostic 393 
ADIBS Metta cep terclan we aiaisibloreitinst stile ieieis'sle's seis 339 | TO GLANCE AT—to glance at, allude to...... 327 
FURY—madness, phrensy, rage, fury .-........- * 281 | GLANCE—look, glance........00+ sieainiercien stele 482 
FURY—anger, choler, rage, fury....--+seee+ee2 119} GLANCE—glimpse, glance -..+ ssesseerereeeries Fy 
FUTILE—trifling, trivial, frivolous, futile....... 457} GLARE—flame, blaze, flash, flare, glare.....-..+ 476 
; TO GLARE—to shine, glitter, glare, sparkle, ra- 
GAIN—gain, profit, emolument, lucre...-...+.. 397 Pilate tdi. psa... se eeenpaewenceDrers bitte acirhine 478 


xxxli INDEX. 
Page Pago 
GLARING—zglaring, barefased -..++ erseeses - 476| GRIEVANCE—grievance, hardship............. 409 
GLEAM~—gleam, glimmer, ray, beam -----++++- - 476| TO GRIEVE—to grieve, mourn, lament ........ 408 
TO GLIDE—to slip, slide, glide..-----+++++++-- - 303) GRIEVED—sorry, grieved, hurt ...-+....e...... 412 
GLIMMER-~gleam, glimmer, ray, beam ...---. 476) GRIM—hideous, ghastly, grim, grisly-.-..2+..... 478 
GLIMPSH—glimpse, glance .-.-.+--++++ ceeees . 327| TO GRIPE—to lay or take hold of, catch, as 
TO GLITTER—to shine, glitter, glare, sparkle, snatch, Qrasp, Gripe... .ceeceeeeee aT, 
FAHIALC oaccle sc clcoeb Has coves geese aiateine aconate 476 | TO GRIPE—to press, squeeze, oa, gripe...... 30° 
GLOBE—circle, sphere, orb, globe ..--+-++++++0- 175 | GRISLY—hideous, ghastly, grim, grisly .. -+ 473 
GLOBE—globe, ball..--.--s.ee+ oa sinalbls alee wisielofews 500 | TO GROAN—to groan, Moan .....eeseeeeseeees 410 
GLOOM—gloom, heaviness...--. «+s eeeereeee 410 | GROSS—gross, Coarse.....scgesccecsscceesecens QO 
GLOOMY—dull, gloomy, sad, dismal......-..... 410] GROSS—gross, total . sees a sees 208 
GLOOMY—gloomy, sullen, morose, splenetick... 411] TO GROUND—to eoundy miss, rest, build.. 498 
GLORY—glory, Honour. ..e+.. seesseeeeeeecene 429 | GROUND—foundation, ground, basis .........-- ‘498 
TO GLORY—to glory, boast, vaunt..........+2. 526 | GROUP—assembly, assemblage, group, collection 490 
TO GLOSS—to gloss, varnish, palliate. - 515 | TO GROW—to become, grow..-.. 2050-2 20006 240 
GLOSSARY—dictionary, lexicon, glossy, vo- TO GROW—to increase, grow ......seeceeseeee 347 
cabulary, MOMENC]Aature...-.eseerseere-ceeee 464 | GRUDGE—malice, rancour, spite, grudge, pique.. 381 
GLOW —fire, heat, warmth, glow.....-..s-eesee 475| TO GUARANTEE—to guarantee, be oe be 
TO GLUT—1o satisfy, satiate, glut, cloy ..... .. 383 responsible, Warrant....... see resem felt 
GODLIKE— godlike, divine, heavenly..?........ 90 |} GUARD—fence, guard, Ie i algecleieem nicaee pune 
GODLY—godly, righteous......eeeeeeeees e-s-- 90} TO GUARD—to guard, defend, watch.......... 180 
GOLD—gold, golden......-sseceeecveces sees 514 | GUARD—guard, sentinel........- vais or aibiele Mateetetg 180 
GOOD—good, goodness.......sceeescsesccescere 397 | GUARD—guard, guardian.. scuwssiceerace IOL 
GOOD--good, benefit, advantage. ....0...-.seeee 397| TO GUARD AGAINST—to guard gant take 
GOOD-HUMOUR heed.. ie BSne sisiew'eleisneece ives usweltais MLOL 
GOOD-NATURE , good-nature, gcod-humour.. 388) qy 4 RDIAN—guard, Stabe ee el . 181 
GOODNESS—good, goodness.......22-seeceeces 397 | TO GUESS—to guess, conjecture, divine........ 95 
GOOD OFFICE—benefit, service, good office.... 166 | GUEST—guest, visiter or visitant............-+. 491 
GOODS—commodity, goods, merchandise, ware 339|TO GUIDE—to lead, conduct, guide ........... 191 
GOODS—goods, furniture, chattels, moveables, ef- GUIDE—guide, rule........-..206 ocoeescscrcoes VIG 
Fact csectetstasrenres Cee ce Mak elaine ele Roe slnenet 339 | GUILE—deceit, fraud, guile .. sii sieesanee 
GOODS—goods, possessions, property.........+. 340 | GUILTLESS—guiltless, innocent, haven Saas 123 
TO GOVERN—to govern, rule, regulate ......+. 206 | GUILT Y—criminal, guilty .. osewes ewe catetoe 
GOVERN MENT—government, administration... 207 | GUISH—guise, hahitessssccsccccesecerscsecsens SIS 


GOVERNMENT—government, constitution .... 207 


GRACE—srace, favour. ...ccseecsecccccsscccccs 190 
GRACE—grace, charm ...e-c..eeeceree Beales Cit 314 
GRACEFUL—becoming, comely, graceful ...... 313 
GRACEFUL—graceful, comely, elegant......... 315 
GRACIOUS-—gracious, merciful, kind......... » 357 
. GRAND—zreat, grand, sublime.............000. 455 
GRAND—noble, grand.....ceccevccsccscccscecs 454 
GRANDEUR--grandeur, magnificence..... .... 454 
TO GRANT=— +o admit, allow, grant............ 157 
TO GRANT—to give, grant, bestow, allow...... 162 
TO GRASP—to lay or take hold of, catch, seize, 
SHAICH PTASD PAINE Ven cares + sree ciee ele aeons 6 237 
GRATEFUL—acceptable, grateful, welcome.... 234 
GRATIFICATION—enjoyment, fruition, gratifi- 
CAGLON iscsi ctoters etal clewerane wicele eletwipblaW ele vias. o's 383 
TO GRATIFY—to satisfy, please, gratify....... 383 
GRATITUDE—thankfulness, gratitude......... 441 
GRATUITOUS—gratuitous, voluntary ......... 441 
GRATUITY—zratuity, recompense..........0s 440 
GRAVE—grave, serious, solemn....... eile cine ave 392 
GRAV E—sober, Brave....sccesceessessecescsese 392 
GRAV E—grave, tomb, sepulchre................ 500 
GRAVIT Y—weight, anny wily! Boclelsiaaaion G9 
GREAT--great, large, big .- Swe siaiss/euwcitic ey O4O 
GREAT —great, grand, auntie . eatela wie islet ie AOD 


GREATNESS—size, hioabnde. winnie bulk 348 


GREEDINESS—avidity, greediness, eagerness... 162 
GREETING—salute, salutaticn, greeting ........ 461 
SRIEF—affliction, grief, SOrrow ........eeeeee - 408 


GULF—gulf, abyss ....ccccescaee qioiste efolaesie rete 403 
TO GUSH—to flow, stream, gush .............. 352 
GUST —breeze, gale, blast, gust, ‘storm, tempest, 


TUTTICANIC sss sive occ 0 wiviele siamese’ soersteese 353 
HABIT—custom, habit.....cescceees a Disks apical woe 322 
HABIT—guise, habit ....-ssescccceesceseces-ee SIG 


TO HALE—to draw, drag, haul or nies pull, tug, 
pluck......+-- a'o wees 6:b@nieth ele SEER UED 
TO HALLOW—to rieillonite: coneiieel hallow.. 82 
HANDSOME —beautiful, fine, handsome, pretty 313 

TO HANKER AFTER—to desire, wish, long for, 


hanker after, COVet...-sseeeceseeee acitaateirce 159 
TO HAPPEN—to happen, chance.......-.+.... 171 
HAPPINESS—happiness, felicity, bliss, blessed- 

NESS, Heatitude....s.veesesscceassccercerece 394 
HAPPINESS—well-being, prosperity, happiness, 

WW GLEBE 5 hie aS « Sjelete b otelSiae ee OA elaeiolainie wikeietee alan 396 
HAPPY—happy, fortunate .....s.e.eeeescceess - 394 
HARANGUE—address, speech, harangue, oration 461 
TO HARASS—to distress, harass, perplex....... 407 
TO HARASS—to weary, tire, jade, harass...... 369 
HARBINGER—forerunner, precursor, messenger, 

harbingers. 0. e.se ces min aeawlslo aie oicicleniee ote SID 
HARBOUR—harbour, haven, port.......... oe. 518 


TO HARBOUR—to harbour, shelter, lodge. ... 517 
TO HARBOUR—+Oo foster, cherish, harbour, in- 
EATAIERE fotatoveis siqislelss sisters s'ay0 os caieuse eee jeecee OLE 
HARD—hard, firm, solid...... +60 althaloiaiin VERO TA 
HARD—hard, hardy, insensible, unfeeling. «+... 374 


HARD. —hard, difficult, arduous.......s.sseeees 
HARD hard, callous, hardened, obdu- 
HARDENED rat@rseetd sce Sahes aids Huaeaees 
HARD-HEARTED—hard-hearted, cruel, unmer- 
CH nereMesstetine sles +5 ress cc ale veiarelncian se 
HARDIHOOD ) audacity, effrontery, hardihood 
HARDINESS or hardiness, boldness...... ve 
HARDLY—hardly, scarcely <2. sccccsecscccweee 
HARDSHIP—grievance, hardship......+......0- 
HARDY—hard, hardy, insensible, unfeeling ..... 
HARM—evil or ill, misfortune, harm, mischief... 
HARM—injury, damage, hurt, harm, mischief... 
HARMLESS—guiltless, innocent, harmless..... . 
HARMLESS—unoffending, cn. harmless 
HARMONY—concord, harmony.. adele 
HARMON Y—melody, harmony, scapetndee?: 
HARSH—harsh, rough, severe, rigorous, stern . 
HARSHNESS—-acrimony, harshness, signin: 


Par iriess: set. iiloee a. SP eee aoe eve aes otstatice 
TO HASTEN—to hasten, accelerate, eae expe- 
dite, despatch........ Sree vial Stn sialon ciple iaietocelgele 
TO HASTEN—to hasten, hurry............05. 


HASTIN aki Siang temerity, hastiness, pre- 

CIBILAN CGY Mesa aetre neem Wolo ch davelnericne rete 
HASTY —cursory, elhinary, slight, hasty........ 
HAST Y—angry, passionate, hasty, irascible..... 


TO HATE—to hate, detest: csoiceseieccncecses 
HATEFUL—hateful, odious... +..s.cceceeesees 
HATRED—aversion, antipathy, dislike, hatred, 

YEPUBNANCE .2. eee e cee ee Seca spate emails ses 
HATRED—hatred, enmity, ill-will, rancour..... 
TO HAVE—to have, possess ....:.... Heecgepese 


HAV EN—harbour; haven, port ....-..eseeeeeeee 
HAUGHTINESS—haughtiness, arrogance, dis- 


HAUGHTINESS—pride, haughtiness, loftiness, 
ROLL AU RY oar ota le =a alers)ngs si xiaies viclelateiae:s Alsievele/aa/eisa tie 
HAUGHTY—haughty, high, high-minded....... 
TO HAUL—to draw, drag, haul or hale, pluck, 
PUTAS eee sls koe ews cece s essences seeeee 
TO HAUNT—to frequent, resort to, haunt ...... 
HAZARD—danger, peril, hazard ............... 
HAZARD—chance, hazard ........2..eeeee stavere 
TO HAZAKD—to hazard, risk, venture......... 
‘HE AD—chief, leader, chieftain, head............ 
HEADSTRONG 2 obstinate, contumacious, stub- 
HEADY ; 
TO HEAL—to cure, heal, remedy ...........0.. 
HEALTHY—healthy, wholesome, salubrious, sa- 


OMCELT Yrs (os aia sori oye Spe Soren clon So cae. abugopo 3 


HEALTHY—sound, sane, healthy ...........0.. 
TO HEAP—to heap, pile, accumulate, amass.... 
TO HEAR 

TO HEARKEN 
TO HEARKEN—to attend, hearken, listen...... 
HEARSAY—fame, report, rumour, hearsay..... 
HEARTY—hearty, warm, sincere, cordial ...... 
HEAT—fire, heat, warmth, glow ...:.-.....s0++ 
HEATHEN —gentile, heathen, pagan ..:....... ° 
TO HEAVEto lift, heave, hoist...«......e..0s 
TO HEAVE—to heave, swell......... meme aaiiel 
HEAVENLY—celestial, heavenly .............. 
HEAVENLY—godlike, divine, heavenly ........ 
NEA VINESS—gloom, heaviness ..........see0- 


to hear, hearken, overhear ...- 


born, headstrong, heady.... 2 


Page 


364 
373 
373 


140 
364 
409 
374 
405 
404 
123 
121 
155 
» 155 
. 382 


354 
354 
81 
90 


INDEX. xxxlii 


Page 

HEAVINESS—weight, heaviness, gravity.......° 369 

HEAVY—heavy, dull, drowsy ........-....... 300 
HEAV Y—heavy, Pexdensoine, weighty, ponder- 

OUS- seee vine cceec sees escccscevesecesecscsess OM 


TO HEED—to attend to, mind, pegand, heed, no- 


LICE! 1. THRO sates Maleate ohare wees iteaisrs ois clak «« 422 
HEED—heed, care, attention. . ma -+ 426 
HEEDLESS—negligent, remiss, essen ‘teuhte 

less, heedless, inattentive ........e-reeseseue 424 


TO HEIGHTEN —to heighten, raise, aggravate... 323 

HEINOUS—-heinous, flagrant, flagitious, atro- 
cious ..-... Fis lei elelsl « SoNaRe stole cba che\etele elm peeeieeanes -. 249 

TO HELP—to help, assist, aid, succour, relieve.. 364 


.HERESY—heterodoxy, heresy.. Rn ecrG  ih} 


HERETICK—teretick, schinmuatioles sectarian or 
sectary, dissenter, nonconformist ...... wie netenere 

TO HESITATE—to demur, hesitate, pause..... 96 

TO HESITATE-—to. hesitate, falter, stammer, 


SHIPLETS sniae yeas she eaten eile aintoe pAedne ain ets - 97 
TO HESITATE—to scruple, hesitate, fluctuate, 

waver - jae) ie alelaia!s Coss clan chet mmmeN 
HESITATION—demur, doube healtatton, objec- 

TON oe mars Sanoeee opsiatetasaratslahaia ce apteistuiale Ad ited 
HETERODOXY—heterodoxy, heresy......... ace Us| 
HIDDEN—secret, hidden, latent, mysterious, oc- > 

Chil slsisrs eer tee deicamiaictate ot esteyart fe hee See eee, 
TO HIDE—to conceal, hide, set ete ....-.....05 519 
TO HIDE—to cover, hide..:.. ....... ate crate +. O17 
HIDE—skin, hide, peel, rind..... Brefenustfeesla als! Serelet OLS 
HIDEOUS—hideous, ghastly, grim, grisly........ 478 
HIGH—high, tall, lofty .........++4. ery avereusterae ees 300 
HIGH 


HICH-MINDED 3 haughty, high, high-minded... 101 


HIGH-SOUNDING—loud, noisy, high-sounding, 


CLAM OLOUS Mesa vio esodoceaclemenbiostd cncertiotate oe 47], 
HILARITY—mirth, ewiuent joviality, jollity, 
hilarity. .....-.-.-.. Sine ode eiekenecee AP si aie a 391 
HiIND—countryman, peasant, swain, hind, clown, 
PUStHIOKGS caw (srs, 6 aloiel vrata wrote ehataiegiotats ibs eta ovat sins 336 
TO HINDER—to hinder, prevent, obstruct, im- 
PCdel ccc. vac Seer Sonor coe 258 
TO HINDER-—to hinder, stop..... ... Riaihcbeiciayrs 258 
TO HINDER—to retard, hinder........... Sela OD) 


TO HINT—to allude, refer, hint, suggest........ 326 
TO. HINT—to hint, suggest, intimate, insinuate.. 326 
HIRE—allowance, stipend, salary, wages, hire, 

TAD Vissierseeee ».sie aise asin vieteecel sitiesr eters isi eas Rio's accrue O 
HIRELING—venal, mercenary, hireling ........ 339 
TO HIT—to beat, hit, strike .........0ssc0005-5 142 


TO HOARD—to treasure, hoard .............. - 341 
TO HOIST—to lift, heave, hoist....... seeceeene Jot 
TO HOLD—to contain, hold $......+--seseees > 174 
TO HOLD—to hold, keep, detain, retain........ 236 
TO HOLD—to hold, uccupy, possess.......-+-+. 236 


TO HOLD—to hold, support, maintain ......... 237 
HOLINESS—holiness, sanctity....ce.sseeeveees 88 
HOLLOW=—hollow, empty..-..--escererecesere 44 


HOLY—holy, pious, devout, oniaae Sineistelsias sae ee 
HOLY--holy, sacred, divine . Hc Ne rracrareat a 
HOLYDA Y—feast, festival, howdayec Nes Geib kare stake 85 
HONEST —fair, honest, equitable, reasonable.... 428 
HONEST —sincere, honest, true, plain.---+-+-- +» 430 
HONESTY—honesty, uprightness, probity, in- 

. tegrity S ARN Una Ge oppo C Ra =p lesb coswenie, 430 


XXX1V 

Page 
HONESTY 
HONOUR } hoes HONOuUr ...-sceevee e 0 vege ateuiaca i 
HONOUR —glory, honour ....2..eceeescce ceeeee 429 
HONOUR—honour, dignity....-...-+++ a caee sees 
TO HONOUR—to honour, reverence, respect.... 427 


HOPE—hope, expectation, trust, confidence...... 414 
HOPELESS—desperate, hopeless ....-..es+e+.++ 413 
HORRIBLE fearful, oe Gienr: bias ae 
HORRID epee ous, terrifick, horrible, 
TOLTIG Jae winigiesl sos viele wa ay slvlayeeisiegs 
HOST—army, host 14] 
HOSTILE—adverse, inimical, hostise, repugnant 135 


Se Oe 


HOSTILITY—enmity, animosity, hostility ...... 135 
HOT—hot, fiery, burning, ardent..........-.00 - 475 
HOUSE—family, house, lineage, race ...-.-.--.- 495 
HOW EVER—however, yet, nevertheless, notwith- 
standing sss sees eee Rit anelem bie ie lose-n aft wleletaiatale Q51 
HUE—colour, hue, tint ....-...-eeeceecccccseee 516 
TO HUG—to clasp, hug, embrace....-..+-e.ee- € 377 
HUGE—enormous, huge, immense, vast.... - 349 


eaves human, HUMANE. Ses. secbcesvsssiee - 377 
HUMANIT Y—benevolence, benignity, humanity, 
kindness, tenderness...-...- eee seeccseces «- 165 
TO HUMBLE—to abase, humble, degrade, dis- 
PIACE, MEDASE.2- ve secceceercsovcceocceacens - 106 
HUMBLE—humble, lowly, low..«-..-++-seeeees 147 
HUMBLE—humble, modest, submissive........ 147 


TO HUMBLE ? 
TO HUMILIATE $ 
HUMIDIT Y—moisture, humidity, dampness..... 
HUMOUR —liquid, liquor, juice, humour 
HUMOUR—humour, temper, mood .........00 
HUMOUR—humour, caprice.........ceecese cece 
HUMOUR—wit, humour, satire, irony, burlesque 69 


to humble, humiliate, degrade 146 


weececoe 


TO HUMOUR —to qualify, temper, humour..... 388 
PLU titi nnt. CHASE Wisleis.ossiewis lel elevalae) aonlvre ces 271 
TO HURL—to cast, throw, hurl............ coos 304 
AURRICANE—breeze, gale, blast, gust, tempest, 
LOLI, MULTICANE he se ralesajcineis wleiwe'a leslie gate vice 353 
TO HURRY—to hasten, Hurry ....--seeceeecees 261 
HURT —injury, damage, hurt, harm, mischief.... 404 
HURT —sorry, grieved, hurt .....2..-eceescesees A412 
HURT —disadvantage, injury, hurt, prejudice, de- 
AYTINICNE se laieaisls Weiss we. Ciniele 6 Siplaeybialemis nieleialele 404 
HURTFUL—hurtful, pernicious, noxious, noi- 
SOMTG a loreleiwieln cles bie > cae eile Sw tetwimieimiisreiaicicie 406 
HUSBANDMAN—farmer, husbandman, agricul- 
LOKISL sees x cts lioip sSamcrer ere webct cteelecd Gels sewn a 
HUSBAN DRY—cultivation, tillage, eae 
HYPOCRITE—hypocrite, dissembler.. : Ps 
IDEA—idea, thought, imagination ......0+.+eces 73 
IDEA—perception, idea, conception, notion. 75 
IDEAL—ideal, imaginary ........-..020ecce- eee 73 
IDIOM—language, tongue, speech, idiom, dialect 463 
IDIOT—fool, idiot, buffoon .......escecreeeeeee 2 400 
IDLE—idle, lazy, indolent. ......eescscecsccecce 299 
IDLE—idle, leisure, vacant....--..e+sseseeesoes 299 
IDLE—idle, Vain. ...e.cceseocscvccecccsevcces «- 299 


IGNOMIN Y—infamy, ignominy, opprobrium.. 
IGNORANT—ignorant, illiterate, unlearned, un- 

lettered ....-. Se duelneccace saiee ovata Siesta 
ILL. vide EVIL. 


| 


a's08! 


ee? 197 © 


INDEX. 


Page 
ILL—badly, ill... 127 
ILLITERATE—ignorant, illiterate, unlearned, 
unlettered ...... wes cessveee) 197 
ILLNESS—sickness, illness, indisposition .. - 367 
TO ILLUMINATE } to illuminate, illumine, en- 
TO ILLUMINE : lighten ......- «+ 197 
ILLUSION—fallacy, delusion, illusion .......-.+ 523 
TO ILLUSTRATE —to explain, illustrate, eluci- 
CALC ess om slice tent clea ee acniathtete aie, oie cose 458 
ILLUSTRIOUS—4istinguished, noted, conspicu- 
ous, eminent, illustrious .... - 473 
ILLUSTRIOUS—famous, celebrated, renowned, 


Pe ee eo eeeseeseeseoersecesssence 


ee ree ereneeeeese 


TIUStTOUS » 6 6 nisl nsi0'o;s 0.9 0'p. ola sreletanieateam siete te ta -- 473 
ILL-W1ILL—hatred, enmity, ill-will, rancour.... 137 
IMAGE—likeness, picture, image, effigy......... 532 
IMAGINARY—ideal, imaginary.......--+.-.+.- 73 
IMAGINATION—fancy, imagination.....-..-. Pee Tie 
IMAGINATION—idea, thought, imagination.... 73 
TO IMAGINE—to conceive, apprehend, suppose, 

WASHER FAN, eisiata’ eve ea semecetale ren - 74 
TO IMAGINE—to think, suppose, imagine, be- 

lieve, deem < .csisaclhsese, ais Qyisrtcncieie le cerate Soltis da 


IMBECILIT Y—debility, infirmity, imbecility.... 367 
TO IMITATE—to follow, imitate....-......--- 530 
TO IMITATE—to imitate, copy, counterfeit .... 529 
TO IMITATE—to imitate, mimick, mock, ape.- 529 
IMMATERIAL—unimportant, insignificant, im- 


material, inconsiderable ......eessensesceaee 457 
IMMATERIAL—incorporeal, unbodied, immate. 

Tial, Spiritual), .\s <sis.snins one/s «04 esse aleeinin - 66 
IMMEDIATELY —directly, immediately, instan- 

taneously, instantly....- <ipySinie! etre ati Uadalg meena 262 
IMMENSE—enormous, huge, immense, vast.... 349 


IMMINENT—imminent, impending, threatening. 405 
IMMODERATE—excessive, immoderate, intem- 
perate 343 
IMMODEST—indecent, immodest, indelicate.... 247 
IMMODEST—immodest, impudent, shameless... 247 
IMMUNITY—privilege, prerogative, exemption, 


eee eres ee seesvereeeesen sess eoresesneee 


IMMUNItY...<0.5\v.05 5 pees oes 420 ce eels eee ene 228 
TO IMPAIR—‘to impair, injure..........0...0 » 405 
TO IMPART—to communicate, impart......-.. 486 
mR eT MS Hine inac- 
cessible . era s6ljalal's mel oy ao at ae piece mea ney 
TO IMPEACH —to accuse, iced. impeach, ar- 
TAIZ - onc ce scscnssedcccscew covosesetogctes - il 
| TO IMPEDE—to hinder, prevent, impede, ob- 
SLUICE als nie’ eico.e. o:0's. bie nis sijnls Siblwie in As elorade aeimetate ete 958 


259 
308 


IMPEDIMENT —difficulty, impediment, obstacle. 
TO IMPEL—to actuate, impel, induce.......... 
TO IMPEL—to encourage, animafe, incite, impel, 
urge, stimulate, instigate 311 
IMPENDING—imminent, impending, threatening 405 
IMPERATIVE—commanding, imperative, impe- 


FiOUS, AUtNHOTItALIVE....-ceeececeeeesesevcces 189 
IMPERFECTION—imperfection, defect, fault, 
NTL EL deat bie Chena ieVepbinye stata ereiacaie s'sicii0 (a - 124 


IMPERFECTION—imperfection, weakness, fail- 
ing, frailty, foible....... soe 124 
IMPERIOUS—commanding, imperative, imperi- 


BPeeereseseseseses 


OUS; AUTHOFItAtTIVE: 2% see o/s Siecle ce mae eee - 185 
IMPERiOUS—imperious, lotdly, overbearing, do- 
TUCO PLT esa ag Gets jo o's) 0/0 als\ a/c mate ae ES ire ys ie be.) 


IMPERTINENT, vide PERTINENT. 


INDEX. 


Page 
IMPERTINENT—impertinent, rude, saucy, im- 
pudent, insolent..0e.esccesscecceccseeecces « 200 
IMPERVIOUS—impervious, impassable, inacces- 
Sible...6.ss6%: RiieE tar eis'b lala a/v. ain eal ateiaterateutelal «)gi 235 
IMPETUOUS—violent, furious, boisterous, vehe- 
MENE, UMPETUOUS ...- eee scccessrcemscoeces - 219 
IMPIOUS—irreligious, profane, impious .......- 92 
IMPLACABLE—implacable, unrelenting, relent- 
less, inexorable ........ adecsntesbcesseuees » 381 
TO IMPLANT—to implant, ingraft, inculcate, 
PSAP MANTIS’ vals clare blaleeredietise'ecetilen shone 449 
TO IMPLICATE—to implicate, involve........- 218 
TO IMPLORE—to beg, beseech, solicit, entreat, 
supplicate, implore, crave...........seee0s - 158 
TO IMPLY-—to denote, signify, imply .......... 456 
IMPORT——signification, aren pine im- 
DOE Re erskelmatsie wt 9:2 Woluistosweletelets clele elo -se- 456 
IMPORTAN CE—signification, avail dabinenes) 
consequence, weight, MoMeENt...-....s.eeee 456 
IMPORTUNATE—pressing, importunate, ur- 
PON centre cise amine eels hie p tiosctebival ota cue tee diel 158 
{MPORTUNIT Y—solicitation, importunity...... 158 
TO IMPOSE UPON—to deceive, delude, impose 
upon. sisi Sele e civ wisisiestolnieh ee 
IMPOST—tax, dy: beats ditinost toll, tribute, 
COMETIDUCIOMI eee o! sie st ovake by auatersiss ohare Celeiete adie 168 
IMPOSTOR—deceiver, impostor.........000-025 522 


IMPRECATION—malediction, curse, execration, 
imprecation, anathema 
TO IMPRESS—to imprint, impress, engrave... 450 
IMPRESSION—mark, print, impression, stamp-- 446 
TO IMPRINT—to imprint, impress, engrave.-»+ 450 
IMPRISONMEN Sah Ri i imprisonment, 
CUPELVILY © co's onvs.s ticle vinteicinlesjelnlearsevinied clisla's« 178 
LO IMPROPRIATE—to aaeninde impropriate 231 
TO IMPROVE—to amend, correct, reform, rec- 


ee a 


tify, emend, improve, mend, better---...--... 201 
IMPROVEMENT —progress, Saal ps ott eae 
ciency - see vee erseseceres eseeees 204 
IMPUDEN Cae ae aranea seuncaiene: Pak ge ag: i 85) 
- IMPUDENT—immodest, impudent, saeian) +. 247 
IMPUDENT—impertinent, rude, saucy, impudent, 
insolent. ..----++++<+ saeiciarsialaieiei pee'asiecae chal tak 200 
TO IMPUGN—to impugn, attack.......seseeeee 116 
TO IMPUTE—to ascribe, attribute, impute...... 232 
INABILITY—inability, disability. ......eesseee6 69 
Sl epee epee Ga inac- © 
cessible -. . mA lain sien eOO 
INACTIVE—inactive, ee jee slothful, as 
PISD = 20+ soc veeccinasisnscnseeisicnsonsese secs 298 
INADEQUATE —incapable, insufficient, incom- 
petent, inadequate .......cscocsceccenccecs - 69 
INADVERTENCY—inadvertency, oversight, in- 
PORERIULINTI e cicie diets a cate tile ales. emis, cicle ete ne eee 423 
[INANIMATE—lifeless, dead, inanimate ........ 356 
INANITY—vacancy, vacuity, inanity ....-..... 344 
INATTENTION—inadvertency, i aphats inat- 
tention . Hee PS he teenies - 423 


IN ATTENTIVE—nesligent, remiss, thoughtless, 


careless, heedless, inattentive.. eae 
INBORN 2, 
INBRED } inherent, inbred, inborn, innate...... 73 


{NCAPABLE—incapable, gala incompe- 


tent, inadequate.....+... 69 


ne. 


XXXV 


Page 
INCESSANTLY—incessantly, unceasingly, unin- 


terruptedly, withont intermission............ 257 
INCIDENT—circumstance, incident, fact....... 172 
INCIDENT—event, incident, accident, adventure, 

occurrence..... 
INCIDENTAL—accidental, incidental, casual, 


172 


CONLINGENT Siveaioe we eve ctseke ces viceee ds heee cee ellhie 
TO INCITE—to encourage, animate, incite, im- 
pel, urge, stimulate, instigate.......+.-+.-++. 311 
TO INCITE—to excite, incite, provoke...-.-... 309 
INCLINATION—attachment, affection, inclina- 
GION 5 one ses Sere satce cals cet etna a i en emanates 378 
INCLINATION—bent, bias, inclination, prepos- 
SESSION Ci seye ce ceiate wah cr seit scope ele) talus oe eae ty ete ete 159 
INCLINATION—disposition, inclination....... 388 
INCLINATION — inclination, tendency, propen- 
SIty, PFONENESS..6 oc ecbesssecccscsesacencces 100 
TO INCLINE—to lean, incline, bend........... 159 
TO INCLUDE—to enclose, include............. 174 
TO INCLUDE—to comprise, comprehend, em- 
brace, contain, include...........s...... 0005 174 
INCOHERENT 2 inconsistent, incongruous, in- 
INCONGRUOUS ' Coherent ste Gea e ek 153 
INCOMPETEN AAS insufficient, incom- 
petent, inadequate . - 69 
INCON SIDERABLE—unimportant. feinagibeiet 
insignificant, inconsiderable...  ........... 457 
INCONSISTENT— inconsistent, pechurdoun in- 
CODETENG <loe siciee glovaioiadartee omit ce eee Eee 153 
INCONTROVERTIBLE—indubitable, unques- 
tionable, indisputable, undeniable, incontro- 
vertible, irrefragables ce nae elsels a tec bales - 114 
TO INCONVENIENCE—to een ioee nines att 
NOY, MOlesl - ssc ses ccc hase ssss ses + 47 
INCORFOREAL—ineorpores, sinbodied’ imma- 
terial¥*spititualseiacsic tae - 66 
IN COURSE—naturally, i in colitee? auneanueny 
OL COUTEE/< sein's.e de nls slew iedtucusielsisctets Sete ors oe oe Q72 
TO INCREASE—to enlarge, increase, extend... 348 
TO INCREASE—to increase, grow ............ 347 
| INCREASE—increase, addition, accession, aug- 
WIENLALLON Ys co ove ccistucoratavarelcaetateuiteieae deen 347 
INCREDULITY—unbelief, infidelity, incredu- 
lity .. sis Seine Be Gethie c'8's wiwretes bs 7a 
TO INCULCATE—to iiaptalty, ingraft, inealbste 
Insti Pinflise:< <.\ssteroritele cistleale w ettetreo slate on 449 
INCURSION— invasion, incursion, irruption, in- 
TOA ared bares Swe steteieie er sioe eieleeigieermata ete aie 508 
INDECENT . : spn a 
INDELICATE indecent, immodest, indelicate. 247 
TO INDICATE—to show, point out, mark, indi- 
CALE: ediieieihe Mew ae eile s Sie disidt digaarwetisiers ealetele 451 
INDICATION—mark, sign, note, sym ptom, token, 
indication ....... sistslwtets Sateretiedie sles cktrea site 447 
INDIFFERENCE—indifference, apathy, insensi- 
Wilityice esse ia bdilsecle civ elev eeres sacs 375 
INDIFFERENT—indifferent, unconcerned, re- 
FATHERS amis 5, Saile<livom soucre Westie eerie stoa' Siew 375 
INDIGENCE—poverty, indigence, want, need, 
PCNUPYVIae Pees ws slwloeneces sn pptaty nistela aver e erate 346 


INDIGENOUS—natal, native, indigencus....... 496 
INDIGNATION—anger, resentment, wrath, tre, 
indignation .....seeeeee cocee 118 


INDIGNITY sndiguler: insult. velvel seceusetecMetel 


xxxvi 
t Page 
INDISCRIMINA TE—indiscriminate, promiscu- 

GOB shar asst SRT eis binks Arias Sik piscine biciens oo 284 
INDISPOSITION—sickness, illness, indisposition 367 
INDISPUTABLE—indubitable, unquestionable, 

indisputable, undeniable, arya oe a ir- 

refragable.. ereisiee Diels niehs 
INDISTINCT— indistinct, pai eased: EP SAIN 4 ta 
INDIVIDUAL—particular, individual. .......+.. 
INDOLENT—idle, lazy, indolent 
INDOLENT—indolent, supine, listless, careless... 
INDUBITABLE—indubitable, unquestionable, in- 
disputable, undeniable, incontrovertible, irre- 
fragable .... 


114 
283 
252 
299 
300 


eeooee 


114 


Cee e ree eereesecesecore eeaceeseoe 


TO INDUCE—to actuate, impel, induce........ 308 
TO INDUE—to invest, indue or endue......... 167 
TO INDULGE —to foster, cherish, indulge, har- 
bour.. sbuismin Wktsin see alinlh ghislenem cit leaiasielre tt 
INDULGENT —indulgent, FONE cere se twee ste 
rNDUSTRIOUS—atctive, diligent, industrious, as- 
siduous, laborious. ......... 0.0660. nisl dateiate «> 296 


INEFFABLE—unspeakable, ineffable, unutter- 
able, inexpressible.......... weee 460 
INEFFECTUAL—vain, ineffectual, fruitless.... 290 
INEQUALITY—4disparity, inequality. 435 
INERT —inactive, inert, lazy, slothful, sluggish... 298 
INEXORABLE—implacable, unrelenting, relent- 
less, inexorable..... pineleaWnlearlats siseiies 34 381 
INEXPRESSIBLE—unspeakable, ineffable, unut- 


ee eccseseeee 


seeceeseeece 


terable, inexpressible.......escecsercecseces 460 
INFAMOUS—infamous, scandalous............ 108 
INFAMY—infamy, ignominy, opprobrium....... 108 


INFANTINE—childish, infantine .............. 401 

[NFATUATION—drunkenness, infatuation, in- 
toxication........ Distuis tivetarsts = misietbijsteisis Oia e eee 310 

INFECTION—contagion, infection ............. 12% 


INFERENCE—conclusion, deduction, inference. . 
INFERIOUR—second, secondary, inferiour..... 
INFERIOUR—subject, subordinate, subservient, 
inferiour....... piste sleipie ieteeistets sialic afctetaltietais alate 
IN FIDELITY —unbelief, infidelity, incredulity. . 
INFINITE—boundless, unbounded, unlimited, 
RTMEMDILE) ois soars gla olele HW ojuib oie) s'a ° 
. INFIRM—weak, feeble, infirm.......... 
INFIRMITY—debility, infirmity, imbecility..... 
INFLUENCE—credit, favour, influence......... 
INFLUENCE—influence, authority, ascendency, 
BWAY scislawncie viaesisiee cieine eee ss viel sis sreis Siaisiete gi 186 
TO INFCRM—to inform, make known, acquaint, 
APPLE raioreisiomplctniats ssevesceoccee 194 
TO INFORM—to inform, instruct, teach..... oo» 194 
INFORMANT—informant, informer...........- 195 


eoeorsece 


cee esos asece 


INFORMATION—information, intelligence, no- 
HCE AUVICE civ e vss sisi Ujnisiepie io sipeie's w'stoe'el donecaece VO 
JNFORMER—informant, informer...... ..-..0. 195 


INFRACTION—infringement, infraction........ 508 
TO INFRINGE—to encroach, intrench, intrude, 

WAV AOOs ANILIN LG cies sok is God. vialcle Veen wee ean SOOT 
TO INFRINGE--to infringe, violate, transgress.. 508 
INFRINGEMENT—infringement, infraction .... 508 
TO INFUSE—to implant, ingraft, inculcate, in- 

Stil, AHIISE ons See oss ne wecesccvees 5 449 
INGENIOUS—ingenuous, ingenious ............ 432 
INGENUITY—ingenuity, wit..... 70 
*NGENUOUS—ingenuous, ingenious............ 432 


eeoseee 


eer eee esse ore 


INDEX. 


Page 
INGENUOUS—frank, candid, ingenuous, free, 
open, plain.. se sencceertcsscnscsene 401 
TO INGRAFT—to implant, ingraft, inculcate, in- 
Stil, INfUSE oe eeesccrecccecccccescersecccene 44Y 
TO INGRATIATE—to insinuate, ingratiate .... 327 
TO INGULF—to absorb, swallow up, ingulf, en- 


ee esesves 


eee 


TOG Nasa cu miles SaeeMIRiy © inh ws see aks oo e situs 
TO INHABIT—10 abide, sojourn, dwell, reside, 
TMHADIE) cin a's = =o asses es eicies ete aeleisioin'o ini 010 oem 
INHERENT—inherent, inbred, inpdom, innate... 732 
INHUMAN —cruel, inhuman, barbarous, bruta., 
GAVAGE spi \'chodns e/ong sin npieiep aan iear sonia he el atte 
INIMICAL—adverse, inimical, hostile, repug- 
MANE. lo cin's. pv wlaie view ola 5 une eo gield wat siete ieslarsie aad 
INIQUILTOUS—wicked, unjust, iniquitous, nefa- 
TIQUS: sonic. cs'v wrsiddls wine. 4,e cle eealoisive eietnalemestel mame ce 
INJUNCTION—command, order, injunction, pre- 
CPt, MADMAC. aiasig viele’ glaem piclesies sine bp aneeeet Dod 
INJURY—disadvantage, injury, hurt, detriment, 
PLEPUGICE | ea siniaisle 's eain ie hin,e the ote wialele miegie as new anEe 
TO INJURE—to impair, injure........-.2.005-2 405 
INJURY—injury, damage, hurt, harm, mischief.. 404 
VEX injustice, injury, Wrong.......+..+ 212 
INJUSTICE : : 
INNATE—inherent, inbred, inborn, innate...... 73 
INNOCENT—guiltless, innocent, harmless ....-. 123 


INOFFENSIVE—unoffending, inoffensive, harm- 
Jéss.s.. ce creccnevecece ISD 
INORDINATE— irregular, disorderly, inordinate, 
intemperate.......+.. 
TO INQUIRE—to ask, inquire, question, interro- 
gate v.55 Saja See aie 
INQUIRY—examination, search, inquiry, investi- 
gation, research, scrutiny ..... vie nfs Repel 
INQUISITIVE—curious, inquisitive, prying .... 
INROAD—invasion, incursion, irruption, inroad 
INSANITY—derangement, insanity, lunacy, mad- 
NESS, MAMA? 421000 oss yn vine wae Cee eee 


eee eecesco reece seeoerseees 


284 


see ececesceoones e@eeereses 


| INSENSIEILIT Y—indifference, apathy, insensi- 


Dilly scores ie eeenee ies $b eile laa aie eie'ete, biele eiictyetn 
INSENSIBLE—hard, hardy, unfeeling, insensible 37. — 
INSIDE--inside, interiour........ vis slee.e slaistpisiie sen 
INSIDIOUS—insidious, treacherous..... 524 
INSIGHT—insight, inspection .. ti alee Old 
INSIGNIFICANT—-unimportant, insignificant, 

immaterial, inconsiderable...... awa 
TO INSINUATE—to hint, suggest, ee in- 

SINMATE. ein Cac celeee eat sie's'y) 8 sao 
TO INSINUATE—to insinuate, ingratiate Siaaeeen 
INSINUATION--insinuation, reflection........ 
INSIPID--insipid, dull, flat...... 
TO INSIST—to insist, persist........ 
TO INSNARE—to insnare, entrap, entangle, in- 

veigle.. cone Od 
INSOLENT—impertinent, rude, saucy, impudent, 

INSOLCM ese cle plsie Usibiy's sou ds dawee se ce nde 
INSOLVENCY—insolvency, failure, banka 125 
INSPECTION—insight, inspection..... ees 219 
INSPECTION— inspection, oversight, superin- 


ee erro ne 


Soro eres eres sore rseseoeseceseees 


tENAENCY ..0 sree sceescccscceccescssscsece DIG 
TO INSPIRE—to animate, inspire, enliven, cheer, 
EXN]ArAte ..0 esse sec eseeveccccccecencevcscs BSS 


INSTANCE—example, instance.........sse0ces 534 
INSTANT—instant, moment. Seen reeves rserng seen 967 


INDEX. 


Page 


INSTANTANEOUSLY J"... wie ins 
INSTANTLY. ame at 
stanthy rae. sce ess 262 


TO INSTIGATE—to encourage, animate, incite, 


lirectly, immediately, 


impel, urge, stimulate, instigate ...... sieves « OLE 
TO INSTIL—to implant, ingraft, inculcate, instil, 

infuse ....... eisiaie istgians fem nurctatre s state ateiaionie . 449 
TO INSTITUTE—to institute, establish, found, 

CLECHr eeshpcewen eeeseies rae Res 23 
ro INSTRUCT—to inform, instruct, teach ..... 194 


INSTRUCTION—advice, counsel, instruction.>. 194 


INSTRUCTION—education, instruction, breed- 


ING senses cves site wae © nisin, o 5'Sereieto'e atsls Weleistelsiere'e 197 
INSTRUMENT—instrument, tool.............. 399 
INSUFFICIENT—incapable, insufficient, incom- 

petent, inadequate ....... adoMemelrenee teen's - 69 
INSULT—affront, insult, outrage............... 121 
INSULT — indignity, insult .........ceeeceeeeees 121 


invincible, unconquer- 


eee able, insu ble, in- 
INSURMOUNTABLE Pe ee icin’ 
surmountable......- 145 
{NSURRECTION— insurrection, sedition, rebel- 
Tion, TEVOIt... 2. ce cee gece eee eses ceed eases 208 


[INTEGRAL--whole, entire, complete, integral, 
BOUT ates) cicinra aleve dis bin oq ein eipiclee sidipisitiniee sievo,s\aicie 288 


IN TEGRITY—honesty, uprightness, ost in- 
TEBTILY onsets veceesecveccesevesvecscescceee 427 
INTELLECT—intellect, genius, talent.......... 67 
[INTELLECT—understanding,: intellect, intelli- 
GENCE oes eeeccecscceseersceresecseeseresess 66 
INTELLECTUAL—mental, intellectual... 72 


(NTELLIGENCE—information, notice, adviee, 
IntelliGenCe «6. eeerc oc cnvedeccsecceseseecs 
‘NTELLIGENCE—understanding, intelligence, 
intellect ... 
INTEMPERATE—excessive, immoderate, intem- 
PETAtE. «ee esreee esececeeee eke eee see cesses 
(he eee aaa mm, disorderly, inordi- 
nate, intemperate ... 
TO INTEND—to tay purpose, intend, mean.. 
INTENSE 


intent; intense. i... 48. ..cseue canes 


INTENT 
TO INTERCEDE—to intercede, interpose, medi- 
ate, interfere, intermeddle ....-.......+..0-- 216 
INTERCHANGE — interchange, Lieteaiaiis reci- 
procity......-.+e. Be eta tieitere a aretasts's Pane tc 334 
INTERCOURSE— intercourse, communication, 
connexion, commerce.....- BOS SAISON. PIE 333 
TO INTERDICT—to forbid, Soa interdict, 
PFOSCYIDE «+ eee eee cece oreo wee the cccieceess 223 
INTEREST — interest, concern .-+.+.0+seeeeeeee 332 
TO INTERFERE—to intercede, interpose, medi- 
ate, interfere, intermeddle .....+.+..seeeeeee 216 
INTERIOUR—inside, interiour...-. Sovvawevese 351 
INTERLOPER-—intruder, interloper.....-----+- 509 


TO INTERMEDDLE—+o intercede, siibrnodas 
mediate, interfere, intermeddle.......- eck 216 
INTERMEDIATE— intermediate, intervening... 216 
INTERMENT—burial, interment, sepulture....- 84 

INTERMISSION—cessation, » Stop, rest, intermis- 
oo 257 
» 271 


TO INTERMIT—to slibeide, abate, intermit - 
SO INTERPOSE—to intercede, interpose, mbdi- 
ate, interfere, intermeddle........+.+.++.+++- 216 


XEXVU 


Page 

INTERPOSITION—intervention, interposition.. 216 
TO INTERPRET—to explain, expound, inter- 

pret... i2¥. 


TO INTERROGATE—to ask, ‘ste en 


EPMA ON eaiealalp alse watha'o's'e w'echaetce's ne AOR 


INLELTOGAL!S - -veewere seer ceseace wateslars Oe 
TO INTERRUPT—*+o disturb, thterebe oe 4al7 
INTERVAL—interval, respite. .... Seigied cecil tvse 7 
INTERVENING—intermediate, intervening..... 216 


INTERVENTION-—intervention, interposition .. 216 
INTERVIEW —meeting, interview ..-.-........ 494 
INTIMACY—acquaintance, familiarity, intimacy 195 
TO INTIMATE—to hint, suggest, intimate, in- 


sintiate s,s... nates ie alg ae biG aisle sry aver eve mi nimterteale 326 
TO INTIMIDATE—to frighten, intimidate...... 307 
INTOXICATION—intoxication, drunkenness, in- 
FAG ALTON SES asics S hes teecla souls ciewatay Brie ste 310 
TO INTRENCH—to encroach, intrench, intrude, 
Invade infringes see tes news cde teeta Ne oly klete!« 507 
INTREPID—bold, fearless, ‘ue pia! sacaiied « 306 
INTRICACY—complexity, complication, intri- 
GACYiG p eciee AH Sob paseo Siatetaln tomas ch ete ae 218 
INTRINS[CK—intrinsick, real, genuine, native.. 437 
TO INTRODUCE—to introduce, present........ 163 
INTRODUCTORY--previous, preliminary, pre- 
paratory, introductory........s.e.eeeseeess - 274 
TO INTRUDE—to encroach, intrench, intrude, 
MVAGETINILINGEs. 2 sos. doves sean e seevine saan 507 
TO INTRUDE—to intrude, obérude etatere aterersees - 509 
INTRUDEK—intruder, interloper.......... ovevietaae 
TO INTRUST—to consign, commit, intrust..... Alg 
TO INVADE—to encroach, intrench, paren; 3 in- 
vade, infringe........... svalecetstaniatetsrs Habeas - 507 
INVALID—invalid, patient ............. B etersiale 367 
TO INVALIDATE—to weaken, enfeeble, debili- 
tate, enervate, invalidate... .........-.-- - + 368 
INVASION—invasion, incursion, irruption, in- 
TOA oo-siate’a'sinte © MNT e as att ote serene ste aie 508 
INVECTIVE—abuse, invective ........cse+e-e. 109 
TO INVEIGH—to declaim, inveigh.........-.. 110 
TO INVEIGLE—to insnare, entrap, entangle, in- 
Veigle oo oo. cee c et aeeiccenser ss © oe teint erat 520 
TO INVENT—to contrive, devise, invent....... 532 


TO INVENT—to find or find out, discover, invent 446 
TO INVENT--to invent, feign, frame, fabricate, 


fOYEO. 2 else seele ci lm ade oe Sie aiale Steve at note areal 528 
TO INVERT—to overturn, overthrow, subvert, 
invert, reverse.--.....- Mire eta catele speheres weet Od 
TO INVEST—to invest, endue or endow ...... « 167 
INVESTIGATION—examination, investigation, 
inquiry, search, research, scrutiny....... Hees 9S 
INVIDIOUS—invidious, envious .........++6- si0 O09 
TO INVIGORATE—+o strengthen, invigorate, 
LOTTE «ovine apnea sins enstcees versecdecdaeuns Ore 


INVINCIBLE—invincible, unconqzerable, insu- 
perable, insurmountable ......... ee avalevese's's 145 
TO INVITE—to attract, allure, invite, engage... 318 
TO INVITE—to call, bid, summon, invite...... 469 
TO INUNDATE—to overflow, inundate, deluge 352 
TO INVOLVE—to implicate, involve .........- 218 
IRASCIBLE—angry, passionate, hasty, irascible 119 
IRE—anger, resentment, wrath, ire, indignation... 118 
IRKSOME—troublesome, irksome, vexatious.... 413 
IRONY—ridicule, satire, irony, sarcasm -....... 104 
IRONY—wit, humewr, satire, irony, burlesque... 69 


xxxvili 
Page 
IRRATIONAL—irrational, foolish absurd, pre- 
POStEYOUS. occ cecccccccces 
IRREFRAGABLE—indubitable, unquestionable, 
indisputable, undeniable, incontrovertible, ir- 
refragable . 114 
{IRREGULAR—irregular, disorderly, inordinate, 
intemperate 
RRELIGIOUS—irreligious, profane, impious... 
IRREPROACHABLE—blameless, unblemisned, 
irreproachable, unspotted or spotless......... 
TO IRRITATE—to aggravate, irritate, provoke, 
exasperate, tantalize 
IRRUPTION—invasion, incursion, irruption, in- 
road ssc. aisldw.e ss aigioalalptols serach See ToS AE 908 
ISSUE—effect, consequence, result, issue, event.. 290 
ISSUE—offspring, progeny, iSSU€ .---.seeeceeee 
TO ISSUE—to arise, proceed, issue, spring, flow, 
EMBUALG sc Vihar cose bile scieloe Refeuisiex 


91 


weeesraceseere eee 


Coe eres aes eese Seer eseseessresee 


Bo e@eeee 


TO JADE—to weary, tire, jade, harass-........ 369 
TO JANGLE 
TO JAR 
JAUNT—excursion, ramble, tour, trip, jaunt 
JEALOUS Y—jealousy, envy, suspicion 
TO JEER—to scoff, gibe, jeer, sneer ...++.++06 
TO JEST—to jest, joke, make game, sport 
JILT—coquet, jilt....--. «0» eels oielsien Heim Sele steals 525 
JOCOSE facetious, conversable, pleasant, jo- 
JOCULAR Cular, JOCOSE «ose seeeccenns tars 461 
JOCUND—lively, sprightly, vivacious, sportive, 
MEITY, JOCUNG. se ee eeceerese see eccsores Ano caeiey) 
TO JOIN—to add, join, unite, coalesce.......... 518 
TO JOKE—to jest, joke, make game, sport 104 
JOLLITY mirth, merriment, joviality, jollity, 
auire) BilaritVisecisahssi<an awela a cicie dele - 391 
JOURNEY—journey, travel, voyage...esccerees 302 
JOY—pleasure, joy, delight, charm........ seisies(e OOS 
JOY—joy, gladness, mirth ........- pinaataraele Asbo Rey 
JOYFUL—glad, pleased, joyful, cheerful-..... 
JUDGE—judge, umpire, arbiter, arbitrator....... 
JUDGEMENT—discernment, penetration, discri- 
mination, judgeMENt. o...-sseesseeee vA 
JUDGEMENT —judgement, discretion, prudence 400 
JUDGEMENT—decision, judgement, sentence... 224 
JUDGEMENT —sense, judgement 70 
JUICE—liquid, liquor, juice, humour ......... oe oud 
JUST—tright, just, proper .. atisilobemaby olesints ee S430 
JUSTICE—justice, a ae cuntoe aks 
TO JUSTIFY—to amelogtees ‘lata justify, ex- 
culpate, excuSe, plead......... eee 18) 
_ JUSTNESS—justness, correctness.....coeeees 
JUVENILE—youthful, juvenile, puerile. 


134 
veee 302 


to jangle, jar, wrangle .......... 


eorecece 


ececeseseccs 


KEEN—acute, keen, shrewd....,..2+ sooces 
KEEN—sharp, acute, Keen .....seeseeesces secs 
TO KEEP—+to hold, keep, detain, retain e+ 236 
TO KEEP—to keep, preserve, Save.....+++-+++« 178 


TO KEEP—to keep, observe, fulfil.........--... 289 
KEEPING—keeping, custody...+-.++s+se+seeees 179 
TO KILL—to kill, murder, assassinate, slay or 


Slaughter ....cesseeseseeee enieier eis ayistaineiens as ef tie 
KIND—affectionate, kind, fond ....-..+sseessee+ 379 
KIND—¢gracious, merciful, kind...-....+...0. eee 357 


KIND—kind, species, SOrt-.. --+seeeseeerenees 496 


INDEX. 


i Page 
KINDNESS—benefit, favour, kindness, civility.. 166 
KINDNESS—benevolence, benignity, humanity, 


kindness, tenderness. .....ceeceee seencees - 165 
KINDRED—kindred, relationship, affinity, con- 

PANS UINILY. He visleleewete = ol nte we Sia eisialsln widen «- 497 
KINDRED—+relation, relative, kinsman, kindred 496 
KINGDOM—empire, kingdom........seceveeees 189 
KINGLY—royal, regal, kingly ...0...eccseccvscce 189 
KINSMAN—-~elation, relative, kinsman, kindred 496 
KNAVISH—dishonest, knavish........ 2.2.06. - 430 
TO KNOW—to know, be acquainted with...... 196 
KNOWLEDGE ~knowledge, science, learning, 

EYULGILIONY . ea ieistevviea'sjseie Uspeliabmientetem reer 196 


LABORIOUS—active, diligent, industrious, assi- 
GUUS; LADOTIOUS s/0i5 cin)e,o.n.01\e sisadetelauee lament 

LABOUR—work, labour, toil, andagesys task..... 328 

TO LABOUR—to labour, take pains or trouble, 


186 ANGEAV OUTS sk i'ss.ds bne'd «0's ny thre Se - 328 
LABYRINTH—labyrinth, maze...... sie /niei-tys.biole 403 
TO LACK—to want, need, Jack..-sscseeeseeeee 347 
LADING—freight, cargo, lading, load, burden... 338 
TO LAG—to linger, tarry, loiter, lag, saunter.... 261 
TO LAMENT—to complain, lament, regret ..... 409 
TO LAMENT—to bewail, bemoan, lament, de- 

POLE 606 esecivine sc ceog enn ee cave din ceee cowscs -» 410 
TO LAMENT—to grieve, mourn, lament..... «e 408 
LAND-—-land, country cs ick oC Lisle seins vewwiaste - 497 
LANDSCAPE—view, prospect, landscape....... 479 
LANGUAGE—Ilanguage, tongue, speech, idiom, 

Aialect.. visiseie sa Sig atorisemictciltes ot 9 aeicine sul 463 
LANGUID—faint, languid ...........ceccseucs - 369 
TO LANGUISH—to flag, ie languish, pine.. 368 
| LARGE—zgreat, large, big... J he-svelorslely aterelsinls Moae 
LARGE—Iarge, wide, pees ree cy Weisser OAD 
LARGELY—largely, copiously, fully ........... 342 
LASSITUDE—fatigue, weariness, lassitude..... 369 
LAST—last, latest, final, ultimate............0. » 270 
LASTING—durable, lasting, permanent......... 266 
LASTLY—lastly, at last, at length.............. 270 
LATENT —-secret, hidden, latent, occult, myste- 

YIOUS) s:0)056 05 oe + sle'e/sieisisinie ticle alesse eee eee 520 
LATEST—last, latest, final, ultimate............ 270 


LAUDABLE—laudable, praiseworthy, commend- 
able....... isibibis pian $i 'a)s \6ie-oie jo nals lasb-aldla Meee aed 
TOZLAUGH AT--~to laugh at, ridicule......... 102 
LAUGHABLE—laughable, ludicrous, ridiculous, 
comical or comick, droll.... eoecee 103 
LAVISH—extravagant, prodigal, lavish, profuse 342 
LAW—maxim, precept, rule, law......... ewan sed 
LAWFUL —lawful, legal, legitimate, licit........ 211 
LAX—loose, vague, lax, dissolute, licentious..... 256 
TO LAY OR TAKE HOLD OF—to lay or take 
hold of, catch, seize, snatch, grasp, gripe..... 237 
TO LAY—to lie, lay.... siclele, 5 sieateatt 
LAZY—idle, lazy, indolent. ....seceecescccee see 299 
LAZY—unactive, inert, lazy, slothful, sluggish... 298 
TO LEAD—to lead, conduct, guide.. seeceeoesee 19] 
LEADER—chief, eslocet lettin: head......... 206 
LEAGUE—alliance, league, confederacy........ 499 
LEAN—lean, meagre.... oece anes teceeomenl | 
TO LEAN—to lean, incline, bend.......eseese 159 
LEARNING—Kknowledge, science, learning, eru- 
dition ..... 


eeeceeeesseocceos 


sesesece 


19¢ 


eee eee es sesnreeseve esos = 


INDEX. 


Page 

LEARNING—le(ters, literature, learning..-++..- 196 

LEA VE—leave, liberty, permission, license.....- 255 

TO LEAVE—to leave, quit, relinquish........ os 255 

TO LEAVE—lJet, leave, suffer.........seesseeee 255 
TO LEAVE —to leave, take leave, bid farewell 

OF -AGIEURs Sethe cove cee ees Sreeicrcia eldieie eiveleters 255 


TO LEAVE OFF—to cease, leave off, discon- 


tinue, desist....-ssescecveseccecsccscee sees QT 
LEAVINGS—leavings, remains, relicks ........ » 255 
mr ATE lawful, legal, legitimate, licit.. 211 
LEISURE—‘idle, leisure, vacant....... Pion eat e 299 
LENITY—clemency, lenity, mercy.....-....-.. 358 
TO LESSEN—to abate, lessen, diminish, de- 

Crease ...ee Rica ole etaideatate ceulsc a cte'de slsinisies «: odl 
TO LET—to let, leave, suffer...0....sssee.eee 255 
LETHARGICK—sleepy, drowsy, es - 300 
LETTER—character, letter ...--seesceesesesees 197 
LETTER—letter, epistle.......2..- Ractiey scles ps 196 
LETTERS—letters, literature, learning.......... 196 
LEVEL—even, smooth, level, plain. ...ce-+s+++- 439 
LEVEL—flat, level......00 see sccecccceceecees 435 


TO LEVEL—to aim, point, level..... 324 


LEVITY—lightness, levity, Aighines, ier Tee 


GIAAINESS -. ee ccreseeesveecesesees Sestees Poul 
LEXICON—dictionary, lexicon, feacavinlaty, glos- 
SALTY, MOMENCIAtLULe... +. eee seeoesseeeeecece - 464 
LIABLE—subject, liable, exposed, obnoxious.... 146 
LIBERAL—beneficent, bountiful, bounteous, mu- 
nificent, generous, liberal ....0.sscecrseeseee 165 
LIBERAL—free, liberal..-..+.sse00 -:esereee -. 241 
TO LIBERATE—to free, set free, deliver, libe- 
THUGS cn sets e vivede seednce slviccciewesscss css. 240 
LIBERTY—freedom, liberty .....+.sse+seeseees 242 
a : leave, permission, liberty, license .. 255 
{CEN TIOUS—loose, vague, lax, dissolute, licen- 
OWS Vacerans come Coe ee cite ayes Selaee aie nee Ie) 
LICIT—lawful, legal, legitimate, licit.... Face 


LI£—untruth, falsehood, falsity, lie.....-...-+.- 528 
TO LIE—to lie, lay....--s-+sseesseceees ersccee 20) 
LIFE—animation, life, vivacity, spirit........-.. 356 
LIFELESS—lifeless, dead, inanimate.......+.-- 356 


TO LIFT—to lift, heave, hoist.. 
TO LIFT—to lift, raise, erect, elevate, exalt..... 354 
LIGHTNESS—ease, easiness, lightness, facility.. 363 
LIGHTNESS—lightneas, levity, flightiness, vola- 


tility, giddiness. .......e+sseseeeeeceeeee cece 390 
LIKE—equal, even, equable, like, or alike, uni- 
FOX - ose vececes etecise ss Eiatele seca sau cles eee 435 
LIKENESS —likeness, resemblance, similarity or 
MIMMEEUGGsscs esse ctacvece ccs cw ewcccdeseicese 932 
LIKENESS—likeness, picture, image, effigy..... 532 
LIKEWISE—also, likewise, to0...-..0+..22++++ 253 
LIMB—member, limb..... eect see cccccseeccencs dll 
TO LIMIT—to bound, limit, confine, restrict, cir- 
cumscribe ..... nee SOE BICie oreo crNignB ibe e e)e ‘sie 176 
ro LIMIT—to fix, determine, settle, limit..--... 227 
LIMIT—limit, extent....-sscsecees A At AGAR CME 177 
LIMIT—term, limit, boundary.......+sesseeeee2 177 


LIMITED--finite, limited .... Sg ans. 0 glk LO 
LINEAGE—family, house, lineage, race......... 485 
TO LINGER—to linger, tarry, loiter, lag, saunter 261 
CIQUID—fluid, liquid .-.cccseessee see 352 


XXX12 
Page 

LIQUID Aes bars 
LIQUOR {Tiquid, liquor, juice, humour.... .... 352 


LIST —list, roll, catalogue, register.............. 468 
TO LIST—to enrol, enlist or list, register, record 468 
TO LISTEN—to attend, hearken, listen 


veeesone 


LISTLESS—indolent, supine, listless, careless... 300 
LITERATURE —letters, literature, learning..... 196 
LITTLE—little, small, diminutive.............. 350 
TO LIVE—to exist, live ..scccescc ccc cseseess © 240 
LIVELIHOOD teennoey; living, subsistence, 
LIVING maintenance, support, suste- 
MANCE. do .ce one euseas siecieen ou 
LIVEL Y—lively, sprightly, vivacious, sportive, 
METLTY, JOCUNG..00cscecccccccccesnveeccsecss 389 
LIVING, vide LIVELJHOOD. 
LIVING—living, benefice......sesseeceeeseneces 239 
LOAD—freight, cargo, load, lading, burden...... 338 
LOAD-—weight, burden, load ........ eacloras ties - 370 
TO LOAD—to clog, load, encumber.......+++++ 370 
LOATH—averse, unwilling, backward, loath, re- 
TUCUAN Ty ns s'telcers tas ciclccisis sa eisiomaloweiases «ts 5 1G0 


TO LOATH—to abhor, detest, abominate, loath 138 


LOATHING—disgust, loathing, nausea......... 120 
TO LODGE—to harbour, shelter, lodge......... 517 
LODGINGS—lodgings, apartments. .......-+..0- 499 
LOFTINESS—pride, haughtiness, loftiness, dig- 
Nityedsae sccyvcctes cmsiees es once conenee ne tstes 100 
LOFT Y—high, tall, lofty... ...-cecccsecssecvee 355 
TO LOITER—to linger, tarry, loiter, lag, saunter 261 
LONELY—alone, solitary, lonely..........-. «+ 252 
TO LONG FOR—to desire, long for, hanker after 159 
LOOK—air, mien, 100K... ...ceecceeeseecceceres 193 
LOOK—look, glance .....seesseesescees aica nixed AGNe 
TO LOOK—to lock, see, behold, view, eye.-.... 482 
TO LOOK—to look, appear.. ae -. 481 
LOOKER-ON—looker- on, iy Kenctaer. 
ODSEIVEF «++ esse eee shinee sence Harpe POtAre 482 
TO LOOK FOR—to await, wait for, look for, 
@apect ss, pcrer ete es: eat PI A le a 415 
LOOSE—loose, vague, lax, dissolute, licentious.. 256 
LOOSE —slack, loose ...esceeseccccccccen cone o> 256 


LOQUACIOUS—talkative, loquacious, garrulous 460 

LORDLY—imperious, lordly, fomineee over 
bearing ...... we), LBD 

LORD’S SUPPER—Lord’s supper, communion, 


eeorees see eeeseses eoee 


Eucharist, SACTAMENL. ....escesecevccrvevcee 83 
TO LOSE—tc lose, miss ...--sesseeseececcce o-» 404 
LOSS—loss, damage, detriment.........+...+-.- 404 
LOT—destiny, fate, lot, doom.....se..seeesecee- 169 
LOTH, vide LOATH. 
LOUD —loud, noisy, high-sounding, clamorous... 471 
LOVE—affection, love ...+00-.ce..0 Ridione wate she « 378 
LOVE—love, friendship. ... 2.0... sceeneccsevce 380 
LOVELY—amiable, lovely, beloved ..... Pmaaiae . 33 
LOVER—lover, suitor, Wooer .... see ese e eee e+ 380 
LOVING—amorous, loving, fond ........+-.se0: 378 
LOW—humble, lowly, low.......... Bisia « Haests » 147 
LOW—low, mean, abject.....secccseseceeeseees 147 
TO LOWER—to reduce, Jower...+-.se-ssoeee0 148 
LOWLY—humble, lowly, low.. - 147 


LUCK Y—fortunate, lucky, prosperous, eee 395 
LUCRE-—gain, profit, emolument, lucre.----.+++ 397 
LUDICROUS—laughable, ludicrous, ridiculous | 

comical or comick, droll..-----++ «+ 103 


x] 
Page 

LUNACY—derangement, insanity, lunacy, mad- 
ness, mania...... 281 
LUSTRE—lustre, brightness, splendour, brilliancy 474 
LUST Y—corpulent, stout, lusty. -+++-ss++seee0+ SLL 
LUXURIANT—exuberant, luxuriant...-.+..... 343 


MADNESS—derangement, insanity, lunacy, mad- 


NESS, MANIA... -oeeee eee osha ny aus ela wrote halter af + 281 
MADNESS—madness, phrensy, rage, fury.---- -» 281 
MAGISTERJAL—magisterial, majestick, stately, 

pompous, august, dignified. .......-seessees » 454 
MAGNIFICENCE—grandeur, magnificence..... 454 
MAGNIFICENCE—magnificence, pomp, splen- 

GOUL so. ode ccee ness cscs ce cncssecssarcces oe 453 
MAGNITUDE—-size, magnitude, greatness, bulk 348 
MAJESTICK—-magisterial, majestick, stately, 

pompous, august, dignifieds......-se+.ses- o- 454 
TO MAIM—to mutilate, maim, mangle......... 509 
MAIN—chief, principal, main .:...+-....++.--+ « 206 


TO MAINTAIN—to assert, maintain, vindicate 441 
TO MAINTAIN—to hold, support, maintain.... 237 
TO MAINTAIN—to sustain, support, maintain.. 238 
MAINTENANCE —livelihood, living, subsistence, 


maintenance, support, sustenance. -..-. 239 


TO MAKE—to make, do, act......e+.+eesseere 294 
TO MAKE—to make, form, produce, create..... 292 
TO MAKE GAME—to jest, joke, make game, 
SPOFb sees cee ne > Scale eilislesess bam c@scices 104 
TO MAKE KNOWN —to inform, make known, 
acquaint, apprize....... iataa sere gine sinie iaisieieisus 194 
MALADY—disorder, disease, distemper, malady 367 


MALEDICTION—malediction, curse, impreca- 
tion, execration, anathema......... sega Be : 
MALEFACTOR—criminal, culprit, malefactor, 
felon, convict ......ee..eesee SOS eee eiateloers 
MALEVOLENT—malevolent, malicious, malig- 


MALICE—malice, rancour, spite, grudge, pique.. 
MALICIOUS ) malevolent, malicious, malig- 
MALIGNANT MATE secs eresteninciesres, oak tise 
TO MANAGE—to concert, contrive, manage.... 
TO MANAGE—to conduct, manage, direct...... 
MANAGEMENT —care, charge, management... 
MANAGEMENT —economy, management...... 
MANDATE—command, order, injunction, pre- 

cept, mandate ....... Mates ster aie le Gmiseeies aeeeo.5 
MANFUL—manly, manful....... wa eee dele 
TO MANGLE—to mutilate, maim, mangle...... 
MANTA—derangement, insanity, lunacy, madness, 


MANIA 2s sec we ewe AES Rea St SiR Oise Rate selaioisisw:e 281 
MAN IFEST--apparent, visible, clear, plain, obvi- 
ous, evident, manifest ....... Mon alan auc nislainie 478 
TO MANIFEST—1to discover, manifest, dacire 444 
TO MANIFEST—to prove, demonstrate, evince, 
manifest...... Bie Sisin eta lele nals Dielea cele elpeles meine AL 
MANLY—manly, manful.............. Bocal trade 306 
MANNER—air, manner............ podbot wee 193 
-MANNER—custom, habit, manner, practice..... 3223 
MANNER—way, manner, method, mode, course, 
TOCBNG 2s o\ns's\e s<e S08 pace Mee Ce wien aiciata ate «. 219 
MANNERS--manners, morals.. Sowing BF 
MARGIN—border, edge, rim or Ws ‘bettie , Verge, 
MAIPIN Sop savatesce seemed sees seve sce sess 17h 
MARINE ene: merine, hava nautical.... 337 


INDEX. 


Page 

MARINER—seataan, waterman, sailor, marine:.. 337 

MARITIME—maritime, marine, naval, nautical. 337 

‘MARK—mark, print, impression, stamp.-...-..-. 446 
MARK—mark, sign, note, symptom token, indi- 

Cation . eee. 

MARK—mark, trace, vestige, footstep, track .... 


447 
448 


Ceoreeceseessese os oars. eres esesees 


MARK-~-mark, badge, stigma ....+++++ee+eee+e++ 448 
MARK—mark, butt........- ae josie a> see 
TO MARK—to mark, note, notice...-.- oc hoe 
TO MARK—to show, point out, mark, indicate.. 451 
MARRIAGE—marriage, wedding, nuptials....... 83 
MARRIAGE—marriage, matrimony, wedlock.... 84 
MARTIAL—martial, warlike, military, soldier- 

ik 225. sie. Bsintuais case see chien etek Seen aoe 337 
MARVEL—wonder, miracle, marvel, prodigy, 

Monster s+. ese faites eielote aie qiayaie «biataieis seevcee 403 
MASK-—cloak, mask, veil, blind ...-... sisiaigienia.s OUD 
MASSACRE-—carnage, slaughter, butchery, mas- 

SACI --.06 x3 ciple aisle aa talicig eee suaistalaateip OLD 
MASSIVE—bulky, massive or massy......-----. 348 
MASTER—possessor, proprietor, owner, master.. 238 
MATERIAL—corporeal, material. /.....++++++++ S16" 
MATERIALS—matter, materials, subject.....+. 325 
MATRIMON Y—marriage, matrimony, wedlock. 84 
MATTER—matter, materials, subject ....-----.- 325 
MATURE—tipe, mature....... selaiptes vice \'glatalers sien ROSE 
MAXIM—axiom, maxim, aphorism, apophthegm, 

saying, adage, proverb, by-word, saw...---.. 210 
MAXIM—maxim, precept, rule, law ...-+.++-+-+ 211 
MAY—may, can....-..---6 a Bisse ere alias acs niece ialeais Mato 
MAZE—labyrinth, maZe.....seeseccceeesenesees 403 
MEAGRE—lean, meagre.....-eeeeeeseeeseoeeee SLL 
MEAN—base, vile, Mean... .seeceeecessoeceeee 148 
MEAN—common, vulgar, ordinary, mean...-.-- 323 
MEAN —low, mean, abject .... alata etohsoxete he peated 
MEAN—mean, pitiful, sordid........sseeeeeees » 411 
MEAN—mean, Medium .....seeccccsseesceesss> 246 
TO MEAN—to design, purpose, mean, intend.... 533 
MEANING—-signification, meaning, import,sense 456 
MEANS—way, manner, method, mode, course, 

MCANS..- 6.00 --- edi 6s sie ois plotakete tal aa iain 
MECHAN 10K—artist, deadene, mechanick, arti- 

SAN co alalale siais Soave bietucncealereihes ca ynlermarcets ~ieleein sisters 
TO MEDIATE—to intercede, interpose, mediate, 

interfere, intermeddle......verseeeeeereseess 216 
MEDIOCRITY—moderation, mediocrity ........ 246 
TO MEDITATE—to contemplate, muse, medi- 

LATO. 5 Saldis vies 's <cein'siate nele 616 eimole bis lng aheeie ne ae aEEES 
MEDIUM—mean, medium.........seesseeeseees 246 
MEDLEY—difference, variety, diversity, medley 282 
MEDLEY—mixture, medley, miscellany ........ 284 
MEEK—soft, mild, gentle, meek ...+....-..+..+. 359 
MEET—fit, apt, meet........+... aides sano ey rs 4 
MEETING—-assembly, company, congregation, 

meeting, parliament, dict, ROnEreRs, conven- 

AAO COUBCH 2 <n since 6 se mantels Ma's 2 a 50 meee oo» 49 
MEETING—meeting, interview ......... cesses 494 
MELANCHOLY —dejection, Seivkacion: melan- 

CHOW eek asain Sinem Te cpaliiaiese Oss esse os eaaee wis act 
MELODY—melody, harmony, accordance....... 155 
MEMBER—member, limb........... » sale ielatunie naan 


MEMOIRS—anecdotes, memoirs, chronicles, ap- 
NAG ee sin cses ee ee 466 
MEMORASLE—signal, werorable.. 474. 


ee eveerecsrese 


 @00 ae 


INDEX. xii 

Page ; Page 

MEMORIAL—monument, remembrancer, memo- MISCHIEF—evil or ill, misfortune, harm, mischier 405 

IGE’... sid oh Migleiee masses: «ce ween eae sts 500 | MISCHIBF—injury, damage, hurt, harm, mischief 404 
pe ee | Sagi recollection, . TO MISCONSTRUE—to misconstrue, misinter- 

reminiscence. . Beas cols isip-a: sl awletaiea al sitspeystaioMt TL Prete secre Riectelkie pala ae ate el diatatel e <(cly o's cles coos 455 
MEN ACE—threat, menace .- ove 405 MISDEED offence, Hespane, transgres- 
TO MEND—to amend, correct, rect reform, MISDEMEAN oun) sion, misdemeanour, mis- 

emend, improve, mend, better.. weercul deed, affront ....-. 120 

MENIAL--servant, domestick, menial aiiape - 328| MISDEMEANOUR-~crime, misdemeanour...... 122 

MENT AL—mental, intellectual.. .. 72| MISERABLE--unhappy, miserable, wretched... 412 


TO MENTION—to mention, notige® ntatdhnd Sovats es 


« 451 
MERCANTILE—mercantile, commercial ....-.. 339 
MERCENARY—hireling, mercenary, venal..... 339 
MERCHANT—trader, merchant, tradesman..... 335 
MERCHANDISE—commodity, goods, merchan- 
GIBE WATE inceielsiscn ces oenes)ccbelsisisvecetivess OOO 
MERCIFUL-—gracious, merciful, kind .......... 357 |e 
MERCILESS—hard-hearted, cruel, unmerciful, 
merciless . Releiuisnicsteelbicineie Puss sisigin sect ley Ot 
MERCY—clemency, mercy, lentty. Aa ptsod Gatos’ - 358 
MERCY—pity, mercy ....csecersnsccecccccscevs 308 
MEREH—bare, Mere .<s.0ceccccssacevedccevscces 250 
MERIT —desert, merit, worth........ececeeecees 438 
MERRIMENT—umirth, merriment, joviality, hila- 
PMH IOUT V tase voce Vans eatnerdtr cos deae ots . 391 
MERRY—cheerful, merry, sprightly, gay ........ 389 
MERRY—-lively, sprightly, vivacious, sportive, 
MIELE Ys JOCUNA o's 6 oreis a s,s, cisco eiafeleteleuntaae\ sie ote - 389 
MESSAGE—mission, message, errand ......... « 215 
MESSENGER—forerunner; precursor, messenger, 
ALVINGEE adiewy sein sp .el0G oo sc oil sleisdeteless oo 215 
TO METAMORPHOSE—to inaalgure, meta - 
morphuse. . ODOC TOC Ani erc Paton ot este 


MET APHOR—feure, metaphor, allegory, em- 
blem, symbol, type 
METHOD—order, method, rule.... 


SCePeceosereseseaeseeeren 


METHOD—system, method .......s.ceeeccceees Q75 
METHOD—way, manner, method, mode, course, 
MEANS .-.-..- Me viatsisiaiere ate. cite of stitclars 224 Sie! «lel ates « 275 
MIEN—air, mien, 100k ......0cceccccccoe cee -2 193 
MIGHT Y—powerful, potent, poeta ly Se cisetiane 187 
MILD—soft, mild, gentle, meek........... -- 359 
MILITARY—martial, warlike, reltidalee auldiées 
AIRC ayets a pists s\afal stata 20,8 me Aalehciatetete wreelsieeet 337 
TO MIMICK—to imitate, mimick, mock, “om « 929 
MIND—soul, mind..... Siessbr wl aieiata ative tages 65 
TO MIND—to attend to, mind, regard, notes 
HOE fe arcietsss'<15/ 4+ eal oieieaieraivie' ote tcimtare steierts du ete war 429 
MINDFUL—mindful, regardful, observant ...... 426 


TO MINGLE—to mix, mingle, blend, confound. , 284 


MINISTER—clergyman, parson, priest, minister 85 
MINISTER—minister, agent ..... eiaiaeiateletys Bisby nhl 5) 
TO MINISTER—to minister, administer, contri- 
PMR Geka eadates Satcacacswastes 167 
MINUTE—cireumstantial, particuiar, minute.... 173 
MIRACLE—-wonder, miracle, marvel, seaiey, 
ROU ateite Alvan. civic cleave io/sibiel'iNs sib'sve'are pies 6 6p 403 
MIRTH—festivity, mirth .........sseeesesceeee 392 
MIRTH—joy, gladness, mirth...........000...- - 393 
MIRTH—mirth, ane joviality, jollity, hila- 
YitYeccses SS aie islsenG'l sis sis chsia a sld's(elsieclsjeisie 5 6 391 
MISCARRIAGE—failure, 1 miscarriage, abortion.. 125 


MISCELLAN Y—mixture, medley, miscellany.. 
MISCHANCE—calamity, disaster, triaeirliibe, 
mischance, mishap......0..... 


eevee eeee 


a 


MISERLY—avaricious, parsimonious, niggardly 16] 
MISFORTUNE-—evil or ill, misfortune, mischief, 


DALI sic. cg nde'steweloleqlak ses cae classe destin ttets 405 
MISFORTUNE } calamity, disaster, misfortune, 
MISHAP ; mischance, mishap......_+-+ 406 
TO MISINTERPRET—+to misconstrue, misin-. 

COPPOLA eeisiveniv esate wes tege cles sss aeecce ee» 458 
T'O-MISS—to-lose; Missy e ew cece wck oes 404 
MISSION— mission, message, errand.....--..+.. 215 
MISTAKE—errour, mistake, blunder...........- 126 
MISUSE—abuse, misuse. ....ssesecceeceesereee 399 
‘TO MITIGATE—to allay, sooth, appease, miti- 

Pate, ASSUAGE....seccececes Acrsr ose, 3s 361 
TO MIX—to mix, mingle, blend, confound....... 284 
MIXTURE—mixture, medley, miscellany ov cies C04 
TO MOAN —to groan, MOAN ...eceeeesececececs 410 
MOB <8 
MOBILITY people, populace, mob, mobility .. 495 
TO MOCK—to deride, mock, ridicule, rally, banter 104 
TO MOCK—to imitate, mimick, mock, ape...... 529 
MODE—way, manner, method, mode, course, 

THEHNS: 3 cotetdee she sselnee ABER bolkte Gs cee re SUP 275 
MODEL—copy, model, pattern, specimen ..... » 530 
MODERATION—moderation, mediocrity....... 246 
MODERATION—modesty, moderation, tempe- 

TANCE, SODTICLY 3o ses cee cecccsescessceesce we 945 
MODERN —fresh, new, novel, recent, modern... 268 
MODEST—humble, modest, submissive........ - 147 
MODEST—modest, bashful, diffident ........ se. 148 
MODEST Y—chastity, continence, modesty ..... “45 
MODEST Y—modesty, eens temperance, 

sobriety... Sea ve stetciete cals uae ty clen’a we steers 245 
MOISTURE—moisture, niiintltty: ei cdteort - old 
TO MOLEST—to trouble, disturb, molest.. . 412 
TO MOLEST—to inconvenience, annoy, meet: « 417 
MOMENT —-signification, avail, importance, con- 

sequence, Weight, MOMENt...-.....eeeereeee 456 
MOMENT —instant, moment...........0s0000 +, 267 
MONARCH—prince, monarch, sovereign, poten- 

PPALQas sui o cies oi cteacerets pieleleccite siemens nists cuteea 188 
MONASTERY—cloister, monastery, convent. 86 
MONEY—money, cash ...sesseeseeeee siereiaere 340 
MONSTER—wonder, miracle, marvel, prodigy, 

MONSter ....6. 086 Stuicieaisics oo slerere leurs ¥ elae cg atieiels . 403 


MONSTROUS—enormous, monstrous, prodigious 350 
MONUMENT—monument, remembrancer, me- 


WiQhidle scien sc clets'ere's ote a g's ake eeosacs cocseee OG 
MOOD—humour, temper, mood.....-- o..---++- 387 
MORALS—manners, morals.....s00.  seeeees 193 
MORBID—sick, sickly, diseased, morbid.......+-+ 367 
MOREOVER—besides, moreover .....++++-2++s0 Wl 
MOROSE-—gloomy, sullen, morose, splenetick ... 411 
MORTAL—deadly, fatal, mortal. ...--+eeesseee. 371 
MORTIFICATION—vexation, oe mortifi 

CALION fei ee ievieene eaciareiss a vieaiviels se aiea:s Sele” Leen 


Kali 

Page 
MOTION-~motion, movement... ...-++--+e+++++ SOL 
MOTIVE—cause, motive, reason «+++ +-s+++sees - 7 


MOTIVE—principle, motive....-+.2+++2 see -eee 213 
TO MOULD—+o form, fashion, mould, shape... 293 
TO MOUNT-—to arise or rise, mount, ascend, 
climb, scale.....-- Beepisaye non We! 
TO MOURN-—to grieve, mourn, lament .....-.. 408 
MOURNFUL—mournful, sad ....+seeeceeeeeees 410 
TO MOVE—to stir, MOVE. .s.eseeeeeecsceeeseee SOL 
MOVEABLES—goods, furniture, moveables, ef- 
fects...- 339 
MOVEMENT—motion, movement........+.+0+ 301 
MOVING—moving, affecting, pathetick ......... 301 
MULCT—fine, mulct, penalty, forfeiture......... 204 
MULTITUDE—nultitude, crowd, throng, swarm 494 
MUNIFICENT—beneficent, bountiful or bounte-  » 
ous, munificent, generous, liberal... ....-+++ 165 
CO MURDER—to kill, murder, assassinate, slay 
or slaughter... i see's oe bieie Aha peansiet ee LU 
ro MURMUR—to complain, murmur, repine... 409 
TO MUSE—to contemplate, meditate, muse.-.-. 76 
ro MUSE—to think, reflect, wonder, muse..... 76 
TO MUSTER—to assemble, muster, collect..... 489 
WUTE—silent, dumb, mute, speechless 464 
ro MUTILATE—to mutilate, maim, mangle... 509 
MUTINOUS—tumultuous, turbulent, seditious, 
TATHUMOUS aiacis siecle cs tives ytics che acces wanes. - 208 
MUTUAL—mutual, reciprocal. ....+.ceesseeseee S34 
MYSTERIOUS—dark, obscuge, dim, mysterious 480 
MYSTERIOUS—secret, hidden, latent, occult, 
mysterious..... we cdeccccee cesbcccesccnssiass | e0 
MYSTERIOUS 
MYSTICK 


eee OSHS eeS esses eeOsesecereseseeTsere 


t mysterious, mystick .......... S530 


NAKED—bare, naked, uncovered...es-seeveeees 249 
TO NAME—to name, call......... ienes tare 
NWAME—name, appeilation, title, denomination.. 471 


NAME—name, reputation, repute, credit........ 472 

TO NAME—to name, denominate, style, entitle, 
designate, Characterize ..e-.sesceeccsccscees 471 

TO NAME—to nominate, name .......... eisai: 


TO NAP—to sleep, slumber, doze, drowse, nap.. 300 
NARRATION—relation, recital, narration ...... 466 
NARRATIVE—account, narrative, description.. 467 
NARROW—contracted, confined, narrow....... 177 
NARROW-—straight,narrow..-+.ccerecerseeere 280 
NASTY—nasty, filthy, foul.......eesevecseceeee OID 
NATAL—natal, native, indigenous..........++- 496 
NATION—people, nation,....-ceseecseesssceces 494 
NATIV E—intrinsick, real, genuine, native...... 437 
NATIVE—natal, native, indigenous............ 496 
NATIVE 
NATURAL 
NATURALLY —naturally, in course, 
quently, of course... 
NAVAL 
NAUTICAL 
NAUSEA—disgust, loathing, nausea............ 
NAUTICAL—maritime, marine, naval, nau- 
RIGHT ei coeie wale o's no cineo.0d/b sine elnwisine uisivic es seis OO 
NEAR—close, near, nigh....--sesseeeeseeeeeees 285 
NECESSARTES--necessities, necessaries........ 347 
NECESSARY—necessary, expedient, essential, 
YOQUISIEC. 0. oc eeeeeec cee sce ceeecsseeceeees 417 


native, NALUTal 6.2 creciteesiesceess 490 


conse- 


maritime, marine, naval, nauti- 


Col ek ain nisin aeuis.sys rd claieusiete uaiete 


INDEX. 


* 


Page 
TO NECESSITATE—to compel, force, ob.ige, 


TICCESSILALC Hae wieldc leis c'g's'a'ove'e pan olemg eens CLO 
NECESSITIHS—necessities, necessaries........ 347 
NECESSITY—oecasion, necessity.......... soe 418 
NECESSIT Y—necessity, need.....- J 3 leibe et aeterene ame 
NEED—poverty, indigence, want, need, penury.. 346 
TO NEED—to want, need, lack.......+.++++-+++ 347 
NEED—necessity, need ......+..5-+.65- oc eeces CAG 
neeraine + wide NECESSITY, NEED.....+++ 346 
NEFARIOUS—wicked, unjust, iniquitous, nefa- 

VIOUS iaetetohlee ewvicctever Berrios te 
TO NEGLECT—to disregard, slight, neglect.... 423 
TO NEGLECT—to neglect, omit...... SUCHET EC - 433 
NEGLIGHNT—negligent, remiss, careless, heed- 

less, thoughtless, inattentive ...... ...-+-+.. 494 
TO NEGOTIATE—to negotiate, treat for or 

about, transact. oie. sceesse atest aelallese se ete 
NEIGHBOURHOOD—neighbourhood, vicinity.. 498 
NEVERTHELESS—however, yet, nevertheless, 


es eeee 


ee rere sees esees 


notwithstanding .sbaevsevesa. cs tebeanese sae oOL 
NEW-—fresh, new, novel, recent, modern........ 268 
NEWS —news, tidings...... cial ora ate Finis OA a Sao enL Oe 
NICE—exact, nice, particular..........2....02.. 203 
NICEH—fine, delicate, nice ..........ceeeseeseee 214 
NIGGARDLY—avaricious, miserly, parsimoni- 
OUS, Niggardly...+seeeseees aude (bn: ovecdensnee DOD 
NIGGARDLY—economical, sparing, thrifty, sav- 
ings niggardly secs oses's cs ae ect pie een amen eens 
NIGH—close, near, Nighs.....+..ssecepeseeseess QO 
NIGHTLY—nightly, nocturnal ...........2-22.. 268 
NIMBLE—active, brisk, agile, nimble......... . 297 
NOBLE—noble, grand ...........0.sesscceceeee 454 
NOCTURNAL—nightly, nocturnal............. 268 
NOISE—noise, cry, outcry, clamour............. 470 
NOISOME—hurtful, pernicious, noxious, noisome 406 
NOISY—loud, noisy, high-sounding, clamorous.. 473 
NOMENCLATURE—4dictionary, lexicon, cata- 
logue, vocabulary, glossary, nomenclature.... 464 
TO NOMINATE—to nominate, name......... . 477 
NONCONFORMIST—heretick, schismatick, sec- 
tarian, dissenter, nonconformist............. 9 


NOTE—mark, sign, note, symptom, token, indica- 
tiom 25). SR A Sin yeti yl: 2) 
NOTE—remark, observation, comment, note, an- 
notation, commentary...... Siae os conecece 451 
TO NOTE—to mark, note, notice....... somes 2 OO 
NOTED—distinguished, conspicuous, noted, emi- 
Nent, iUStriOUS «2.0 ..eecceescoeccrccseccese 473 
NOTED—noted, notorious.......e.seeceeeesecee 479 
NOTICE—information, intelligence, notice, advice 195 
TO NOTICE—to attend to, mind, regard, heed, 
NOTICE ve sis ie -seielersins Sais Sino so hereto 
TO NOTICE—to mention, notice.............0. 451 
TO NOTICE—to mark, note, notice ........... 450 
TO NOTICE—to notice, remark, observe....... 450 
NOTION—conception, notion............ee0000 75 
NOTION—perception, idea, conception, notion.. 75 
NOTION—opinion, sentiment, notion-.......... 80 
NOTORIOUS—noted, notorious..... sae 400 
NOTWITHSTANDING—however, yet, never- 
theless, notwithstanding.............csese0- 251 
NOVEL—fable, tale, novel, romance........-+++ 467 
NOVEL—fresh, new, novel, recent, modern..... 268 


ee i ey 


INDEX. 
Page , 


10 NOURISH —to nourish, nurture, cherish.... 377 


NOXIOUS—hurtful, pernicious, noxious, noisome 406 | 


NUMB—numb, benumbed, torpid.....-..+++.+.- 
TO NUMBER—to calculate, isis isis 
count or account, number.. 


NUMERAL 
NUMERICAL ; numerous, numeral, numerical 252 
NUMEROUS 
NUPTIALS—marriage, wedding, nuptials...... - 83 
TO NURTURE—to nourish, nurture, cherish... 377 
OBDURATE—hard, callous, hardened, obdurate 373 
OBEDIENT—dutiful, obedient, respectful....... 150 
OBEDIENT—obedient, submissive, obsequious.- 149 
OBJECT—aim, object, end.........-sessseeee oe 324 
OBJECT—object, subject. .......-seeesseeseecee 325 
TO OBJECT—to object, oppose ...--.---eeeeeee 112 
TO OBJECT TO—to find fault with, Meee ob- 
ject 10... ..0e- Leubort - 112 
OBIECTION—demur, abe Fah be hi ee 
MEOW alata cies siorawelele’siviaia's.e eicicje' en's, o/uit'n'e.0)s niate 96 
OBJECTION—objection, Seeetae eereRtgnrss 112 
OBLATION—offering, oblation. - , ssepnce 
OBLIGATION—duty, nfilgaclon: sence nial sefelafaie 150 
TO OBLIGE—to bind, oblige, engage .........- 216 
TO OBLIGE—to compel, mee force, necessi- 
tate.. sisiebas a deigie saisig tanreh coke 
OBLIGIN G—civil, obliging, rcnntaat . 199 


TO OBLITERATE—to blot out, expunge, rase 


or erase, efface, cancel, obliterate.......-...+ 248 
OBLIVION—forgetfulness, oblivion - sain wish TD 
OBLONG—oblong, oval........-ceesseeseeeeces 350 
OBLOQU Y—teproach, contumely, Onaga - 108 


OBNOXTOUS—obnoxious, offensive - ease! 146 
OQBNOXIOUS—subject, liable, tise hor. 
MOUS aoc: sns si) 00 sien ales Win sis etelanale pie aierartereig 46 
OBSCURE—dark, obscure, dim, mysterious..... 480 
TO OBSCURE—to eclipse, obscure..........+- - 480 
OBSEQUIES—funeral, obsequies...++-.ee+eeeee 84 
OBSEQUIOUS—obedient, submissive, obsequi- 
see a cinis cape Skea cece gece as cla emancie tpialserals 149 
OBSERVANCE—form, ceremony, right, observ- 
HORA BOR RS Use SERB Rees Joc” SAR SRE A 83 
OBSERVANCE—observation, observance ...... 451 
OBSERVANT—mindful, regardful, observant... 426 
OBSERVATION—observation, observance ...-. 451 
OBSERVATION—remark, observation, note, an- 
notation, comment, commentary.-..---.+-+06 451 
TO OBSERVE—to keep, observe, fulfil.......-. 289 
TO OBSERVE—to notice, remark, observe..... 450 
TO OBSERVE—to observe, watch.....--+e++0+ 483 
TO OBSERVE—to see, perceive, observe......- 482 
ese (ata aatapl ce beholder, ob- 
server - ae SAARI E hs AREAL, 9 1S). 
OBSOLETE—old, ancient, A aunt antique, 
old-fashioned, obsolete......-...- Beilin es ineicieve 268 
OBSTACLE—difficulty, impediment, obstacle ... 259 


OBSTINATE—obstinate, contumacious, heady, 


stubborn, headstrong...... ete siaiaisin\e sieibiays|> 9p 209 
TO OBSTRUCT—to hinder, prevent, impede, 
ODSITUICE ‘sive vicersinwale iswclaee slseeiesceencceves 258 


TO OBTAIN—to acquire, obtain, gain, win, earn 
TO OBTAIN—to get, gain, obtain, procure...... 396 
TO OBTRUDE—to intrude obtrude......... eee 009 


432, 


xlin 
Page 
TO OBVIATE—to prevent, obviate, preclude.... 259 
OBVIOUS--apparent, visible, clear, plain, obvi- 
ous, evident, manifest .... PB Wie) 


TO OCCASION—to cause, occasion, create..... 294 
OCCASION—-occasion, opportunity....-..-.-..- 418 
| OCCASION—occasion, necessity.....+.+++++++.- 418 
OCCASIONAL—occasional, casual......+.+++ 418 
OCCULT—-secret, hidden, latent, occult, myste- 
VIOUS: 6 oe A pisisiiss oe eslase On aN fiaises'o: OO 
OCCUPANCY : 
OCCUPATION * occupancy, occupation.......- 238 
OCCUPATION—business, occupation, employ- 
ment, engagement, avocation......ssseeeee 331 
TO OCCUPY—to hold, occupy, possess........- 236 
OCCURRENCE—event, incident, accident; ad- 
VENEULE, OCCUTTENCE ...eacecccececessvnccces 172 
ODD—particular, singular, odd, strange, eccen- 
{TICK nae ea tenini it nso Gusts ae yenevaleictoratn aire) sie 385 
ODD—odd, uneven. ....ssccccces 2 cocccccnces 436 
ODIOUS—hateful, odious . pias (ABT 


ODOUR—smell, scent, eae mickate: fragrance 511 
OF COURSE—naturally, in course, consequently, 


Of Cowrse ws ese ae Cates colaleic tis s Peer es ; 272 
)| OFFENCE— offence, trespass, transgression, mis- 

demeanour, misdeed, affront......... Rass - 120 
TO OFFEND—to displease, offend, vex........- 117 
OFFENDER —offender, delinquent .......++..+- 120 
ee offending, offensive Pe as elsialepicceeis ] 
OFF ENSIVE—obnoxious, offensive........2-..+ 146 
TO OFFER—to give, offer, present, exhibit...... 163 
TO OFFER—to offer, bid, tender, propose......- 167 


OFFERING—offering, oblation.....-.-.+se2-002 82 
OFFICE—business, office, duty......... 
OF FICE—office, place, charge, function......... 332 
OFFICE—benefit, service, good, office.........++ 166 
OFFICIOUS—active, busy, officious.....+....... 297 
OFFSPRING—offspring, progeny, issue...-..... 
OF TEN—often, frequently ......secseeescccseee 
OLD—elderly, aged, 01d... .ceeeseeveeescreccee 269 
OLD—old, ancient, antique, antiquated, old-fa- 
shioned, obsolete...-sccecseeccccccevevceres 268 
OLDER—senior, elder, older. .-....60ss0e0 soevee 209 


_| OLD-FASHIONED, vide OLD. 
| OLD-TIMES—formerly, in times past, old times 


or days of yore, anciently, or in ancient times 269 
OMEN—omen, prognostick, presage.......+-2022 93 
TO OMIT—to neglect, omit... ..ce.se0- ove 423 
ON ONE’S GUARD--awary on aonale guard, ap- 

PriZed, CONSCIOUS-..eesessecccsscreccevcsses 446 


pants one, single, only -..-.. Siefesiorese siieisidiers ora Q51 
ONSET—attack, assault, rausnreliy charge, 
onset . A tiansine SSae ea vialp isibiauersinis s 116 
ONWARD—onward, forward, progressive...... 302 
OPAQUH--opaque, dark.. WeWenlereiaetinns 483 
OPEN—zandid, open, ah Hekislowicelee eine tas 430 
OPEN —frank, candid, ingenuous, free, open, plain 431 
OPENING—opening, aperture, cavity..........- 40% 
OPERATION—action, agency, operation....-+-« 296 
OPERATION—work, operation ......--++++++++ 328 
OPINIATED ) opiniated or opiniative, conceit- 
OPINIATIVE § ed, egoistical...--++--r+eecee- 1 
OPINION—opinion, sentiment, notion..-. +. 80 


xliv 

: Page 
OPPONENT--enemy, foe, adversary, opponent, 

ANTAGONISE -..- sone cee ee cece reer esederees 134 
OPPORTUNIT Y—occasion, opportunity....-... 418 
TO OPPOSE—to combat, oppose ..-+++++-seee+ . 134 
TO OPPOSE—to contradict, oppose, deny.-....- i113 
TO OPPOSE—to object, oppOse.--+++++++seeeee « 112 
TO OPPOSE—to oppose, resist, thwart, with- 

BEAUTE 1. i io uid snus so folwin alee Cece ave Siase'bjere'in = ania Zohete 114 
OPPOSITE—adverse, contrary, opposite ........ 135 


OPPROBRIUM—infamy, ignominy, opprobrium 108 
TO OPPUGN—to confute, refute, disprove, op- 
pugn 
OPTION—option, ChOice....+-..ccseececveeess 
OPULENCE—tiches, wealth, opulence, affinence 340 
ORAL—verbal, vocal, Oral.......s.2--s es eeeeeee 462 
ORATION—address, speech, oration, harangue... 461 
ORATOR Y—elocution, eloquence, oratory, rheto- 


eee wesc eer ee eres eereseeseseseoneee soe eee 


WICK deccis ls rovs's jontiaint sin's 0,:so{alale (01m Ja ele'a fole'ctoGie'e sibiai 462 
ORB—circle, orb, globe, sphere. . peitcitele diesem LTO 
TO ORDAIN ) to appoint, or heii EON a or- 

TO ORDER , LaLa let aieiate lscnatetnstaielatole > 844)5 ele 184 
ORDER—class, order, rank, degree. ....2-+e+eee 276 
ORDER—command, order, injunction, precept, 

WAN ALG e cis Sinaiieie a jotAlaypie So o:al slola\el vie alelay oi oisis 185 
ORDER—direction, Order ......0.eeeereeeceeees 213 
ORDER-~order, method, rule.......+--.eeeees es 276 
ORDER—succession, series, OFder...+-.eseeeeeee 271 
TO ORDER—to place, dispose, order.........+ - 278 
DRDINARY—common, vulgar, ordinary, mean.. 323 
ORIFICE—orifice, perforation ...s..6+seseees ‘wee 402 
ORIGIN origin, original, beginning, source, 
ORIGINAL t HISE elaiyee circ ales Siecislecisieley ek 292 
ORIGINAL—primary, primitive, pristine, origi- 

Te Aaa eget IPL A 6 SOS PR gs ea 974 
OSTENSIBLE—colourable, specious, Seen 

plausible, feasible .........ceeseeeeerevcrees 516 
OS TENT ATION—show, parade, ostentation.... 453 
OVAL—oblong, Oval. ....s seco ecccereceeeceee 350 
OVER—above, over, upon, beyond.......+s2.e6. 279 
OVERBALANCE—to overbalance, outweigh, 

PICPONAErALE cee cece sence cece cere scseesscoes 206 
TO OVERBEAR—to overbear, bear down, over- 

power, overwhelm, subdue ..........eee00- 144 
OVERBEARING—imperious, lordly, domineer- 

ING, OVErbeaTING ... +. eenseesoevessscccnrecs 185 
TO OVERCOME—to conquer, vanquish, subdue, 

OVEFCOME, SUFMOUNE+ ++. +. eee eee eeweereeeee 144 


TO OVERFLOW—to overflow, inundate, deluge 352 
TO OVERHEAR—to hear, hearken, overhear .. 422 
TO OVERPOWER—to beat, defeat, overpower, 
rout, overthrow.....+. sicisisibe tsi ieisteinieiscion sas 143 
TO OVERPOWER—to overbear, overpower, 
bear down, overwhelm, subdue.......+.+... 144 
TO OVERRULE—overrule, supersede.......... 206 
OVERRULING—prevailing, prevalent, predomi- 
nant, overruling ..... islais sive oie s tiers ivie'e ele sislole 205 
TO OVERRUN to overspread, overrun, ra- 
TO eaceaas WALE welalslta tele w cre'alhiel de 507 
OVERSIGHT—-inadvertenry, inattention, over- 
sight 


eee eee esses sss esse e see eeseeseseseseeos 


LO OVERTHROW—to beat, defeat, overpower, 
rOUL, OVEXEHTOW..eeeeeeee soles eleleitueie se viele els 143 


‘TO OUTLIVE—to outlive, survive.:..-.++++- 


INDEX. 


Page 
TO OVERTHROW pF overturn, subvert, over- 


TO OVERTURN throw, invert, reverse .. 
TO OVERWHELM—+to overhear, bear down, 

overpower, overwhelm, subdue,...+----- voes 144 
TO OVERWHELM—to overwhelm, crush...-.- 504 
OUTCRY—noise, cry, outcry, clamiour..---++- - 470 
TO OUTDO—to exceed, excel, surpass, outdo... 273 
OUTLINES—sketch, outlines «......'++++se+0+ 338 
- 240 
121 


3503 


OUTRAGE—afiront, insult, outrage......++-+-.+- 
OUTSIDE—-shew, outside, semblance, appear- 


DUES ccs ccivere essen sh tece eldcetnele on Cle\s aemieettetete 453 
OUTWARD—outward, external, exteriour...... 351 
TO OUTWEIGH—to overbalance, prepeneca 

outweigh .......... nie sfoisie a pian ues OSs ovaliet 206 
TO OWN—to. acknowledge, own, confess, avow 442 
OWNER —possessor, proprietor, owner, master.. 238 
PACE—pace, Step... sees sccescecsees ohitain giesieie 301 
PACIFICK—peaceable, dogg pacifick....... 362 
TO PACIFY—to appease, bon: a Be 

still.. sisiek Saco odes 361 
PAGAN—gentile, heathen: { PAGAN » po ecenscencans 495 
PAIN—piin, pang, agony, anguish .........-..e> 407 
TO PAINT—to paint, depict, delineate, sketch .. 338 


PAIR—couple, brace, pair ....-.++sseewessecee 


PALATE—palate, taste .....ccesccesscecesssees OIG 
PALE—pale, pallid, Wan ...-.-.seesseees seeee +. 369 
TO PALLIATE—to extenuate, palliate...... <-- 182 
TO PALLIATE—to gloss, varnish, palliate ..... 515 
PALLID—pale, pallid, Wan -..--..+.--e cess cede 369 
TO PALPITATE—to palpitate, flutter, pant, 
PAB Taye sins 1s ales Us brelninje Gen'ele’ oeieleca etoteieratons pesee SUD 
PANEGYRICK—encomium, eulogy, panegyrick 130 
PANG—pain, pang, agony, anguish............. 407 
TO PANT—to palpitate, flutter, pant, gasp...... 305 
PARABLE—parable, arlegory ..-..-.-sse+eeese 532 
PARADE—show, parade, ostentatiun.... ..+... 453 
PARASITE—flatterer, sycophant, parasite ...... 526 
TO PARDON—to excuse, pardon.. - 182 
TO PARDON—to forgive, pardon, nualeataa remit 87 
PARDONABLE—venial, pardonable ........... 182 
TO PARE—to peel, pare.......-scceseececercee 518 
PARLIAMENT—assembly, company, meeting, 
congregation, parliament, diet, congress, con- 
vention, synod, convocation, council........- 490 
PARSIMONIOUS—avaricious, miserly, parstmo- 
nious, niggardly ..-.+-.+.00++--+ecennascases 161 
PARSIMON Y—economy, frugality, parsimony -. 161 
PARSON—clergyman, parson, priest, minister... 85 
PART —part, division, portion, share ............ 485 
PART—part, piece, patch .....-..--.eeeesesee+ 2: 486 
TO PART—to divide, separate, part ............ 484 
TO PARTAKE to partake, share, partici- 
TO PARTICIPATE ; DALE vale stea.s's sm iyia sane 486 
PARTICULAR—circumstantial, minute, particu- 
[atve es cee shaw sdeu hones ths ones nnn 173 
PARTICULAR—exact, nice, particular, punc- 
GIVE ath ie oe Mrse eatitesol anal y/t sie, Sia ins 9» sie tusleg eae 203, 
PARTICULAR—particular, singular, ae 
odd, strange.. Was cba BA eo ase st, 
PARTICULAR—particular, individual... «+s 252 


PARTICULAR—peculiar, appropriate, ribieatae 231 
PARTICULAR—spccial, specifick, particular... 252 


INDEX, 


Page 
VARTICULARLY—especially, particularly, prin- 
cipally, chiefly ....-..... ese 206 
PARTISAN—follower, adherent, partisan....... 419 
PARTNER—colleague, partner, coadjutor, assist- 


ee eres eseeee 


ANDi wen cq neta all veidis/nctece's.o Mamiee sites rt 
PART NERSHIP—association, society, company, 

partnership .......... Cisne siete minin= aisicera Len eniao 
PART Y—faction, party .-....0--se0 ues PP PecreNS 


PASSAGE—course, race, passage.......+..20020 Q75 
PASSIONATE—angry, passionate, hasty, irasci- 
Hleieebieaeete ss) sis = xialn\nise Wctstarei tess BA GSE seas 
PASSIV E—passive, submissive. ...+..-+-+e++-+. 149 
PASSIVE—patient, passive.......2.:.+e- -- 149 
PASTIME—amusement, entertainment, diversion, 
sport, recreation, pastime... 
PATCH—part, piece, patch.........-.e-see+ee- + 486 
PATHETICK—moving, affecting, pathetick..... 301 
PATIENCE—patience, endurance, resignation... 149 
PATIENT— patient, passive...-....-s.eseeeeeee 149 
PATIENT—invalid, patient.......2.s0-sse+e0+. 367 
PAUPER—Ppoor, pauper... ..cecceoscccccceveces S47 
TO PAUSE—to demur, hesitate, pause 96 
PAY—allowance, stipend, salary, 


wears esses sees es 


wages, hire, . 
seseeeseee 164 
PEACE—?peace, quiet, calm, tranquillity....°.... 361 
PEACEABLE 


ee ee ee oy esecese 


, peaceable, peaceful, pacifick.... 362 


PEACEFUL 
PEASANT—countryman, peasant, swain, hind, 
rustick clown ..-..-. sfejeis's stnasieisieic want aiem iy a DROOPD 


PECULIAR—peculiar, appropriate, particular... 231 
PEEL—skin, hide, peel, rind... = OS 
TO PEEL—to peel, pare ....-.. se DiS 
PEEVISH—captious, cross, peevish, petulant, 
freien Cian ences os RAN ASR ee asia cones 
PELLUCID—pellucid, transparent.... SCO vi 
PENALTY—fine, penalty, mulct, forfeiture ..... 204 
TO PENETRATE—to penetrate, pierce, perfo- 
rate, bore........ “se wee 402 
PENETRATION EL atéadnuriaae tserimlnaton 
penetration ......... re 
PENETRATION—penetration, weitere” saga- 
«ee 40] 
PENITENCE—repentance, penitence, contrition, 
COMPUNCtION, FEMOLSE....- 1. eee eceeeceees 88 
PENMAN —writer, penman, scribe... ce 336 
PENURI[OUS—economical, saving, sparing, penu- 
rious, thrifty, niggardly .......... wanciee 1 OL 
PENURY—poverty, indigence, want, enury, 


we eee ewes esene 


sae e see eee seeeesee 


7 


Se 


eee ese eeeees see sees see eter eseeesesos 


eesee 


TICE ae cies 5.o'pi0 he ABE as & “do ke) 5 Gaasasy 346 
PEOPLE—people, nation..... d seeeee  tiseceee 494 
PEOPLE—people, populace, mob, mobility..... » 495 
PEOPLE—people, persons, folks.......... Sate Oss 
TO PERCEIVE—to perceive, discern, distin- 

guish 2202, J kate, Hale and Aint Se 6 eis - 483 
TO PERCEITVE—to see, perceive, observe ...... 482 
PERCEPTION—perception, idea, conception, no- 

{Olas WME ATG UE occ dele sels asisie0 aiahove sre atk 
PERCEPTION—sentiment, sensation, perception, 376 


PEREMPTORY —positive, absolute, peremptory” 188 
PERFECT—accomplished, perfect............-. 282 
PERFECT—complete, perfect, finished Sorineae-ofh 
PERFIDIOUS—faithless, perfidious, treacherous 524 
TO PERFORATE—to penetrate, pierce, perfo- 
rate, hore sss DO A ee cece | 


sees 402 | PIQUE—mailice, rancour, spite, grudge, pique... 381] 


xlv 


Page 
PERFORATION—orifice, perforation .......... 402 


TO PERFORM—t effect, produce, perform..... 289 
TO PERFORM—to execute, fulfil, perform...... 288 
PERFORMANCE—-production, work, perform- 


PERFORMER—actor, player, performer ........ 298 
PERFUMu—smell, scent, odour, fragrance, per- 
fume.<,...:. eoee OL 
PERIYL—danger, hazard, peril.......---.+--.+-.- 171 
PERIOD—sentence, proposition, period, phrase .. 464 
PERIOD—time, period, age, date, era, epocha-... 267 
TO PERISH—to perish, die, decay ....-..- steed 
TO PERJURE—to forswear, perjure, suborn...- 92 
PERMANENT —durable, lasting, permanent .... 266 
PERMISSION—leave, liberty, permission, license 255 
TO PERMIT—to admit, allow, permit, tolerate, 
suffer.. ose 157 
EO PERM T—t0 consent, permit, allasy: Fordson’, diy 
PERNICIOUS—destructive, ruinous, pernicious... 504 
PERNICIOUS—hurtful, noxious, noisome, perni- 
CIOUS «0s eee eee cis > 406 
TO PERPETRATE—to perpetrate, commit..... 298 
PERPETUAL—continual, perpetual, constant... 265 
TO PERPLEX—to distress, harass, perplex .-.... 407 
TO PERPLEX—to embarrass, perplex, entangle 412 
TO PERSEVERE ) to continue, persevere, per- 
TO PERSIST § sist, pursue, prosecute ... 264 
TO PERSIST—1to insist, persist.......++..++-+0+ 265 
PERSONS—people, persons, folks....++.++s+e+++ 495 
PERSPICUIT Y—clearness, perspicuity .....-+++ 477 
TO PERSUADE—to exhort, persuade ...-...-.. 312 
TO PERSUADE—to bene entice, prevail 
upon . ai dened ccaidaisccdle dees atl 
PERSU ASION—conviction, persuasion ......... 7% 
PERTINENT—pertinent, relevant............++ 327 
PERVERSE—awkward, cross, crooked, wnto- 
ward, froward, perverse ....s.sie-eeees seers SLO 
PEST —hane, pest, TWIN. 00 ccocceseceesncvnecs «° OCS 
PESTILENTIAL—contagious, epidemical, pesti- 
Jential -. ssceeee 129 
PETITION—prayer, Br request, entreaty, 
suit . : 8? 
PETTY —tr ‘fling, trivial, petty, frivolous, futile.. 457 
PETULANT—captious, cross, peevish, fretful, 


ee eeeeesee reso weer ee eeersase 


Se eeeeseoeeseseseseeere ses 


eee eee eee esses eres e seer seneae 


ee ay a 


petulanitys eases .\es'sy Fie we ot Barb gucancetiece a0 315 
PHANTOM vision, apparition, phantom, ghost, 

BE CITC eicitin'« aia slcielaie +o graidtett a ofelsisyarvie al alayeallahsia 479 
PHRASE—sentence, proposition, period, phrase.. 464 
PHRASE tat phrase, phraseology, 
PHRASEOLOGW.) style Coc cs.0e ta ae oe weg ea S08 
PHRENS Y—madness, phrensy, rage, fury......- 281 
TO PICK—to choose, pick, select .....+.. +... » 234 
PICTURE—likeness, picture, image, effigy ...... 532 
TO PICTURE, vide TO PAINT. 
PICTURE—picture, print, engraving.......+..- - 450 
PIECH—part, piece, patch...... a go dis eretaisreteho Faia - 486 
TO PIERCE—to penetrate, pierce, perforate, bore 40% 
TO PILE—heap, pile, accumulate, amass....... 340 
PILLAGE—rapine, plunder, pillage..........- oo DOF 
PILLAR—pillar, column ...-+++.-.--seseeeee aon 409 
TO PINCH—to press, squeeze, pinch, gripe -.--. 309 
TO PINE—to flag, droop, languish, pine ..---.+. 368 
PIOUS—holy, pious, devout, religious..------»+. &8 


xlvi 


Page 
PITEOUS—piteous, doleful, woful, rueful....... 411 
PITEOUS 
PITIABLE 5 piteous, pitiable, pitiful...-...++..- 
PITIFUL 


PITIFUL—mean, pitiful, sordid .....+.+-sseeeee2 411 


PITIFUL—contemptible, despicable, pitiful...... 102 
PITY—pity, compassion. «.+-++sseseeeseeeseee «+ 308 
PIT Y—pity, mercy. ..-.+esseeeseesseceseceeeees 358 
PLACE—office, place, charge, function........-- 332 
PLACE—place, situation, station, position, post.. 278 
PLACE—place, spot, site...+..+ statectelcecieNine's oss 27 
TO PLACE—to place, dispose, order........-... 278 
TO PLACE—to put, place, lay, set ....--- seeree 280 
PLACID—calm, placid, serene....--.+sseeserece 362 
PLAIN—apparent, visible, clear, plain, obvious, 
evident, manifest........+. eet eitnlistercsieiee's 478 
PLAIN—even, smooth, level, plain...-.+..-+..+- 435 
PLAIN—-frank; candid, ingenuous, free, open, 
DIAIM eee cence ces e cee ecceeceeenceeccecceeces 431 
PLAIN—sincere, honest, true, plain.........-..- 430 
PLAUDIT—applause, acclamation, plaudit...... 130 
PLAUSIBLE—colourable, specious, ostensible, 
plausible, feasible ......-seeeee Ke WAAR A 516 
PLA Y—play, game, Sporf....-sccecssee-coccceee 384 
PLAYER—actor, player, performer.......-+-.-- 298 
TO PLEAD—apologize, defend, justify, excuse, 
exculpate, plead........e-ceeceeeseeeccereee 181 
PLEADER-— defender, advocate, pleader ........ 180 
PLEASANT—agreeable, pleasant, pleasing...... 152 
PLEASANT —facetious, conversible, pleasant, jo- 
Culav, JOCOSE «ose eeereeecececceccsssecccoees 461 
TO PLEASE—to satisfy, please, gratify ........ 383 
PLEASED—glad, pleased, joyful, cheerful....... 393 
PLEASING—agreeable, pleasant, pleasing ...... 152 
PLEASURE—compfort, pleasure.........sseesees 357 
PLEASURE—pleasure, joy, delight, charm...... 393 
PLEDGE—deposite, pledge, security -.....-+see. 183 
PLEDGE—earnest, pledge... ...+.-seeeseeecees 184 
PLENIPOTENTIAR Y—ambassador, plenipoten- 
tiary, envoy, deputy.......e.cccseccecsceeee 214 
PLENITUDE—fulness, plenitude.........-.000. 341 
PLENTEOUS ) plentiful, plenteous, abundant, 
PLENTIFUL copious, ample ...+....+..ee. 341 
ek: flexible, pliable, pliant, supple...... 360 
PLIGHT —situation, condition, state, predicament, 
MIITHE CASES cc seme ec ele mw eee eelee wen cscwcns's Q79 
PLOT—combination, cabal, plot, conspiracy.. 489 


TO PLUCK—to draw, drag, haul or hale, pluck, 


UL CU A ispecies visceie ecw ec aeleiniee sieiele ssol0is - 303 
PLUNDER —rapine, plunder, pillage ...........» 507 
TO PLUNGE—to plunge, dive..... AA BNE oss Goo 
TO' POINT—to aim, point, level... .......000e 324 
TO POINT OUT—to show, point out, indicate, 

MULAL otelen aigtvore eislesioicieaie-cles e eraisiare aig eesteitiom eins 451 
TO POISE—to poise, balance ...............+66 370 
POISON— poison, Venom ...+--.eeeeceree SAP AS - 503 
POLISHED 


POLITE pelite, polished, refined, genteel... 


POLIT E—Civil, polite... ..sseecvccessscvceeeeee 198 

POLITICK 

POLITICAL § Political Sadiebelaverei sa’ LOL 

TO POLLUTE—to contaminate, defile, pollute, 
taint, corrupt. +++. woos, 129 


, politick .. 


e@eeeeseeoe coe 


INDEX. 


Page 
POMP—magnificence, splendour, pomp.......... 453 


POMPOUS—magisterial, majestick, stately a 


ous, august, dignified. . + 454 
TO PONDER—to think, ptt: poner muse... 76 
PONDEROUS—heavy, burdensome, ponderous, 

WEIGHTY. SL Wetete eleiseiele» yes sie cnle eieiciaiere/eteaane 376 
POOR—Ppo0r) PaUupehec se coe. ccc ad ones ce meme nine 347 
POPULACE—people, populace, mob, mobility... 495 
PORT —harbonr, haven, port .......-...+seeeeee 518 
TO PORTEND—to augur, presage, forebode, be- 

tokens portend! > Sav st cscs stereo silos «intel stp - 94 
PORTION—deal, quantity, portion.......-+.+«+ 486 
PORTION—part, division, porticn, share........ 485 
POSITION——place, situation, station, position, 

OSU mis ecsrcls in fal'als intel asinta oie Qtel tote si giieeala sto iei aia 278 
POSITION—action, gesture, gesticulation, atti- 

tude, posture, POSitioNs.. 2... ccewse screens 295 
POSITION—tenet, position... 2... cccesessseene 80 
POSITIVE--actual, real, positive........- .---. 298 
POSITIVE—confident, dogmatical, positive..... - 414 
POSITIVE—definite, positive .......--+..- tsene 408 
POSITIVE—positive, absolute, en 188 
TO POSSESS—to have, possess . ae - 237 
TO POSSESS—to hold, occupy, possess ........ 236 
POSSESSIONS—goods, possessions, property.... 340 
POSSESSOR—possessor, proprietor, owner, mas- 

LER (a a sthlpipe) sn cis lena» wloternpieialowpataiee elsletsl gieinetaiane 238 
POSSIBLE—possible, practicable, practical...... 324 


POST —place, situation, station, position, post.... 278 
POSTERIOR—subsequent, consequent, poste- 


TO POSTPONE—to delay, defer, postpone, pro- 
crastinate, prolong, protract, retard....-..... 260 
POSTURE—action, gesture, gesticulation, pos- 


ture, attitude, position 2... /< cejs'tinels' pecinenees 295 
POTENT—powerful, potent, mighty.........- -- 187 
POTENTATE—prince, monarch, sovereign, po- 

POMEL seins olck. cies solar vaie gel tatamlelie ae Tae ne 18? 
Bien nilenras vals eee wee ites. 

need. . a8 isineth, Sere tatonm . 346 
TO POUND—to Neti tee squeeze, pound 

CTULSH sie cisicasin, cles esassiecdislopars gnats oe teem soeoee OUL 
TO POUR—to pour, spill, shed.......02ssse00- 346 
POWER—power, strength, force, authority, do- 

ININION. <6 vin.c 5/5/0101 jolgjaoje'e.e [ol otein a ie ean 186 
POWERFUL—powerful, potent, mighty........ 187 
mia ey ie possible, practicable, practical 324 
PRACTICE—custom, habit, manner, practice... 322 
TO PRACTISE—to exercise, practise .......... 322 
TO PRAISE—to praise, commend, applaud, ex- 

GO] esa ssi ioe </6y's 106 e56 Tw bee, wapio entole ey aiel sean ee - 130 
pantera ta 2) panels 

laudable . : vesesee 13] 
PRANK—frolick, ates Sree. eeu sisis 6, bisataeeane 390 
TO PRATE to babble, chatter, chat, prate, 

TO .PRATTLE:\... prattile ......... «<< ees seemeeae 
PRAYER—prayer, petition, request, entreaty, 

BUGLE se yalaio's vis Malainie'ssiaia'ciels eects Perey orc sis 
PRECARIOUS-—doubtful, Span uncertain, 

precarious . sacencacceclossee OG 
PRECEDEN triers pr rensaean preference, 

PYO-EMINENCE . 0606.0 e ese comeiiee eee eerees B73 
PRECEDENT—example, precedent......- vresee Bal 


INDEX. xlvn 
Page Page 
PRECEDING—antecedent, preceding, previous, TO PRESUME—to premise, presume........... 231 


foregoing, anterior, prior, former.....-..-..+ 272 
PRECEPT—comman4d, order, injunction, precept, 


mandate.......-- SMe Eadaiel ssc pinis se iclatememiaics vel hk OO) 
PRECEPT—aoctrine, precept, principle......... 80 
PRECEPT—maxim, precept, rule, law........ we ZI 
PRECIOUS—valuable, precious, costly....... eee 437 
PRECIPITANCY-—-rashness, temerity, hastiness, 

PLEEIMILANCY voy 21» sw ensinngnsecs seicisioieanes +» 263 
PRECISE—accurate, exact, precise ....... Fis Gi IeAtB 


TO PRECLUDE--to prevent, obviate, preclude 259 
PRECURSOR—forerunner, precursor, messenger, 
harbinger. ... 
PREDICAMENT-—situation, condition, state, pre- 
dicament, plight, case ....----.-.s.eee- Bone: eae 
TO PREDICT—to foretel, predict, prognosticate, 
prophesy .-secsccasceneers 
PREDOMINANT —prevailing, prevalent, over- 
ruling, predominant ......... mlataalonsterneraietereste 205 
PRE-EMIN ENCE—priority, precedence, pre-emi- 
NENCE, PLELELENCE 0/0... recess mesa cesenseaeel Sd 
PREFACE—prelude, preface........ o eceelcioweaa COL 
TO PREFER—to choose,/prefer.....csseereeese Q33 
TO PREFER—to encourage, advance, promote, 
prefer, forward TSAC Sys ey 
PREFERABLE—eligible, preferable ............ 234 
PREFERENCE—priority, precedence, pre-emi- 
nence, preference ......+..++- sehterste eaaO 
PREJUDICE—bias, prejudice, prepossession..... 160 
PREJUDICEH—disadvantage, injury, hurt, detri- 


215 


Pee eroseoosavceesereresenssesese 


eorseerenreeereesseas 


eeetee Ce or 


eeseeee 


ment, prejudice. ....-...eesee--s atin relate Kietets -» 404 
PRELIMINAR Y—previous, preliminary, prepara- 

LOFY, INtTOUUCHOTY. ©2042 /.000 sve cecaecccecseciee QUE 
PRELUDE—prelude, preface.............20002- Q31 
TO PREMISE—to premise, presume........ meres 
PREMEDITATION—foresight, forethought, fore- 

Cast, PreMeditation ..2..2...eeeesecevesces ve 399 


TO PREPARE—to fit, equip, prepare, qualify... 154 
PREPARATORY~— previous, preliminary, prepa- 
ratory, IntrOduUCtOryy ...cj-smevesiescmeceduases VIA 
TO PREPONDERATE—to overbalance, prepon- 
derate, outweigh ...--..6cs.ses eke Sees sapaie 
PREPOSSESSION—-bias, prepossession, preju- 
WE Gastcats se cisiasalerase siefemiehslate)s 
PREPOSSESSION—bent, bias, inclination, pre- 
POSSeSSiON ....-. 
PREPOSTEROUS—irrational, foolish, absurd, 
preposterous .....2... 
PREROGATIVE—privilege, prerogative, immu- 
HILy, CXEMPLOM 260.6620 ceeersercccncees wanie 
PRESAGE—omen, prerogative, presage.---e.s.- 
TO PRESAGE—to augur, presage, forebode, be- 
token, portend .......-..s-. 
TO PRESCRIBE—to appoint, prescribe, ordain.. 
TO PRESCRIBE—to dictate, prescribe ....... oe 
PRESCRIPTION—usage, custom, prescription .. 
PRESENT —zift, present, donation, benefaction. . 
TO PRESENT—to give, offer, present, exhibit... 
TO PRESENT “Yo introduce, present......-.+.+ 
TO PRESERVE —to keep, preserve, save ...-.+ 
TO PRESERVE—to save, spare, preserve, pro- 
pect: sesh ihe te td 
TO PRESS—to press, squeeze, pinch, gripe-..... 309 
PRESSING —pressing, urger+,importunate.... 158 


206 


160 


eee esece essen 


159 


e eee es eoeorersseeerecece 


seceee tee nees eee 


PRESUMING—presumptive, presumptuous, pre- 

SUMING ..---eees eee eee Wenke oe 
PRESUMPTION—arrogance, presumption.....- 231 
PRESUMPTIVE presumptive, presumptuous, 
PRESUMPTUOUS presuming... 
PRETENCE—pretence, pretension, pretext, ex- 

CUSE .-.-+ Pn eIn cee rece ege tenet visiet 229 
TO PRETEND—to feign, pretend .....+e0e---- 528 
TO PRETEND—to affect, pretend...+.-.++++- + 229 
PRETENSION—pretension, claim..... SaaS o> 229 
PRETENSION ) pretence, pretension, pretext, ex- 
PRETEXT cuse.... Wee 229 
PRETT Y—beautiful, fine, handsome, pretty..... 313 
PREVAILING—prevailing, ruling, overruling, 

prevalent, predominant .......... - 205 
TO PREVARICATE—to evade, equivocate, pre- 


232 


eee eoteoeee 


ee 


WADLGALC eratalntefole qioisieieiep wetoineire aheioiars sptaiareisiere 526 
TO PREVENT—1o hinder, prevent, impede, ob- 
SETULCL oT are 015 (e! cletsrerse eral wratarcia Shu, ucstele lobe easter e teats Moors 


TO PREVENT—to prevent, anticipate ......... 259 
TO PREVENT—to prevent, obviate, preclude... 259 
PRE VIOUS—antecedent, preceding, foregoing, 
previous, anterior, prior, former.....----+.- - 272 
PREViIOUS—+previous, preliminary, preparatory, 
introductory ..-..e.s.- reve V4 
PREY—booty, spoil, prey......- Aes See Heskyres 506 


woos ses ee eae ea eene es 


PRICE—cost, expense, price, charge ...-..-+-.-. 436 
PRICE—value, worth, rate, price ......-...++++. 436 
PRIDE—pride, vanity, cOnCEit --...+0+.seeeeee oe 100 


PRIDE—pride, haughtiness, loftiness, dignity..-. 100 


PRIEST—clergyman, parson, priest, minister.-.. 85 
PRIMARY primary, primitive, pristine, origi- 
Peiaeneele MAW. s sid iates aleicre ealewlara) scm clots ee 
PRINCE—prince, monarch, sovereign, potentate 188 
PRINCIPAL—chief, principal, main ...........- 206 
PRINCIPALLY—especially, particularly, princi- 
pally, chiefly........+.- wale nie lcinedaisis Nace en's 206 
PRINCIPLE—doctrine, precept, principle ...... - 80 
PRINCIPLE—principle, motive ..--+-.++-++...- 213 
PRINT—mark, print, impression, stamp.....-... 446 
PRINT—picture, print, engraving. ...-..+.+-se+. 459 
PRIOR—antecedent, preceding, foregoing, previ- 
ous, anterior, prior, former .....00..ee2+05 2 212 


PRIORITY—priority, precedence, pre-eminence, 
preference .......- wer Qs 
PRISTINE—-primacy, primitive, pristine, origi- 
Welle vids ws sscslaleetelstabaieictiers wiscwiers sie.e male aoe aie ta 
PRIVACY—privacy, retirement, seclusion 
PRIVILEGE—privilege, prerogative, exemption, 
TMMUNILY. 0. seen eesecece seen eeeecebevevees Qe 


eoeee esse oreo e ee sees ene 


PRIVILEGE—tight, claim, privilege........-+- = 225 
PRIZE—capture, seizure, prize....-. SR asigitacic 506 
TO PRIZE—to value, prize, esteem. --+....++--- 436 
PROBABILIT Y—chance, probability..... seaaas 170 
PROBITY—honesty, uprightness, integrity, pro- 

WibYarsierae ase Ge, Cae Tae Bae ee ees ee ADT 
TO PROCEED—to advance, proceed ....+..--- . 301 
TO PROCEED—to arise, proceed, issue, spring, 

flow, EMANALE. 0 es eee econ cece seseeserenceee COL 
PROCEEDING—proceeding, transaction..--- eR 
PROCEEDING 


PROCESS proceeding, process, progress... 330 


PROCESSION—procession, train, retinue......+ 493 


clviii INDEX. 
Page Vag 
TO PROCLAIM—to announce, _eeeere publish, PROOF—argument, reagon, pruof....seseseeeese Th 
advertise ....+-..2..06 Bttese tise ght’: ooo oem 443 | PROOF—proof, evidence, testimony .-..-....... 444 


TO PROCLAIM—to declare, publish, proclaim... 442 
PROCLAMATION—decree, edict, proclamation 443 
TO PROCRASTINATE—to delay, defer, post- 
pone, procrastinate, prolong, protract, retard... 260 
TO PROCURE—to get, gain, obtain, procure.... 396 
TO PROCURE—to provide, procure, furnish, 
supply 
PRODIGAIL—extravagant, prodigal, lavish, pro- 
fuse 342 
PRODIGIOUS—enormous, prodigious, monstrous 350 
PRODIGY—wonder, miracle, marvel, prodigy, 


eee ee reseceeesee He seeeseseeoeesserorenn 


wee esse oses toon esse eeesesereseosseesesece 


MIONSTOEH s vce Mie eia tle slvintlciate teje Seedlee se ota tle 403 
PRODUCE— production, produce, product...... +. 329 
TO PRODUCE—to afford, yield, produce ....... 330 


TO PRODUCE—to effect, produce, perform..... 289 
TO PRODUCE—to make, form, produce, create 292 
PRODUCT 


PRODUCTION production, produce, product... 329 


PRODUCTION—production, performance, work 329 
PROFANE —irreligious, profane, impious....... 92 
TO PROFESS—to profess, declare........-..... 442 
PROFESSION—business, trade, profession, art.. 331 
PROFICIENCY—progress, a im prove- 
ment - eiseye eie's.e . ose 204 
PROFIT—advantage, prot: Pisaipiatnslsiieletslaveter Sessa 398 
PROFIT—zgain, profit, emolument, lucre........ 397 
PROFLIGATE—profligate, abandoned, reprobate 249 
PROFUNDIT Y—depth, profundity ............ 350 


PROFUSE—extravagant, prodigal, lavish, profuse 342 


PROFUSENESS : 

PROFUSION ; profusion, profuseness....... 342! 

PROGENITORS—forefathers, ancestors, progeni- 
BOCA store eas ein ete note esis cc d's olble etc Rioatelne eaice s sees 260 

PROGEN Y—ofispring, progeny, issue.........+. 291 


PROGNOSTICK-—omen, presage, prognostick.. 
TO PROGNOSTICATE—to ee pipes prog- 

nosticate, prophesy........-.. . 
PROGRESS—proceeding, process, progress.....- 333 
PROGRESS—progress, proficiency, improvement 204 
PROGRESS ! progress, progression, advance, 
PROGRESSION advancement............0- 204 
PROGRESSIVE—onward, forward, progressive 202 
TO PROHIBIT—1to | forbid, prohibit, interdict, 


PTOSCKIDE oe ncetn cee ces ainsib.apaehlei diaeie asics oie 223 
rvROJECT — design, plan, scheme, project........ 534 
PROLIFICK—fertile, fruitful, prolifick.......... 341 
PROLEX—diffuse,prolix2s Vive scocestmaces es. 464 
TO PROLONG—to delay, defer, postpone, pro- 

crastinats,, prolong, protract, retard.......... 260 
PROMINENT—prominent, conspicuous......... 474 
PROMISCUOUS—promiscuous, indiscriminate... 284 
PROMISE—promise, engagement, word......... 217 


TO PROMOTE—to encourage, advance, promote, 


TE leY, LOL WANG iste tuidateh etdlale. «Mielec ouacored Steet 312 
PROMPT —diligent, expeditious, prompt......... 262 
PROMPT — ready; apt; prompts <<. i. feo schist o's 297 
TO PROMULGATE—to publish, promulgate, di- 

vulge, reveal, disclose ....-.cesseeceeeccecce 443 

RONENESS—inclination, tendency, propensity, 

proneness Dis aa iis wig win Besse oiels Na is are lala ieiel he dotet eine - 160 
TO PRONOUNCE—to utter, speak, artiohiaté: 

PYOMOUNCE ecveccsesecce ves hae eeets ° 


459 


PROOF—experience, experiment, es ae test 319 


PROP—staff, stay, prop, support - eats Geel BOO 
TO PROPAGATE—to speed, clrcilatel _Propa- 

gate, disseminate.........seeseee oo Pareto a en EDe 
PROPENSIT Y—inclination eee primal! 

propensity -. Peach nics we've o/s'ae soln Sulbiiee eh aMERE 
PROPER—rignht, fost 0) eS 430 - 
PROPERTY—goods, property, possessions...... 340 
PROPERTY—dquality, property, attribute........ 232 


PROPITIOUS—favourable, auspicious, propitious 190 
TO PROPHESY—to foretel, predict, pe 


PYOLNOSLICALE 20 eveceseccconr cose conecente 94 
PROPORTION—rate, proportion, ratio.......... 434 
PROPORTION—symmetty, proportion ......--. 435 
PEE cee ees aace eee commensu- 

rate, adequate. . alate ete - 434 
TO PROPOSE—to offer, bid, saat a propose.... 167 
TO PROPOSE—to purpose, propose. . s2 5 O84 
PROPOSITION—sentence, probeniilea “patiea, 

phrases (oe crets cecil cece vodes cee wsegelinntely ate 464 
Ee aun ae ee an owner, ; 

master. docks oti ate, 
TO PROROGUE-—t0 ] prorogue, ‘gajoueee preteens 260 
TO PROSCRIBE—to forbid, prohibit, interdict, 

proscribe ........ viaib-sip oie Ghatulsiveya te e*gjaactetersete 223 
TQ PROSECUTE—to continue, persevere, per- 

Sist, PUTSUC, PrOSECULE.......eeeeecensceee - 264 
PROSELYTE—convert, proselyte .........++... 86 
PROSPECT—view, survey, prospect. . f 479 
PROSPECT—view, prospect, ne Mieiewse 479) 
|! TO PROSPER—to flourish, thrive, prosper..... 395 
Se RTE NE mies prosperity, 

happiness. .-.-.+.- viele ain otsle within wrens! ODS 
PROSPEROUS—fortunate, sucky prosperous, 

successful . ase eise 8c eserves BOD 


TO PROTECT —to defend, rioliel vihidibatet os 179 
TO PROTECT—1o save, spare, preserve, protect 179 
TO PROTEST—to wae paces meine 
vouch, aver, protest... ela eip ished seee 44] 
TO PROTRACT—to Fim defer, paubeee pto- 
crastinate, prolong, protract, retard ......+... 260 
TO PROVE—to argue, evince, prove....sssse-0. 77 
TO PROVE—to prove, demonstrate, evince, ma- 
NILES. 50/6 \arcre ip! «ore el, povetp Carer chetete! oln-ctaty eles 
PROVERB—axiom, maxim, aphorism, apoph- 
thegm, saying, adage, proverb, by-word, saw 210 
TO PROVIDE—to i procure, furnish, sup- 


ply -- mete Sigecoed sick stale steltan eet enema go 
PROVIDENCE—providence, prudence.......... 399 
PROVIDENT—careful, cautious, provident..... 425 
PROVISION—fare, provision.......20sseeeseees 533 
TO PROVOKE—to aggravate, irritate, provoke, 


exasperate, tantalize.'.. J wv.cdscemwedscenbente Lee 
TO PROVOKE—to awaken, excite, provoke, 

TOUSC, STILE UP. eee eceecceeccccicvcvccccesses 
TO PROVOKE—to excite, incite, provoke ...... 309 
PRUDENCE—judgement, discretion, prudence.. 400 


PRUDENCE—prudence, providence............ 399 
PRUDENCE—wisdom, prudence... .....-+++ 400 
PRUDENT ; 

PRUDENTIAL , prudent, prudential-......+-... 399 
TO PRY—to pry, scrutinize, dive into..--.... ine OO 


INDEX. 


Page 
99 | TO RAISE—to lift, raise, erect, elevate, exalt... 


PK YING—cunous, prying inquisitive....... ras 
TO PUBLISH—to announce, ae ik ee 
publish .. iklals, tees 36 A - 443 


TO PUBLISH —to declare, publish, sat? . 442 
TO PUBLISH—to publish, promulgate, divine, 
reveal, disclose........+. oveelee shia asinstelssh/e 443 
PUERILE—youthful, juvenile, puerile ......... 
TO PULL—to draw, drag, haul or hale, pull, 
Pluck, tug... osceecscccccccscnsccccseccccces 303 
PUNCTUAL—exact, nice, particular, punctual... 203 
PUNISHMENT —correction, discipline, punish- 
PUPIL—scholar, disciple, pupil.... 
TO PURCHASE—to buy, purchase, bargain, 
CHEAPEN «oo es ce eee e sce e seen cece eccessceeee 335 
PURPOSE—sake, account, reason, purpose, end-. 535 
TO PURPOSE—to design, purpose, intend, mean 533 
TO PURPOSE—te purpose, propose............ 534 
TO PURSUE—tOo follow, pursue........-..-..0- Q71 
TO PURSUE—to continue, persevere, persist, 
pursue, prosecute 
TO PUT—to put, place, lay, set......-.0.sseee. 
LO PUTREFY—to rot, putrefy, corrupt.... 


see eersee esses eereseseonssne 


TO QUAKE —to shake, tremble, shudder, pare 
QUAKE occa ccec cues - 305 
QUALIFICATION —qualification, a ummki 
CO QR Cen NCCLL UOC NEDUEP DREHER cnatk Cprie 289 
QU ALIFIED—competent, fitted, qualified ...... 154 
TO QUALIFY—to fit, equip, prepare, qualify.. 154 
CO QUALIFY—to qualify, temper, humour.... 388 
OF QUALITY—of fashion, of pie 8 of dis- 
TNGTION. 608s Succ 
QUALITY— quality, property, atedbote Seceslanis See 
QUANTIT Y—deal, quantity, portion........... 
QUARREL—4difference, dispute, quarrel, alterca- 


eoeesseeo see eo sess 


TIO ca cisis oe ciosaipeied veins cisiesioiivasieces bere eee 133 
QUARREL—dquarrel, broil, feud, affray or fray.. 133 
QUARTER —district, region, tract, quarter...... 498 
a yaa ON question, query - coee OF 
TO QUESTION—to doubt, question, dispute.... 95 
TO QUESTION—*to ask, inquire, best inter- 

rogate .. OO ie Maes Panis Sek cee ASD . 97 
QUICKN ESS_quickness, gaiiony ‘Gootnedd, 

celerity, rapidity, velocity.....ssssseeeseeees 262 
QUIET—ease, quiet, rest, repose....-seeseeeseee 362 
QUIET— peace, quiet, calm; tranquillity.. ws roO1 


TO QUIET—to appease, calm, pacify, ale 8 still 361 
TO QUIT—1to leave, quit, relinquish... . 255 
TO QUIVER—to shake, gree hutiel 3 qui- 
ver, quake.. - 305 
TO QUOTE—t0 cite, QUWOtE ls Sac ycc wees oecesiecs's 400 


sesevoseseeves sees esenecse 


RACE—COUTrSe, race, PASSAGl..eerecereececoecees 
RACE—family, house, lineage, race............ 
RACE—race, generation, breed..-..-.++-. Sodus 
TO RACK—to break, rack, rend, tear.... 
RADIANCE—vadiance, brilliancy -.. 
TO RADIATE—to shine, glitter, glare, sparkle, 
radiate 
RAGE—anger, choler, rage, fury.-.-.eeseeeeeee 
RAGE—madness, phrensy, rage, fury .......... 
TO B.AISE—to heighten, raise, aggravate....... 


@eeeesoneee 


See e ese Fees eases eseesseeosees Soe orees 


. 474 | 


TO RALLY—to deride, mock, ridicule, rally, 
Danters asec seree ss aice Re piale ae srataiele fais 6 atte «+ 103 
RAMBLE—excursion, ramble, tour, trip, jaunt... 302 
TO RAMBLE—to wander, stroll, ramble, rove, 
roam, rangeé...... 
RANCOUR—hatred, enmity, ill-will, rancour ... 131 
RANCOUR—mailice, rancour, spite, grudge, pique 381 
TO RANGE—to class, arrange, range........... Q77 
TO RANGE—to wander, stroll, ramble, rove, 
roam, range 
RANK —class, order, rank, degree.....+--ssceeee 
TO RANSOM—to redeem, ransom .:........... 440 
RAPACIOUS—rapacious, ravenous, voracious... 507 
RAPIDIT Y—quickness, swiftness, fleetness, cele 


See eseceesseeeeeoressr.eseessoees 


LIEV, haAPIGIty, ‘VEIOCIEY > sialeinlnv sivwin sciniesec wn 6 262 
RAPINE—rapine, plunder, pillage ........2..... 507 
RAPTURE—ecstasy, rapture, transport......... 318 
RARE—rare, scarce, singular. ....-..eeseeceseee 250 
TO RASE—to blot out, expunge, rase or erase, 

efface, cancel, obliterate ......+..eesseeeeees 248 
RASH—foolhardy, adventurous, rash .....-..... 32] 
RASHNESS—rashness, temerity, hastiness, preci- 

Pitan yn eseicse eat meraite cetaaiere adie ais « £63 
RATE—rate, proportion, ratio.........-.-+.02-. 434 
RATE—tax, rate, aSSeSSMENt .-..eeeceesecsceeen 168 
RATE—value, worth, rate, price............e.06 436 
TO RATE—to estimate, compute, rate........- 432 
RAT{O—rate, proportion, ratio........2.2.+ 0. 434 
RATIONAL—sational, reasonable.........-..-+ 7 
RAVAGE—ravage, desolation, devastation.....- 506 
TO RAVAGE—to overspread, overrun, ravage.. 507 
RAVENOUS—rapacious, ravenous, voracious... 507 
RAY—gleam, glimmer, ray, beam..........--. > 476 
TO RAZE—to demolish, raze, dismantle, destroy 505 
TO REACH—to reach, stretch, extend......+-+ 348 
READ Y—edsys ready: ses ccs accccceccecie aces 363 
READY—ready, apt, prompt...-...eeseesseeeee 297 
REAL—actual, real, positive.....cesesessesevee 288 
REAL—intrinsick, genuine, real...........ee06 437 
10 REALIZE—to fulfil, accomplish, realize.... 289 
REALM—state, realm, commonwealth......-... 189 
REASON—argument, reason, proof........-.... 77 
REASON—cause, reason, mOtive........eereee oy Mes 
REASON—consideration, reason ....+2+.+.-ee. Ay 


2| REASON—sake, account, reason, purpose, end.. 535 


REASONABLE—fair, honest, equitable, reason- 
al laatas ccs eile Maiaceescctesle aise eal evele cli ele gins 423 
REASONABLE —rational, reasonable ........ CeTL 
REBELLION—contumacy, rebellion ........ .. 216 
REBELLION—insurrection, sedition, rebellion, 
YEVOIt. ce eescvece @ apelarsey salve e sieeisid eieleisicaje nie 208 
TO REBOUND—to rebound, reverberate, recoil 305 
TO REBUFF--to refuse, decline, reject, repel, 
rebuff -+...0+ Meine aldara cieteicia: sie tists ci setel eles +. 232 
TO REBUKE—to check, chide, reprimand, re- 


prove, rebuke .....-..55 Mislsveisieai anes sce - 110 
TO RECALL to abjure, recant, retract, revoke, 
TO RECANT TOCA lccccutedalslen cie.cas cscs ees 247 
TO RECAPITULATE—to repeat, recite, recapi- 
tulate, rehearse .....ceeceeeccecrerccesecece 465 
TO RECEDE—to recede, retreat, withdraw, re- 
tire, secede ......++.. SU Rilete os eo oclelstene meme 253 
RECEIPT—receipt, reception...-++++++se0s eeses 239 


| INDEX 


Page 
TO RECEIVE—to take, receive, accept.----- aeons 
TO RECEIVE—to admit, receive -..-.++-++++++ 230 


RECENT—fresh, new, novel, recent, modern...- 268 
RECEPTION—treceipt, reception...+++++e+++++- 233 
RECIPROCAL—mutual, reciprocal.--+-+.++++++ 
RECIPROCITY--interchange, exchange, recipro- 


CIEY oo cece e cee ence cee c cece ee ctercceceeees 334 
RECITAL—relation, recital, narration....+..++- 466 
TO RECITE—to repeat, recite, rehearse, recapi- 

HULALS sin. sis cln,s tina pies slepein Sie eis sie sec pelsitics eee 465 
TO RECKON—to calculate, compute, reckon, 

count or account, number ......e.eeeeeecee - 432 
RECKONING—account, bill, reckoning..-.-.++- 433 
TO RECLAIM—to reclaim, reform .-..--+.++e+s 203 
TO RECLINE—to recline, repose. ..----++++ee++ 363 
TO RECOGNISE—to recognise, acknowledge .. 442 


TO RECOIL—to rebound, reverberate, recoil... 305 
RECOLLECTION—memory, remembrance, re- 


collection, reminiscence ........eeeseseeeeee 72 
RECOMPENSE—compensation, amends, satis- 

faction, remuneration, recompense, requital.. 438 
RECOMPENSE—zratuity, recompense .......-- 440 
TO RECONCILE—to conciliate, reconcile ...... 153 
TO RECORD—to enrol, enlist, record, register... 468 
RECORD—record, register, archive.....-2.+..-- 469 
TO RECOUNT—to relate, recount, describe .... 466 


TO RECOVER—to recover, retrieve, repair, re- 


EPG topavete cys iniees “ia ismisieincaiessisie)a sieinigis inininisisto a\eine « 440 
RECOVER Y-—recovery, restoration .....-++es 440 
RECREATION—amusement, entertainment, di- 

version, sport, recreation, pastime.....++..+. 391 
TO RECRUIT—to recover, retrieve, repair, re- 

EU Uhite ce cles icles miaieleisieie’oisislailoin «a's eciatelevoleisiniaye 440 
TO RECTIFY—to amend, correct, reform, rectify, 

emend, improve, mend, better........ Re ats 201 
RECTITUDE—tectitude, uprightness..........- 428 
TO REDEEM—to redeem, ransom.....ceeeeeess 440 
REDRESS—redress, relief .....seccccccccccvece 365 
TO REDUCE—to reduce, lower......... Siete peniete 148 
REDUNDANCY——redundancy, superfluity, ex- 

ORS tiesto hue laisieis 5.4 1s + esis eiminiatars asl meteiates Bie gale 343 
TO REEL—to stagger, reel, totter .....-.esceove 303 
TO REFER—to allude, refer, hint, suggest ...... 326 
TO REFER—to refer, relate, respect, regard..... 326 
REFINED—polite, polished, refined, genteel..... 199 


REFINEMENT—cultivation, civilization, refine- 
ment . soeees coescccceeces 198 


TO REFLECT—to has reflect pieleiaiate cies - 76 
TO REFLECT—to think, reflect, muse, pon- 

der . AP WEP SEIS SG SARS AS Ge iG 
REFLECTION—insinuation, ronnie « 327 


TO REFORM—to amend, correct, reform, restr: 
emend, improve, mend, better.......... sisvan « 201 
TO REFORM—to reclaim, reform ...........« 
REFORM 
REFORMATION seas ae 
REFRACTORY—unruly, ungovernable, refrac- 
LOLY essere cee eeeeceee Beet ith eve's anls Wide ik ae 208 
TO REFRAIN—to abstain, forbear, refrain..... 244 
TO REFRESH—to revive, refresh, renovate, re- 


reform, refcrmation... 


MPV eis Heke Le cicveleswaises. csmlsetaml ice S45 GOO 
REFUGE—asylum, refuge, shelter, retreat .-. . 518 
TO REFUSE—to deny, refuse .......-.— «= -. 232 


REFUSE—dregs, sediment, dross, scum'ta *- 515 


Page 

TO REFUSE—to refuse, decline, reject, repel, re- 
DUE siacie's «sie Wrerereoieleis:oinis ele yate-atalate ny eran se» 232 

TO REFUTE—to confute, refute, oppugn, dis- 
PYOVE. esc escec tees sees cccscercess eseeceese 110 
REGAL—troyal, regal, kingly ..--.-. aticet-aae e+» 189 
REGARD—care, concern, regard... -+..sseeeeees 425 
TO REGARD--to attend to, mind, heed, regard « 42% 
TO REGARD—to esteem, respect, regavd..-+.<+. 427 
TO REGARD—to consider, regard....-.-+--+-- eri! 
TO REGARD—to refer, relate, respect, regard.«= 326 
REGARDFUL—mindful, regardful, observant.... 426 

REGARDLESS—-indifferent, unconcerned, re- 


PATOIERS «2/-'s 2 va':s soinieon pibve bine irieietrele (Weisser 373 
REGIMEN—food diet, regimen..-.-......+. coee O14 
REGION—district, region, quarter .....e.s.s-s+ 498 
TO REGISTER—to enrol, enlist, record, register 468 


REGISTER—+record, register, archive........... 469 
REGISTER—list, roll, catalogue, register.......- 
TO REGRET—to complain, lament, regret.....- 
TO REGULATE—to direct, dispose, regulate... 
TO REGULATE—to govern, rule, regulate ..... 
TO REHEARSE—to repeat, recite, rehearse, re- 

CAPitulate...eccccsccerseryesccnncorvccscces 
REIGN—empire, reign, dominion .......0....+00 
TO REJECT—to refuse, decline, reject, repel, re- 


191 
206 


REJOINDER—answer, reply, rejoinder, response 460 
TO RELATE—to refer, relate, respect, regard... 326 
TO RELATE—to relate, recount, describe...... 466 
RELATED—connected, related.......+..+6- coos 419 
RELATION—+elation, recital, narration..... o+> 466 
RELATION 2 relation, relative, kindred, kins- 
RELATIVE ; MAN aenenesestian non coeeee cose 496 
RELATIONSHIP—kindred, relationship, affinity, 
CONSANQUINILY...- sss cess eeeee onsen peloparece 407 
TO RELAX—to relax, remit........... PP A 7] 
RELENTLESS—implacable, unrelenting, relent- 
less, Inexorable...+ ss... sees eeeee Siow see vecces SSL 
RELEVANT—pertinent, relevant ......... oecee SUT 
RELIANCE—dependence, reliance............. - 416 
RELICKS—leavings, remains, relicks........... 955 
RELIEF—redress, relief..........seee06 vine baie ae 
TO RELIEVE—to alleviate, relieve ............ 36} 
TO RELIEVE—to help, assist, aid, succour, re- 
TiC V0 ici aie's aie intents piccaiets mata oa wa ginin toma eleene -. 364 
RELIGIOUS—holy, pious, devout, religious..... 89 
TO RELINQUISH—to » Siltgee iia forsake, 
relinquish.. . : tinue y 43 
TO RELINQUISH—to are, ais relinquish .. 255 
RELISH—taste, flavour, relish, savour.......... 512 
RELUCTANT-—averse, unwilling, backward, re- 
luctant, loath... .ce.cccancnnceenstisecsiswalb -- :13 
TO REMAIN—to continue, remain, stay........ 
REMAINDER—rest, remainder, remnant, resi- 
AUC ie 50» palgsarkee mineeiete oie oe uielbabieate 
REMAINS—leavings, remains, relicks 
REMARK—remark, observation, comment, ine 
annotation, commentary . 451 
REMARKABLE—extraordinary, tomar oe 451 
TO REMARK—to notice, remark, observe..... 450 
TO REMEDY—to cure, heal, remedy.......-.+. 365 
REMEDY—cure, remedy ......... vevees JOD 
REMEMBRANCE—memory, remembrance, re- 
collection, reminiscence... 


eeoseers 


eeecoaee 


72 


INDEX. li 


Page 
REMEMBRANUCER—monument, memorial, re- 
MEMbDrancer ... 0 seceecsscccveses sieleeleves 6 ri 
REMINISCENCE—memory, remembrance, recol- 
lection, reminiscence - eh yoe sasiatee 02 
REMISS—negligent, remiss, alge thohehtless, 
heedless, inattentive - areiaearettte 
TO REMIT—to forgive, Renan sheolve, remit. . 
TO REMIT—\to relax, remit....... carci ee 
REMNANT —test, remainder, remnant, residue.. 
TO REMONSTRATE—-to expostulate, remon- 


500 


eseeeesce 


eceseoe 


aE od 6” ASO PDB UEOU RDO COMDE DIGS Oo Lunes 459 
REMORSE—repentance, penitence, contrition, 

COMPUNCLION, FEMOLTSE .-- 2... ee ese cess sess aren Oe 
REMOTE—distant, far, remote .......- ABE ees F 


REMUNERATION—compensation, satisfaction, 
amends, remuneration, recompense, requital, 


MOWED vain siiaielsis'e 4/e des aise nicSesie6t weissiisinee! 4ac 
TO REND—to break, rack, rend, tear.......-.-- 501 
TO RENEW to revive, refresh, renovate, 
TO RENOVATE FONE W > ae cities cc oie hair see er oOO 


TO RENOUNCE—to abandon, resign, renounce, - 
abdicate .. weelaie neieksle Bieter eave i es0 (243 
RENOWN—fame, reputation, renown......... 472 
RENOWNED—famous, celebrated, renowned, il- 
lustrious .... -. 473 
TO REPAIR—to recover, retrieve, repair, recruit 440 
REPARATION—+restoration, restitution, repara- 
tion, amends ..... eseees ae ei 400 
REPARTEE—retort, repartee dine AOU 
TO REPAY—to restore, return, repay....+....-- 
TO REPEAL—to abolish, abrogate, repeal, annul, 
revoke, cancel. . asjaidis'e sta? DAT 
TO REPEAT—1to repeat, recite, rehearse, recapi- 
tulate...... +e. 465 
[tO REPEL—to refuse, decline, reject, see. rebuff 232 
REPENTANCE—repentance, penitence, contri- 
tion, compunction, remorse ....-..-+.+- 
REPETITION—+repetition, tautology .....-.....- 
TO REPINE—to complain, murmur, repine..... 
REPLY—answer, reply, rejoinder, response ..... 
REPORT—fame, report, rumour, hearsay ....... 
REPOSE—ease, quiet, rest, repose ..... 
TO REPOSE—to recline, repose....... 
REPREHEN®SION—reprehension, reproof....... 
REPRESENTATION—show, exhibition, repre- 
sentation, sight, spectacle.... 
TO REPRESS—to repress, restrain, suppress.... 
REPRIEV E—reprieve, respite 
TO REPRIMAND—to check, chide, reprimand, © 
reprove, rebuke ......+++ neiteeeoorse 
REPRISAL—retaliation, reprisal........ Sica 
REPROACH—-discredit, reproach, scandal, dis- 
grace 
REPROACH—reproach, contumely, obloquy .-...» 
TO REPROACH—to blame, reprove, reproach, 
upbraid, censure, condemn..... cidsatdcie.eti8 ae . 
REPROACHFUL—treproachful, abusive, scurri- 
lous ..-. 
REPROBATE—-profligate, 


eoeeee ses eee 


e@eecerseee 


e@erveesse 


See eres ecsseeeseessseesees 


abandoned, 


repro- 


[fO REPROBATE—to reprobate, condemn...... 
REPROOF—reprehension, reproof .......+++++++ 
{O REPROVE—to check, chide, reprimand, re- 

prove, rebuke .. 


0| RESOLUTE—decided, determined, resolute... 


REPUGNANCE—-aversion, antipathy, dislike, 
hatred, repugnance........ Jilts sets eater Ne = 136 
REPUTATION—character, reputation.......... 472 
REPUTATION—fame, reputation, renown...... 472 
REPUTATION ) name, reputation, credit, re- 
REPUTE , pute ~....0.6 Ey ait shahGisle s9.a.eiaip 472 
REQUEST—-prayer, petition, request, entreaty, 
TO REQUEST—to ask, beg, request...+-.++..0 
TO REQUIRE—to demand, require.......-.--- 228 
REQUISITE—necessary, expedient, essential, re- 
AUISITE sc erie oom eS eminlce mainte mee ble eislavale wisi 
REQUITAL—compensation, satisfaction, amends, 


AN7 


remuneration, recompense, requital, reward.. 438 
REQUITAL—retribution, requital............ +» 440 
TO RESCUE—to deliver, rescue, save .......... 240 
RESEARCH—examination, search, inquiry, re- 

search, investigation, scrutiny............ tere ae 
RESEMBLANCE—likeness, resemblance, simi- 

larity or similitude ......... LE Rio eate db Wks ae ede 


RESENTFUL—resentful, revengeful, vindictive 119 
RESENTMENT —anger, resentment, wrath, ire, 
indignation ......... id cneiecns tile si. falels.sheCerety 3 
RESERVATION 
RESERVE 
TO RESERVE—to reserve, retain..... 
TO RESIDE—to abide, sojourn, dwell, reside, in- 
habit 
RESIDUE—rest, remainder, remnant, residue... 
TO RESIGN—to abandon, resign, renounce, ab- 
Giee he oer a. ie ey we a atel i tae a ace eae (243 
TO RESIGN—to give up, abandon forego, re- 


118 
178 
178 


, reserve, reservation.......+.. 


eee nrecee 


RESIGNATION—patience, ce ‘resigna- 
GLOTigey oaks aerate oo) dcalgtt Misi clnndare ols ao) Sel aha Sula 
TO RESIST—to oppose, waithebaied thwart, re- 
sist Seer e es were ree sree see ences nessne sve tee ee 
TO RESOLVE—to determine, resolve.......... 
TO RESOLVE—to solve, resolve.......-.+-..5. 


RESOLUTION—courage, fortitude, resolution... 
TO RESORT TO—to frequent, haunt, resort to. . 
RESOURCE—expedient, resource 
TO RESPECT—to esteem, respect, regard .. 
TO RESPECT—to honour, reverence, respect... 
TO RESPECT—to refer, relate, respect, rezard.. 
RESPECTFUL—dutiful, obedient, respectful.... 
RESPITE—interval, respite. .....ssereeeeeeees Ay 
RESPITE—+reprieve, respite .... 
RESPONSE—answer, reply, rejoinder, response 
RESPONSIBLE—answerable, responsible, ac- 

countable, amenable...... 
REST—cessation, stop, rest, intermission........ 
REST—ease, quiet, rest, repose.. 
REST—+rest, remainder, remnant, eg cei Bieiace E 
TO REST—to found, ground, rest, build........ 
TO REST—to stand, stop, rest, stagnate .......- 
RESTITUTION ) restoration, restitution, repa- 
RESTORATION ration, amends...+-..«-+-+ 439 
RESTORATION—recovery, restoration .....--- 440 
TO RESTORE—to restore, return, repay---- +» 439 
TO RESTRAIN—to coerce, restrain ..-+-+++++"» 220 
TO RESTRAIN—to repress, restrain, suppress » 221 
TO RESTRAIN, vide RESTRICTION 


See eseceesseensee 


Seater eer esees cose 


lil 
Page 
RESTRAINT—constraint, restraint, restriction... 220 
TQ RESTRICT—1to bound, limit, confine, circum- 
scribe, restrict.....- Mieteels sip 
TO RESTRICT, vide RESTRICTION. 
RESTRICTION—construaint, restraint, restriction 


176 


See eces eres erseeee 


RESULT—effect, consequence, result, issue, event 290 
TO RETAIN—to hold, keep, detain, retain..... + 230 
TO RETAIN—to reserve, retain....-..+-+++ee- - 178 
RETALIATION—tetaliation, reprisal........-+- 440 


TO RETARD—to delay, defer, postpone, procras- 


tinate, prolong, protract, retard...-.-.++-+-.+. 260 
TO RETARD—to retard, hinder............---- 260 
RETINUE—procession, train, retinue....---+-+- 493 


TO RETIRE—to recede, retreat, retire, secede, 


WILDGLA We cle wace seek ee clelonin's eint e'ainlee bihiole oni ews? 
RETIREMENT—privacy, retirement, seclusion.. 253 
RETORT—retort, repartee .......++seeeeeeeeeee 461 


TO RETRACT—to abjure, recant, retract, re- 

voke, recall .......+-- 
RETREAT—asylum, refuge, shelter, retreat..... 
TO RETREAT—to recede, retreat, retire, with- 

draw, secede...+--++-- 
RETRIBUTION—retribution, einai ne 
TO RETRIEVE—to recover, retrieve, repair, re- 


weereeessee ese esses osene 


eeereee sere sees eee eee rw 


eeeoseccee seer oee see esse oese sri seseeeer 


RETROSPECT—retrospect, review, SUrVey..--«- 
TO RETURN—to restore, return, repay--++-<++ 
TO RETURN—to revert, return...+--- 
TO REVEAL—to publish, phi divulge, 

reveal, disclose... +--.e+see+eseeeee 
TO REVENGE—to avenge, revenge, vindicate. . 
REVENGEFUL—tesentful, revengeful, vindictive 
TO REVERBERATE—to rebound, reverberate, 


recoil....... aos its siete wie. Watetoisie pieTee 1. aie oth, w 305 
TO REVERE to adore, reverence, vene- 
TO REVERENCE , rate, reVere..-.e-..0----. Bl 
REVERENCE—awe, reverence, dread....-.-.-. 307 


TO REVERENCE—to honour, reverence, respect 427 
REVERIE—dream, reverie...-...eesseeseeeeee D1 
TO REVERSE—to overturn, overthrow, subvert, 
invert, reEVErse «6. eee eee e ee Rierc Snieitis ae seis lernis 503 
TO REVERT—to revert, return....-..0-..0+-++ 327 
REVIEW —tretrospect, review, SUrVeY.--++--++++ 480 
REVIEW—revisal, revision, review....-....++- 480 
TO REVILE—to revile, vilify.....-.---- seas 05 
REVISAL i aes ; 
REVISION revisal, revision, TEVIEWs xee 2 -s+% + 480 
TO REVIVE—to revive, refresh, renovate, re- 
TIOWielsielg b leisis slelele ols op wit ino stoic stapetateieaeiss wtaeils Teo 
TO REVOKE—to abjure, recant, retract, revoke, 
FeCall och pas Gielen, siaae SOSA ass joc anos coe 247 
TO REVOKE—to abolish, abrogate, repeal, re- 
voke, annul, cancel ........seseeees sie wine aise il 
REVOLT—insurrection, sedition, rebellion, re- 
RO IL aise esc n dino.s wia/econaiels's siniem busloyebeesleeieinlente OU 
REWARD—compensation, satisfaction, amends, 
remuneration, recompense, requital, reward 438 
RHETORICK—elocution, eloquence, oratory, rhe- 
ays 2 GESA CA MEO AA CSS Say Be tM N PPI Nin: 52) 
RICEHES—triches, wealth, opulence, affluence.... 340 
RIDICULE—idicule, satire, irony, sarcasm..... 104 
TO RIDICULE—to laugh at, ridicule........... 103 
7G RIDICULE—to deride, mock, ridicule, rally, 
DANCED =. wee scene sos 's/s nds wifieie(n ia siee'e ea sees 103 


.|ROUND—circuit, tour, round .... 


INDEX. 


RIDICULOUS—laughable, ludicrous, ridiculous, 


comical or coniick, droll...... eecees aie Si lates 103 
RIGHT—straight, right, direct......-.....--.-.. 430 
RIGHT —right, just, proper.....++-+++eeeeeeeees 430 
RIGHT—+right, claim, privilege -.....+-.++.. = Seley oe 
RIGHTEOUS—godly, righteous .......+--++- «ee 90 
RIGID austere, rigid, severe, - rigorous, 
RIGOROUS SIGE omateirieie sit s/s a0'b-0e PP Sie 
RIGOROUS—harsh, rough, severe, rigorous.--.. 382 


RiM—border, edge, rim, brim, brink, margin, 


VELL. . ovelescoeinees alte Stel side iemeatele «= or slote ei . 176 
RIND—skin, hide, peel, rind...... airie'¢ siulcioss'e/aie SEES 
RIPE—ripe, Mature «2... o0ccccecvecsccccvevessee eal 
RISH—origin, original, rise, source.........+-++ 292 
TO RISE—to rise, issue, emerge......+.--eee0+ O91 
TO RISE—to arise or rise, mount, ascend, climb, 

BCAIGs hee alceiccer Dig. ana Gis) 0) sinke = sieve ates aati tte 302 
TO RISK—to hazard, venture, risk...-.....-. oo U1 
RITE—form, ceremony, rite, observance....... a | 


RIVALRY—competition, emulation, rivalry .... 131 
ROAD—way, road, route or ‘rout, course...2.... 275 
TO ROAM—to wander, stroll, ramble, rove, roam, 

BEY ERASE FF 
ROBBERY—depredation, robbery ..:~...-..e20. Oe 
ROBUST—strong, firm, robust, sturdy ........-. 372 


ROLL—list, catalogue, roll, register.......-.+--+ 46€ 
ROMANCE—fable, tale, novel, romance........ 467 
ROOM—space, room.......+--++.0- events saber Sane 
TO ROT—to rot, putrefy, corrupt ..-..-+++-.-.- 504 


ROTUNDITY—roundness, rotundity........... 351 
TO ROVE—to wander, stroll, ramble, rove, roam, 


TANGE sic less aivae ss died osiele vishal oor tye lr aimiete eee 126 
ROUGH—abrupt, rugged, rough ....--.-.. este cetee SUF 
ROUGH—coarse, rough, rude ....-..+-+... diataewe (OOK 
ROUGH—harsh, rough, severe, rigorous..--...- « 385 
ROUNDNESS—roundness, rotundity ......... ee Bol 


Se aes ah Se ak 
TO ROUSE—to awaken, excite, provoke, rouse, 
Stirip saeccents a ale clea o} aioe Ole erat 
TO ROUT—to beat, defeat, overpower, rout, 
overthrow....-.. terete AES eI Seo 355 Re 
ROUTE—way, road, route or rout, course ...... 27% 
ROYAL—royal, regal, kingly........-+.+--++2+. 189 
TO RUB—to rub, chafe, fret, gall...--.....+.+.- 309 


eee 


RUDE—coarse, rough, rude .....- ob beeteeverle am (UL 
RUDE—impertinent, rude, saucy, impudent, inso- 
LENE pesca Sr SBS SOE 3 seine See ae ats mONY 


RUEFUL—+piteous, doleful, woful, rueful....... 411 
RUGGED—abrupt, rugged, rough .....ee..00++ Wi 
RUIN—bane, pest, ruin .....-.....2.-000. tienen OOS 
RUIN—destruction, ruin... .2sesscccccecccscces DUS 


RUINOUS—4destructive, ruinous, pernicious..... 504 
RULE—order, method, rule. ..2. ..cesces sees «+ 276 
RULE—Bguide, rule .... cc. cceeeeseccreceessecee OIG 
RULE—maxim, precept, rule, law.........-... - Qil 
TO RULE—to govern, rule, regulate...... 2 Soe a Ree 


RULING—pHrevailing, prevalent, ruling, predomi- 
Nant -ocveee oo, ob ale See 
RUMOUR—fame, report, rumour, liearsay ..... 472 
RUPTURE—trupture, fracture, fraction ..... ... 502 
RURAL 
RUSTICK 
RUSTICK—countryman, peasant, swain, hind, 
TUSTICK,. CLOWN. o's 0 0:00 0 00% scien cute ite sustsisio) at 


we eee reese oes eesee esses se 


rural, FUSHICKs ©. 2 ose eee » 9/90 Sheen eee 


INDEX. tin 
Page | Page 
SACRAMENT-—Lord’s supper, eucharist, sacra- SCHISMATICK—heretick, schismatick, secta- 
MNENLE . 000s seccacereveccceses Sseiomieesis 0 (1 Gd rian, dissenter, nonconformist........6...... 92 
SACRED—holy, abrir GIVING= (<5 cectaleSetelies's - 89) SCHOLAK--scholar, disciple, pupil......... esos 197 
SAD—dull, gloomy, sad, dismal.............-... 410 | SCHOOL—~school, academy.-..--..+.s08 sseeee - 197 
SAD—mournful, sad .. +... se eeeseeeseeeeeees 410 | SCIENCE—knowledge, science, learning, erudi- 
SAFE—safe, secure. ...., sees er seeeseweereccncs 300 M00) Jeena. senate eletisteyee eVatttfenne iia selsis sicie'o. co 196 
Acie sage, sagacious, sapient ......... 401 | !O SCOFF—to scoff, oe jeer, sneer..........6 104 
: ts SCOPE—tendency, drift, scope, aim............ 325 
SAGACITY—penetration, acuteness, sagacity... 401 |TO SCORN—to contemn, despise, scorn, disdain 101 


SAILOR—seaman, waterman, sailor, mariner... 337 
SAL'ARY—allowance, stipend, salary, wages, 
hire, pay.. 
SAKE—sake, account, reason, purpose, end..... 
SALUBRIOUS ) healthy, wholesome, salubrious, 
SALUTARY BAMA clectesisee aiaslsiissisioe oT O00 
SALUTATION 
SALUTE 
TO SALUTE—to accost, address, salute. ...... 
TO SANCTION—to countenance, sanction, sup- 
POF wees. 
SANCTITY—holiness, sanctity........++.0+.se6 
SANE—sound, sane, healthy..-.. eeatolais's sancant 
SANGUINARY—bloody, blood-thirsty, sangui- 
TAI stele ieisieie 
TO SAP—to sap, undermine ......... pshimieke lates 4 
SAPIENT—sage, sagacious, sapient ......... ere 
SARCASM —ridicule, satire, irony, sarcasm..... 
TO SATIATE—to satisfy, satiate, glut, cloy.... 383 
SATIRE—ridicule, satire, irony, sarcasm....-... 104 
SATIRE—wit, humour, satire, irony, burlesque 70 
SATISFACTION—compensgation, satisfaction, 
amends, remuneration, recompense, requital, 


164 
535 


CO i i ee a) 


; salute, salutation, greeting..... 461 


eeseeoccce 


eee eceeee sees eee eases eeeesees ones 


reward ....-... Pah oes noadnens dasiatsciees 438 
SATISFACTION—contentnient, satisfaction.... 384 
TO SATISF Y—to satisfy, please, gratify....... - 383 
TO SATISFY—to satisfy, satiate, glut, cioy.... 383 
SAUCY—impertinent, rude, saucy, impudent, in- 

ci sills GA GobGernoce 6 ods acne nemo Ane ae -- 200 
SAVAGE—cruel, inhuman, barbarous, brutal, 

SAVAGE...- Bh, Slate caste atineteats ake ASG HOE DOS eRe 
SAVAGE—ferocious, flerce, savage...........+. 374 
TO SAVE—to deliver, rescue, save........ osece 240 
TO SAVE—to keep, save, preserve....-...-..... 178 
TO SAV E—to save, spare, preserve, protect..... 179 


SAVING—economical, saving, sparing, thrifty, pe- 


nurious, niggardly.. ..........4- ARE DCO OOTS 161 
TO SAUNTER—o linger, tarry, loiter, saunter, 

LAG wee ses eioietsaysivarelstainte! syaiats eieistelay ole ats veeee 261 
SAVOUR—aste, flavour, relish, savour......... 512 
SAW, vide SAYING. 

TO SAY—to speak, say, tell.......... Soohoeocce in, 
SAYING—axiom, maxim, aphorism, apophthegm, 

saying, adage, proverb, by-word, saw ....--. 210 
TO SCALE—to arise or rise, mount, ascend, 

CLAD NRHA Le atetele tis ais sarele/eic/aw s.a\erein s)oinqe ee\<ic-cfeis\s OUD 


SCANDAL—4iscredit, disgrace, reproach, scandal 107 


SCANDALOUS— infamous, scandalous....... ++ 108 
SCANTY—bare, scanty, destitute........ anccario en) 
SCARCE—sare, scarce, singular............- eee 250 
SCARCELY—hardly, scarcely ....... PSeneonoee sau! 
SCAKCITY—scarcity, dearth ...............+-- 250 


TO SCATTER-—to spread, scatter, disperse..... 344 
SCENT—smell, scent, odour, perfume, fragrance 511 
SCHEME—design, pian, scheme, project........ 534 


SCORNFUL—contemptuous, scornful, disdainful 102 


TO SCREAM—to cry, scream, shriek......... oe 470 
TO SCREEN—to cover, shelter, screen......... 517 
SCRIBE—writer, penman, scribe.............. » 336 
TO SCRUPLE—to scruple, hesitate, waver, fluc- 
CUATC ieisaia)s aistetaia'notelpave/sisne tor sind steer eae e aie 97 
SCRUPULOUS—conscientious, scrupulous ..... c& 
TO SCRUTINIZE—to pry, scrutinize, diveinto 99 
SCRUTINY—examination, search, inquiry, re- 
search, investigation, scrutiny ............ . 98 
SCUM—dregs, sediment, dross, scum, refuse..... 525 


SCURRILOUS—reproachful, abusive, scurrilous +09 
SEAL—seal, stamp ...... E 450 
SEAMAN--seainan, waterman, sailor, mariner... 337 
SEA RCH—examination, search, inquiry, investi- 
gation, research, sctutiny.....-.0....d8..0. - 98 
TO SEARCH—to examine, seek, search, explore 98 


SEASON time, season, timely, season- 
SEASONABLE ablepeniceys, evens at asstavelareoiase ve 266 
TO SECEDI&—to recede, retreat, retire, with 
AVAW:, SCCEUEE cele sive eisieitte dalspnsecisc ts els evaleicles » 253 
SECLUSION—privacy, retirement, seclusion... 253 
TO SECOND—to second, support -.......+-0++. 365 
nae second, secondary, inferiour.... 274 
SECRECY—concealment, secrecy ....--..-..+.- 519 
SECRET—clandestine, secret.....-..--..0. soe O20 
SECRET—secret, hidden, latent, occult, myste- 
ViGUS sive e sin nicies ois sisal alec sie mtesatalecmeraisern) Ot} 
TO SECRETE—to conceal, hide, secrete........ 519 
TO SECRETE ONE’S SELF—to abscond, steal 
away, secrete one’s S€lf os. -eeeeeeeevesees OO 
SECTARIAN heretick, Sehismatick, sectarian, 
SECTARY Bectary, dissenter, nonconform- 
1Stitemten Sh siesisl latsiotoie te rsierae mitaae Os 
SECULAR—secular, temporal, worldly ........ - 90 
SECURE—certain, sure, Secure.-.-.2.-+sceees -. 366 
SECURE—safe, secure - 5 Snonenudn ody, Gute 
SECURIT Y—deposite, nledbe, ohviitiths So tke 
SECURIT Y—fence, guard, security.. Srichieed lea 
SEDATE—composed, sedate ....-.se-emsee2---+ 227 


SEDIMENT—dregs, sediment, dross, scum, refuse 515 
SEDITION— insurrection, sedition, rebellion, re- 


WON fie ve eraiveleitins arefoetsMraclelvciste ee sirielelsye sree neta rn UC 
SEDITIOUS—factious, seditious..........+..-+- 209 
SEDIT1OUS—tumultuous, turbulent, seditious, 

TMU PIOUS epactniars)« sein cislepisws elses stale dupaocee 208 
TO SEDUCE “to allure, tempt, seduce, entice, 

(GIRS are ADO NICO GouoL BS DORUE Rar maOnOb ede age ke 
SEDULOUS—seduleus, diligent, assiduous....-- 297 
TO SEE—to look, see, behold, view, eye ------ « 482 
TO SEE—to see, perceive, observe...--+-+++++++- 482 
TO SEEK—to examine, seek, search, explore.... 98 
TO SEEM—to seem, appear..-+-+++-+essesec2e 483 


SEEMLY—becoming, decent, seemly, fit, suitable 246 


liv 
Page 
TO SEIZE—to lay or take hold of, catch, seize, — 
snatch, grasp, gripe... Calclerle DS Vf 
SEIZURE—capture, seizure, prize ......+++++++- 506 
TO SELECT—to choose, pick, select.---+.+.++++s 234 
SELF-CONCEIT i . 
SELF-SUFFICIENCY ee wee Sak di 
SELF-WILL ea) 
SEMBLANCE—show, outside appearance, sem- 
TENGE s:dole cle ciaieauleleles pia ctaleitscy-eciaieatels vale «- 453 
SENIOR—senior, elder, older.....--..+s.0seeeee 269 
SENSATION—+sentiment, sensation, perception.. 376 
SUNSET? feeling sensation, sense 376 
SENSE g, , SENSE . 2.2.00 
SENSE—sense, judgement ......e.ceesscoesssee 0 
SENSE—signification, meaning, import, sense... 456 
peemmeaRe eT ATA HANS i suscepti 
lity. - 376 
TO BE SEN SIBLE—to “feel, Lb dante con- 
scious - Ak ataeleipie eine sisiniGewae in elated of G 
SENSIBLD sensible sensitive, sentient....... 375 
SENSUALIST—sensualist, voluptuary, epicure.. 375 
SENTENCE—decision, judgement, sentence..... 224 
SENTENCE—sentence, period, phrase, proposi- 
REOVi cs HIE che ache te Oe ee re Doe leiee ate eeterstersiate yn 464 
TO SENTENCE—to sentence, condemn, doom.. 169 
SENTENTIOUS—sententious, sentimental...... 376 
SENTIENT —sensible, sensitive, sentient........ 7 
SENTIMENT—sentiment, sensaticn, perception... 376 
SENTIMENT—opinion, sentiment, notion ...... 80 
SENTIMENT AL--sententious, sentimental..... 376 


SENTINEL—guard, sentinel ...........seeseees 
SEPARATE—different, distinct, separate........ 
TO SEPARATE—to abstract, ae distin- 

guish .. oes stises cone 
TO SEPARATE—to divide, seuruies ware: sence 
TO SEPARATE—to separate, sever, disjoin, de- 

HACTorcle ae Usllkosvt ans ued sichcrsitaidaalgielte’s) acick e's 
SEPULCHRE—grave, tomb, sepulchre.......0+. 
SEPULTURE—burial, interment, sepulture .... 
SEQUEL—sequel, close 


180 
282 


CO re eo 


SERENE—calm, placid, serene ......0e..2ese005 362 
SERIES—series, course.....-..c.ce ccs eseee 275 
SERIES—succession, series, order.......sseeceee Q71 
SERIOUS—eager, earnest, serious ..........000. 392 
SERIOUS—grave, serious, solemn .......-.seee. 392 


SERVANT—servant, domestick, menial, drudge 328 


SERVICE—advantage, benefit, utility, service, 
AVAIL USE saciore nels eae omelselas oiceie we sas Sialate’s 398. 
SERVICE—benefit, service, good office.......... 166 
SERVITUDE—servitude, slavery, bondage...... 328 
TO SEP--to put, place, lay, set.....00. sessons » 280 
TO SET FREE—to free, set free, deliver, libe- 
rate ..... p bieinle oss sleraltinie whisis asc shibete mele eseee 240 
TO SETTLE—to compose, settle ...........0 Beet 
TO SETTLE—to fix, determine, settle, limit .... 227 
TO SETTLE—to fix, settle, establish............ 207 
TO SEVER—to separate, sever, disjoin, detach.. 421 
SEVERAL--different, several, divers, sundry, va- 
TIOUS sce e ees PuGRR NS oLieesuewecs veg OG 
SEVERE—austere, rigid, severe, rigorous, stern.. 382 
SEVERE—harsh, rough, severe, rigorous........ 382 
SEVERE—strict, severe......- Seseese cereccsvee 204 
SEX—gender, sex <+.+- ++ eeseessees Wises Seah y 514 


INDEX. 


Page 
SHACKLE—chain, fetter, band, shackie, ..... 217 
sina t shade, Shadow... +00 chine 
TO SHAKE—to shake, tremble, shudder, quiver, 
QUAKE . seen evcvswecgscvccss BSERNOC se eesseel Guy 
TO SHAKE—to shake, agitate, toss .....- eccoee BUS 
SHALLOW-—superficial, shallow, flimsy..----.+ 407 
SHAME—dishonour, disgrace, shame.-.-.----+ «e+ 107 
SHA MELESS—immodest, impudent, shameless.. 247 


TO SHAPE—to form, fashion, mould, shape .--. 293 


TO SHARE—to divide, distribute, share ....-..- 485 
SHARE—part, division, portion, share....+..+++- 485 
TO SHARE—to partake, participate, share...... 486 
SHARP—sharp, acute, keen .....eveesseeeeeseee 402 
TO SHED—to pour, spill, shed .-.......-seeeees 346 
SHELTER—asylum, refuge, shelter, retreat...... 518 
TO SHELTER—to cover, shelter, screen...-.-+» 517 
TO SHELTER—to harbour, shelter, lodge ...... 517 
SHIFT—evasion, shift, subterfuge .......+s-ee6s 526 
TO SHINE—to shine, glitter, sparkle, radiate, 
GTATE/ Atos crete sere Bee eee aianinare eee einen sia 476 
SHOCK—shock, concussion ..-.+.eesseececcsees 305 
SHOCKING—formidable, dreadful, shocking, ter- 
TIDE. Seine ete cove cin te scalele soe lela ete nies eaeaeee se. 308 
TO SHOOT—to shoot, dart...,e.seceescoesescee BUD 


SHORT —short, brief, concise, succinct, summary 286 
SHOW-—show, outside, appearance, semblance. - 453 
SHOW-—show, exhibition, representation, sight, 
RDOCTACIE Sst static Gna se ceyemenie ses oie paises ee 452 
SHOW-—show, parade, ostentation........-+++s 
TO SHOW—to show, point out, mark, indicate.. 451 
TO SHOW—to show, exhibit, display.......-0«- 452 
SHOW Y—showy, gaudy, gay «..+-cecsesssce ose 453 
SHREWD—acute, keen, shrewd....+seeseeeeess 
TO SHRIEK—to cry, scream, shriek........+0. - 470 
TO SHRINK—to spring, start, startle, shrink.... 304 
TO SHUDDER—to shake, tremble, quiver, quake, 
SUWACERS ce taiciec ers etis cine telson PPA ESE aed «- 305 
TO SHUN—to avoid, eschew, shun, elude ..... 
TO SHUT—to close, shut ....... 
SICK 
SICKLY 
SICKNESS—sickness, illness, indisposition...... 367 
SIGHT—show, exhibition, representation, sight, 


eeseeeeeccces 


sick, sickly, diseased, morbid...... «+. 367 


spectacle \|s<. 1.2% ues \sewaet Meee er eee soeee 452 
SIGN—mark, sign, note, symptom, token, indica- 
TOM. Si We ong cuss dle mceya Mipieie «0 e/akerece ue taet ne mrEenTe 447 
WORT 3 Sign; SipNAl sane cecewsesaviee seeceee 455 
SIGNAL—signal, memorable ....-....+++e00. vee 474 
TO SIGN ALIZE—to signalize, distinguish..... - 47 
SIGNIFICANT —significant, expressive......... 456 
SIGNIFICA TION—signification, meaning, sense, 
LINPOFhs -.6 ne- eee see eeieialeie’ bate oitlale oS Cw eine . 450 
SIGNIFICATION—-signification, avail, import- 
ance, consequence, moment, weight....... eee 454 


TO SIGNIFY—to denote, signify, imply ........ 456 
TO SIGNIFY—to express, declare, signify, utter, 

testify .......06 Rene reiaie’o 5’ via seeereececcece 400 
SILENCE—silence, taciturnity ..... «os nee one 46? 
SILENT —silent, dumb, mute, speechless ......+- 464 
SILLY—simple, silly, foolish ........ssccessesss 40° 
SIMILARITY—likeness, resemblance, similarity 

or similitude .........s00. one vee oe 53d 


INDEX. 


Page 
Sesrine vimile, similitude, comparison... 532 
SIMILITUDE—likeness, Simlaniacs similarity 

or similitude ........ Michio sia'scle Maite aactec © a 
SIMPLE—simple, single, singular............--- 250 
SIMPLE—simple, silly, foolish.............ee200 401 
SIMULATION—simulation, dissimulation ...... 520 
SIN—crime, vice, Sin........ sce cece seccees Selves Loe, 
SINCERE—candid, open, sincere.............+. 430 
SINCERE—hearty, warm, sincere, cordial ...... 431 
SINCERE—sincere, honest, true, plain.......-.. 430 
SINGLE—solitary, sole, only, single ............ 251 
SINGLE—one, single, only .......... SR aE NSHE » 251 
acpi } simple single, singular ........... 250 
SINGULAR : / 

SINGULAR—rare, scarce, singular ............. 250 
SINGULAR—particular, singular, odd, eccentrick, 

EMA MO Dera ee sini sstetal rele teisieePe sie sycisielo\clsielbisielera als 385 
TO SINK—to fall, drop, droop, sink, tumble..... 303 
SITE—place, spot, site... . 0... .cce cece esecseeeee 278 
SITUATION—circumstance, situation .......... 173 
SITUATION—place, situation, station, position, 

POST. 2.0. Dati wat of cictalofefele intr tev ble ec (aisle, Seretersote als © Q78 
SITUATION—situation, condition, state, predica- 

ment, plight, CAS€.... 2.4... seeeeeeaes cused « 279 
SIZE—size, magnitude, greatness, bulk.......... 348 
TO SKETCH—to paint, depict, delineate, sketch 338 
SKETCH—sketch, outlines.......... SUeE OSCaCae 338 
See ican a skilful, expert, adroit, dexter- 

Olisacee. oochbesseecodas Seialelalisinje eter sue aiay 10 
SKIN—skin, hide, et ra Wemsndatonsson corks ails 
SLACK—slack, loose ....-..+.seeseees eineisreseie ooO 
TO SLANDER—to asperse, detract, defame, ca- 

lumniate, slander ...+.sedeccesccrescceceees 105 
SLAVERY—servitude, slavery, bondage........ 328 
SLAUGHTER—carnage, slaughter, massacre, 

HUGCHELY:. oc is\salseisceae wees erencisswincecsct ene 510 
TO SLAY—to kill, murder, slay, assassinate .... 510 


TO SLEEP—to sleep, slumber, doze, drowse, nap 300 
SLEEPY-—sleepy, drowsy, lethargick...........- 300 


SLENDER —thin, slender, slight, slim.......-.+. 351 
TO SLIDE—to slip, slide, glide ..........-0+.+. 303 
SLIGHT—cursory, hasty, slight, desultory....... 262 
erased thin, slender, slight, slim...... roe eeieee tal 
TO SLIGHT—to disregard, neglect, slight ....... 423 
TO SLIP—to slip, slide, glide....-...-...-... BAe: 
SLOTHFUL—inactive, inert, lazy, slothful, slug- 

GSH vice scacee ve Sot DRAGS Ada ones ood alae mee 298 
SLOW-—slow, dilatory, tardy, tedious .........-. 260 
SLUGGISH—inactive, inert, lazy, slothful, slug- 

Gish ...-.-s. Sisis e s)eiainie(n visia se) sie 4\/ 0 slain asics nia) 298 
TO SLUMBER —to sleep, slumber, doze, drowse, 

MR eet eleieie sia hicia kee ainlslelnaiel e\-\risys\xinidialsiaicieiste\eis GOL 
SLY—cumnning, crafty, subtle, sly, wily......... ERS, 
SMALL—little, diminutive, small............-.. 350 
TO SMEAR—to smepr, daub...........22+00066 515 


511 
435 
229 


SMELL—smell, scent, odour, perfume, fragrance 
SMOOTH—even, smooth, level, plain.... 
TO SMOTHER—*to stifle, suppress, smother..... 
TO SMOTHER—to suffocate, stifle, smother, 
choke ...+-+- sant este cece eee weens 
TO SNATCH—to lay or take hold of, catch, seize, 
snatch, grasp, ZYIP€-..oesseeeee * see 237 


ee eee 


222 


lv 
| zi 
TO SNEER—to scoff, gibe, jeer, sneer.... ..... 104 
TO SOAK—to soak, drench, steep......... veces G12 


SOBER—abstinent, sober, abstemious, temperate 244 
SOBER—sober, grave....... seee 392 
SOBRIETY—modesty, moderation, temperance, 
sobriety .... sosese V5 
SOCIAL ) Nt : : 
SOCIABLE § convivial, social, sociable.....+e++. 487 
SOCIETY—association, society, company, part- 
nership. ... te We sieectn es ee) 400 
SOCIETY—community, society .. .........+6+. 487 
SOCIETY —fellowship, society...secccees 489 
SOCIETY—society, company........-seeeeeeeee 487 
SOFT—soft, mild, gentle, meek .. adeticaonve® ai!) 
TO SOIL—to stain, soil, sully, Carniate Hea bot ae 
TO SOJOURN—to abide, sojourn, dwelt reside, 
inhabit.... ae!» 200 
TO SOLACE--to console, solace, comfort....... 356 
SOLDIER-LIKE—martial, military, soldier-like, 
’ warlike.. Rhone ay 
SOLE xolitary, sole, only, single .... vevee QOL 
SOLEMN—grave, serious, solemn... -- 392 


eeteseeeeorseuos 


Pee eseee sere sees ose essee0 


eeereeeseressasens 


Pee eres e cee ee eeseesressesoenss 


eee seeeorssoesseoseceecesose 


TO SOLICIT—to beg, beseech, solicit, entreat, 
supplicate, implore, Crave.-..-.e...seesseves 158 
SOLICITATION—solicitation, importunity ..... 158 
SOLICITUDE—-care, anxiety, solicitude ........ 425 
SOLID—firm, fixed, solid, stable............. see 220 
SOLID—hard, firm, solid....... Rioteee Saisie aries eee 373 
SOLID—substantial, BOs stern siete Se sefusln Se lcyerssnrens at er 
SOLITARY—alone, solitary, lonely.-........... 252 
SOLITARY—solitary, sole, only, single....... e» 251 
SOLITARY—solitary, desert, desolate.........2. 253 
TO SOLVE—to solve, resolve............... our 224 
SOME —some, Any. ..seeseeccsccvcsccscceeseses Q5U 
SOON—soon, early, betimes .......eccecesceseee 262 


TO SOOTH—to allay, sooth, appease, assuage, 


Mitigate ....-.e cscs escees gee sceeeeecceeevee BOL 
SORDID—mean, pitiful, sordid...... sisesiosaaierny 411 
SORROW-—afiliction, grief, sorrow..........2.. 408 
SORRY—-sorry, grieved, hurt...... Saldind Aikdaeting, 412 
SORT —kind, species, sort ..-..-+..---00. seesees 496 
SOVEREIGN—prince, monarch, sovereign, po- 

flemiaten.c.c tee pic setae eiaats SC OOHARH CnC Sobel. 

|SOUL—soul, mind ....0...esccereeeeee aie Serene 65 
SOUND —-sound, sane, healthy ........ se ahsisle\s eaceeoul 
SOUND—sound, tone ........ ce tesereedeseoseee Ol] | 
SOURCE—origin, original, rise, source ¢......+.. 292 
SOURCE —spring, fountain, source.........+..+. 393 
SPACE—-space, room .- = Biase isis iva otefeia atetem lata # OU) 
|SPACIOUS—ample, sp spacious, capacious ........ 350 
TO SPARE—to give, afford, sparé.as. pate GCS 
TO SPARE—o save, spare, preserve, protec vee Ato 


SPARING—economical, saving, sparing, thrifty, 
niggardly -.....sessees ° a. 16. 
SPARK—gallant, beau, spark. o. dol 
TO SPARKLE—to shine, glitter, sil cpaskis. 
radiate . 
TO SPEAK—to speak, say, nips 
TO SPEAK—to speak, talk, converse, discourse... 459 


sere eres eseoee eere 


eee neces ese oeee 


see ee Osea ee erseoseseseeous ee oresenne 


TO SPEAK—to utter, speak, articulate, pro- 
NOUNCE .....6- assis! s laisite ers Biaksrwieyanae eccsceee 409 
SPECIAL—special, specifick, vanienler Sep etic Ok: 
eoseseseeesee 496 


SPECIES—kind, species, sort.-.---- 
SPECIFICK—special, specifick, particular..+.... 253 


fv1 


Page 
SF ECIMEN—copy, model, pattern, specimen.... 530 
SPECTOUS—colourable, specious, ostensible, fea- 


sible, plausible...........- SASSO ABS aoe LG 
SPECK—blemish, stain, spot, speck, flaw..--...- 127 
SPECTACLE—show, exhibition, representation, 
sight, spectacle.....+.. Rigen ais plate sie stelerae eos 452 
“S iageeeeeacaaniat spectator, beholder, ob- 
server. Heatsleie'ste Sr Seto NOUNe Hiddonin thee 
SPECTRE—vision, meta phantom, spectre, 
QNOSL cee eee e cece rere ecco ereeceeecseesssese AUD 
SPECULATION—theory, speculation .....-.-.-- 80 
SPEECH—address, speech, harangue, oration.... 461 


SPEECH—language, tongue, speech, idiom, dia- 


SPEECHLESS—silent, dumb, mute, speechless... 464 


TO SPEED—to hasten, accelerate, speed, expe- 
dite, despatch ....... abe SA Gado Ndehcde sarge 261 
TO SPEND—to spend, exhaust, drain........... 344 


TO SPEND—to spend or expend, waste, dissi- 


PALE, SYUANGEL. vse. tere wessareencewsetases J44 
SPHERE—circle, Be orb, GIOVE. -\siesievaveasst LVO 
TO SPILL—to pour, spill, shed.......... sehise seo 
SPIRIT—animation, life, vivacity, spirit........ » 306 
SPIRITED—spirituous, spirited, spiritual, ghostly 66 
SPIRITUAL—incorporeal, unbodied, immaterial, 

Spiritual ... 55-050 s9- scala share -saPotels wie kase a eincone 66 
SPIRITUAL ) spirituous, spirited, ghostly, spi- 
SPIRITUOUS Milla isu et shine eres eiterinc «e, 66 
SPITE—malice, rancour, spite, grudge, pique.... 381 


SPLENDOUR—brightness, lustre, Splendour, bril- 

liancy .-.... 
SPLENDOUR —splendour, magnificence, pomp. . 
SPLENETICK—gloomy, morose, sullen, splene- 


OI ec caiscrPMeitesities eine tlone sb ak ARE Sanit & All 
TO SPLIT—to break, burst, crack, split..... male oO 
SPOIL—booty, spoil, prey ....... Riess ine nce cians 506 
SPONTANEOUSLY —willingly, spontaneously, 

voluntarily ...... a eae ger aears aise a LOG. 
SPORT—amusement, diversion, entertainment, 

sport, recreation, pastime..... eis ets, e sia win'e 6, s\e)p 591 
SPORT—play, game, ‘sport ..+s...eesceeccsevees 384 
TO SPORT—10 jest, joke, make game of, sport.. 104 


SPORTIV E—lively, sprightly, vivacious, sportive, . 
merry, jocund............ 
SPOT—place, spot, site.... 
_SPOT—blemish, stain, spot, speck, flaw.... 
SPOTLESS, vide UNSPOTTED. 
TO SPOUT—to spurt, spout.... 
SPRAIN—strain, sprain, stress, force............ 
TO SPREAD—to spread, scatter, disperse....... 
TO SPREAD—to spread, expand, diffuse ....... 
TO SPREAD—to spread, circulate, propagate, dis- 


ste ee eeereseseosrese 


seeoarecoe 


eseeceseeoreseceons 


BRTRALC A Sole ev eralaienle lc se slalvice Docume ieee Caen RSS 
SPRIGHTLY—cheerful, merry, sprightly, gay... 389 
SPRIGHTLY—lively, sprightly, vivacious, sport- 

IMBSMIOUEY cece fee cnseicvescuesewee epee tects 61 oO0 
SPRING—spring, fountain, source............ ee 350 
TO SPRING—to arise, proceed, issue, spring, flow, 

PU HMaLCthicsaiv's statics Pele seliisis.auisecsewitcelts a tol 
TO SPRING—to spring, start, startle, shrink.... 304 
TO SPRINKLE—to sprinkle, bedew............ 353 
TO SPROUtosprout, bud a. es ccsleeccwces s B09 
SPRUCE—finicil, foppish, spruce .............. 386 


SPURLOUS—spurious, suppositious, counterfeit.. 5 


INDEX. 


Page 

TO SPURT--to spurt, SpOdt...evseeeceeeees soe SDE 
SPY—emissary, spy----.-..-- 446 
TO SQUANDER—to spend or expend, waste, 
SQUANCEL ..-see-sees occ cece ons 65 celsie seiienin 
SQUEAMISH—fastidious, squeamish.......-... 
SQUEEZE—to break, bruise, squeeze, pound, 
crush : 

TO SQUEEZE—to press, squeeze, pinch, gripe. . 
STABILIT Y—-constancy, stability, steadiness, 


ee eeeeeessesesoeses 


344 
385 


ee receee Bee eeesr esos eres eceseoeoeetene 


fiTMNESS » s- -s ep esies sie wi0ip.s.cjeiois.e 60,656 satbleenie as 
STABLE—firm, fixed, solid, stable.........+++0. 226 
STAFF —staff, stay, prop, support........+.2++++ 228 
STAFF—staff, stick, crutch ....2..00.s..s0ees0+ 209 
TO STAGGER—to stagger, reel, totter..-.... «» 30d 
TO STAGNATE--to stand, stop, rest, stagnate.. “58 
STAIN—blemish, stain, spot, speck, flaw ...... - 127 
TO STAIN—to colour, dye, tinge, stain.....-... 516 
TO STAIN—to stain, soil, sully, tarnish......... 514 


TO STAMMER—to hesitate, falter, stammer, 
STULLEL «2 ce nececcecccccsces et ee reece ee beseen 
STAMP—mark, print, impression, stamp.......- 
TO STAMP—to seal, stamp... 
TO STAND—+to stand, stop, rest, stagnate......- 
STANDARD—criterion, standard......0....+0.- 
TO STARE—to stare, gape, gaze........0.-. ae 
TO START 
TO STARTLE 
STATE—-situation, condition, state, predicament, 
plight, case ............ 
STAT#H--state, realm, commonwealth......-... 
STATION—condition, station... 
STATION—place, situation, station, position, post 
STATELY --magisterial, majestick, stately, pomp- 
ous, august, dignified........ 
STAY—staff, stay, support 
TO STAY —to continue, remain, stay..-...... segs 
STEADINESS—constancy, stability, steadiness, 
firmness....--.. sc.0 pale siete ges ghee sista ia lemiola 
TO STEAL AWAY—to abscond, steal away, se- 
crete one’s Selficis sk ssi clon secs eaipeerslae eee 
TO STEEP—to soak, drench, steep.....-+se-00- 
STEP—pace, step-....... 
STERN--austere, rigid, severe, rigorous, stern... 
STICK—staff, stick, crutch.......scsccscececves 
TO STICK—to stick, cleave, adhere............ 
TO STICK—to fix, fasten, stick. ...-+cecssccusee 
TO STIFLE—to stifle, suppress, smother ....... 
TO STIFLE—to suffocate, stifle, choke, smo- 
thierinetieinetss sate sarcomere Sele deere cose eerece.c 
STIGMA—mark, badge, stigma......+-s..2..4.. 
TO STIMULATE—to encourage, animate, in- 
cite, impel, urge, stimulate, instigate......... 31] 
TO STILL—to appease, calm, pacify, quiet, still 361 
STIPEND—allowance, stipend, salary, wages, 
hire, paye--.-->»- 
TO STIR—to stir, mMOVe .-...c...000005 
TO STIR WUP—to awaken, excite, provoke, rouse, 
stir up os 00 ese.singe Suet ee 
STOCK—stock, store. A cnt 32! 
STOP—cessation, stop, rest, intermission.......- 257 
TO STOP—to check, stop my orian Yate: 
TO \STOP—to hinder, stop -......'0. sess semana 
TO STOP—to stand, stop, rest, nee Gus titania eats 
STORE—stock, store . : a4 


to spring, start, startle, shrink.. 


see esse es. ee seeeee 


eet eeesseroerecce 


eseeeeseeesesoe 


eeaeeeseoen oe ey 


164 
301 


see eres es eee eecoees eeecsee ee 


seceee ee eceserccsoes 


eee ser esos ee 


ee coe rererenere 


INDEX. 


Page 

STORM—breeze, gale, blast, gust, storm, tempest, 
hurricane 353 
STORY—anecdote, story, tale.......+.-seee---- 467 
STOUT—corpulent, lusty, stout........esse0+.0- SLL 
STR.AIN—strain, sprain, stress, force.........-.- 221 
STRAIN—stress, strain, emphasis .accent.... 
STRAIGHT—straight, right, direct .... 
STRAIT —strait, narrow 
STRANGE—particular, singular, odd, eccentrick, 
StTange .-.----- 
STRANGER—stranger, foreigner, alien 
STRATAGEM—artifice, trick, finesse, stratagem 521 


seeoee eee ec rer eres eee 


eeeeee 


soe eseeoeeses 


TO STRAY—to deviate, wander, swerve, stray 126 
STREAM—stream, current, tide.....+-.ssseeeee 352 
TO STREAM—to flow, stream, gush...... Corea Be 


STRENGTH—power, strength, force, ce 
ORION lee c/s cintee See's ois) «cele dciccodalsjasiergen LOO 
TO STRENGTHEN —to strengthen, ory invi- 
ZOTULE 00 eer e cece sec ccectensssrscscsssses SID 
STRENUOUS—-strenuous, bold ...-.......6-... IAL 
STRESS—strain, sprain, stress, force ........... 221 
STRESS—-stress, strain, emphasis, accent........ 221 
TO STRETCH—to reach, stretch, extend...... - 348 
STRICT—strict, severe. .... 2.0. cseceeccescvees 204 
STRICTURE—animadversion, criticism, stric- 
DP Ci tetcin siecelsien's aw acivie.cie shies aise sie nc ccincay end lo 
STRIFE—contention, strife........-:-.eeeeeseee 132 


STRIFE—dissension, contention, discord, strife.. 133 
TO STRIKE—to beat, hit, strike....... 142 
rO STRIP—to bereave, deprive, strip....... 
FO STRIVE—to contend, strive, vie....-- 


- 131 


ences 


TO STRIVE—to endeavour, aim, strive, strug- 
Ble. ce cerenccccessccncens sevcceceseersececes del 
BTROKE—DbIow, stroke .....see-cecceeeseeeceee 142 


TO STROLL—to wander, stroll, ramble, rove, 


FOAM, TINGE scar cee wsc ence vnssacssavgues ene 126 
STRONG—cogent, forcible, strong....... eihietstarsnl a0) 
STRONG —strong, firm, robust, sturdy........... 372 
STRUCTURE —edifice, structure, fabrick........ 499 
TO STRUGGLE—to endeavour, aim, struggle, 

DENT Vides Seig-s.vis eis 00's Dod éedas ciejniinb a ses Guess - 321 


ee a ee oe Ne stubborn, 


neadstrong, heady.-...s-0-.00 0+ cesaceeses 209 
STUDY—attention, Anptication’ day sorAdhogan LFA} 
STUPID—stupid, dull.........ceecscccsecsece -- 401 
STURDY-—strong, firm, robust, sturdy ........ aN eye: 
TO STUTTER—to hesitate, falter, stammer, 
— SHULTEL eee cee eee cece ce se eect eeseseseces OF 
STYLE—diction, style, phrase, phraseology..... 463 
TO STYLE—to name, denominate, style, etititle, 

designate, characterize........-+.se.eesceeee ATI 
SUAVITY—suavity, urbanity............. ieee 198 
TO SUBDUE—to conquer, vanqujsb. subdue, 

OVEFCOME, SUFMOUNE..- +... esse eres tee tees 144 
TO SUBDUE—to overbear, bear sr: over- 

power, overwhelm, subdue..... sescececcvees 144 
TO SUBDUE—to subject, subjugate, subdue..... 145 
SUBJECT—umatter, materials, subject........... 325 
SUBJECT—object, subject .............. - IABP: «! S20 


SUBJECT—subject, liable, exposed, obnoxious... 
SUBJECT—subject, subordinate, inferiour, sub- 

servient.<...-aseene Sela torts charcide tits! ARS - 146 
TO SUBJECT—to subject, subjugate, subdue.... 145 
TO SUBJOIN—to affix, subjoin, attach, annex.. 419 


TO SUBJUGATE—to subject, subjugate, subdue 
SUBLIME—¢reat, grand, sublime.......... msl 
SUBMISSIVE—complaint, yielding, submissive 


SUBMISSIV E—humble, modest, submissive..... 147 
SUBMISSIV E--obedient, submissive, obsequious 149 
SUBMISSIVE--passive, submissive............ 149 
TO SUBMIT—+to comply, yield, submit......... 150 
SUBORDINATE—subject, subordinate, inferiour, 

BUDSETVICME| s/s c= 5 s'est ele cane sieve rabeieiat hw ote escee 146 
TO SUBORN—to forswear, perjure, suborn..... 92 
SUBSEQUENT—subsequent , consequent, poste- 

THO Tats treielerepsinin sare vers inte alata AOC TIOL GCN OC 272 
SUBSERVIENT—subject, subordinate, inferiour, 

subservient......... oceans Selelasieeeaveiere st dots e L4G 
TO SUBSIDE—to subside, abate, intermit..... - W1 
TO SUBSIST—to be, exist, subsist........... «239 
SUBSISTENCE—livelihood, living, subsistence, 

maintenance, support, sustenance........... 239 
SUBSTANTIAL—substantial, solid............ 372 
TO SUBSTITUTE—to change, exchange, barter, 

substitute...... al aealayciscs'e cnet sitet te cestatiigei ad - 334 
SUBTERFUGE—evasion, shift, subterfuge..... - 526 
SUBTLE—cunning, crafty, subtle, sly, wily..... 522 
TO SUBTRACT—to deduct, subtract........... 421 
TO SUBVERT—*to overturn, overthrow, subvert, 

INVEIt, TEVELSEM. cs elencs o's ode sigaiele sia/).e aaralete 503 
TO SUCCEED—to follow, Piceted. ensue . - 271 
SUCCESSFUL-—fortunate, lucky, ot Aaa suc- 

CESSIUL ces cis a emciiersiacine ais Fonoe: Sees oecc » SID 
SUCCESSION—succession, series, order...... eo Sh 
SUCCESSIV E—successive, alternate......... «+ 272 
SUCCINCT —short, brief, concise, succinct, sum- 

WMUDEV eloisjery siekeyaiere ete lseue's enesls ajaisig'¥svslaia'eleaieieis cto k GG 
TO SUCCOUR—to help, assist, aid, succour, re- 

ECR EEP GUL CONGO ODO ae cain Seen: coves 304 
TO SUFFER—to admit, allow, permit, suffer, to- 

lerate..eesesees sheieteishs sacle ietsteiseietee Sisisitie/sicets! Low 
TO SUFFER--to let, leave, suffer ...........5.. 255 
TO SUFFER—to suffer, bear, endurye, support... 149 
SUFFICIENT—enough, sufficient .............. 343 
TO SUFFOCATE—1Oo suffocate, stifle, smother, 

ENGKEN. siincls ced anaemenuecs ASPMGGHAbOCO CE » 222 
SUFFRAGE—vote, sufftage, voice...........5.. 462 
TO SUGGEST—o allude, refer, hint, suggest ... 326 
TO SUGGEST—to hint, suggest, intimate, insinu- 

BECigsiaicta starelciale Qapteabatclae a cretavsis’s 'sile'sia:b.0 boron Ne fare eaeees 
SUGGESTION—dictate, suggestion............. 184 
SUIT—prayer, petition, request, suit ............ 87 
TO SUIT—to agree, accord, suit......0...50. «+ 152 
TO SUIT—to fit, suit, adapt, accommodate...... 154 
SUITABLE—becoming, decent, seemly, suitable, 

fii SeripnecouAUTonedks mateatels sabato sioteccrits spate 246 

SUITABLE—conformable, agreeable, suitable... 153 
SUITABLE—commodious, convenient, suitable.. 417 
SUITABLE—correspondent, answerable, suitable 155 
SUITOR—lover, suitor, WOOer.....2.seeeeeeesee JN 
SULLEN—gloomy, sullen, morose, splenetick.... 411 
TO SULLY—+to stain, soil, sully, tarnish....... - 514 
SUMMARY-—short, brief, concise, succinct, sum- 
TO SUMMON—to call, bid, summon, invite..... 469 
TO SUMMON—tOo cite, summon...++e+0+++++ee 469 
SUNDRY—different, several. divers, sundry, va- 

VIOUS: fs cols b pee be ebitte Cowie oh ems (0-c,cie samenernt cette 


Ivini 
Page 
SUPERFICIAL—superficial, shallow, flimsy -..- 497 
SUPERFICIES—surface, superficies ....-+.+++++ 407 
SUPERFLUIT Y—excess, superfluity, redundancy 343 
SUPERINTENDENCY— inspection, oversight, 
superintendency....-sseseeereeeceees beeecee 213 
SUPERIORIT Y—excellence, superiority ....--. 
SUPEKSCRIPTION—direction, superscription, 
address . was Beiclalainidicis le Ca sie take 
TO SUPERSEDE—to peeenital supersede....++- 206 
SUPINE— indolent, supine, listless, careless......- 300 
SUPPLE—flexible, pliant, supple-...+... sees 
TO SUPPLICATE—to beg, beseech, solicit, en- 


treat, supplicate, implore, crave.....-....+e0e 158 
TO SUPPLY—to provide, procure, furnish, sup- 

PLYisade sinwials al clere'esis winless odseess es sine veces 399 
SUPPORT —livelihood, living, subsistence, sup- 

POMt, SUSTENANCE... 6... esecesececeeeceseseee V3 
SUPPORT'—staff, stay, SUPPOrt .-.--eeeeeverene » 238 
TO SUPPORT—to countenance, sanction, sup- 

POLE orc cceeccccceccceccccsceeccesncncscoses 310 
TO SUPPORT—to hold, maintain, support...... 237 
TO SUPPORT—o second, support ......... seee 365 


TO SUPPORT —o suffer, bear, endure, sh 149 
TO SUPPORT—to sustain, support, maintain.... 238 
TO SUPPOSE—to conceive, ie era suppose, 
imagine. : 
TO SUEPOSE—to thinks, suppose, imagine, iacaln: 
Hellevey...vesekoe ces Slate nlala’Siaiaretsteiiicieveia ak ete 75 
SUPPOSITION—conjecture, supposition, surmise 94 
SUPPOSITIOUS—spurious, suppositious, coun- 


74 


CORFGlt ee hak es relatetele (alate Cini/aisal vie bcs. e ante 5% 
TO SUPPRESS—to repress, restrain, suppress .. 221 
TO SUPPRESS—to stifle, suppress, smother .... 222 
SURE—certain, sure, Secure -......escceceeecees 366 
SURFACE—surface, superficies...........esseee 457 
SURGE—wave, billow, surge, breaker ......... 353 
SURMISE—conjecture, supposition, surmise..... 94 


TO SURMOUNT —to conquer, vanquish, subdue, 
OVErCOME, SUFMOUNE.......e eee sfespaices stad 

TO SURPASS—to acca heel Satao, surpass 273 

SURPRISE—wonder, admiration: surprise, asto- 


nishment, AMAZEMENL....-ceeccceccceccerece 403 
TO SURRENDER—-to give up, at Fat yield, 
surrender, cede, CONCEdE....s.eesseereresees 242 
TO SURROUND—to iavouda | encompass, envi- 
FON, ENCircle ...-.sees06 siateiotuis Slenie sitet celles Ala HS 
SURVEY—retrospect, review, survey-<-+-..+.06 480 
SURVEY—view, survey, prospect .........+. see 479 
TO SURVIVE—to outlive, survive...........0- 240 
SUSCEPTIBILIT Y—feeling, sensibility, st'scepti- 
HIGH s deeds sete Met vlels osreb hionce ee cle 376 
SUSPENSE—dcubt, suspense........cecccsecs 95 
SUSPICION—jealousy, envy, suspicion. ........ 389 
SUSPICIOUS—distrustful, suspicious, diffident .. 416 
TO SUSTAIN —to sustain, support, maintain ... 238 


SUSTENANCE—livelihood, ee subsistence 
support, sustenance .- selec) 230 
SW AIN—countryman, of sesh ti swain, “hiha: rus- 
tick, clown ..... ene ye ek sk ore a Cave cudlsie we 336 
TO SWALLOW UP—-to absorb, swallow up, 
OVGTORTE Ge Gas Gs bvcs wp usceeesssessneses ones 
SWARM—multitude, crowd, throng, swarm..... 494 
SW A Y—influence, authority, ascendancy, sway.. 186 
TC SWELL—to heave, swell ...ssee:cseeeeee oe Sod 


INDEX. 


Page 
TO SWERVE—to deviate, wander, swerve, stray 126 


SWIFTNESS—quickness, swiftness, fleetness, ce- 
lerity, rapidity, velocity. ....-.+ssseeeeeee wee 262 

SYCOPHANT—flatterer, sycophant, parasite.... 526 

SYMBOL—figure, metaphor, allegory, emblem, 


Symbol, type os ce. cs ec ceaessereccevcs eee ° ool 
SYMMETRY—symmetry, proportion.......... - 435 
SYMPATHY—sympathy, compassion, commise- 

ation, Comdolence..2...i;-cnces vee poe onsen aimee 
SYMPTOM—mark, sign, note, symptom, token, 

indication......... eaeeledeiss Some 6s ois seine + 447 


SYNOD—assembly, company, meeting, congrega- 
tion, parliament, diet, congress, convention, 
synod, convocation, COUNCI] .....++++2++ee0e - 499 

SYSTEM—system, method.......+-+. Sadan goa: 


TACITURNITY-—-silence, taciturnity........... 464 
TO TAINT—to eae defile, pollute, cor- 

rupt, taint.. cine es alee e sic dante seme se Lae 
TO TAKE—to fae receive, ee aun ae cee che - 233 
TO TAKE HEED—to guard against, to (ake 


TO TAKE HOLD OF—to lay or take hold of, 
catch, seize, snatch, grasp, gripe....---++-s606 237 
TO TAKE LEAVE—to leave, take Bee bid 


farewell . apes vege cle cepa 
TO TAKE PAIN 3 —to labour, ree pains or 

trouble, use Endeavour....-.eeseeecccererese Baa 
TALE—fable, tale, novel, romance...sseeeeeeeee 467 
TALE—anecdote, story, tale.......-..06. Felscens ead, 
TALENT—faculty, ability, talent.......-.s.+-+- 68 
TALENT —zift, endowment, talent........-- ree OF 
TALENT —intellect, genius, talent...........-++ 67 


TO TALK—to speak, talk, converse, discourse.. 459 


TALKATIVE—talkative, loquacious, garrulous.. 460 
TALL—high, tall, lofty........ssesceecseccoee - 355 
TAME—gentle, tame.......+-.-. 000 sina Sele - 360 


TO TANTALIZE—to aggravate, irritate, pro- 
voke, exasperate, tantalize...+.-.esceereeeee 1H 
TO TANTALIZE—to tease, vex, taunt, torment, 


tantalize . ate 3.6 e\s fava apeie ae a eee 
TARDY—slow, iditaeare, dandy, tedious ap STS 260 
TO TARNISH—to stain, soil, sully, tarnish..... 514 


TO TARRY—to linger, tarry, loiter, lag, saunter 26° 
TARTNESS—acrimony, tartness, asperity, harsh- 
TASK—work, labour, toil, drudgery, task....... . 328 
TASTE—palate, taste........... esate waeneeee sree DIZ 
TASTE—aste, flavour, relish, savour-..-....-++ 512 
TAST E—taste, genius.......-sseeceeesccrscee oe 
TO TAUNT—to tease, vex, taunt, tantalize, tor- 


TAUTOLOGY—trepetition, tautology........... - 466 
TAX—tax, duty, custom, toll, impost, tribute, con- 

SrA LIOM seers Merc Seals wu ie sees eoreae send Cee e EOS 
TAX—tax, rate, ASSESSMENt.....-. 0... es seeveeee 168 
TO TEACH—to inform, teach, instruct ......... 194 
TO TEAR—to break, rack, rend, tear........... 503 
TO TEASE—to tease, vex, taunt, tantalize, tor- 


AUIS eiss<lonics caleis's aie nisiee Sod b> cos ete ojaxsauieah Lenk 
TEDIOUS—slow, dilatory, tardy, tedious........ 260 
TEDIOUS—wearisome, tiresome, tedious.----..- 369 


TEGUMENT—tegument, covering.....+ee+ese+ 518 
TO TELL—to speak, say, tell...ceceeseeee oe 465 


INDEX. 


Page 
TEMERIT Y—rashness, temerity, precipitancy .. 263 
TEMPER—disposition, temper ......----+++5++5 387 
TEMPER—frame, temper, temperament, consti- 


tution ..... OAC OLIACe CAPCO OBOE DOC cee napt ater ets) 
TEMPER—humour, temper, mood.......+-.e0++ 387 
TO TEMPER—to qualify, temper, humour...... 388 


TEMPERAMENT—frame, temper, temperament, 
COMSTUUTIOR geo Sec close a's deci acres siete ease a5 
TEMPERAMENT—temperament, temperature.. 


388 
388 


TEMPERANCE—modesty, moderation, temper- 
BHEOs BODTICLY 6 cos 5 oa. 8 Se Wako coele tee 6 oes eae C40 
TEMPERATE—abstinent, sober, abstemious, tem- 
PETALS occ cce rece cece eccccceeesecescesscrce O44 
TEMPERATURE—temperament, temperature... 388 
TEMPEST—hreeze, gale, blast, gust, storm, tem- 
pest, hurricane... ..ssseeeeseee see eees sive G00 


TPMPLE—temple, church.........ccesseccesese 82 


TEMPORAL—secular, temporal, worldly........ 90 
TEMPORARY-—temporary, transient, transitory, 
HMEGHNO CoS .5 2 ccc ass's Malereida cavers oe mctnaiose/ee0 U 


TEMPORIZING—temporizing, timeserving ..... 
TO TEMPT—to allure, tempt, seduce, entice, de- 


lix 
Page 
THOUGHTLESS—negligent, remiss, careless, 
thoughtless, heedless, inattentive........... 424 
THREAT—threat, menace .. wee 405 
THREATENING—imminent, impending, threat- 


eeaeeeereseeseseos 


OTM. seces cleteieige omieia tests dsl dere «asks ss . 408 
THRIFTY—economical, saving, sparing, thrifty, 
penurious, niggardly .....-.+.5.-. Bacpeaic es, LOE 
TO THRIVE—to flourish, prosper, thrive ....... 395 
THRONG—unultitude, crowd, throng, swarm . « 494 
TO THROW—+to cast, throw, hurl .....- Rees sdi= /O04 
TO THWART—to oppose, resist, withstand, 
thwart ..... sein ouisn rier solace talereavert Lal 
TIDH--stream, current, tide ...02.ecccevcesectes Ge 
TIDINGS—news, tidings............ Fa Resicscne - 465 
TO TIE—to bind,tie........ saeavensissie ee aate wate ele 
TILLAGE—cultivation, tillage, husbandry...... 337 
TIME—duration, time........0++0+ sisiara.einte's veee 206 
TIME—time, season, timely, seasonable.......... 266 
TIME—time, period, age, date, era, epocha...... 267 
TIMELY—time, season, timely, seasonable ..... 266 


TIMES PAST—formerly, in former times, times 
past or days of yore, anciently or in ancient 


COY sacle deceive iguvensvetes tuceveaveveetoces G19 PRTIDGEs lesan eveleietetels otele sigfelsiciere «dialer sida) cightelce ee 269 
TO TEMPT—to try, tempt..........e¢.eeeeee+- 319) TIMESER VING—temporizing, timeserving ..... 267 
re POUENESS css rereerercteeneeteereereee) 160] TIMOROUS } 8s fearful timld, timorous.... 307 
TENDENCY—tendency, drift, scope, aim...... - 325) TO TINGE—to colour, dye, tinge, stain......... 516 
TO TENDER—to offer, bid, tender, propose..... 167} TINT—colour, hue, titit........cseeseesscceeees JIG 
TENDERNESS—-benevolence, benignity, hu- TO TIRE—to weary, tire, jade, harass.......... 369 

manity, kindnegs, tenderness..........++.+-- 165 | TIRESOME—wearisome, tiresome, tedious...... 369 
TENET—doctrine, precept, tenet...-..eee6.--. 80} TITLE—name, appellation, title, denomination.. 471 
TENET—tenet, position ...-...+.+2-ese+see-+e- 801 TOIL--work, Jabour, toil, drudgery, task ........ 328 
TERM—article, condition, term.............+++- 335} TOKEN—mark, sign, note, symptom, indication, 
TERM—term, limit, boundary ........-seeeseeeee 177 FOKEM ince «sieve con ateia ste Sie le aihetslece ates rata clshala eras 447 
TERM—word, term, expression..... seseceeseees 462} TO TOLERATE—to admit, allow, permit, suffer, 

TO TERMINATE—to complete, finish, termi- POleEALO.'s ce staat sinless Be delve eeiasionsietes: LO. 

TALC. eo eevee reeecserseeereeeeceecvereseeees 20/| TOLL—tax, custom, duty, toll, impost, tribute, 

TO TERMIN ATE—to end, close, terminate..... 285 COVEPIDULION\. « ./sbe ces oe cde Cejaestes c A ESE easilod 


TERRIBLE—formidable, dreadful, aickking, ¢ ter- 
rible.... 
TERRIRLE fearful, dreadful, frightful, terrible, 
TERRIFICK tremendous, terrifick, horrible, 
TERRITORY—territory, dominion «............ 
TERROUR-—alarm, terrour, fright, consterna- 
tion .. deste 
TEST—experience, experiment, trial, proof, test.. 
TESTAMENT—will, testament..... Sab ao telat : 
TO TESTIFY—to express, declare, signify, tes- 
Lify, Utter... .ceeeeeeee eee cece ec ee tees cees : 
TESTIMON Y—proof, evidence, testimony-.-.... : 
THANKFULNESS—thankfulness, gratitude.... 
THEOLOGIAN—ecclesiastick, divine, theologian 


ee eee esses essere oe osseerseHreeesees 


THEORY—theory, speculation .....-...-.+++..- 80 
THEREFORE—therefore, consequently, accord- 

TN GLY vedo aisle iss dea eaiiee sedaelvvice, sineesee'e!, O14 
THICK—thick, dense ..... Biisghcteainielejaite Bidets «+ dal 
THIN—thin, slender, slight, slim........ Brew aele - dol 
TO THINK—to think, reflect, ponder, muse..... 76 
TO THINK—to think, suppose, imagine, believe, 

déeMm: .\-as. en eee decd Pitas it sislbiaise'sle, c+) G7 


THOUGHT—idea, thought, imagination ........ 73 
THOUGHTFUL—thoughiful, considerate, deli- 


WOTALCs 0.5 0.0 on. Qe Saciwiea maitbrea iia seats wie slave 


TOMB—grave, tomb, sepulchre..........-.e+.0- 3 


TONEH—soind, tone’. :s.<acertaewceet cs «see Gane Olt 
TONGUE—Ilanguage, tongue, speech, idiom, dia- 

PECL ea eatatoascwinin's cisip'e weir ee aiet tts atone ae eceees 463 
TOO—also, likewise, too..... BES LAI eae Rates Q53 
FOOL—instrument, tool....-.. Sea eiconuow 6 Abc 399 
TORMENT—torment, torture........-....2.00e 408 
TO TORMENT—to tease, vex, taunt, tantalize, 
| fOMMENt es ees as Sialetysicteletaiats <tetvinnle atalaneseibia ]21 
TORPID--numb, benumbed, torpid............. 372 
TORTURE—torment, torture .....ceeeeeceens> 418 
TO TOSS—to shake, agitate, toss -..........-0- 304 
TOTAL—gross, total........... Ap A Asta esis] 


TOTAL—whole, entire, complete, total, ‘Seitegra 288 
TO TOTTER—to stagger, reel, totter. . soeee 303 
TOUCH—contact, touch .......... a GAR Fes 129 
TOUR—circuit, tour, round........sseeeeeecees . 175 
TOUR—excursion, ramble, tour, trip, jaunt..... . 302 
TO TRACE—to derive, trace, deduce........ es 
TRACE 
TRACK 
TRACT—essay, treatise, tract, dissertation..-.- 
TRACT —district, region, tract, quarter 
TRACTABLE—docile, tractable,"ductile.....-.. 360 
TRADE—business, trade, profession, art.-....... 33] 
TRADE—trade, commerce, traffick, dealing . wees 233 


mark, trace, vestige, footstep, track... 448 


- 329 


sea eons 


Ix 
Page 

TRADER 395 
TRADESMA® 
TO TRADUCE—to disparage, detract, traduce, 
depreciate, degrade, decry..-.-++++++sereeee : 
TRAFFICK—trade, commerce, traffick, dealing. . 
TRAIN—procession, train, retinue... 
TRAITOROUS—treacherous, traitorous, treason- 
able .. 
TRAN QUILLITY—peace, quiet, calm, eameune 


; trader, merchant, tradesman... 


105 
333 
493 


ee seeeoescece 


524 


eee eeecee tere asso nesses socer . 


361 
TO TRANSACT—1o negotiate, treat for or about, 
transact. 2. weve cnc : 
TRANSACTION—proceeding, transaction...... 
TO TRANSCEND—to exceed, surpass, excel, 


215 
333 


eeeeseae Cr 


transcend, outdo «.....---.-eeees ASS A Sadaas 28: 
TO TRANSCRIBE—to copy, transcribe........ 530 
TO TRANSFIGURE ) to transfigure, transform, 

TO TRANSFORM metamorphose ...... - 86) 
TO TRANSGRESS—to infringe, Scie trans- 

BY ESS cicpthis ec ecle cialis scl le ains sie eaisins te eee cu 
TRANSGRESSION—offence, Pa transgres- 

sion, misdemeanour, misdeed, affront....-.... 120 
TRANSIENT temporary, transient, transi- 
TRANSITORY , tory, fleeting. .....+secacece 
TRANSPARENT —pellucid, transparent-...... . 

TO TRANSPORT—to bear, carry, convey, trans- 

Naas Mya ade's Rad Pohe Sh egaSo Aes seno ose . 330) 
TRANSPORT —ecstasy, rapture, transport...... 
TRAVEL—journey, travel, voyage ............. 302 
TREACHEROUS—faithless, perfidious, treache- 

YOU ce cele are SG RASS SE whelwetoien ice © sis eoceieloisiniets 524 
TREACHEROUS—insidious, treacherous.....- - 524 


TREACHEROUS ) treacherous, traitorous, trea- 


FREASONABLE $ sonable .............+00. 524 

£0 TREASURE—to treasure, hoard.......... . 341 

TREAT—feast, banquet, carousal, entertainment, 
RPOAL EC se slays aie as ate leomie flaw bi eteasubte Bip iatistaiay cole. 613 


TO TREAT FOR OR ABOUT—+to negotiate, 
treat for or about, transact.......e.seeeeseee QS 
TREATISE—essay, treatise, tract, disediuation; Sh8 
TREATMENT—treatment, usage....... Deloitte BOD 
TO TREMBLE—-to shake, tremble, shudder, 
CQUIVEDNOMAKCsjoos,5 ops ore cleem cmcteeiic tonics - 305 
YREMBLING—trembling, tremour, trepidation.. 308 
*REMENDOUS—fearful, dreadful, frightful, tre- 
mendous, terrible, terrifick, horrible, horrid... 
CREMOUR agitation, emotion, trepidation, 


306 


TREPIDATION EY CHEGUT > iorn'> eine ieee ntsicisactpie 308 
TREMOUR trembling, tremour, trepida- 
TREPIDATION { tion.. ays sii sie ee aim ele. tates nie eS 


TRESPASS—offence, trespass, transgression, mis- 
demeanour, misdeed, affront............-+.- 120 

PRIAL—attempt, trial, endeayour, essay, effort.. 320 

TRIAL—experience, experiment, trial, proof, test 319 


TRIBUTE—tax, custom, duty, toll, impost, tri- 
bute, contribution ....... Sire atey ols eiciaretege cooee 168 
»RICK—artifice, trick, finesse, stratagem........ 521 


TO TRICK—to cheat, defraud, trick.......-.... 525 
TRIFLING ) trifling, trivial, petty, frivolous, fu- 
TRIVIAL tile... 

TRIP—excursion, ramble, tour, trip, jaunt....... 302 
TROOP—troop, company .-...-- ses mem esine AGO 
TO TROUBLE—to afflict, distress, trouble ..... 408 


TO TROUBLE—to trouble, disturb, molest .... 412 


eoseeose 


477 | 'TURN—turn, bent...-.-eeeeees 
TO TURN—to turn, bend, twist, distort, wring, 


318 TO TURN 


INDEX. 


Page 
TROUBLES—difficulties, embarrassments, trou- 
DIGS ss. omierets efeltiets ie sie! tis >7s Eee Br op a ray sie 
TROUBLESOME—troublesome, irksome, vexa-_ 
TOUS |+:0'010 <.0 vin bclope ite,vio ies a: aiple,'n.4'5)eke ae eee Te 
TO TRUCK—to exchange, barter, truck, com- 
TNUEE:s s'6'c\0 Si n/a wis wibimiofe v0 alo: «elon la.e's Biel ga ete 


TRUE-—sincere, honest, true, plain .s.....+-.+-. 430 
TRUST—telief, credit, trust, faith..... 78 
TRUST—hope, expectation, trust, confidence...» 414 
TO TRUST—to confide, trust .....+0++sseceer00 414 
TRUSTY—faithful, trusty...... Pence 
TRU TH—truth, veracity ....... Rips ots sips veveixtperaed 
TO TRY—to try, tempt. 319 
TO TUG—to draw, drag, hale or nee pull, plack, 

Leo SaaS Fae Soa aa cr DoWinl s ase Ceemele 
TO TUMBLE—to fall, drop, droop, sink, tumble 303 


eeereos 


re oe a ay eo 


} TUMID—turgid, tumid, bombastick........ ereee 464 
TUMULT—bustle, tumult, uproar......-..+-.++ 220 
fetal carat tumultuous, tumultuary ..... 208 

‘ TUMULTUOUS ) tumultuous, turbulent, sedi- 
TURBULENT tious, mutinous....++..+++. 208 
TURGID—turgid, tumid, bombastick.......-...- 464 


267| TURN—cast, turn, description, character.....--. 467 


bis Se sleislo eer) ane 


wrest, wrench .....-++-- sae oO OES 


TO TWIRL ; to tum, wind, whirl, twirl, writhe 316 


-+TO TWIST—to turn, bend, twist, distort, wring, 


eas ererceeeceosns 


wrest, wrench B slandeoe eee ale 
TYPE—figure, metaphor, allegory, emblem, sym- 

bol; type... s.-.s0-ees « 6 bia bine amet ee 
TYRANNICAL—absolute, arbitrary, tyrannical 184 


ULTIMATE—last, latest, final, ultimate ....-... 270 
UMPIRE—judge, umpire, arbiter, arbitrator..... 211 


UNBELIEF—disbelief, unbelief .....-...-+..--. 79 
UNBELIEF—unbelief, infidelity, incredulity.... 79° 
UNBLEMISHED—blameless, irreproachable, un- 
blemished, unspotted or spotless..........-.- 129 
UNBODIED—incorporeal, unbodied, immaterial, 
Spiritual ......... ‘ine prawns ols, <tsleiearaly coer 66 
UNBOUNDED—houndless, unbounded, infinite, 
unlimited. .2s 30 = neaee eee ec enae Sarehe weet 
UNCEASINGLY— incessantly, unceasingly, un- 
interruptedly, without intermission. ......... 257 
UNCERT AIN—doubtful, dubious, uncertain, pre 
CATIOUS ios cis osetia Tuaiwsle PRS aoe Se 
UNCONCERNED— indifferént, unconcerned, re 
Gardless .... se sseeseweee ee eeee vies ecces veeee J74 
UNCONQUERABLE— invincible, insuperable, __ 
unconquerable, insurmountable.........+... 145 
TO UNCOVER—tOo uncover, discover, disclose.. 444 
UNCOVERED—bare, naked, uncovered ..... see 249 
UNDAUNTED—bold, fearless, undaunted, intre- 
Pid oe odse ewe tebe cess aloes av soles .igeew a's met) 00 
UNDENIABLE—indubitable, unquestionable, in- 
disputable, undeniable, incontrovertible, irre- 
Fragable sitiscsee cise c ces... 5 07h ssc eee! 
UNDER—under, below, beneath...........2-+++ 279 
TO UNDERMINE—to sap, undermine......... 502 
TO UNDERSTAND—to conceive, comprehend, 
UNGerstand i. % cic sees ees (ones eleleabel eee enene 


INDEX. 


Page 

UNDERSTANDING—understanding, intellect, 
intelligence .....2see000s BR IOC a8 Hot SOE 67 

UNDERTAKING—attempt, undertaking, enter- 
PYISE «sees MUM e let ewes vin Seas walgtnetig ee sts 320 

UNDETERMINED—undetermined, unsettled, 
unsteady, WaVEriNg -..+-..+.eeeseees sheegte' Qe0 
UNEVEN—odd, uneven .2.....0..cccccccaicves 436 
UNFAITHFUL—faithless, unfaithful........... 524 


UNFEELING—hard, hardy, unfeeling, insensible 374 
YO UNFOLD—to unfold, unravel, develope .... 218 
UNGOVERNABLE—unruly, ungovernable, re- 
FPACTOTY vseevsceess Pf nalelarsntettiprslcra ce/ateleere/ets 208 
UNHAPPY—unhappy, miserable, wretched..... 412 


UNIFORM—equal, even, equable, like or alike, 
RRIRISTIERVE forein slele!e css ctceidie esis ce crete su c's c'elay «e's 435 
UNIMPORTANT—unimportant, insignificant, 
immaterial, inconsiderable........ceseeeeees 457 
UNINTERRUPTEDLY— incessantly, uninter- 
ruptedly, unceasingly, without intermission 257 
TO UNITE—to add, join, unite, coalesce....... 418 
TO UNITE—to connect, combine, unite......... 419 
UNIVERSAL—general, universal........--.+.- 323 


UNJUST—wicked, unjust, iniquitous, nefarious 128 


UNLEARNED ignorant, illiterate, unlearned, 
UN paecyani: unlettered ....... Aen SeERe 197 
UNLESS—unless, except .......e.sees Ep boce bbe 251 
UNLIKE—different, unlike....... Piste ORLy ie 283 
UNLIMITED—boundless, unbounded, unlimited, 
infinite ..... Alciale citvajerdats chalcites caisleete eine e.s 177 
UNMERCIFUL—hard-hearted, cruel, unmerciful, 
EGLO IGS eels ows nae eioiein sig eed #\ seria vicee esis sin’ 373 
UNOFFENDING—unoffending, harmless, inof- 
BETSEY cities sles 0) os nie a sie ols emtesipisie ald weiss’ cle|« 121 
UNQUESTIONABLE—indubitable, unquestion- 
able, indisputable, undeniable, incontroverti- 
ble, irrefragable.........scee ree a scene ee secee 114 
LO UNRAVEL—to unfold, unravel, develope... 218 
UNRELENTING—implacable, unrelenting, re- 
lentless, inexorable. .......0.e+seeveeeeeses 381 
UNRULY—unruly, ungovernable, refractory.... 208 
UNSEARCHABLE—unsearchable, inscrutable... 481 
UNSETTLED—undetermined, unsettled, waver- 
ing, UNStEAdY ..- een eceeececeeecccececcees 225 
UNSPEAKABLE—unspeakable, ineffable, unut- 
terdble, inexpressible ......--...-eeeseeeeeee 460 
UNSPOTTED—blameless, irreproachable, un- 
blemished, unspotted, spotless........-.++-+- 129 
UNSTEADY—undetermined, unsettled, waver- 
ing, unsteady ....-....esee cece se eee Wistelelerele 225 
UNTOW ARD—awkward, cross, érooked, unto- 
ward, froward, Perverse......eeesereeescoee 315 
UNTRUTH—untruth, falsehood, falsity, lie..... 528 
UNUTTERABLE—unspeakable, ineffable, unut- 
terable, inexpressible ....-....seeseeeseeeeee 460 
UNWILLING—-averse, unwilling, backward, 
loath, reluctant... ..0.ceescerccccssccececese 136 
UNWORTHY—unworthy, worthless..........- 437 


TO UPBRAID—to biame, reprove, » ge up- 
braid, censure, condemn.. ee 

UPON—above, over, upon, hepoud 

UPRIGHTNESS—honesty, uprightness, integrity, 
probity 


eee eoree eres 


UPRIGHTNESS—trectitude, uprightness .......- 428 
UPROAR—bustle, tumult, uproar.......e.cevees 220 


a 


lx 
Page 

URBANIT Y—urbanity, suavity ............. «+. 198 
TO URGE—to encourage, animate, incite, impel, 

urge, stimulate, instigate.......+..eesesesees 311 
URGENT—pressing, urgent, importunate....... 158 
USAGE—usage, custom, prescription. ........... 324 
USAGE—treatment, usage .......--e.eeeeeeeees 399 
USE—advantage, benefit, utility, service, avail, 

TSG ccelenls ave ose Cauielecsedaleinnais'© sera deine oe ain 398 
TO USE—to employ, uS€ .......ee esses ceeoees 398 
TO USE ENDEAVOURS—to labour, take pains 

or trouble, use endeavours... ..eesesersece 328 
USUALLY—commonly, generally, frequently, 

MISHA Wr sia cists sindcrave este fs/cin ae oie n ats-o cle aerate 323 
TO USURP—to appropriate, usurp, arrogate, as- 

sume, ascribe...... Pig eel claiuislnl ean) sole ein siniele.ctals 230 
UTILITY—advantage, benefit, utility, service, 

VAI], USCaceeicmciasaeie ee pialterstatinie senistclatte «- 398 
TO UTTER—to express, declare, signify, testify, 

UGE ccs sists cen) siete tete'cle’= iu cis¥oina ota's afchaie'e aiateats ate 455 
TO UTTER—to utter, speak, articulate, pro- 

MOUNC Ce vercte cis incre ts sistelsieiatne sa susie. dtle dete - 459 
VACANCY—vacancy, vacuity, inanity....... - 344 
VACANT—empty, vacant, void, devoid ........ 343 
VACANT—idle, vacant, leisure ...........+-..2 299 
VACUITY—vacancy, vacuity, inanity.........- 344 
VAGUE—loose, vague, lax, dissolute, licentious.. 256 
WATN-idl@ VAliie cw ccleit macs sisucielalaciele e's slcryaisle 299 
VAIN—vain, ineffectual, fruitless...........+... 290 
VALOUR—bravery, courage, valour, gallantry .. 139 
VALUABLE—valuable, precious, costly .....+++ 437 
VALUE—value, worth, rate, price...........+-. 436 
TO VALUE—to value, prize, esteem..-.-..-.... 436 ~ 
TO VANISH—to disappear, vanish...........-. 481 
VANITY—pride, vanity, conceit.....-.+-..- 00 100 
TO VANQUISH—to conquer, vanquish, subdue, 

OVEFCOME, SUTMOUNL...--.eeeeeceeseeess soeee 144 
VARIATION—change, variation, vicissitude .... 283 
VARIATION ALD 3 
VARIETY variation, variety .......-..s0e. 283 


VARIET Y—difference, variety, diversity, medley 282 
VARIOUS—different, several, divers, sundry, va- 


TIOUS. .0 22 cee0 Bicies, sl jialet oloie etal Creiaie tics) ones steteiet sere 283 
TO VARNISH—to gloss, varnish, palliate....... 515 
TO VARY—to change, alter, vary...-.-...0.+0- 283 
TO VARY—to differ, vary, disagree, dissent .... 132 
VAST —enormous, huge, vast, immense....--... 349 
TO VAUNT—*to glory, boast, vaunt.......-..0. 526 
VEHEMENT—violent, furious, ijasuures vehe- 

ment, impetuoUS ..---+-sseseees eecassce, 219 
VEIL—cloak, mask, blind, ei. Meacersferel ahetsetelere atsle 516 
VELOCIT Y—-quickness, swiftness, fleetness, cele- 

rity, rapidity, velocity .:.....--seeeeeecoess 262 
VENAL—venal, mercenary, hireling...........- 339 
TO VENERATE—to adore, reverence, venerate, 

TEVETE cceccccc scence aieiris) visieels ave Heber ose 81 
VENIAL—venial, pardonable .......+..s--++05 
VENOM —poison, venom ...--see-eee-eeee coeee 
TO VENTURE—to hazard, venture, risk ....-+- 
VERACIT Y—truth, veracity ...+....+-eeeee 
VERBAL—verbal, vocal, oral ....-+++ +++ ss «ee 
VERGE—border, es, rim or as brink, mar- = 

gin, verge . PSs 176: 


VESTIGE—mark, trace, SEAN es icootabei track.. 448 


{xii 
Page 
TO ase 2 displease, vex, Offend .---+++e+e+5 S17 
vex, taunt, eink: tor- 
ment.. soe 121 
VEXATION aan. Scans. chagrin...» 122 
ee ene irksome, vexatious 413 
VICE—crime, vice, sin . eee 122 
VICE—imperfection, defect, “fault, vice 
VICINIT Y—neighbourhood, vicinity. . 
VICISSITUDE—change, variation, Sa slo 2eo 
TO VIE—to contend, strive, vie 131 
VIEW —view, Survey, PrOSpeCt ..eeeseereeereese 479 
VIEW —view, prospect, landscape ....-..+++++22 479 
TO VIEW —to look, see, behold, view, eye...-.. 
VIGILANT—wakeful, watchful, vigilant 
VIGOUR—energy, force, Vigour ...+...--sceeees 
VILE—base, mean, Vile .......eeceececnccocece 
TO VILIFY—to revile, vilify 108 
TO VINDICATE—to assert, maintain, vindicate 441 
TO VINDICATE—to avenge, revenge, vindicate 119 
TO VINDICAT&—to defend, protect, vindicate... 179 
VINDICTIVE—tesentful, revengeful, vindictive 119 
TO VIOLATE—to infringe, violate, transgress .. 508 
VIOLENCE—force, violence 
VIOLENT—violent, furious, boisterous, vehe- 
Ment, IMPetUOUS...erccersceseooee ees 
VISAGE—face, countenance, visage .......-s+e- 479 
VISIBLE—apparent, visible, clear, plain, obvious, 
evident, manifest.........+- .- 478 
VISION—vision, eee phantom, sere 
ghost ..... eeseee 479 
VISIONARY—enthusiast, fanatick , Visionary-. 91 
VISITANT 
VISITER 
ViVACIOUS—lively, sprightly, vivacious, merry, 
sportive, jocund .... - 389 
VIVACIT Y—animation, life, ion spirit.... 356 
ViviD—clear, lucid, bright, vivid.. Bcicmeennn fATO 
VOCABULARY —tietionry lesion, vocabulary, 


ecoeeceeeee 


eee eorseresseoseeees 


© ee Ceoeceerecerve 


Sarcsecveee eeeecens 


; guest, visitant, visiter........ 


eeeereseseeeeconeteeeecs 


glossary, nomenclature . eerccccccescess 464 
VOCAL—verbal, vocal, seats aibiclels! sfe’eiate ers. sp OSG 
VOICE—vote, suffrage, shies sie slaise'pitte sw Ste eose 462 
VOID—empty, vacant, void, devoid............. 343 
VOLATILITY—lightness, levity, flightiness, vo- 

latility, giddiness........0. Wales We a alerexedy ates 390 
VOLUNTARILY—willingly, voluntarily, sponta- 

NEOUSLY «ce escceseccccccscccseecceccccsccese 159 
VOLUNTARY—zgratuitous, voluntary.......... 441 


VOLUPTUARY—-sensualist, voluptuary, epicure 374 
VORACIOUS—rapacious, ravenous, voracious .. 507 


VOTE—vote, suffrage, voice.......... » sislesioleicats 462 
TO VOUCH—to affirm, asseverate, assure, vouch, 
VETy) PLOLESE 65s isis 0 vvivis-e sive le ee sie eam binaries 441 


VOYAGE—journey, travel, voyage...... eee 302 
VULGAR—common, vulgar, ordinary, mean.... 323 


W AGES—allowance, stipend, salary, wages, hire, 


“pay--. aleidipi tins Sisisie {oie via'e ss 'ers\eiie gape siete pL OA 
TO WAIT FOR—to await or wait for, look for, 

EXPCCt - ce ccececeoee Bie aleidie aie aveieie stove e's eAiaw sale 415 
TO WAIT ON—to accompany, escort, attend, 

WIE OD. vec csc e ve eeare Gea eis alae e cinceiehs'sla 493 
W AKEFUL—wakeful, watchful, vigilant....... 483 
WALK-~carriage, gait, walk .....seesscecseeese 192 
WAN—pale pallid, Wan ..cesceccceeeveeseeeees 309 


INDEX. 


Page 
TO WANDER—-to deviate, wander, swerve, 


SLLAY seer eceeccce ee ceeceeeseseaee wae 6 
TO WANDER—to wander, stroll, vee rove, 

roam, range.. s+» 126 
WAN ar sulerien indizence, want, en penury 346 
TO WANT-—to want, need, lack 347 
WARE—commodity, goods, merchandise, ware.. 339 
WARLIKE—martial, military, warlike, soldier- 


So oe eee oseoee 


key siccts Seutemeed alee os ab scapes Seen .. 337 
WARM—hearty, warm, sincere, cordial .-...- eee 43) 
WARMTH —fie, heat, warmth, glow. ....++.+» » 475 


WARNING—admonition, warning, caution..... 193 
TO WARRANT—to guarantee, be security, be 

responsible, warrant... oe 18S 
WARY—cautious, wary, circumspect..-...+.... 4% 
TO WASTE—to spend, expend, waste, dissipate, 

squander...... «ee 344 
TO WASTE—to consume, destroy, waste ...... 505 
TO WATCH—to guard, defend, watch ......... 180 
TO WATCH—to observe, watch .......eseeeee 483 
WATCHFUL—wakeful, watchful, vigilant...... 483 
WATERMAN—seaman, waterman, sailor, mari- 

ner, boatman, ferryman.....-- o. 337 
WAVE—wave, billow, surge, breaker ......-.-. 353 
TO WAVER—-to scruple, hesitate, fluctuate, 


eee esse eeese seeee 


ee esoceereceneseerese sense 


erro erereree 


Wa8VErs.csceg rene Dacccccesenccemseventawesel Oe 
WAVERING—undetermined, unsettled, waver- 
ing, unsteady .......+. <fuis hs steile-sia Eve <olaw da eee, 
WAY—way, manner, method, mode, course, 
INCAS. ie'o:a's's moins oeip ih rites Sears s.teeaw ae - 275 
WAY—way, road, route, COUrSE..-.,-eesereeeee QD 
| WEAK—weak, feeble, infirm .......ceeceeseeee 368 
TO WEAKEN—to weaken, enfeeble, debilitate, 
enervate, invalidate ...ecececoresesees pieleialasldOS 
WEAKNESS—-imperfection, weakness, frailty, 
failing, foible ...evseese, svccnceeaen sagas -» 124 
WEALTH—tiches, wealth, opulence, affluence.. 346 
WEAPONS—arms, Weapons .----+eeeeees covers 141 
WEARINESS—fatigue, weariness, lassitude.... 369 
WEARISOME—wearisome, tiresome, tedious... 369 
TO WEARY—to weary, tire, jade, harass...... 369 
WEDDING—marriage, wedding, nuptiais........ 83 
WEDLOCK—marriage, matrifnony,-wedlock.... 84 
TO WEEP—to cry, Weep..+..sseees00e Peters: vii) 
WEIGHT —-signification, avail, importance, con- 
sequence, weight, MoMENt......-.-e.eeeevee 456 
WEIGHT—weight, heaviness, gravity .-..-..+- - 369 
WEIGHT—weight, burden, load ...-+......+. «- 370 
WEIGHT Y—heavy, burdensome, weighty, pon- 
GELOUR Se. viaje a she Wo sis'ie 4 Saiebic Sa eleleeiata meee - 370 
WELL-BEING—well-being, welfare, prosperity, 
HAPPINEsds \s a\ervie’s viniss sa.vivgs ah wvinids bos os BREE - 396 
WELCOME—acceptable, grateful, welcome..... 234 
WELFARE—well-being, welfare, prosperity, hap- 
PINESS.. -ceceseedecascevccsessesecessenpa +. 396 
TO WHEEDLE—to coax, wheedle, cajole, 
SAV Als wee aise siataleis ae seisis claves pheisleoate a -Nesehoee 
WHIM-—freak, whim. )5 i sseicees sdeeelecieceen 384 
WHIMSICAL—fanciful, fantastical, whimsical, 
CAPVICIOUS wore <0!» Se niedes os enige naan acsn es CO 


TO WHIRL—to turn, wind, whirl, twirl, writhe 316 
WHOLE—all, whole.. 5 soee QW 
WHOLE—-whole, ponilane total, inteqbal en- 

TifGiccea a nent Peeve rece rene cerenreseneses! on 


eeoes 


288 


INDEX. lxin 

Page Pag? 

WHOLESOME—healthy, wholesome, salubrious, WORD —promise, engagement, Word.:.+...e.+0+ 214 
SAlULATY eceseeeeeeeee ce ceecweee siseaklasis/elele 366 | WORD—word, term, expressiOn.......e-uee+e00« 462 
WICKED—bad, evil, wicked .......- ees +++» 127| WORK—work, labour, toil, dradgevy, task ...... 328 
WICKED—wicked, unjust, iniquitous, nefarious 128 |} WORK—production, performance, wo7k ..... ese 329 
WIDE—large, broad, wide ...... svececcesiovce ce 349 | WORK—work, operation .....--. ecsiseesscecee - 323 
WILL—will, testament ..... Drala sisclw delolncaie'cie s/eve 164 WORLDLY—secular, temporal, worldly ........ 90 
TO WILL—to will, Wish .........seesceeseeees 159 | TO WORSHIP—to adore, worship ...-...-+.++. 81 
WILLINGLY—willingly, voluntarily, spontane- WORTH—desert, merit, Worth ...-.s-ccereeeees 438 
OUSIY ... 0000 epwtiescaves crane ne reeeseceeenee 159 | WORTH—value, worth, rate, price........++.+ - 436 
WILY—cunning, crafty, subtle, sly, wily........ 522 | WORTHLESS—unworthy, worthless ..+....+++ 437 


TO WIN—to acquire, obtain, gain, win, earn.... 396 
TO WIND—to turn, wind, whirl, twirl, writhe.. 316 
WISDOM—wisdom, prudence ......... eoeee 400 
TO WISH—to desire, wish, hanker after, long 
BOK civ cid s'gis owiew sn’ RAE OC ORCC OEE 
TO WISH—to will, wish ...... Soice Seine oy 
W1T— ingenuity, wit..........0.0. peter teiste mates : 
WIT—wit, humour, satire, irony, burlesque..... 
TO WITHDRAW—to recede, retreat, withdraw, 
Yetire, SCCEdE.-. 2+. eseeecceces Mido itas oteiats 253 
TO WITHSTAND—*to oppose, resist, withstand, 
thwart...... Aor SCOR OULOL kes eyeats) sieve steve, 
WITHOUT INTERMISSION—incessantly, un- 
ceasingly, uninterruptedly, without intermis- 


eees 


eeereesees eee 


eeeseooe 


115 


WITNESS—deponent, evidence, witness........ 


WOFUL—-+iteous, doleful, woful, rueful........ 411 
WONDER—wonder, admiration, surprise, asto- 
nishment, AMAZEMENL ...+-seeeeeeeceseeoese 403 


W ONDER—wonder, miracle, marvel, monster, 
PYOGICY -. econ vevorsevees dines esewepice sicmeie 403 
WOGER—lover, suitor, WOOCr...e+seescooreee 


TO WRANGLE—tOo jangle, jar, wrangle........ 134 
WRATH—anger, resentment, wrath, indignation, 
Meilete iaralele wae a clomretaaitral «cst ateaiateeels treteare sre LEO 
TO WRENCH ) to turn, bend, twist, wring, dis- 
TO WREST : tort, wrest, Wrench.........- 
WRETCHED—unhappy, miserable, wretched... 
TO WRING—to turn, bend, twist, distort, wring, 
WYESt, WIENCH. 2.6 eve cceecvccscesccccseeres 
WRITER—writer, penman, scribe..........- 
WRITER—writer, author.......-. NO SRBEABAROOS BET 
TO WRITHE—to turn, wind, whirl, twirl, writhe 316 
WRONG — injustice, injury, wrong ...-.222--+.+. 212 


316 
413 


YET—however, yet, nevertheless, notwithstand- 
ING. cece cedecsveccces ol eve cccnecccosescceee 251 


|TO YIELD—fo afford, produce, yield.......... 330 


TO YIELD—to bear, yield..+..c.seeessccesccee 330 
TO YIELD—to comply, conform, yield, submit.. 150 
TO YIELD—to give up, deliver, surrender, yield, 
Cede, CONCEdE ...6-eeevee sete starenctkemen stare ce » 342 
YIELDING—compliant, yielding, submissive.... 150 
YOUTHFUL—youthful, juvenile, puerile....... 403 


‘ q 
Sere Ne Vol FRE 
; : 


oda yr Ane 208 #e5? 


dicks oi 


ir 


res erin 
SB cea ee 
EA 
roa 


1 


ihe 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES 
EXPLAINED. 


SOUL, MIND. 


TnreEsE terms, or the equivalents to them, have been | 
employed by all civilized nations to designate that part 
of human nature which is distinct from matter. The 
Soul, however, from the German seele, &c. and the 
Greek Gda, to live, like the anima of the Latin, which 
comes from the Greek dyeyos, wind er breath, is repre- 
sented to our minds by the subtilest or most ethereal of 
sensible objects, namely, breath or spirit, and denotes 
properly the quickening or vital principle. Mind, on 
the contrary, from the Greek pévos, which signifies 
strength, is that sort of power which is closely allied to, 
and in a great measure dependant upon, corporeal or- 
ganization: the former is, therefore, the immortal, and 
the latter the mortal, part of us; the former connects ; 
us with angels, the latter with brutes ; in this latter we 
distingni. a nothing but the power of receiving impres- 
sions from external objects, which we call ideas, and 
which we have in common with the brutes. 

There are minute philosophers, who, from their ex- 
treme anxiety after truth, deny that we possess any 
thing more than what this poor composition of flesh and 
blood can give us; and yet, methinks, sound philosophy 
would teach us that we ought to prove thetruth of one 
position, before we assert the falsehood of its opposite ; 
and consequently, that if we deny that we have any | 
thing but what is material in us, we ought first to prove 
that the material is sufficient to produce the reasoning 
faculty of man. Nowitis upon this very impossibility 
of finding any thing in matter as an adequate cause for 
the production of the soul, that it is conceived to be an 
entirely distinct principle. If we had only the mind, 
that is,an aggregate of ideas or sensible images, such as 
is possessed by the brutes, it would be no difficulty to 
conceive of this as purely material, since the act of re- 
ceiving images is but a passive act, suited to the inactive 
property of matter: but when the soul turns in upon 
itself, and creates for itself by abstraction, combination, 
and deduction, a world of new objects, it proves itself 
to be the most active of all principles in the universe ; 
it then positively acts upon matter instead of being 
acted upon by it. 

Bui not to lose sight of the distinction drawn between 
the words soul and mind, 1 simply wash to show that 
the vulgar and the philosophical use of these terms alto- 
gether accord, and are both founded on the true nature 
of things. Poets and philosophers speak of the soud in 
the same strain, as the active and living principle; 


Man’s soul ina perpetual motion flows, 
And to no outward cause that motion owes. 
DENHAM. 


In bashful coyness, or in maiden pride, 

The soft return conceal’d, save when it stole 

In side-long glances from her downcast eyes, 

Or from her swelling soud in stifled sighs. 
‘THOMSON. 


‘The soul consists of many faculties, as the under 
standing, and the will, with all the senses, both outward 
and inward ; or,to speak more philosophically, the seul 
can exert herself in many different ways of action.’— 
Appison. The ancients, though unaided by the light of 
divine revelation, yet represented the soul asa distinct 
principle. The Psyche of the Greeks, which was the 
name they gave to the human soul, was feigned to be 
one of their incorporeal or celestial beings. The anima 
of the Latins was taken precisely in the modern sense 
of the soul, by which it was distinguished from the 
animus or mind. Thus the emperour Adrian is said on 

r 


his dying bed to have addressed his soul in words which 
clearly denote what he thought of its independent 
existence. 


Animula vagula, blandula, 
Que nune abibis in loca ? 
Hospes comesque corporis, 
Pallidula, rigida, undula, 
Nec (ut soles) dabis joca! 


The mind being considered as an attribute to the soul, 
is taken sometimes for one faculty, and sometimes for 
another; as for the understanding, when we say a 
person is not in his right mind; 

IT am a very foolish, fond old man ; 

I fear I am not in my perfect mind.—SHAKSPEARE 


Sometimes for the intellectual power; 


I thought the eternal mind 
Had made us masters.—DRYDEN. 


Or for the intellectual capacity ; 


We say that learning ’s endless, and blame fate 

For not allowing life a longer date, 

He did the utmost bounds of knowledge find, 

He found them not so large as was his mind. 
CowLry 


Or forthe imagination or conception; ‘ Inthe judgment 
of Aristotle and Bacon, the true poet forms his imi 

tations of nature after a model of ideal perfection, 
which perhaps has no existence but in his own mind.’.— 
Beattie. 

Sometimes the word mind is employed to denote 
the operations of the thinking faculty, the thoughts or 
opinions; 

The ambiguous god, 
In these mysterious words his mind express’d, 
Some truths revealed, in terms involved the rest. 
DRYDEN. 


The earth was not of my mind 
If you suppose, as fearing you, it shook. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


Or the will, choice, determination, as in the colloquiai 
phrase to have a mind to doa thing; ‘All the argu- 
ments to a good life will be very insignificant to a man 
that hath a mind to be wicked, when remission of sins 
may be had on such cheapterms.’—TiLLotson. ‘Our 
question is, whether all be sin which is done without 
direction by Scripture, and not whether the Israelites did 
at any time amiss by following their own minds without 
asking counsel of God.’—HooxkeEr. 

Sometimes it stands for the memory, as in the fa- 
miliar expressions to call to mind, put in mind, &c. ; 
‘The king knows their disposition; a small touch will 
put him in mind of them.’—Bacon. 


These, and more than I to mind can bring, 
Menalcas has not yet forgot to sing. —DrypxEn. 


‘They will put him in mind of his own waking 
thoughts, ere these dreams had as yet made their im- 
pressions on his fancy.’—-ATTERBURY. 


A wholesome law, time out of mind ; 
Had been confirm’d by fate’s decree.’—Swirt. 


Lastly, the mind is considered as the seat of all the 
faculties; ‘ Every faculty is a distinct taste in the mind, 
and hath objects accommodated to its proper relish.’— 
Appison. And also of the passions or affections; 


B’en from the body’s purity, the mind 


Receives a secret sympathetick a 
i) 


66 


‘This word, being often used fur the soul giving 
life, is attributed abusively to madmen, when we say 
that they are of a distracted mind, instead of a broken 
understanding ; which word mind we use also for 
opinion, as I am of this or that mind; and sometimes 
for men’s conditions or virtues, as he is of an honest 
mind, or a manof a just mind ; sometimes for affection, 
as I do this for my mind’s sake,’ &c.—RaLkEIau. 

he soul, being the better part of a man, is taken for 
the man’s self, as Horace says, in allusion to his friend 
Virgil, ‘Et serves anime dimidium mee :’ hence the 
term is figuratively extended in its application to denote 
a human being; ‘The moral is the case of every soul 
of us”—L’EsrraNnGE. It isa republick; there are in it 
a hundred burgeois, and about a thousand souls ; ‘The 
poor soul sat singing by asycamore tree.’---SHAKSPEARE. 
Or the individual in general ; 


Join voices, all ye living souls. Ye birds 

That singing up to heaven-gate ascend 

Bear on your wings, and in your notes, his praise. 
MILTON. 


Also what is excellent, the essential or principal part of 
a thing, the spirit; ‘Thou sun, of this great world both 
eye and soul.?—MI.Ton. 
bounty.’ -SHAKSPEARE. 
There issome soul of goodness in things evil, 
Would men observingly distil it out.—-SHAKSPEARE. 


INCORPOREAL, UNBODIED, IMMATERIAL, 
SPIRITUAL. 


Incorporeal, from corpus, a body, marks the quality of 
not belonging to the body, or having any properties in 
common with it; wnbodied denotes the state of being 
without the body, or not enclosed in a body; a thing 
may therefore be zncorporeal without bemg unbodied; 
but not vice versa ; the soul of manis?* scorporeal, but 
not unbodied, during his natural life; 

Th’ unbodied spirit flies 
And lodges where it lights in man or beast. 
DRYDEN. 


Incorporeal is used in regard to living things, parti- 
cularly by way of comparison, with corporeal or human 
beings; 

Of sense, whereby they hear, see, smeil, touch, taste, 

Tasting, concoct, digest, assimilate, 

And corporeal to incorporeal turn.—Mitton. 


Hence we speak of incorporeal agency, or incorporeal 
agents, in reference to such beings as are supposed to act 
in this world without the help of the body ; ‘ Sense and 
perception must necessarily proceed from some incor- 
poreal substance withia us.’.—BrnTLey. But imma- 
terial is applied to inanimate objects ; 


O thou great arbiter of Jife and death, i 
Nature’s immortal, ¢mmaterial sun! 
Thy callI follow to the land unknown.—-Youne. 


Men are corpereal as men, spirits are incorporeal ; the 
body is the materzal part of man, the soul his émma- 
terial part: whatever external object acts upon the 
senses is material ; but the action of the mind on itself, 
and its results are all ¢mmaterial : the earth, sun, moon, 
&c. are termed material ; but the impressions which 
they make on the mind ‘hat is, our ideas of them, are 
immaterial. 

The incorporeal ana immaterial have always a rela- 
tive sense; the spiritual is that which is positive: God 
is a spiritual, not properly an incorporeal nor immate- 
rial being: the angels are likewise designated, in gene- 
ral, as the spiritual inhabitants of Heaven; ‘ All crea- 
tures, as well spzritual as corporeal, declare their abso- 
lu.e dependance upon the first author of all beings, the 
only self-existent God.—BrntLey. Although, when 
spoken of in regard to men, they may be denominated 
incorporeal ; 

Thus incorporeal spirits to smallest forms 
Reduced their shapes immense.—MILTON. 


The epithet spiritual has, however, been improperly 
o .guratively applied to objects in the sense of imma- 
terial; ‘Echo is a great argument of the spiritual 
essence of sounds; for if it were corporeal, the reper- 
cussion should be created by like instruments with the 
eriginal sound.’—Baoon. 


‘He has the very soul of 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


SPIRITUOUS, SPIRITED, SPIRITUAL, 
GHOSTLY. 


Spirituous signifies having the spirit separated from 
the gross particles of the body, after the manner of 
spirituous liquors; ‘The spirituous and benign matter 
most apt for generation.’—SMITH on Old Age. Spirited 
is applicable to the animal spirits of either men or 
brutes; a person or a horse may be spirited ; and also 
in a moral application in the sense of vivacious, or cal- 
culated to rouse the spirit; ‘ Dryden’s translation of 
Virgil is noble and spirited.’—Porz. What is spiritual 
is after the manner of a spirit ; and what is ghostly is 
like a ghost ; although originally the same in meanimg, 
the former being derived from the Latin spiritus, and 
the latter from the German geist, and both signifying 
what is not corporeal, yet they have acquired a differ 
ence of application. Spiritual objects are distinguished 
generally from those of sense; ‘ Virginity is better than 
the married life, not that it is more holy, but that it is 
a freedom from cares, an opportunity to spend more 
time in spzritual employments.’—Taytor (Holy Liv- 
ing). Hence it is that the word spiritual is opposed 
to the temporal; ‘She loves them as her spzritwal 
children, and they reverence her as their spiritual 
mother, with an affection far above that of the fondest 
friend.’—Law. 


Thou art reverend, 
Touching thy spiritual function, not thy life. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


Ghostly is more immediately opposed to the carnal 
or the secular, and is therefore a term of more solemn 
import than spiritual; ‘The grace of the spirit is much 
more precious than worldly benefits, and our ghostly 
evils of greater importance than harm which the body 
feeleth.—Hooxrr. ‘To deny me the ghostly comfort 
of my chaplains seems a greater barbarity than is ever 
used by Christians.—K. CHARLES. 


UNDERSTANDING, INTELLECT, INTELLI- 
GENCE. 


Understanding being the Saxon word, is employed 
to describe a familiar and easy operation of the mind in 
forming distinct ideas of things. Jntellect, which is of 
Latin derivation, is employed to mark the same opera- 
tion in regard to higher and more abstruse objects. The 
understanding applies to the first exercise of the ra 
tional powers: it is therefore aptly said of children and 
savages that they employ their understandings on the 
simple objects of perception; a child uses his under: 
standing to distinguish the dimensions of objects, or 
to apply the right names to the things that come before 
his notice; ‘By understanding I mean that faculty 
whereby we are enabled to apprehend the objects of 
knowledge, generals as well as particulars, absent 
things as well as present, and to judge of their truth or 
falsehood, good or evil.’.—WILKIns. 

Intellect, being a matured state of the understand 
ing, is most properly applied to the efforts of those who 
have their powers in full vigour: we speak of under- 
standing as the characteristick distinction between man 
and brute; ‘ The light within us is (since the fall) be 
come darkness; and the wnderstanding, that should be 
eyes to the blind faculty of the will, is blind itself.’— 
Sour. But human beings are distinguished from 
each other by the measure of their intellect; ‘ All those 
arts and inventions which vulgar minds gaze at, the 
ingenious pursue, and all admire, are but the relicks of’ 
an intellect defaced with sin and time.—Sourn. We 
may expect the youngest children to employ an under- 
standing according to the opportunities which they 
have of using their senses; one is gratified in seeing 
great intellect in youth. 

Intellect and intelligence are derived from the same 
word ; but intellect describes the power itself, and in 
telligence the exercise of that power: the intellect mat 
be hidden, but the inteddigence brings it to light; 

Silent as the ecstatick bliss 
Of souls, that by zntelligence converse.—OTrway 


Hence we speak of intelligence as displayed in the 
countenance of a child whose looks evince that he hag 
exerted his intellect, and thereby proved that it existy 
Hence it arises that the word intelligence has been em 
ployed in the sense of knowledge or information, be 
cause these are the express fruits of intelligence ' we 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


must know by means of intelligence ; but we may be 
ignorant with a great share of intellect. 

Understanding and intelligence admit of comparison 
in the sense of acquaintance between two or more per- 
sons a8 to each other’s views, and a consequent hiar- 
mony and concert; but the former term is applied to 
the ordinary concerns of life, and the harmonious in- 
tercourse of men, av m the phrase to be on terms of a 
good understanding ; ‘ He hoped the loyalty of his sub- 
jects would concur with him in the preserving a good 
understanding between him and his subjects.’—Cra- 
RENDON. Jntelligence, on the other hand, is particu- 
larly applicable to persons who, being obliged to co- 
yperate at a distance from each other, hold a commerce 
of information, or get to understand each other by 
means of mutual information ; ‘ It was perceived that 
there had not been in the Catholicks so much foresight 
as to provide that true zntelligence might pass between 
them of what was done.’—Hooxkerr. 

Let all the passages 


Be well secured, that no intelligence 
May pass between the prince and them.—DEnuam. 


INTELLECT, GENIUS, TALENT. 


Intellect, in Latin intellectus, from intelligo, to un- 
derstand, signifying the gift of understanding, as op- 
posed to mere instinct or impulse, is here the generick 
term, as it includes in its own meaning that of the two 
sthers: there cannot be genius or talent without intel- 
lect; but there may be zntellect without genius or 
talent: a naan of intellect distinguishes himseff from 
the common herg of mankind, by the acuteness of his 
observation, the accuracy of his judgement, the origin- 
ality of his conceptions, and other peculiar attributes 
of mental power; genius, in Latin genius, from gigno, 
to be born, signifying that which is peculiarly born 
with us, is a particular bent of the intellect, which dis- 
tinguishes a man froin every other individual; talent, 
which from réAavrey and talentum, a Greek coin ex- 
ceeding one hundred pounds, is now employed in the 
figurative language of our Saviour for that particular 
modus or modification of the ¢ntellect, which is of 
practical utility to the possessor. Intellect sometimes 
cuns through a family, and becomes as it were an he- 
reditary portion: genius is not of so communicable a 
uature; it is that tone of the thinking faculty which is 
altogether individual in its character ; it is opposed to 
every thing artificial, acquired, circumstantial, or inci- 
dental; it isa pure spark of the Divine flame, which 
raises the possessor above all his fellow-mortals; it is 
not expanded, like intellect, to many objects ; for in its 
very nature it is contracted within a very short space; 
and, like the rays of the sun, when concentrated within 
a focus, it gains in strength whatit loses in expansion. 

We consider intellect as it generally respects specu- 
lation and abstraction; but genius as it respects the 
operations of the imagination ; talent as it respects the 
exercise or acquirements of the mind. . A man of intel- 
lect may be a good writer; but it requires a genius 
for poetry to be a poet, a genius for painting to be 
a painter, a genius for sculpture to be a statuary, and 
the like; it requires a talent to learn languages; it 
requires a talent for the stagéto he a good actor; some 
have a talent for imitation, others a talent for humour. 
Intellect, in its strict sense, is seen only in a mature 
state ; genius or talent may be discovered in its earliest 
dawn: we speak in general of the intellect of a man 
only ; but we may speak of the genius or talent of a 
youth; intellect qualifies a person for conversation, 
and affords him great enjoyment; ‘ There was a select 
set, supposed to be distinguished by superiority of zn- 
tellects, Who always passed the evening together.’— 
JoHnson. Genius qualifies a person for the most ex- 
alted efforts ef the human mind; ‘ Thomson thinks in 
a peculiar train, and always thinks as a manof genius.” 
—Jounson. Talent qualifies a person for the active 
duties and employments of life; ‘It is commonly 
thought that the sagacity of these fathers (the Jesuits) 
in discovering the talent of a young student, has not a 
little contributed to the figure which their order has 
made in the world.’—Buper.u. 


GIFT, ENDOWMENT, TALENT. 


Gift and endowment both refer to the act of giving 
and endowing, and of course include the idea of some- 
5* 


67 


thing given, and something received: the word talent 
conveys no such collateral idea. When we speak of a 
gift, we refer in our minds to a giver ; 


But Heaven its gifts not all at once bestows, 
These years with wisdom crowns, with action those. 
PorEg 


When we speak of an endowment, we refer in our 
minds to the receiver; ‘ A brute arrives at a point of 
perfection that he can never pass; in a few years he 
has all the endowments he is capable of.,—Appison, 
When we speak of a talent (v. Intellect) we only think 
of its intrinsick quality or worth; ‘Mr. Locke has an 
admirable reflection upon the difference of wit and 
judgement, whereby he endeavours to show the reason 
why they are not always the talents of the same per- 
son.’—ADDISON. 

The gift is either supernatural or natural; the en 
dowment is only natural. The primitive Christians 
received various gifts through the inspiration of the 
Holy Spirit, as the gift of tongues, the gift of healing, 
&c. There are some men who have a peculiar gift of 
utterance ; beauty of person, and corporeal agility, are 
endowments with which some are peculiarly invested. 

The word gift excludes the idea of any thing ac- 
quired by exertion; it is that which is communicated 
to us altogether independent of ourselves, and enables 
us to arrive at that perfection in any art which could 
not be attained in any other way. Speech is deno 
minated a general g7ft, inasmuch as it is given to the 
whole human race in distinction from the brutes; but 
the gift of ntterance is a peculiar gift granted to in- 
dividuals, in distinction from others, which may be 
exerted for the benefit of mankind. Endowments, 
though inherent in us, are not independent of exer- 
tions; they are qualities which admit of improvement 
by being used; they are in fact the gifts of nature, 
which serve to adorn and elevate the possessor, when 
employed for a good purpose. Talents are either na- 
tural or acquired, or in some measure of a mixed na- 
ture; they denote powers without specifying the source 
from which they proceed; aman may have a talent 
for musick, for drawing, for mimickry, and the like; 
but this talent may be the fruit of practice and experi- 
ence, as much as of nature. 

It is clear from the above that an endowment is a 
gift, but a gift is not always an endowment ; and that 
a talent may also be either a gift or an endowment, but 
that it is frequently distinct from both. A gift or a 
talent is applicable to corporeal as well as spiritua! 
actions; an endowment is applicable to corporeal or 
mental qualities. To write asuperiour hand is a g/ft, 
inasmuch as it is supposed to be unattainable by any 
force of application and instruction; it is a talent, 
inasmuch as it is a power or property worth our pos- 
session; but if is never an endowment. On the other 
hand, courage, discernment, a strong imagination, and 
the like, ate both gifts and endowments ; and when the 
intellectual endowment displays itself in any creative 
form, as in the case of poetry, musick, or any art, so as 
to produce that which is valued and esteemed, it 
becomes a talent to the possessor. 


ABILITY, CAPACITY. 


Ability, in French habilité, Latin habilitas, comes 
from able, habile, habilis, and habeo to have, because 
possession and power are inseparable. Capacity, in 
French capacité, Latin capacitas, from capax and 
capio to receive, marks the abstract quality of being 
able to receive or hold. 

Ability is to capacity as the genus to the species. 
Ability comprehends the power of doing in general 
without specifying the quality or degree; capacity is a 
particular kind of ability. 

Ability may be either physical or mental, capacity, 
when said of persons, is mental only; ‘Riches are of 
no use, if sickness taketh from us the ability of en- 
joying them.”—Swirr. ‘In what I have done, I have 
rather given a proof of my willingness and desire, than 
of my ability to do him (Shakspeare) justice.’—Porr. 

Ability respects action, capacity respects thought. 
Ability always supposes something able to be done; 
‘llook upon an adle statesman out of business like a 
huge whale, that will endeavour to overturn the ship 
unless he has an empty cask to play with.’—STEELE. 
Capacity is a mental endowment, and alway? supposes 


68 


sometming ready to receiv: or hold; ‘The object is too 
big for our capacity, when we would comprehend the 
circumference of a world..—Appison. Hence we say 
an able commander; an adle statesman; a man of a 
capacious mind; a great capacity of thought. . 
Ability is in no wise limited in its extent; it may be 
small or great; ; 
Of singing thou hast got the reputation, 
Good 'hyrsis; mine I yield to thy ability. 
My heart doth seek another estimation.—Sipnry. 
Capacity of itself always implies‘a positive and supe- 
riour degree of power; ‘Sir Frarcis Bacon’s capacity 
seemed to have grasped ail that was revealed in books 
before’—Hueurs.. Although it may be modified by 
epithets to denote different degrees; a boy of capacity 
will have the advantage over his school-fellows, parti- 
cularly if he be classed with those of a dull capacity. 
A person may be able to write a letter, whois not capa- 


ble of writing a book; ‘St. Paul requireth learning-in }. 


presbyters, yea, such learning as doth enanle them to 
exhort in doctrine which is sound, and to disprove 
them that gainsay it. What measure of adzlity in such 
things shall serve to make men capadle of that kind 
of office he doth not determine.’—Hooker. 

Abilities, when used in the plural only, is confined to 
the signification of mental endowments, and compre- 
hends the operations of thought in general; ‘ As forme, 
my abilities, if ever I had any, are not what they 
were.’ —ATTERBURY. Capacity, on the other hand, is 
that peculiar endowment, that enlargement of under- 
standing, that exalts the possessor above the rest of 
mankind: ‘We sometimes repine at the narrow limits 
prescribed to human capacity.—Brarriz. Many men 
_ have the abilities for managing the concerns of others, 
who would not have the capacity for conducting a con- 
cern of theirown. We should not judge highly of that 
man’s abilities who could only mar the plans of others, 
bat had no capacity for conceiving and proposing any 
thing better in their stead. 

A vivid imagination, a retentive memory, an exube- 
rant flow of language, are abilities which may be suc- 
cessfully employed in attracting popular applause; 
‘T grieve that our senate is dwindled into a school of 
rhetorick, where men rise to display their abzlities rather 
than to deliberate.’—Sir W. Jonzs. But that capacity 
which embraces a question in all its bearings, which 
surveys with a discriminating eye the mixed multitude 
of objects that demand attention, which is accompanied 
with coolness in reflecting, readiness in combining, 
quickness in inventing, firmness in deciding, prompti- 
tude in action, and penetration in discerning, that is the 
capacity to direct a state, which is the gift of but few; 
‘An heroick poem requires the accomplishment of some 
extraordinary undertaking, which requires the duty of 
a soldier, and the capacity and prudence of a general.’ 

DRYDEN. 


ABILITY, FACULTY, TALENT. 


The common idea of power is what renders these 
words synonymous. ; 
. Ability, as in the preceding article, signifies that 
which may be derived either from circumstances or 
otherwise: faculiy, in Latin facultas, changed from 
factlitas facility, which signifies doableness, or the 
property of being able to do ox bring about effects, is a 
power derived from nature; ‘The vital faculty is that 
by which life is preserved and the ordinary functions 
of speech preserved; and the animal faculty is what 
conducts the operations of the mind.’—Quincy. ‘The 
faculty is a permanent possession ; it is held by a certain 
tenure: the ability is an incidental possession; it is 
whatever we have while we have it at our disposal, 
but it may vary in degree and quality with times, per- 
sons, and circumstances ; ‘ Ability to teach by. sermons 
is a grace which God doth bestow on them whom he 
maketh sufficient for the.commendable discharge of 
their duty.—Hooxrrer. The powers of seeing and 
hearing are faculties ; health, strength, and fortune are 
abilities. The faculiy issomespecifick power which is 
directed to one single object; it is the power of acting 
according to a given form; 


No fruit our palate courts, or flow’r our smell, 
But on its fragrant bosom nations dwell; 

All formed with proper facudties to share 

The daily bounties of their Maker’s care.—Jenyns. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


The ability is in general the power of doing; the 
faculty therefore might, in the strict sense, be con- 
sidered as a species of ability; ‘Human ability is an 
unequal match for the violent and unforeseen vicissi 
tudes of the world.’-—Buarr, 

A man uses the faculties with which he is endowed , 
he gives according to his ability. 

Faculty and talent both owe their being to nature ; 
but the faculty may be either physical or mental; the 
talent is altogether mental: the faculty of speech and 
the rational faculty are the grand marks of distinction 
between man and the brute; ‘Reason is a noble 
faculty, and when kept within its proper sphere, and 
applied to useful purposes, proves a means of exalting 
human creatures almost to the rank of superiour beings.’ 
—Buattie. The talent of mimickry, of dramatick 


one man from the other; 


*Tis not, indeed, my talent to engage: 
In lofty trifles, or to swell my page 
With wind and noise-——DrypDeEn. 


These terms are all used in the plural, agreeably to 
the above explanation ; the abilities include, in the 
aggregate, whatever a man is able to do; hence we 
speak of a man’s abilities in speaking, writing, learn- 
ing, and the like; the faculties include all the endow- 
ments of body and mind, which are the inherent pro- 
perties of the being, as when we speak of a man’s 
retaining his faculties, or having his faculties im- 
paired: talents are the particular endowments of the 
mind, which belong to the individual; hence we say 
the talents which are requisite for a minister of state 
are reagan from those which qualify a man for being 
a judge. . 


ABILITY, DEXTERITY, ADDRESS. 


Ability is here, as in the preceding articles, the gene 
rick term: dezterity, says the Abbe Girard,* respects the 
manner of executing things; it is the mechanical facility 
of performing an office: address refers to the use of 
means in executing; it signifies properly the mode of 
address or of managing one’s self; dexterity and 
address are but in fact modes of abzlity. 

Dexterity, in Latin dexteritas, comes from dexter, the 
right hand, because that it is the member most fitted for 
dexterous execution. Dexterity may be acquired; ‘His 
wisdom, by often evading from perils, was turned 
rather into a dexterity to deliver himself from dangers 
when they pressed him, than into a providence to pre- 
vent and remove them afar off’—Bacon. Address is 
the gift of nature; ‘It was no sooner dark than she 
conveyed into his room a young maid of no disagree- 
able figure, who was one of her attendants, and did not 
want address to improve the opportunity for the 
advancement of her fortune.—SprrcraTor. 

We may have ability to any degree (v. Ability); ‘It 
is not possible for our small party and small adzlity to 
extend their operations so far as to be much felt among 
such numbers.’—Cowrer. But dexterity and address 
are positive degrees of ability ; ‘ It is often observed that 
the race is won as much by the dexterity of the rider as 
by the vigour and fleetuess of the animal.’—Eart or 
Baru. ‘Icould produce innumerable instances from 
my own observation, of events imputed to the profound 
skill and address of a minister, which in reality were 
either mere effects of negligence, weakness, humour, or 
pride, or at best but the natural course of things left to 
themselves.’—Swirt. 

To form a good government there must be ad¢lity in 
the prince or his ministers; address in those to whom 
the detail of operations is intrusted; and dexterity in 
those to whom the execution of orders is confided. 
With little abilzty and long habit in transacting busi- 
ness, we may acquire a dexterity in despatching it, and 
address in giving it whatever turn will best suit our 
purpose. 

Ability enables us to act with intelligence and con 
fidence; dexterzty lends an air of ease to every action ; 
address supplies art and ingenuity in contrivance. Tu 
manage the whip with dexterity, to carry on an intrigue 
with address, to display some ability on the turf, will 
raise a man high in the rank of the present fashionables 


* Vide ‘ Dexterité, adresse, hab#ité. 


acting, and of imitation in general, is what iii <d 


\ 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


CLEVER, SKILFUL, EXPERT, DEXTEROUS, 
ADROIT. 


Clever, in French legere, Latin levis light, seems to 
denote quickness in the mental faculty ; skilful signifies 
full of skill; and skilf probably comes from the Latin 
scio to know ; eapert, in French experte, Latin expertus, 
participle of expertor to search or try, signifies searched 
and tried ; deaterous, in Latin dexter, in Greek dekcrepds, 
from detia the right hand, has the meaning of clever, 
because the right hand is the most fitted for action; 
adroit, in French adrotte, Latin adrectus or rectus 
right or straight, signifies the quality of doing things in 
a right manner. 

Clever.and skilful are qualities of the mind; expert, 
dexterous, and adroit, refer to modes of physical action. 
Cleverness regards in general the readiness to compre- 
hend; skzll the maturity of the judgement; ezpertness 
a facility in the use of things; dexterity a mechanical 
facility in the performance of any work; adroitness 
the suitable movements of the body. A person is clever 
at drawing who shows a taste for it, and executes it 
well without much instruction ; he is sk7lful in drawing 
if he understands it both in theory and practice; he is 
expert in the use of the bow if he can use it with expe- 
dition and effect; he is dexterous at any game when he 
goes through the manceuvres with celerity and an 
unerring hand; he is adrozt if by a quick, sudden, and 
well-directed movement of his body, he effects the 
object he has in view. ¥ 

Cleverness is mental power employed in the ordi- 
nary concerns of life: a person is clever in business or 
amusements ; 


My friends bade me welcome, but struck me quite dumb, 

\With tidings that Johnson and Burke would not come; 

‘ And I knew it,’’ he cried, “‘ both eternally fail, 

The one at the House, and the other with Thrale. 

But no matter; I'll warrant we'll make up the party, 

With two full as clever and ten times as hearty.’’ 
GOLDSMITH. 


Skil] is both a mental and corporeal power, exerted 
m mechanical operations and practical sciences: a 
physician, a lawyer, and an artist, are skilful : one may 
have a skill in divination, or a skill in painting. 
There is nothing more graceful than to see the play 
stand still for a few moments, and the audience kept 
m an agreeable suspense, during thesilence of a skilful 
actor.—Appison. Experiness and dexterity require 
nore corporeal than mental power exerted in minor 
arts and amusements: one is expert at throwing the 
quoit; dexterous in the management of horses; 


O’er bar and shelf the watery path they sound, 
With dext’rous arm, sagacious of the ground; 
Fearless they combat every hoatile wind, 
Wheeling in many tracts with course inclin’d, 
Expert to moor where terroury line the road. 
FaLconer. 


‘He applied himself next to the coquette’s heart, 
which he likewise laid open with great dexterity.’— 
Appison. -Adroitness is altogelher a corporeal talent, 
employed only as occasion rm4wy require: one is adroit 
at eluding the blows aimed by an adversary ; ‘ Use your- 
self to carve adroitly and genteelly..—CHESTERFIELD. 

Cleverness is rather a ustural gift; skcll is clever- 
ness improved by practice and extended knowledge ; 
expertness is the effec: of long practice; dexterity 
arises from habit combived with agility ; adrottness is 
a species of dexterity aris'wg from a natural agility and 
pliability of body. 


INABILITY, DISABILITY. 


Inability denotes the absence of ability (v. Ability) 
in the most general ani abstract sense ; ‘It is not from 
inability to discover vthat they ought to do that men 
err in practice’—8.Larr. Disability implies the ab- 
sence of ability ouly jn particular cases: the inability 
lies in the nature of the thing, and is irremediable; the 
disability lies in Lhe circumstances, and may sometimes 
be re:noved ; weness, whether physical or mental, 
will occusion an ¢rability to perform a task; thereisa 
totel anabélity 7a an infant to walk and act like an 
ada.’ a want of knowledge or of the requisite quali- 
deadons muy te a disability; in this manner mi- 
aesi.y of gs, sf an objection to tae certain oaths 


may be a ie Oility for filling a publick office; ‘Want ! 


6% 


of age is a legal disability to contract a mar 
rlage.’—BLACKSTONE. 


INCAPABLE, INSUFFICIENT, INCOMPETENT, 
INADEQUATE. 


Incapable, that is, not having capacity (wv. Ability) ; 
insufficient, or not sufficient, or not having what is swf 
ficient ; incompetent, or not competent; are employed 
either for persons or things: the first in a general, the 
last two in a specifick sense: inadequate or not adequate 
or equalled, is applied more generally to things, 

Whena man is said to be incapable, it characterizes 
his whole mind; ‘Were a human soul incapable of 
farther enlargements, I could imagine it might fall 
away insensibly..—Appison. If he he said to have 
insufficiency and incompetency, it respects the parti- 
cular objects to which he has applied his power: he 
may be insufficient or incompetent for certain things ; 
but he may have a capacity for other things: the term 
incapacity, therefore, implies a direct charge upon the 
understanding, which is not implied by the insuff- 
ciency and incompetency. An incapacity consists alto- 
gether of a physical defect: an insufficiency and in- 
competency are incidental defects: the former depend- 
ing upon the age, the condition, the acquisitions, moral 
qualities, and the like, of the individual; the latter on 
the extent of his knowledge, and the nature of his 
studies ; where there is direct incapacity, a person has 
no chance of making himself fit for any office or em- 
ployment; ‘It chiefly proceedeth from natural incapa- 
city, and general indisposition.—Brown. Youth is 
naturally accompanied with insufficiency to fill sta 
tions which belong to mature age, and to perform 
offices which require the exercise of judgement; ‘The 
minister’s aptness, or insufficiency, otherwise than by 
reading, to instruct the flock, standeth in this place as 
a stranger, with whom our Common Prayer has no- 
thing to do..— Hooker. A young person is, therefore, 
still: more ¢ncompetent to form a fixed opinion on any 
one subject, because he can have made himself mas- 
ter of none; ‘Laymen, with equal advantages of 
parts, are not the most incompetent judges of sacred 
things.’—DryYDEN. 

Incapable is applied sometimes to the moral cha- 
racter, to signify the absence of that which is bad; 
insufficient. and incompetent always convey the idea 
of a deficiency in that which is at least desirable: it 
is an honour to a person to be incapable of falsehood, 
or incapable of doing an ungenerous action ; but to be 
insufficient and incompetent are, at all events, qualities 
not to be boasted of, although they may not be expressly 
disgraceful. These terms are likewise applicable to 
things, in which they preserve a similar distinction; 
infidelity is zxcapadle of affording a man any comfort; 
when the means are nsufficient for obtaining the ends, 
it is madness to expect success; it is a sad condition of 
humanity when a man’s resources are incompetent te 
supply him with the first necessaries of life. 

Inadequate is relative in its signification, like inswf- 
ficient and incompetent; but the relation is different 
A thing is inswficient which does not suffice either for 
the wishes, the purposes, or necessities, of any one, 
in particular or in general cases; thus a quantity of 
materials may be insufficient for a particular building ; 
‘The insufficiency of the light of nature is, by the 
light of Scripture, fully supplied.—Hooxkrr. Jncom- 
petency is an insufficiency for general purposes, in things 
of the first necessity ; thus, an income may be incom- 
petent tosupport a family, or perform an office; ‘ Every 
speck does not biind a man, nor does every infirmity 
make one unable to discern, or ¢ncempeteni, to reprove, 
the grosser faults of others..—GovERNMENT OF THE 
Tonevr. Jnadequacy is still more particular, for it 
denotes any deficiency which is measured by compa- 
rison with the object to which it refers; thus, the 
strength of an animal may be inadequate to the labour 
which is required, or a reward may be inadequate to 
the service; ‘ All the attainments possible in our pre- 
sent state are evidently inadequate to our capacities of 
enjoyment.’—JoHNSON. 


WIT, HUMOUR, SATIRE, IRONY, 
BURLESQUE. 


Wit, like wisdom, according to its original, from 
weissen to know, signifies knowledge, but it has sq 


70 


extended its meaning as to signify that faculty of the 
mind by which knowledge or truth is perceived. The 
first property of' z7t, as an exertion of the intellectual 
faculty, is that it be spontaneous, and as it were in- 
stinctive: laboured or forced wit is no wit. Reflection 
and experience supply us with wisdom; study and 
labour supply us with learning; but wit seizes with 
an eagle eye that which escapes the notice of the deep 
thinker, and elicits truths which are in vain sought 
for with any severe effort: ‘ Wit lies more in the as- 
semblage of ideas, and putting those together with 
quickness and varies “—Appison. Humour is a 
pecies of wit which flows out of the humour of a 
erson ; : 

For sure by wit is chiefly meant 

Applying well what we invent: 

What humour is not, all the tribe 

Of logick-mongers can describe: 

Here nature only.acts her part, 

Unhelp’d by practice, books, or art.—Swirr: 


Wit, as distinguished from humour, may consist of a 
single brilliant thought ; 

In a true piece of zo7z¢ all things must be, 

Yet all things there agree.-—CowLey. 


But humour runs in a vein; itis not astriking, but an 
equable and pleasing flow of wt; ‘There is a kind 
of nature, a certain regularity of thought, which must 
discover the writer (of hwmour) to be a man of sense 
at the same time that he appears altogether given up 
to caprice’—Appison. Of thisdescription of wt Mr. 
Addison has given us the most admirable specimens in 
his writings, who knew best how to explain what wit 
and humour were, and to illustrate them by his practice. 
Humour may likewise display itself in actions as well 
as words, whereby it is more strikingly distinguished 
from wit, which displays itself only in the happy ex- 
pression of happy thoughts; ‘I cannot help remarking 
that sickness, which often destroys both wit and wis- 
dom, yet seldom has power to remove that talent which 
wecallhwmour. Mr. Wycherley showed his in his last 
compliment paid to his young wife (whom he made 
promise, on his dying bed, that she would not marry an 
old man again).’—Poreg. 

Satire, from satyr, probably from sat and ira 
abounding in anger, and irony, from the Greek expwvia 
simulation and dissimulation, are personal and censo- 
rious sorts of zt; the first of which openly points at 
the object, and the second in a covert manner takes its 
aim; ' The ordinary subjects of satire are such as ex- 
cite the greatest indignation in the best tempers.’— 
Appison. ‘In writings of humour, figures are some- 
times used of so delicate a nature, that it shall often 
happen that some people will see things in a direct con- 
trary sense to what the author, and the majority of the 
readers understand them: to.such the most innocent 
irony may appear irreligion.—CamsBriper. Bur- 
lesque is rather a species of humour than direct wit, 
which consists in an assemblage of ideas extrava- 
gantly discordant; ‘One kind of burlesque represents 
mean persons in the accoutrements of heroes.’— 
Appison. The satire and irony are the most ill-na- 
tured kinds of wit ; burlesque stands in the lowest rank. 


TASTE, GENIUS. 


Taste, in all probability from the Latin tactum and 
tango to touch, seems to designate the capacity to de- 
tive pleasure from an object by simply coming in con- 
tact with it; ‘ This metaphor would not have been so 
general had there not been a conformity between the 
inental taste and that sensitive taste which gives a re- 
lish of every flavour..—Appison. Genius designates 
the power we have for accomplishing any object; 
“ Taste consists in the power of judging, genius in the 

’ power of executing.’—BLair. He who derives parti- 
cular pleasure from musick may be said to have a taste 
for musick ; he who makes very great proficiency in the 
theory and practice of musick may be said to have a 
genius for it. Taste is in some degree an acquired 
faculty, or atleast is dependant on cultivation, as also 
on our other faculties, for its perfection; ‘The cause 
of a wrong taste is a defect of judgement.’—Burkr. 
Genius, from the Latin gigno to generate, isa perfectly 
natural gift which rises to perfection by its own native 
strength ; the former belongs to the critick, and the lat- 
ter to the poet; 


a a 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


’Tis with our judgements as our watches, none 
Go just alike, yet each believes his own; 

In poets as true genius is rare, 

True taste as seldom is the critick’s share.—Pors. 


It is obvious, therefore, that we may have a taste 
without having genius ; but it would not be possible to 
have genius for a thing without having a taste for it: 
for nothing caa so effectually give a taste for any ac 
complishment, as the capacity to learn it, and the sus 
ceptibility of all its beauties, which circumstances ar 
inseparable from genzus. . 


INGENUITY, WIT. 


Both these terms imply acuteness of understanding, 
and differ mostly in the mode of displaying themselves 
Ingenuity, in Latin ingenuitas, signifies literary free- 
dom of birth, in distinction from slavery, with which 
condition have been naturally associated nobleness ot 
character and richness in mental endowments, in 
which latter sense it is allied to wit. Ingenuity com- 
prehends invention; wit comprehends knowledge. In- 
genuity displays itself in the mode of conducting an 
argument; ‘Men were formerly won over to opinions, 
by the candour, sense, and ingenuity of those who had 
the right on their side’—Anppison. Wit is mostly dis- 
played in aptness of expression and illustration; ‘When 
I broke loose from that great body of writers, who have 
employed their wit and parts in propagating vice and 
irreligion, I did not question but I should be treated as 
an odd kind of fellow.,—Appison. One is ingenious 
in matters either of art or science; one is witty only 
in matters of sentiment: things may, therefore, be zn- 
genious, but not witty ; watty, but not ingenious, or both 
witty and ingenious. A mechanical invention, or any 
ordinary contrivance, is ingenious but not witty; an 
ingenious, not a witty solution of a difficulty ; a flash 
of wit, not a flash of ingenuity; a witty humour, a 
witty conversation ; not an zagenious humour or con- 
versation : on the other hand, a conceit is ingenious, 
as it is the fruit of one’s own mind; it is witty, as it 
contains point, and strikes on the understanding of 
others. 


—_—_—— 


SENSE, JUDGEMENT. 


Sense, from the Latin sensus and sentio to feel or 
perceive, signifies in general the faculty of feeling cor- 
poreally, or perceiving mentally ; in the first case it is 
allied to feeling (wv. Feeling), in the second it is synony- 
mous with judgement, which is a special operation of 
the mind. *The sense is that primitive portion of the 
understanding which renders an account of thingt 
through the medium of the senses; v 


Then is the soul a nature, which contains 
The power of sense within a greater power. 
DAVIES. 


And the judgement, that portion of the reason which 
selects or rejects from this account. ‘The sense is, so 
to speak, the reporter which collects the details, and 
exposes the facts; the judgement is the judge that 
passes sentence upon them. According to the strict 
import of the terms, the judgement depends upon the 
sense, and varies with it in degree. He who has no 
sense, has no judgement; and he who loses sense, 
loses judgement; since sense supplies the knowledge 
of things, and judgement pronounces upon them, it is 
evident that there must be sense before there can be 
judgement. 

On the other hand, sense, when taken to denote the 
mental faculty of perceiving, may be so distinguished 


— lh 


faculty of perceiving in general; it is applied to ab- 
stract science as well as general knowledge : judgement 
is the faculty of determining either in matters of prac- 
tice or theory. Itis the lot of many, therefore, to have 
sense in matters of theory, who have no judgment in 
matters of practice, while others, on the contrary, 
who have nothing above common sense, will have a 
soundness of judgement that is not to be surpassed 
Nay, further, it is possible for a man to have good 
sense, and yet not a solid judgement: as they are 
both natura! faculties, men are gifted with them as 


rn ee ee, 


* Vide Ribaud: “ Sens, jugement ” 


from judgement, that there may be sense withoutjudge- _ 
sment, and judgement without sense; sense is the ~ 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 71 


variously as with every other faculty. By good sense 
a man is enabled to discern, as it were intuitively, that 
which requires another of less sense to ponder over 
und study ; 


‘here’s something previous ev’n to taste; ’tis sense, 
Good sense ; which only is the gift of heav’n, 

And, though no science, fairly worth the seven ; 

A light within yourself you must perceive, 

Jones and Le Notre have it not to give.—Porr. 


By a solid judgement aman is enabled to avoid those 
errours in conduct, which one of a weak judgement is 
always falling into; ‘In all instances, where our ex- 
perience of the past has been extensive and uniform, 
our judgement concerning the future amounts to moral 
certainty.—Brartiz. There is, however, this dis- 
tinction between sense and judgment, that the deficien- 
cies of the former may be supplied by diligence and 
attention; but a defect in the latter is to be supplied 
by no efforts of one’s own. A man may improve his 
sense in proportion as he has the means of infor- 
mation; but a weakness of judgement, is an irreme- 
diable evil. 

When employed as epithets, the term sensible and 
judicious serve still more clearly to distinguish the two 
primitives. A writer or a speaker is said to be sensz- 
ble; ‘IL have been tired with accounts from sensible 
men; furnished with matters of fact, which have hap- 
pened within their own knowledge.’—Appison. A 
friend, or an adviser, to be judicious ; ‘ Your observa- 
tions areso judicious, | wish you had not been so sparing 
of them.’--Sir W.Jonzes. The sense displays itself 
in the conversation, or the communication of one’s 
ideas; the judgment in the propriety of one’s actions. 
A sensible man may be an entertaining companion; 
but 2 judicious man, in any post of command, is an 
inestimable treasure. Sensible remarks are always 
calculated to please and interest sensible people; ju- 
dicious measures have a sterling value in themselves, 
that is appreciated according to the importance of the 
object. Hence, it is obvious, that to be sensible is a 
desirable thing; but to be judzcious is an indispensable 
requisite. 


ed 


DISCERNMENT, PENETRATION, DISCRIMI- 
NATION, JUDGEMENT. 


Discernment expresses the judgement or power of 
discerning, which, from the Latin discerno, or dis and 
cerno, signifies to look at apart, so as to form a true 
estimate of things; penetration denotes the act or 
power of penetrating, from penetrate, in Latin pene- 
tratus, participle of penetro and penitus, within, signi- 
fying to see into the interiour ; discrimination denotes 
the act or power of discriminating, from discriminate, 
in Latin discriminatus, participle of discrimino, to 
make a difference; judgement denotes the power of 
judging, from judge, in Latin judico, compounded of 
jus and dico, signifying to pronounce right. 

The first three of these terms do not express different 
powers, but different modes of the saine power; 
namely, the power of seeing intellectually, or exerting 
the intellectual sight. 

Discernment is not so powerful a mode of intellec- 
tual vision as penetration ; the former is a common 
faculty, the latter is a higher degree of the same 
faculty; it is the power of seeing quickly, and seeing 
in spite of all that intercepts the sight, and keeps the 
object out of view: aman of common discernment dis- 
cerns characters which are not concealed by any par- 
ticular disguise; ‘ Great part of the country was aban- 
doned to the spoils of the soldiers, who, not troubling 
themselves to discern between a subject and a rebel, 
while their liberty lasted, made indifferently profit of 
both.—Haywarp. Aman of penetration is not to be 
deceived by any artifice, however thoroughly cloaked 
or secured, even from suspicion; ‘He is as slow to 
decide as he is quiek to apprehend, calmly and delibe- 
rately weighing every opposite reason that is offered, 
and tracing it with a most judicious penetration.’— 
Meumovrn (Letters of Pliny). 

Discernment and penetration serve for the discovery 
of individual things by their outward marks; discrimi- 
nation is employed in the discovery of differences 
between two or more objects; the former consists of 
simple observation, the latter combines also com- 
parison: dzscernment and penetration are great aids 


towards discrimination; he who can discern the 
springs of human action, or penetrate the views of 


men, will be most. fitted for discriminating between © 


the characters of different men; * Perhaps there is ne 
character through all Shakspeare drawn with more 
spirit. and just discrimination than Shylock’s.’— 
HENLEY. 

Although judgement derives much assistance from 
the three former operations, it is a totally distinct 
power: the former only discover the things that are; 
it acts on external objects by seeing them: the latter 
is creative; it produces by deduction from that which 
passes inwardly.* The former are speculative; they 
are directed to that which is to be known, and are 
confined to present objects; they serve to discover 
truth or falsehood, perfections and defects, motives 
and pretexts: the latter is practical; it is directed to 
that which is to be done, and extends its views to the 
future; it marks the relations and connexions of 
things: it foresees their consequences and effects; { 
love him, I confess, extremely ; but my affection does 
by no means prejudice my judgement.’)—MrLmMoTs 
(Letters of Plinv). 

Of discernment, we say that it is clear; it serves to 
remove all obscurity and confusion: of penetration, 
we say that it is acute; it pierces every veil which 
falsehood draws before truth, and prevents us from 
being deceived: of discrimination, we say that it is 
nice ; it renders our ideas accurate, and serves to pre- 
vent us from confounding objects: of judgement, we 
say that it is solid or sound; it renders the conduct 
prudent, and prevents us from committing mistakes, 
or involving one’s self in embarrassments. 

When the question is to estimate the real qualities 
of either persons or things, we exercise discernment : 


Cool age advances venerably wise, 
Turns on all hands its deep discerning eyes.—PorPz 


When it is required to lay open that which art or 
cunning has concealed, we must exercise penetration ; 
‘A penetration into the abstruse difficulties and depths 
of modern algebra and fluxions, is not worth the 
labour of those who design either of the three learned 
professions..—Watts. When the question is to de 
termine the proportions and degrees of qualities in per- 
sons or things, we must use discrimination ; ‘ A satire 
should expose nothing but what is corrigible, and 
make a due discrimination between those who are, 
and those who are not, proper objects of it..—Anppison. 
When called upon to take any step, or act any part, 
we must employ the judgement ; ‘ Judgement, a cvol and 
slow faculty, attends not a man in the rapture of poeti- 
cal composition.’—Dernnis. Discernment is more or 
less indispensable for every man in private or public 
station; he who has the most promiscuous dealings 
with men, has the greatest need of it: penetration is 
of peculiar importance for princes and statesmen: dis 
crimination is of great utility for commanders, and 
all who have the power of distributing rewards and 
punishments: judgement is an absolute requisite for all 
to whom the execution or management of concerns is 
intrusted. 


oo 


REASONABLE, RATIONAL, 


Are both derived from the same Latin word ratzu, 
reason, which, from ratus and reor, to think, signifies 
the thinking faculty. 

Reasonable signifies accordant with reason; ratzonal 
signifies having reason in it: the former is nore com- 
monly applied in the sense of right reason, propriety, 
or fairness ; the latter is employed in the original sense 
of the word reason : hence we term a man reasonable 
who acts according to the principles of rignt reason ; 
and a being rational, who is possessed of the rational 
or reasoning faculty, in distinction from the brutes. It 
is to be lamented that there are much fewer reasonable 
than there are rational creatures. The same distinction 
exists between them when applied to things; ‘ A law 
may be reasonable in itself, although a man does not 
allow it, or does not know the reason of the lawgivers y 
—Swirt. ‘ The evidence which is afforded for a future 
state is sufficient for a rational ground of conduct.’— 
Buarr. 


* Vide Abbe Girard. ‘‘ Discernement, jugement ” 


1S ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


MENTAL, INTELLECTUAL. 


There is the same difference between mental and 
intellectual as between mind and intellect ; the mind 
comprehends the thinking faculty in general with all 
its operations; the intellect includes only that part of 
it which consists in understanding and. judgement: 
mental is therefore opposed to corporeal ; intellectual 
is opposed to sensual or physical: mental exertions are 
not to be expected from all; intellectwal enjoymeuts 
fall to the lot of comparatively few. 

Objects, pleasures, pains, operations, gifts, &c. are 
denoniinated mental; ‘To collect and reposite the 
various forms of things is far the most pleasing part 
yf mental occupation.’—JoHNSON. Subjects, conver- 
sation, pursuits, and the like, are entitled intellectual ; 


Man ’s more divine, the master of all these, 

Lord of the wide world, and wide wat’ry seas, 

Endued with intellectwal sense and soul. 
SHAKSPEARE, 


It is not always easy to distinguish our mental pleasures 
from those corporeal pleasures which we enjoy in com- 
mon with the brutes; the latter are however greatly 
heightened by the former in whatever degree they are 
blended: in a society of well-informed persons the con- 
versation will turn principally on intellectual subjects. 


MEMORY, REMEMBRANCE, RECOLLECTION, 
REMINISCENCE, ; 


‘Memory, in‘Latin memoria or memor, Greek prjpwy 
and pyvdopzat, comes, in all probability, from pévos, the 
mind, because memory is the principal faculty of the 
mind; remembrance, from the verb remember, con- 
tracted from re and memoro, to bring back to the mind, 
is a verbal substantive, denoting the exercise of that 
faculty ; recollection, from recollect, compounded of re 
and collect, signifies collecting again, 1. e. carefully, 
and from different quarters by an effort of the memory ; 
reminiscence, in Latin reminiscentia, from reminiscor 
and memor, is the bringing back to the mind what was 
there before. 

Memory is the power of recalling images once made 
on the mind; remembrance, recollection, and reminis- 
cence, are operations or exertions of this power, which 
vary in their made. 

The memory is a power which exerts itself either in- 
dependently of the will, or in conformity with the will; 
but all the other terms express the acts of conscious 
agents, and consequently are more or less connected 
With the will. In dreams the memory exerts itself, but 
we should not say that we have then any remembrance 
or recollection of objects. 

Remembrance is the exercise of memory in a con- 
scious agent; it is the calling a thing back to the mind 
which has been there before, but has passed away ; 

Forgetfulness is necessary to remembrance.’—JOoHN- 
son. This may be the effect of repetition or habit, as 
in the case of a child who remembers his lesson after 
having learned it several times; or of a horse who 
remembers the road which he has been continually 
passing; or it may be the effect of association and cir- 
cumstances, by which images are casually brought 
back to the mind, as happens to intelligent beings con- 
tinually as they exercise their thinking faculties; 


Remember thee! 
Ah, thou poor ghost, while memory holds a seat 
In this distracted globe—SHaksPEARE. 


In these cases remembrance is an involuntary act; 
for things return to the mind before one is aware of it, 
as in the case of one who hears a particular name, and 
remembers that he has to call on a person of the same 
naine ; or of one who, on seeing a particular tree, 
remembers all the circumstances of his youth which 
were connected with a similar tree. 

Remembrance is however likewise a voluntary act, 
and the consequence of a direct determination, as in 
the case of a ehild who strives to remember what it has 
been told by its parent; or of a friend who remembers 
the hour of meeting another friend in consequence 
of the interest which it has excited in his mind: nay 
indeed experience teaches us that scarcely any thing 
in ordinary cases is more under the subservience of 
the will than the memory ; for it is now become almost 
A maxim to say, that one may remember whatever one 
wishes. : 


The power of memory, and the simple exercise of 
that power in the act of remembering, are possessed 
in common, though in different degrees by man and 
brute; but recollection and reminiscence are exercises 
of the memory that are connected with the higher 
faculties of man, his judgement and understanding. 
To remember is to call to mind that which has once 
been presented to the mind; but to recollect is to 
remember afresh, to remember what has beén xemem 
bered kefore. Remembrance busies itself with objects 
that are at hand; recollection carries us back to dis- 
tant periods: simple remembrance is engaged in things 
that have but just left the mind, which are more or 
less easily to be recalled, and more or less faithfully to 
be represented ; but recollection tries to retrace the 
faint images of things that have been so long unthought 
of as to be almost obliterated from the mexery. In this 
manner we are said to remember in one half hour what 
was told us in the preceding half hour, or to remember 
what passes from one day to another; but we recollect 
the incidents of childhood; we recollect what happened 
in our native place after many years’ absence from it. 
The remembrance is that homely every-day exercise of 
the memory which renders it of essential service in the 
acquirement of knowledge, or in the performance of 
one’s duties ; ‘ Memory may be assisted by method, 
and the decays of knowledge repaired by stated times 
of recollection. Jounson. The recollection is that ex- 
alted exercise of the memory which affords us the purest 
of enjoyments, and serves the noblest of purposes; the 
recollection of all the minute incidents of childhood is 
a more sincere pleasure than any which the present 
moment can afford. 

Reminiscence, if it deserve any notice as a word of 
English use, is altogether an abstract exercise of the 
memory, which is employed on purely intellectual ideas 
in distinction from those which are awakened by sen- 
sible objects; the mathematician makes use of remz- 
niscence in deducing unknown truths from those which 
he already knows; ‘ Reminiscence is the retrieving 2 
thing at present forgot, or confusedly remembered, by 
setting the mind to hunt over all its notions.’—Sours. 

Reminiscence among the disciples of Socrates was 
the remembrance of things purely intellectual, or of 
that natural knowledge which the souls had had before 
their union with the body; while the memory was 
exercised upon sensible things, or that knowledge which 
was acquired through the medium of the senses; there- 
fore the Latins said that reminiscentia belonged exclu- 
sively to man, because it was purely intellectual, but 
that memory was common to all animals, because it 
was merely the depot of the senses; but this distinc- 
tion, from what has been before observed, is only pre 
served as it respects the meaning of reminiscence. 

Memory is a generic term, as has been already 
shown: it includes the common idea of reviving former 
impressions, but does not qualify the nature of the 
ideas revived: the term is however extended in its 
application to signify not merely a power, but also a 
seat or resting place, as is likewise remembrance aud 
recollection; but still with this difference, that the 
memory is spacious, and contains every thing; the 
remembrance and recollection are partial, and compre- 
hend only passing events: we treasure up knowledge 
in our memory; the occurrences of the preceding yeay 
are still fresh in our remembrance or recollection. 


FORGETFULNESS, OBLIVION. 


Forgetfulness characterizes the person, or that which 
is personal ; oblivion the state of the thing: the former 
refers to him who forgets; ‘I have read in ancient 
authors invitations to lay aside care and anxiety, and 
give a loose to that pleasing forgetfulness wherein 
men put off their characters of business.—Srnexe. 
The latter to that which is forgotten ; 


O’er all the rest, an undistinguished crew, 
Her wing of deepest shade oblivion drew.—FALCONER 


We blame a person for his forgetfulness ; but we some. 
times bury things in oblivion 


FANCY, IMAGINATION. 
Fancy, considered as a power, simply brings the ot 
ject to the mind, or makes it appear, from the Latin 
phantasia, and the Greek gavracin and gdafyw to 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


appear; but imagination, from wage, in Latin imago, 
or imitago, or tmitatio, is a power which presents the 
images or likenesses of things. The fancy, therefore, 
only employs itself about things without regarding 
their nature; but the imagination aims at tracing a 
resemblance, and getting a true copy ; 


And as imagination bodies forth 
The forms of things unknown, the poet’s pen 
Turns them to shape.—SHAKSPEARE. 


The fancy consequently forms combinations, either 
real or unreal, as chance may direct ; but the ¢magina- 
*ton is seldomer led astray. The fancy is busy in 
lreams, or when the mind is in a disordered state; 
There was a certain lady of thin airy shape, who 
was very active in this solemnity: her name was 
Fancy..—Appison. But the imagination is supposed 
io act when the intellectual powers are in full play. 
The fancy is employed on light and trivial objects, 
which are present to the senses; the zmagination soars 
above all worldly objects, and carries us from the world 
of matter into the world of spirits, from time present 
tothe time tocome, A milliner or mantua-maker may 
employ her fancy in the decorations of a cap or gown; 


Philosophy ! I say, and call it He; 
For whatsoe'er the painter’s fancy be, 
It a male virtue seems to me.—CowLeEy. 


But the poet’s imagination depicts every thing grand, 
every thing bold, and every thing remote ; ‘ Whatever 
be his subject, Milton never fails to fill the zmagina- 
tion.’ —JOHNSON. 

Although Mr. Addison has thought proper, for his 
convenience, to use the words fancy and imagination 
promiscuously when writing on this subject, yet the 
distinction, as above pvinted out, has been observed 
both in familiar discourse and in writing. We say 
that we fancy, not that we imagine, that we see or 
hear something; the pleasures of the imagination, not 
of the fancy. 


—— 


IDEA, THOUGHT, IMAGINATION. 


Idea, in Latin idea, Greek e1déa, signifies the form or 
image of an object, from edéw to see, that is, the thing 
seen inthe mind. Thought literally signifies the thing 
thought, and imagination the thing tmagined. 

The idea is the simple representation of an object; 
the thought is the reflection; and the imagination is 
the combination of zdeas; we have ideas of the 
sun, the moon, and all material objects; we have 
thoughts on moral subjects; we have imaginations 
drawn from the ideas already existing in the mind. 
The ideas areformed; they are the rude materials with 
which the thinking faculty exerts itself: the thoughts 
arise in the mind by means of association, or recur 
in the mind by the power of the memory; they are 
the materials with which the thinking faculty employs 
itself: the imaginations are created by the mind’s re- 
action on itself; they are the materials with which the 
understanding seeks to enrich itself. 

The word zdea is not only the most general in sense, 
but the most universal in application; thought and 
imagination are particular terms used only in con- 
nexion with the agent thinking or imagining. All 
these words have therefore a distinct office, in which 
they cannot properly be confounded with each other. 
Idea is used in all cases for the mental representation, 
abstractedly from the agent that represents them: hence 
ideas are either clear or distinct; zdeas are attached to 
words; zdeas are analyzed, confounded, and the like; 
in which cases the word thought could not be substi- 
tuted; Every one finds that many of the ideas which 
he desired to retain have slipped away irretrievably.’ 
—Jounson. The thought belongs only to thinking and 
rational beings: the brutes may be said to have ideas, 
but notthoughts: hencethoughts are either mean, fine, 
grovelling, or sublime, according to the nature of the 
mind in which they exist: 


The warring passions, and tumultuous thoughts 
That rage within thee!—Rowe. 


Hence we say with more propriety, to indulge a 
thought, than to indulge an edea; to express one’s 
thoughts, rather than one’s ideas, on’ any subject: 
although the latter term zdea, 01 account of its compre- 
hensive use, may with> t violation of any express rule 


73 


be indifferently employed in general discourse ror 
thought; but the former term does nc¢ on this account 
lose its characteristic meaning. 

The imagination is not only the fruit of thought, but 
of peculiar thought: the thought may be another’s; 
the zmagination is one’s own: the thought occurs and 
recurs; it comes andit goes; it is retaimed or rejected at 
the pleasure of the thinking being: the imagination is 
framed by special desire; it is cherished with the par 
tiality of a parent for its offspring. The thoughts are 
busied with the surrounding objects; the imaginations 
are employed on distant and strange objects ; hence the 
thoughts are denominated sober, chaste, and the like ; 
the imaginations, wild and extravagant. The thoughts 
engage the mind as circumstances give rise to them; 
they are always supposed to have a foundation in some 
thing: the imaginations, on the other hand, are often 
the mere fruit of a disordered brain; they are always 
regarded as unsubstantial, if not unreal; they fre- 
quently owe their origin to the suggestions of the appe- 
tites and passions; whence they are termed the imagi 
nations of the heart: ‘Different climates produce in 
men, by a different mixture of the humours, a different 
and unequal course of imaginations and passions.’ 
—TEMPLE. 


IDEAL, IMAGINARY. 


Ideal does not strictly adhere to the sense of its pri 
mitive zdea (v. Idea) : the zdea is the representation of 
a real object in the mind ; but ideal signifies belonging to 
the zdea independent of the reality or the external object. 
Imaginary preserves the signification of its primitive 
imagination (v. Fancy, also v. Idea), as denoting what 
is created by the mind itself. 

The ideal is not directly opposed to, but abstracted 
from, the reality; ‘There is not, perhaps, in all the 
stores of ¢deal anguish, athought more painful than 
the consciousness of having propagated corruption.’ 
—Jounson. The zmaginary, on the other hand, is di- 
rectly opposed to the reality; it is the unreal thing 
formed by the zmagination ; ‘ Superiour beings know 
well the vanity of those zmaginary perfections that 
swell the heart of man.’—Appison. Jdeal happiness 
is the happiness which is formed in the mind, without 
having any direct and actual prototype in nature; but 
it may, nevertheless, be something possible to be real 
ized; it may be above nature, but not in direct contra- 
diction to it: the imaginary is that which is opposite to 
some positive existing reality; the pleasure which a 
lunatic derives from the conceit of being a king is alto- 
gether imaginary. 


————s 


INHERENT, INBRED, INBORN, INNATE. 


The inherent, from hereo to stick, denotes a perma 
“nent quality or property, as opposed to that which is 
adventitious and transitory. Jnbred denotes that pro 
perty which is derived principally from habit or by a 
gradual process, as opposed to the one acquired by 
actual efforts. Inborn denotes that which is purely 
natural, in opposition to the artificial. Inherent is in 
its sense the most general; for what is inbred and 
inborn is naturally inherent; but all is not inbred and 
inborn which is inherent. Inanimate objects have 
inherent properties; but the zndred and inborn exist 
only in that which receives life; solidity isan inherent, 
but not an inbred or inborn property of matter: a love 
of truth isan inborn property of the human mind: it 
is consequently inherent, in as much as nothing car 
totally destroy it; 


When my new mind had no infusion known, 
Thou gav’st so deep a tincture of thine own, 
That ever since I vainly try 

To wash away th’ inherent dye.—Cow.ry. 


That which is inbred is bred or nurtured in us from ow 
birth ; hence, likewise, the properties of animals are 
inbred inthem, in as much as they are derived througl. 
the medium of the breed of which the parent partakes, 
that which is zxborn is simply born in us: a property 
may be inborn, but not inbred; it cannot, however, be 
éabred and not inborn. Habits which are ingrafted 
into the natural disposition are properly inbred ; whence 
the vulgar proverb that ‘ what is bred in the bone will 
never be out of the flesh;’ to denote the influence 


74 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


which parents have on the characters of their children, | Apprehending is a momentary or sudden act; 


noth physically and morally ; 


But he, my inbred enemy, 
Forth issu’d, brandishing his fatal dart, 
Made to destroy ; I fled, and cry’d out death! 
MILTON. 


Propensities, on the other hand, which are totally inde- 
pendent of education or external circumstances, are 
properly inborn, as an inborn love of freedom ; 


Despair and secret shame, and conscious thought 
Of inborn worth, his lab’ring soul oppress’d. 
\ DRYDEN. 


Inborm and innate, from the Latin natus born, are 
precisely the same in meaning, yet they differ somewhat 
inapplication. Poetry and the grave style have adopted 
inborn; philosophy has adopted innate: genius is 
inborn in some men; nobleness is znborn in others: 
there is an inborn talent in some men to command, and 
an inborn fitness in others to obey. Mr. Locke and his 
followers are pleased to say, there is no such thing as 
innate ideas; and if they only mean that there are no 
sensible impressions on the soul, until it is acted upon 
by external objects, they may be right: but if they mean 
to say that there are no inborn characters or powers in 
the soul, which predispose it for the reception of certain 
impressions, they contradict the experience of the 
learned and the unlearned in all ages, who believe, and 


that from close observation on themselves and others, | 


that man has, from his birth, not only the general cha- 
racter, which belongs to him in common with his 
species, but also those peculiar characteristicks which 
distinguish individuals from their earliest infancy: all 
these characters or characteristicks are, therefore, not 
supposed to be produced, but elicited, by circumstances ; 
and the ideas, which are but the sensible forms that the 
soul assumes in its connexion with the body, are, on 
that account, in vulgar language termed innate; 

Grant these inventions of the crafty priest, 

Yet such inventions never could subsist, 

Unless some glimmerings of a future state 

Were with the mind coeval and innate. 

JENYNS. 


TO CONCEIVE, APPREHEND, SUPPOSE, 
IMAGINE. 


To conceive, from the Latin concipio, or con and capio 
to put together, is to put an image together in the 
mind, or to form an idea; to apprehend, trom appre- 
hendo to lay hold of, is to seize with the understanding ; 
to suppose, in French supposer, Latin supposut, perfect 
of suppono, or sub and pono to put one thing in the 
place of another, is to have one thing in one’s mind in 
lieu of another; to imagine, in French zmaginer, 
Latin imagino, from imago an image, signifies to reflect 
as an image or phantom in the mind. 

Conceive, in the strict sense of the word, is the 
generick, the others the specifick terms: since in appre- 
hending, imagining, and supposing, we always con- 
ceive or form an idea, but not vice versa; the difference 
consists in the mode and object of the action; we 
conceive of things as proper or improper, and just or 
unjust, right or wrong, good or bad, this is an act of the 
judgement; ‘ Conceive of things clearly and distinctly in 
their own natures; conceive of things completely in all 
their own parts; conceive of things comprehensively in 
all their properties and relations; conceive of things 
extensively in all their kinds; concezve of things orderly, 
or in a proper method.’—Watts. We apprehend the 
meaning of another; this is by the power of simple 
perception ; 

Yet this I apprehend not, wby to those 
Among whom God will deign to dwell on earth 
So many and so various laws are given.—Mi.Ton. 


“ Apprehension is considered by logicians as the first 
power or operation of the mind being employed on the 
simplest cbjects; ‘Simple apprehension denotes no 
more than the soul’s naked intellection of an object, 
without either composition or deduction.’—GLANVILLE, 

Conceiving is applied to objects of any magnitude 
which are not above the stretch of human powcr; 


O, what avails me now that honour high 
To have conceived of God,or that salute 


{ 


CN Ot 


I nam’d them as they pass’d, and understood 
Their nature, with such knowledge God indued 
My sudden apprehension.—MiLTon. 


Conceiving, which is a process of nature, is often slow 
and gradual, as to conceive a design; ‘This man con- 
ceived the duke’s death, but what was the motive of 
that felonious conception is in the clouds..—WoLTon. 

What is conceived, is conclusive or at least deter- 
minate; ‘A state of innocence and happiness is so 
remote from all that we have ever seen, that although 
we can easily conceive it is possible, yet our specula 
tions upon it must be general and confused.’—JoHnson. 
What is apprehended may be dubious or indetermi- 
nate: hence the term apprehend is taken in the sense 
of fear ; 


Nothing is a misery, 
Unless our weakness apprehend it so. 


Conceive and apprehend are exercises of the under 
standing; suppose and imagine of the imagination ; 
but the former commonly rests on some ground of 
reality, the latter may be the mere offspring of the 
brain. Suppose isused in opposition to positive know- 
ledge ; no person supposes that, of which he is posi- 
tively informed; ‘It can scarce be supposed that the 
mind is more vigorous when we sleep, than when we 
are awake.’—HawkeswortTuH. Imagine is employed 
for that which, in all probability, does not exist; we 
shall not imagine what is evident and undeniable; 
‘The Earl of Rivers did not imagine there could exist, 
in a human form, a mother that would ruin her own 
son without enriching herself.—Jounson (Life of 
Savage). 


—_———- 


TO CONCEIVE, UNDERSTAND, COM 
PREHEND. 


These terms indicate the intellectual operations of 
forming ideas, that is, ideas of the complex kind in dis- 
tinction from the simple ideas formed by the act of 
perception. To conceive, is to put together in the 
mind ; to understand, is to stand under, or near to the 
mind; to comprehend, from the Latin com or ewm and 
ros to take, signifies to seize or embrace in the 
mind. 

Conception is the simplest operation of the three; 
when we conceive we may have but one idea, when 
we understand or comprehend we have all the ideas 
which the subject is capable of presenting. We can- 
not understand or comprehend without conceiving ; 
but we may often conceive that which we neither un- 
derstand nor comprehend; ‘Whatever they cannot 
immediately conceive they consider as too high to be 
reached, or too extensive to be comprekended’— 
JOHNSON. 

That which we cannot conceive is to us nothing; 
but the conception of it gives it an existence, at least 
in our minds; but understanding or comprehending 
is not essential to the belief of a thing’s existence. Sc 
long as we have reasons sufficient to conceive a thing as 
possible or probable, it is not necessary either to under- 
stand or comprehend them in order to authorize our be- 
lief. The mysteries of our holy religion are objects of 
conception, but not of comprehension ; 


Our finite knowledge cannot comprehend 
The principles of an abounded sway.—SuHiIRLEY. 


We conceive that a thing may be done without wader 
standing how itis done; we conceive that a thing may 
exist without comprehending the nature of its exist- 
ence. We conceive clearly, understand fully, compre- 
hend minutely. . 

Conception is a species of invention; it is the fruit 
of the mind’s operation within itself; ‘If, by a more 
noble and more adequate conception that be considered 
as wit which is at once natural and new, that which, 
though not obvious, is, upon its first production, ac- 
knowledged to be just; if it be that, which he that 
never found it, wonders how he missed; to wit of 
this kind the metaphysical poets have seldem risen.’— 
Jounson. Understanding and comprehension are em- 
ployed solely on external objects; we understand and 
comprehend that which actually exists before us, and 
presents itself to our observation ; ‘Swift pays nocourt 


Hail highly favour’d, among women blest.—MirTon. , to the nassions; he excites neither surprise nor admi- 


ration ; he always uwndersiands himself, and his read- 
ers always understand him.’—JoHNSON. Conceiving 
is the office of the imagination, as wellas the judge- 
ment; understanding and comprehension are the office 
of the reasoning faculties exclusively. 

* Conceiving is employed with regard to matters of 
taste, to arrangements, designs, and projects; wnder- 
standing is employed on familiar objects which pre- 
sent themselves in the ordinary discourse and business 
of men; comprehending respects principles, lessons, 
and speculative knowledge in general. The artist 
conceives a design, and he who will execute it must 
understand it; the poet conceives that which is grand 
and sublime, and he who will enjoy the perusal of his 
conceptions must have refinement of mind, and ca- 
pacity to comprehend the grand and sublime. The 
builder concetves plans, the scholar understands lan- 
guages, the metaphysician comprehends subtle ques- 
tions. 

A ready conception supplies us with a stock of ideas 
on all subjects; a quick understanding catches the 
intentions of others with half a word; a penetrating 
mind comprehends the abstrusest points. There are 
human beings involved in such profound ignorance, 
that they cannot conceive of the most ordinary things 
that exist in civilized life: there are those who, though 
slow at understanding words, will be quick at under- 
standing looks and signs: and there are others who, 
though dull at conceiving or understanding common 
matters, will have a power for comprehending the 
abstruser parts of the mathematics. 


CONCEPTION, NOTION. 


Conception, from conceive (v. To conceive), signifies 
the thing conceived ; notion, in French notion, Latin 
notio, from notus participle of nesco to know, signifies 
the thing known. 

Jenception is the mind’s own work, what it pictures 
to itself from the exercise of its own powers; ‘ Words 
signify not immediately and primely things themselves, 
but the conceptions of the mind concerning things.’— 
Sourn. Notion is the representation of objects .as 
they are drawn from observation; ‘The story of 
Telemachus is formed altogether in the spirit of 
Homer, and will give an unlearned reader a notion of 
that great poet’s manner of writing.’—-Appbison. Con- 
ceptions are the fruit of the imagination, ‘ It is natural 
for the imaginations of men who lead their lives in too 
solitary a manner to prey upon themselves, and form 
from their own conceptions beings and things which 
have no place in nature.’—STEELk. NVotions are the 
result of reflection and experience; ‘ Considering that 
the happiness of the other world is to’be the happiness 
of the whole man, who can question, but there is an 
infinite variety in those pleasures we are speaking of ? 
Revelation, likewise, very much confirms this notion 
under the different views it gives usof our future hap- 
piness..—Appison. Conceptions are formed ; notions 
are entertained. Conceptions are either grand or mean, 
gross or sublime, either clear or indistinct, crude or 
distinct ; nofioms are either true or false, just or absurd. 
intellectual culture serves to elevate the conceptions ; 
the extension of knowledge serves to correct and refine 
the notions. 

Some heathen philosophers had an indistinct concep- 
tion of the Deity, whose attributes and character are 
unfolded to us in his revelation: the ignorant have 
often false notions of their duty and obligations to 
their superiours. The unenlightened express their gross 
and crude conceptions of a Superiour Being by some 
material and visible object: the vulgar notion of 
ghosts and spirits is not entirely banished from the 
most cultivated parts of England. 


oe SIE LCs aa SE 2 ee 


PERCEPTION, IDEA, CONCEPTION, NOTION. ; 


Perception expresses either the act of perceiving or 
the impression produced by that act; in this latter 
sense it is analogous to an idea (v. Idea). The im- 
pression of an object that is present to us is termed a 
perception ; the revival of that impression, when the 
object is removed, is anzdea. A combination of ideas 
by which any image is presented to the mind is a con- 


* Vide Abbe Girard: “ Entendre, comprendre, con- 
cevoir.”’ 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


78 


ception (v. Ta compreherd) ; the association of two oi 
more ideas, so as to constitute it a decision, is a notion 
Perceptions are clear or confused, according to the 
state of the sensible organs, and the perceptive faculty , 
tdeas are faint or vivid, vague or distinct, according to 
the nature of the perception, conceptions are gross or 
refined according to the number and extent of one’s 
ideas ; notions are true or false, correct or incorrect, 
according to the extent of one’s knowledgs. ‘The per 
ception which we have of remote objects is soffietimes 
so indistinct as to leave hardly any traces of the image 
on the mind ; we have in that case a perception, but 
not an zdea. 


What can the fondest mother wish for more, 
Ev’n for her darling son, than solid sense, 
Perceptions clear, and flowing eloquence.—WyNNE. 


If we read the description of any object, we may have 
an idea of it; but we need not have any immediate 
perception: the idea in this case being complex, and 
formed of many images of which we have already had 
a perception; * Imagination selects ideas from the 
treasures of remembrance.’—JoHNSON. 

If we present objects to our minds, according to dif 
ferent images which have already been impressed, we 
are said to have a conception of them: in this case, 
however, it is not necessary for the objects really to 
exist ; they may be the offspring of the mind’s opera- 
tion within itself; ‘It is not a head that is filled with 
extravagant conceptions, which is capable of furnish- 
ing the world with diversions of this nature (from 
humour).’.—Appison. But with regard to notions it is 
ditferent, for they are formed respecting objects that do 
really exist, allhough perhapsthe properties or circum. 
stances which we assign to them are not real; ‘ Those 
notions Which are to be collected by reason, in oppesi- 
tion to the senses, will seldom stand forward in the 
mind, but be treasured in the remoter repositories of 
the memory.’—Jounson. If I look at the moon, I 
have a perception of it; if it disappear from my sight, 
and the impression remains, I have an idea of it; if an 
object, differing in shape and colour from that or any 
thing else which I may have seen, present itself to my 
mind, it is a conception; if of this moon I conceive 
that it is no bigger than what it appears to my eye, this 
is a notion, which in the present instance, assigns an 
unreal property to a real object. 


TO THINK, SUPPOSE, IMAGINE, BELIEVE, 
DEEM. 


To think, in Saxon thincan, German denken, &c. 
from the Hebrew {4% to rule or judge, is the generick 
term. It expresses, in common with the other terms, 
the act of having a particular idea in the mind; but it 
is indefinite as to the mode and the object of the 
action. To think may be the act of the understand 
ing, or merely of the imagination: to suppose and 
imagine are rather the acts of the ¢magination than of 
the understanding. To think, that is, to have any 
thought or opinion upon a subject, requires reflection ; 
it is the work of time; : 


if to conceive how any thing can be 
From shape extracted, and locality, 
Is hard: what think you of the Deity —Jenyns. 


To suppose and imagine may be the acts of the mo- 
ment. We think a thing right or wrong; we suppose 
it to be true or false; ‘It is absurd to suppose that 
while the relations, in which we stand to our fellow- 
creatures, naturally call forth certain sentiments and 
affections, there should be none to correspond to the 
first and greatest of allbeings..—Biarr. We imagine 
it to be real or unreal. To think is employed promis- 
cuously in regard to all objects, whether actually ex- 
isting or not: to suppose applies to those which are un 

certain or precarious; zmagine, to those which are un- 
real; ‘ How ridiculous must it be to imagine that the 
clergy of England favour popery, when they cannot be 
clergymen without renouncing it.,—BEvERIDGE. Think 
and zmagine are said of that which affects the senses 
immediately ; suppose is only said of that which oc 

cupies the mind. We think that we hear a nolse as 
soon as the sound catches our attention; in certain 
states of the body or mind we imagine we hear noises 
which were never made: we think that a person will 
come to-day, because he has informed us that he in 

tends to do so; we suppose that he will come to-day, 


76 


at a certain hour, because he came at the same hour 
vesterday. ‘ 

When applied to the events and circumstances of 
life, to think may be applied to any time, past, present, 
or to come, or where no time is expressed: to suppose 
is more aptly applied to a future time; and emagzne to 
@ past or present time. We think that a person has 
done a thing, is doing it, or will do it; we suppose 
that he will do it; we imagine that he has done it, or 
is doing it. A person thinks that he will die; ¢magines 
that he is in a dangerous way: we think that the 
weather will be fine to-day, we suppose that the affair 
will be decided. j 

In regard to moral points, in which case the word 
deem may be compared with the others; to think is a 
conclusion drawn from certain premises. I think that 
a man has acted wrong: to suppose is to take up an 
idea arbitrarily or at pleasure; weargue upon a 
supposed case, merely for the sake of argument: to 
imagine is to take up an idea by accident, or without 
any connexion with the truth or reality; we emagine 
that a person is offended with us, without being able 
to assign a single reason for the idea ;, imaginary evils 
are even more numerous than those which are real : 
to deem is to form a conclusion; things are deemed 
hurtful or otherwise in consequence of observation ; 
‘ An empty house is by the players deersed She most 
dreadful sign of popular disapprobation.’--HawkeEs- 
WORTH. { 

To think and believe are both opposite to knowing 
dr perceiving; but to think is a more partial action 
than to believe: we think as the thing strikes us at 
the time ; we believe from a setiled deduction : hence, it 
expresses much less to say that I thénk a person speaks 
the truth, than that I believe that he speaks the truth ; 


For they can conquer who believe they can.—DRyYDEN, 


I think, from what I ean recollect, that such and 
such were the words, i# a vague mode of speech, not 
admissible in a court of law as positive evidence: the 
satural question which follows upon this is, do you 
4rmly believe it? to which, whoever can answer in the 
affirmative, with vhe appearance of sincerity, must be 
admitted as a testimony. Hence it arises, that the 
word can only be employed in matters that require but 
ittle thought in order to come to a conclusion; and 
helieve is applicable to things that must be admitted 
only on substantial evidence. We are at liberty to say 
ha’ I think, or I believe, that the account is made out 
‘irhnt; but we must say, that I believe, not think, that 
she Bible is the word of God. 


TO THINK, REFLECT, PONDER, MUSE. 


Think, in Saxon thincan, German denken, &c., 
comes from the Hebrew ¢'4, to direct, rule, or judge ; 
reflect, in Latin reflecto, signifies literally to bend 
pack, thatis, to bend the mind back on itself; ponder, 
from pondus a weight, signifies to weigh; muse, from 
musa, a song, signifies to dwell upon with the imagi- 
nation. 

To think is a general and indefinite term ; to reflect 
is a particular mode of thinking ; to ponder and muse 
are different modes of reflecting, the former on grave 
matters, the latter oa matters that interest either the 
affections or the imagination: we think whenever we 
receive or recall an idea to the mind; but we reflect 
only by recalling, not one only, but many ideas: we 
think if we only suffer the ideas to revolve in succes- 
sion in the mind: but in reflecting we compare, com- 
bine, and judge of those ideas which thus pass in the 
mind: we think, therefore, of things past, as they are 
pleasurable or otherwise ; we reflect upon them as they 
are applicable to our present condition: we may think 
on things past, present, or to come; we reflect, ponder, 
and muse mostly on that which is past or present. 
The man thinks on the days of his childhood, and 
wishes them back ; the child thinks on the time when 
he shall be a man, and is impatient until it is come; 
‘No man was ever weary of thinking, much less of 
thinking that he had done well or virtuously.’—Souru. 
Aman reflects on his past follies, and tries to profit 
by experience ; ‘Let men but reflect upon their own 
observation, and consider impartially with themselves 
how few in the world they have known made better 
by age.—Sourn. One ponders on any serious concern 
that affects his destiny ; 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


Stood on the brink of hell, and look’d awhile, 
Pond’ ring his voyage.—Mi1.Ton. 
One muses on the happy events of his childhood; 1 
was sitting on a sofa one evening, after I had\ been 
caressed by Amurath, and my imagination kindled as 
I mused.’—HAWKESWORTH. : 


TO CONTEMPLATE, MEDITATE, MUSE. 


Contemplate, in Latin contemplatus, participle of 
contemplor, probably comes from templum the temple, 
that being the place most fitted for contemplation. 
Meditate, in Latin meditatus, participle of meditor, 
is probably changed from melitor, in Greek pederdw, 
to modulate, or attune the thoughts, as sounds are har- 
monized. Muse is derived from musa, owing to the 
connexion between the harmony of a song, and the 
harmony of the thoughts in musing. 

Different species of reflection are marked by these 
terms. 

We contemplate what is present or before our eyes; 
we meditate on what is past or absent; we muse on 
what is present or past. 

The heavens, and all the works of the Creator, are 
objects of contemplation; ‘I sincerely wish myself 
with you to contemplate the wonders of God in the 
firmament, rather than the madness of man on the 
earth.’—Poprz. The ways of Providence are fit sub- 
jects for meditation; ‘But a very small part of the 
moments spent in meditation on the past, produce any 
reasonable caution or salutary sorrow.’—JOHNSON. 
One muses on the events or circumstances which have 
been just passing. 

We may contemplate and meditate for the future, 
but never muse. in this case the two former terms 
have the sense of contriving or purposing: what is 
contemplated to be done, is thought, of more indis- 
tinctly than when it is meditated to be done: many 
things are had in contemplation which’ are never 
seriously meditated upon; ‘ Life is the immediate gift 
of God, a right inherent by nature in every individual, 
and it begins in contemplation of Jaw as soon as an 
infant is able to stir in the mother’s womb.’—Buack- 
STONE. Between contemplating and meditating there 
is oftener a greater difference than between meditating 
and executing ; 


Thus plung’d in ills and meditating more, 
The people’s patience, tried, no longer bore 
The raging monster.—DryDEN. 


Contemplation may be a temporary action directed 
to a single object; ‘There is not any property or cir 
cumstances of my being that I contemplate with more 
joy than my immortality..—BreRKELEY. Meditating 
is a permanent and serious action directed to several 
objects; ‘ Meditate till you make sore act of piety 
upon the occasion of what you meditate, either get some 
new arguments against sin, or some new encourage- 
ment to virtue’°—TayLor. Musing is partial and un- 
important: meditation is a religious duty, it cannot 
be neglected without injury to a person’s spiritual im- 
provement; musing is a temporary employment of the 
mind on the ordinary concerns of life, as they happen 
to excite an interest for the time; 


Musing as wont on this and that, 
Such trifles as I know not what.—F Rancts. 


Contemplative and musing, as epithets, have a 
strong analogy to each other. : 

Contemplative is a habit of the mind; musing isa 
particular state of the mind. A person may have a 
contemplative turn, or be in a musing mood. 


TO CONSIDER, REFLECT. 


Consider, in French considerer, Latin consadero, 
a factative, from consido to sit down, signifies to 
make to settle in the mind. Reflect, in Latin reflecto, 
compounded of re and flecto, signifies to turn back, or 
upon itself, after the manner of the mind. 

The operation of thought is expressed by these two 
words, but it varies in the circumstances of the action. 

Consideration is employed for practical purposes , 
reflection for matters of speculation or moral improve- 
ment. Common objects call for consideration; the 
workings of the mind itself, or objects purely spiritual 
occupy reflection. It is necessary to consider what ig 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


proper to be done, before we take any step; ‘It seems 
necessary, in the choice of persons for greater employ- 
ments, to consider their bodies as well as their minds, 
and ages and health as well as their abilities.’ —Tzm- 
PLE. It is consistent with our natures, as rational 
beings, to reflect on what we are, what we ought to be, 
and what we shall be; ‘Whoever reflects frequently 
on the uncertainty of his own duration, will find out 
that the state of others is not more permanent than his 
own.’—JOHNSON. 

Without consideration we shall naturally commit 
the most flagrant errors; without reflection we shall 
never understand our duty to our Maker, our neigh- 
bour, and ourselves. 


TO CONSIDER, REGARD. 


To consider (v. To consider) signifies to take a view 
of a thing in the mind, which is the result of thought; 
to regard is literally to look back upon, from the 
French regarder, that is, re and garder, to keep or 
watch, which is derived from the old German wahren 
to see, of which there are still traces in the words 
bewahren to guard against, warten to wait, and the 
English to be aware of. 

There is more caution or thought in considering ; 
more personal interest in regarding. A man may 
consider his reputation so as to be deterred from 
taking a particular step; if he regards his reputation, 
this regard has a general infiuence on all he does. 
‘The king had not, at that time, one person about 
him of his council, who had the least consideration of 
his own honour, or friendship for those who sai at 
the heli of affairs, the Duke of Lennox excepted.’— 
CLARENDON. 

If much you note him, 
You offend him; feed and regard him not. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


A similar distinction exists between these words 
when not expressly personal: to consider a thing in a 
certain light, is to take a steady view of it; ‘I con- 
sider the soul of man as the ruin of a glorious pile of 
buildings. —STreEeLte. To regard a thing is to view 
it with a certain interest ; ‘I vegard trade not only as 
highly advantageous to the commonwealth in general, 
but as the most natural and likely method of making a 
man’s fortune.’—BuD@ELL. 


CONSIDERATION, REASON. 


Consideration, or that which enters into a person’s 
consideration, has a reference to the person consider- 
ing. Reason, or that which inftuences the reason, is 
taken absolutely: considerations are therefore for the 
most part partial, as affecting particular interests, or 
dependent on particular circumstances. ‘He had been 
made general upon very partial, and not enough de- 
liberated considerations.’—CLARENDON. * 

Reasons on the contrary may be general, and vary 
according to the nature of the subject; ‘The reasons 
assigned in a law of the 36th year of Edward III. for 
having pleas and judgements in the English tongue, 
might have been urged for having the laws themselves 
in that language.’—TyrwuHitTT. 

When applied to matters of practice the considera- 
tion influences the particular actions of an individual 
or individuals; no consideration of profit or emolument 
should induce a person to forfeit his word; ‘He was 
obliged, antecedent to all other considerations, to 
search an asylum.’—DryDEn. 

The reason influences a line of conduct; the reasons 
which men assign for their conduct are often as absurd 
as they are false; 


I mask the business from the common eye 
For sundry weighty reasons. —SHAKSPEARE, 


In the same manner, when applied to matters of 
theory, the consideration is that which enters into a 
man’s consideration, or which he offers to the consider- 
ation of others; ‘The folly of ascribing temporal pun- 
ishments to any particular crimes, may appear from 
several considerations. —Anppison. The reason is that 
which flows out of the nature of the thing; ‘If it be 
natural, ought we not rather to conclude that there is 
some ground or reason for those fears, and that nature 
hath not planted them in us to no purpose ?’—T1L- 
_ OTSON. ; 


77 


TO ARGUE, EVINCE, PROVE. 


To argue, from the Latin arguo, and the Greek 
apyds clear, signifies to make clear; to evince, in Latin 
evinco, compounded of vinco to prove or make out, and 
é forth, signifies to bring te light, to make to appear 
clear; to prove, in French prouver, in Latin probo, 
from probus good, signifies to make good, or make to 
appear good. 

These terms in general convey the idea of evidence, 
but with gradations: argue denotes the smallest degree, 
and prove the highest degree. To argue is to serve 
as an indication amounting to probability; to evince 
denotes an indication so clear as to remove doubt; to 
prove marks an evidence so positive as to produce con- 
viction. 

It argues a want of candour in any man to conceal 
circumstances in his statement which are any ways 
calculated to affect the subject in question; ‘It is not 
the being singular, but being singular for something, 
that argues either extraordinary endowments of nature 
or benevolent intentions to mankind, which draws the 
admiration and esteem of the world..—BERKELEY. 
The tenour of a person’s conversation may evince the 
refinement of his mind and the purity of his taste; 
‘The nature of the soul itself, and particularly iis 
immateriality, has, I think, been evinced almost to a 
demonstration. —Appison. When we see inen sacri- 
ficing their peace of mind and even their integrity of 
character to ambition, it proves to us how important it 
is even in early life tocheck this natural, and in some 
measure laudable, but still insinuating and dangerous 
passion ; 

What object, what event the moon beneath, 
But argues or endears an after-scene ? 
To reason proves, or weds it to desire ?—Youna 


ARGUMENT, REASON, PROOF. 


Argument, from argue (v. To argue), signifies either 
. the thing that argwes, or that which is brought forward 
in arguing: reason, in French raison, Latin ratzo, 
from ratus, participle of reor to think, signifies the 
thing thought or estimated in the mind by the power 
of reason; proof, from to prove, signifies the thing that 
proves. 

An argument serves for defence; a reason for justi 
fication; a proof for conviction. Arguments are 
adduced in support of an hypothesis or proposition ; 
‘When the arguments press equally on both sides in 
matters that are indifferent to us, the safest method is 
to give up ourselves to neither.,—Appison. Reasons 
are assigned in matters of belief and practice ; 


The reasons, with his friend’s experience join’d, 
Encourag’d much, but more disturb’d his mind. 
DryDEN. 
Procfs are collected to ascertain a fact; 


One soul in both, whereof good proof 
This day affords.—MILYon. 


Arguments are either strong or weak; reasons solid 
or futile; proofs clear and positive, or vague and inde- 
finite. We confute an argument, overpower a reason, 
and invalidate a proof. Whoever wishes to defend 
Christianity will be in no want of arguments ; ‘ This, 
before revelation had enlightened the world, was the 
very best argument for a future state..—AYTTERBURY. 
The believer need never be at a loss to give a reason 
for the hope that is in him; ‘ Virtue and vice are not 
arbitrary things, but there is a natural and eternal 
reason for that goodness and virtue, and against 
vice and wickedness.’—TiLLotson. Throughout the 
whole of Divine revelation there is no circumstance 
that is substantiated with such irrefragable proofs as 
the resurrection of our Saviour ; : 


Are there (still more amazing !) who resist 

The rising thought, who smother in its birth 
The glorious truth, who struggle to be brutes? 
Who fight the proofs of immortality 7—Youne. 


CAUSE, REASON, MOTIVE. 


Cause is supposed to signify originally the same ag 
case; it means however now, by distinction, the case 
or thing happening before another as its cause; the 
reason is the thing that acts on the reason or under: 

| standing; the motive, in French motif, from the Latin 


78 


motus participie. of moveo to’ move, is that which 
brings into action. ; ) 

Cause respects the order and connexion of things; 
reason the movements and operations of the mind; 
motives the movements of the mind andbody. Cause is 
properly the generick ; reason and motive are specilick : 
every reason Or motive is a cause, but every cause is 
not a reason or motive. 

Cause is said of all inanimate objects; reason and 
motive of rational ageuts: whatever happens in the 
world, happens from some cause mediate or imme- 
diate; the primary or first cause of all, is God; ‘The 
wise and learned among the very heathens themselves, 
nave all acknowledged some first cause, whereupon 
originally the being of all things dependeth, neither 
have they otherwise spoken of that cause, than as an 
agent which, knowing what and why it worketh, 
observeth in working a most exact order or law.’— 
Hooker. Whatever opinions men hold, they ought to 
be able to assign a substantial reason for them; ‘If we 
commemorate any mystery of our redemption, or arti- 
cle of our faith, we ought to confirm our belief of it by 
considering all those reasons upon which it is built,’— 
Nextson. For whatever men do they ought to have a 
sufficient, motive; ‘ Every principle that is a motive to 
good actions ought to be encouraged.’—ADDIsoNn. 

As the cause gives birth to the effect, so does the 
reason give birth to the conclusion, and the motive gives 
birth to the action. Between cause and effect there is 
a necessary connexion: whatever in the natural world 
is capable of giving birth to another thing is an ade- 
quate cawse ; 


Cut off the causes, and the effects will cease, 
And all the moving madness fall to peace. 
DRYDEN. 


But in the moral world there is not a necessary con- 
nexion between reasons and their results, or motives 
and their actions: the state of the agent’s mind is not 
always such as to be acted upon according to the 
nature of things; every adequate reason will not be fol- 
lowed by its natural conclusion, for every man will not 
believe who has reasons to believe, nor yield to the 
reasons that would lead to a right belief: and every 
motive will not be accompanied with its corresponding 
action, for every man will not act who has a motive 
for acting, nor act in the manner in which his motives 
ought to dictate: the causes of our diseases often lie as 
hidden as the reasons of our opinions, and the motives 
for our actions. 


CONCLUSION, INFERENCE, DEDUCTION. 


Conclusion, from conclude, and the Latin conclaudo, 
or con and cludo to shut up, signifies literally the 
winding up of all arguments and reasoning; inference, 
from infer, in Latin infero, signifies what is brought 
in: deduction, from deduct, in Latin deductus and 
deduco to bring out, signifies the bringing or drawing 
one thing from another. 

A conclusion is full and decisive; an inference is par- 
tial and indecisive: a conclusion leaves the mind in no 
doubt or hesitation; it puts a stop to all farther rea- 
soning ; 

I only deal by rules of art, 
Such as are lawful, and judge by 
Conclusions of astrology.—HupiBRas. 


Inferences are special conclusions from particular cir- 
cumstances ; they serve as links in the chain of reason- 


ing; ‘Though it may chance to be right in the con-- 


clusion, it is yet unjust and mistaken in the method of 
inference. —GLANVILLE. Conclusion in the logical 
sense is the concluding proposition in a syllogism, 
drawn from the two others, which are called the pre- 
mises, and may each of them be inferences. 

Conclusions are drawn from real facts, inferences 
are drawn from the appearances of things; deductions 
only from arguments or assertions. Conclusions are 
practical; inferences ratiocinative; deductions are 
final. 

We conclude from a person’s conduct or declarations 
what he intends to do, or leave undone; 


He praises wine, and we conclude from thence 
He lik’d his glass, on his own evidence.—Apptison. 


We infer from the appearance of the clouds, or the 
thickness of the atmosphere, that there will be a heavy 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


fall of rain or snow; ‘ You might, from the single peo- 
ple departed, make some useful znferences or guesses 
how many there are left unmarried..—Srrete, We 
deduce from a combination of facts, inferences, and 
assertions, that a story is fabricated; ‘There is a con- 
sequence which seems very naturally dedwezble from 
the foregoingconsiderations. If the scale of being rises 
by such a regular progress so high as man, we may by 
a parity of reason suppose that it still proceeds gradu- 
ally through those beings which are of a superior 
nature to him.’—Appison. Hasty conclusions betray 
a want of judgement, or firmness of mind: contrary 
inferences are frequently drawn from the same circum- 
stances to serve the purposes of party, and support a 
favourite position; the deductions in such cases are not 
unfrequently true when the inferences are false. 


BELIEF, CREDIT, TRUST, FAITH. 


Belief, from believe, in Saxon gelyfan, geleavan, in 
German glauben, kilauban, &c. comes, in all possibility, 
from lief, in German belieben to please, and the Latin 
libet it pleaseth, signifying the pleasure or assent of the 
mind. Credit, in French credit, Latin creditus, parti- 
ciple of credo, compounded of cor the heart, and do to 
give, signifies also giving the heart. Trust is con- 
nected with the old word trow, in Saxon treowian, 
German trauen, old German thravahn, thruven, &C¢. to 
hold true, and probably from the Greek Odgpery to have 
confidence, signifying to depend upon astrue. Faith, 
in Latin fides, from fido to confide, signifies also de- 
pendence upon as true. 

Belief is the generick term, the others specifick; we 
believe When we credit and trust, bur not always vice 
versd. Belief rests on no particular person or thing: 
but credit and trust rest on the authority of one or 
more individuals. Every thing is the subject of belic, 
which produces one’s assent: the events of human life 
are credited upon the authority of the narrator: the’ 
words, promises, or the integrity of individuals are 
trusted the power of persons and the virtue of things 
are objects of faith. 

Belief and credit are particular actions, or senti- 
ments: trust and faith are permanent dispositions of 
the mind. Things are entitled to our belief; persons 
are entitled to our credit: but people repose a trust in 
others; or have a faith in others. 

Our belief or unbelief is not always regulated by our 
reasoning faculties, or the truth of things: we often 
believe from prejudice and ignorance, things to be true 
which are very false ; 


Oh! I’ve heard him talk 
Like the first-born child of love, when every word 
Spoke in his eyes, and wept to be believ’d, 
And all to ruin me.—SouTsErRn. 


With the bulk of mankind, assurance goes further 
than any thing else in obtaining credit: gross false- 
hoods, pronounced with confidence, will be credited 
sooner than plain truths told in an unvarnished style ; 


Oh! I will credit my Scamandra’s tears ! 
Nor think them drops of chance like other women’s. 
Lee. 


There are no disappointments more severe than those 
which we feel on finding that we have trusted to men 
of base principles ; 


Capricious man! To good or ill inconstant 
Too much to fear or trust is equal weakness. 
JOHNSON. 


Ignorant people have commonly a more implicit fazth 
in any nostrum recommended to them by persons of 
their own class, than in the prescriptions of professional 
men regularly educated; 


For faith repos’d on seas and on the flatt’ring sky 
Thy naked corpse is doomed on shores unknown tolie 
Drypen. 
Belief, trust, and faith have a religious application, 
which credit hasnot. Belief is simply an act of the 
understanding; trust and faith are active moving 
principles of the mind in which the heart is concerned. 
Belief does not extend beyond an assent of the mind to 
any given proposition; trust and faith are lively sen- 
timents which impel to action. Belief is to trust and 
faith, as cause to effect: there may be belief without 
either trust or faith: but there can be no trust o: 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


farth Witheut belief ; we believe that there is a God, 
who is the creator and preserver of all his creatures; 
we therefore trust in him for his protection of our- 
selves; we believe that Jesus Christ died for the sins of 
men; we have therefore faith in his redeeming grace 
to save us from our sins. 

Belief is common to all religions; ‘The Epicureans 
contented themselves with the denial of a Providence, 
asserting at the same time the existence of gods in 
general: because they would not shock the common 
belief of mankind.’—Appison. Trust is peculiar to 
the believers in Divine revelation; ‘What can be a 
stronger motive toa firm trust and reliance on the 
mercies of our Maker, than the giving us his Son to 
suffer for us ?—Appison. Faith is employed by dis- 
tinction for the Christian fazthk ; ‘The faith or persua- 
sion of a Divine revelation is a Divine faith, not only 
with respect to the object of it, but likewise in respect 
of the author of it, which is the Divine Spirit..—TiL- 
Lorson. Belief is purely speculative; and trust and 
faith are operative: the for mer operates on the mind ; 
the latter on the outward conduct. Trust in God 
serves to dispel all anxious concern about the future. 
“ Faith,” says the Apostle, ‘tis dead without works.” 
Theorists substitute belief for faith; enthusiasts mis- 
take passion for fath. 'True fazth must be grounded 
on a right belief, and accompanied with a right practice. 


FAITH, CREED. 


Faith (v. Belief) denotes either the principle of 
trusting, or the thing trusted; creed, from the Latin 
credo to believe, denotes the thing believed. 

These words are synonymous when taken for the 
thing trusted in or believed; but they differ in this, that 
faith has always a reference to the principle in the 
mind ; creed only respects the thing whicb is the object 
of faith: the former is likewise taken generally and 
indefinitely ; the latter particularly and definitely, sig- 
nifying a set form or a code of faith; hence we say, 
to be of the same faith, or to adopt the same creed. 
The holy martyrs died for the faith, as it is in Christ 
Jesus ; ‘St. Paul affirms that a sinner is at first justified 
and received into the favour of God, by a sincere pro- 
fession of the Christian fazth.—Tr1LLorson. Every 
established form of religion will have its peculiar creed. 
The Church of England has adopted that creed which 
it considers as containing the purest principles of 
Christian faith; ‘Supposing all the great points of 
atheism were formed into a kind of creed, I would fain 
ask whether it would not require an infinitely greater 
measure of faith than any set of articles which they 
so violently oppose ?—Apptson. 


CONVICTION, PERSUASION. 


Conviction, from convince, denotes either the act of 
convincing or the state of being convinced ; persuasion, 
which, from the Latin perswadeo, or suadeo, and the 
Greek fdds sweet, signifies to make thoroughly agree- 
able to the taste, expresses likewise the act of per- 
suading, or the state of being persuaded. 

What convinces binds; what persuades attracts. 
We convince by arguments; it is the understanding 
which determines’ we are persuaded by entreaties and 
personal influence; it is the imagination, the passions, 
or the will which decide. Our conviction respects 
solely matters of belief or faith; ‘ When therefore the 
Apostle requireth ability to convict hereticks, can we 
think he judgeth it a thing unlawful, and not rather 
needful, to use the principal instrument of their convic- 
tion, the light of reason.’—Hooxer. Our persuasion 
respects matters of belief or practice; ‘ I should be glad 
if I could persuade him to write such another critique 
on any thing of mine, for when he condemns any of my 
poems, he makes the world have a better opinion of 
them.’—Drypmn. We are convinced that a thing is 
true or false; we are persuaded that it is either right or 
wrong, advantageous or the contrary. A person will 
have half effected a thing who is convinced that it is in 
his power to effect it; he will be easily persuaded to do 
that which favours his own interests. 

Conviction respects our most important duties 
‘Their wisdom is only of this world, to put false 
colours upon things, to call good evil, and evil good, 
against the conviction of their own consciences.’— 
Swirr Persuasion is frequently applied to matters of 


79 


indifference: ‘Philoclea’s beauty not only persuaded, 
but so persuaded that all hearts must yield.—Sipnry 
The first step to true repentance is a thorough convic- 
tion of the enormity of sin. The cure of people’smala- 
dies is sometimes promoted to a surprising degree by 
their persuasion of the efficacy of the remedy. 

As conviction is the effect of substantial evidence, it 
is solid and permanent in its nature; it cannot be so 
easily changed and deceived; persuasion, depending on 
our feelings, is influenced by external objects, and ex- 
posed to various changes; it may vary both in the 
degree and in the object. Conviction answers in our 
minds to positive certainty ; perswaston answers to pro- 
bability. 

The practical truths of Christianity demand our 
deepest conviction ; ‘When men have settled in them- 
selves a canviction that there is nothing honourable 
which is not accompanied with innocence; nothing 
mean but what has guilt in it; riches, pleasures, and 
honours will easily lose their charms, if they stand be 
tween us and our integrity.—StrreLe. Of the specu 
lative truths of Christianity we ought to have a rational 
persuasion ; ‘ Let the mind be possessed with the per- 
suasion Of immortal happiness annexed to the act, and 
there will be no want of candidates to struggle for the 
gl-rious prerogative.’—CUMBERLAND. 

The conviction of the truth or falsehood of that 
which we have been accustomed to condemn or admire 
cannot be effected without powerful means; but we 
may be persuaded of the propriety of a thing to-day 
which to-morrow we shall regard with indifference 
We ought to be convinced of the propriety of avoiding 
every thing which can interfere with the good order of 
society; we may be persuaded of the truth of a person’s 
narrative or not, according to the representation madé 
to us; we may be persuaded to pursue any study or lay 
it aside. 


es 


UNBELIEF, INFIDELITY, INCREDULITY 


Unbelief (v. Belief) respects matters in general; infi 
delity, from fides faithful, is unbelief as respects Divine 
revelation ; incredulity is unbelief in ordinary matters 
Unbelief is taken in an indefinite and negative sense; 
it is the want of belief in any particular thing that may 
or may not be believed: infidelity is a more active state 
of mind; it supposes a violent and total rejection of that 
which ought to be believed : incredulity is also an active 
state of mind, in which we oppose a belief to matters 
that may be rejected. Unbelief does not of itself con 
vey any reproachful meaning; it depends upon the 
thing disbelieved ; we may be unbelievers in indifferent 
as well as the most important matters; but absolutely 
taken it means one who disbelieves sacred truths; 
‘Such a universal acquaintance with things will keep 
you from an excess of credulity and unbelief; i. e. a 
readiness to believe or deny every thing at first hearing. 
—WartTs. ‘One gets by heart a catalogue of title 
pages and editions; and immediately, to become con- 
spicuous, declares that he is an wnbeliever.,— ADDISON 
Infidelity is taken in the worst sense for a blind and 
senseless perversity in refusing belief ; ‘ Belief and pro- 
fession will speak a Christian but very faintly, when 
thy conversation proclaims thee an infidel’—Soutu 
Incredulity is often a mark of wisdom, and not unfre- 
quently a mark of the contrary; ‘I am not altogether 
incredulous that there may be such candles as are made 
of salamander’s wood, being a kind of mineral which 
whiteneth in the burning and consumeth not.’—Bacon 
‘The youth hears aJl the predictions of the aged with 
obstinate incredulity.’—Jounson. The Jewsare unbe 
levers in the mission of our Saviour; the Turks are 
mfidels, inasmuch as they do not believe in the Bible 
Deists and Atheists are likewise infidels, inasmuch as 
they set themselves up against Divine revelation; well 
informed people are always incredulous of stories 
respecting ghosts and apparitions. 


DISBELIEF, UNBELIEF 


Disbelief properly implies the believing that a thing 
is not, or refusing to believe that it is. Unbelief ex- 
presses properly a believing the contrary of what one 
has believed before: disbelief is qualified as to its nature 
by the thing disbelieved. ‘The belief or disbelief of a 
thing does not alter the nature of the thing.’—TILLoT 
son. Our disbelief of the idle tales which are told b 


60 


beggars, is justified by the frequent detection of their 
falsehood ; ‘The atheist has not found his post tenable, 
and is therefore retired into deism, and a disbelief of 
revealed religion only..—Appison. Our Saviour had 
compassion on Thomas for his unbelief, and gave him 
such evidences of his identity, as dissipated every 
doubt; ‘The opposites to faith are wnbelief and credu- 
lity.’—TILLoTson. 


DOCTRINE, PRECEPT, PRINCIPLE. 


Doctrine, in French doctrine, Latin doctrina, from 
doceo to teach, signifies the thing taught; precept, from 
the Latin precipio, signifies the thing laid down; and 
principle, in French principe, Latin principium, signi- 
fies the beginning of things, that is, their first or origi- 
nal component parts. 

The doctrine requires a teacher; the precept requires 
asuperiour with authority ; the principie requires only 
an illustrator. ‘The doctrine is always framed by 
some one; the precept is enjoined or laid down by 
some one; the principle lies in the thing itself. ‘The 
doctrine is composed of prineiples ; the precept rests 
upon principles or doctrines. Pythagoras taught the 
doctrine of the metempsychosis, and enjoined many 
precepts on his disciples for the regulation of their con- 
duct, particularly that they should abstain from eating 
animal food, and be only silent hearers for the first five 
years of their scholarship: the former of these rules 
depended upon the preceding doctrine of the soul’s 
transmigration to the bodies of animals; the latter 
rested on that simple principle of education, the entire 
devotion of the scholar to the master. 

We are said to believe in doctrines ; to obey pre- 
cepts ; to imbibe or hold principles. The doctrine is 
that which enters into the composition of our faith ; 
‘To make new articles of faith and doctrine no man 
thinketh it lawful; new laws of government what 
church or commonwealth is there which maketh not 
either at one time or other.—Hooxer. ‘This sedi- 
ious, unconstitutional doctrine of electing kings is now 
publickly taught, avowed, and printed.’—Burkr. The 
precept is that which is recommended for practice; 
‘Pythagoras’s first rule directs us to worship the gods, 
as is ordained by law, for that is the most natural in-. 
terpretation of the precept..—Appison. Both are the 
subjects of rational assent, and suited only to the 
matured understanding: principles are often admitted 
Without examination; and imbibed as frequently from 
observation and circumstances, as from any direct 
personal efforts; children as well as men get prin- 
ciples ; ‘If we had the whole history of zeal, from the 
days of Cain to our times, we should see it filled with 
so many scenes of slaughter and bloodshed, as would 
make a wise man very careful not to suffer himself to 
be actuated by such a principle, when it regards mat- 
ters of opinion and speculation.’—Appison. 


DOCTRINE, DOGMA, TENET. 


The doctrine (v. Doctrine) originates with the indi- 
vidual who teaches, in application to all subjects; the 
doctrine is whatever is taught or recommended to the 
belief of others ; the dogma, from the Greek déyua and 
doxéw to think, signifies the thing thought, admitted, or 
taken for granted; this lies with a body or number of 
individuals; the tenet, from the Latin teneo to hold or 
maintain, signifies the thing held or maintained, and is 
a species of principle (v. Doctrine’ specifically main- 
tained in matters of opinion by persons in general. 

The doctrine rests on the avthority of the individual 
by whom it is framed ; 4 


Unpractis’d he to fawn or seek for power 

By doctrines fashion’d to the varying hour; 

Far other aims his heart had learn’d to prize, 

More skill’d to raise the wretch’d, than to rise. 
GOLDSMITH. 


The dogma rests on the authority of the body by whom 
it is maintained; ‘Our poet was a stoick philosopher, 
and all his moral sentences are drawn from the dogmas 
of that sect.—Dryprn. The tenet rests on its own 
intrinsick merits or demerits; ‘ One of the puritanical 
tenets was the illegality of all games of chance,’— 
Jounson. Many of the doctrines of our blessed 
Saviour are held by faith in him; they are subjects of 
persuasion by the exercise of our rational powers: the 
@gmas of the Romish church are admitted by none 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


but such as admit its authority: the tenets of repuie 
licans, Jevellers, and freethinkers, have been unblush- 
ingly maintained both in publick and private. 


TENET, POSITION. 


The tenet (v. Doctrine) is the opinion which we 
hold in our own minds; the position is that which we 
lay down for others. Our tenets may be hurtful, our 
positions false. He who gives up his tenets readily 
evinces an unstable mind; he who argues on a false 
position shows more témacity and subtlety than good 
sense. The tenets of the different denominations of 
Christians are scarcely to be known or distinguished ; 
they often rest upon such trivial points; ‘ The occa- 
sion of Luther’s being first disgusted with the tenets 
of the Romish church, is known to every one, the 
least conversant with history..—Rospertrson. The 
positions which an author lays down must be very 
definite and clear when he wishes to build upon them 
any theory or system; ‘To the position of ‘Tully, that 
if virtue could be seen, she must be loved, may be 
added, that if truth could be heard, she must be 
obeyed.’—JoHNSON. 


THEORY, SPECULATION: 


Theory, from the Greek Osdopat to behold, and specu 
lation, from the Latin speculor to watch for or espy; 
are both employed to express what is seen with the 
mind’s eye. Theory is the fruit of reflection, it serves 
the purposes of science; practice will be incomplete 
when the theory is false; 


True piety without cessation tost 
By theories, the practice past is lost. -DENHAmM. 


Speculation belongs more to the imagination ; it has 
therefore less to do with realities: it is that which can 
not be reduced to practice, and can therefore never be 
brought to the test of experience ; ‘ In all these things 
being fully persuaded that what they did, it was obe- 
dience to the will of God, and that all men should do 
the like; there remained after speculation practice 
whereunto the whole world might be framed.’— 
Hooker. Hence it arises that theory is contrasted 
sometimes with the practice to designate its insuffi- 
ciency to render a man complete ; 


True Christianity depends on fact, 
Religion is not theory, but act—HarrTe. 


And speculation is put for that which is fanciful oz 
unreal; ‘This is a consideration not to be neglected or 
thought an indifferent matter of mere speculation’— 
Lestiz. A general who is so only in theory will 
acquit himself miserably in the field; a religionist 
who is only so in speculation will make a wretched 
Christian. 


OPINION, SENTIMENT, NOTION. 


Opinion, in Latin opinio from opinor, and the Greek 
érivoéw, to think or judge, is the work of the head; 
sentiment, from sentio to feel, is the work of the heart ; 
notion (vide Perception) is a simple operation of the 
thinking faculty. 

We form opinions: we have sentiments ; we get 
notions. Opinions are formed on speculative matters ; 
they are the result of reading, experience, or refiec- 
tion: sentiments are entertained on matters of prac- 
tice ; they are the consequence of habits and circum- 
stances: notions are gathered upon sensible objects, 
and arise out of the casualties of hearing and seeing. 
We have opinions on religion as respects its doctrines ; 
we have sentiments on religion as respects its practice 
and its precepts. The unity of the Godhead in the 
general sense, and the doctrine of the Trinity in the 
particular sense, are opinions ; honour and gratitude 
towards the Deity, the sense of our dependence upon 
him, and obligations to him, are sentiments. 

Opinions are more liable to errour than sentiments: 
the former depend upon knowledge, and must there- 
fore be inaccurate ; the latter depend rather upon in- 
stinct, and a well organized frame of mind; ‘ Time 
wears out the fictions of opinion, and doth by degreez 
discover and unmask that fallacy of ungrounded per- 
suasions, but confirms the dictates and sentiments of 
nature.—Witxins. Notions are still more liable to 
erro™” than either ; they are the immatured decisions cs 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


she uninformed mind on the appearances of things; 
There is nothing made a more common subject of 
discourse than nature and its laws, and yet few agree 
in their notions about these words.’-—CHEYNE. 
The difference of opinion among men, on the most 
important questions of human life, is a sufficient evi- 


8) 


whence it has been employed to designate the action 
of doing suitable homage to the object which has worth 
and, by a just distinction, of paying homage to ow 
Maker by religious rites. 

Adoration, strictly speaking, is the service of the 
heart towards a Superiour Being, in which we ac 


dence that the mind of man is very easily led astray | knowledge our dependence and obedience, by petition 


in matters of opinion; ‘No, cousin, (said Henry IV. 
when charged by the Duke of Bouillon with having 
changed his religion) I have changed no religion, but 
an opinion.’—Howrn. Whatever difference of opz- 
nion there may be among Christians, there is but one 
sentiment of love and good-will among those who fol- 
low the example of Christ, rather than thefr own pas- 
sions; ‘ There are never great numbers in any nation 
who can raise a pleasing discourse from their own 
stock of sentéments and images.—Jounson. The no- 
tions of a Deity are so imperfect among savages in 
general, that they seem to amount to little more than 
an indistinct idea of some superiour invisible agent ; 
‘ Being we are at this time to speak of the proper no- 
tion of the church, therefore [ shall not look upon it as 
“ny more than the sonsof men.’—-PEaRSON. 


DEITY, DIVINITY 


Deity, from Deus a God, signifies a divine person. 
Divenity, from divinus, signifies the divine essence or 
power: the deities of the heathens had little of div7- 
nity in them; ‘ The first original of the drama was 
seligious worship, consisting only of a chorus, which 
was nothing else but a hymn to a Deity.’—Appison. 
The divinity of our Saviour is a fundamental article in 
the Christian faith ; 

Why shrinks the soul 
Back on herself, and startles at destruction ? 
*Tis the divinity that stirs within us.—ADDISON. 


CELESTIAL, HEAVENLY. 


Celestial and heavenly derive their difference in sig- 
nification from their different origin; they both literally 
imply belonging to heaven; but the former, from the 
Latin celzstum, signifies belonging to the heaven of 
heathens; the latter, which has its origin among. be- 
lievers in the true God, has acquired a superiour sense, 
in regard to heaven as the habitation of the Almighty. 
This distinction is pretty faithfully observed in their 
application : celestial is applied mostly in the natural 
sense of theheavens; heavenly is employed more com- 
monly in a spiritual sense. Hence we speak of the 

-lestial globe as distinguished from the terrestrial, of 
“he celestial bodies, of Olympus as the celestial abode. 
4 Jupiter, of the celestial deities; 


Twice warn’d by the celestial messenger, 
The pious prince arose, with hasty fear—DryDEN. 


Unhappy son! (fair Thetis thus replies, 
While tears celestial trickle from her eyes.)—Pore. 


But on the other hand, of the heavenly habitation, of 
heaventy joys or bliss, of heavenly spirits and the like. 
There are doubtless many cases in which celestial may 
he used for heavenly in the moral sense ; 


Thus having said, the hero bound his brows 

With leafy branches, then perform’d his vows; 

Adoring first the genius of the place, 

Then Earth, the mother of the heavenly race. 
DrypDEN. + 


But there are cases in which heavenly cannot so pro- 
perly be substituted by celestial ; ‘ As the love of hea- 
ven makes one heavenly, the love of virtue virtuous, 
50 doth the love of the world make one become 
worldly..—Sipney. Heavenly is frequently employed* 
in the sense of superexcellent; 


But now he seiz’d Briseis’ heav’nly charms, 
And of my valour’s prize defrauds my arms.—Porr. 


The poets have also availed themselves of the license 
to use celestial in a similar sense, as occasion mlght 
serve. 


TO ADORE, WORSHIP. 


Adore, in French adorer, Latin adoro, or ad and 
ere, signifies literally to pray to. Worship, in Saxon 
weorthscype. ig contracted from warthship, implying 


rither the eject that is worth, or the worth itself; 
6 


and thanksgiving: worship consists in the outward 
form of showing reverence to some supposed superiour 
being. doration can with propriety be paid only to 
the one true God; ‘Menander says, that ‘* God, the 
Lord and Father of all things, is alone worthy of our 
humble adoration, being at once the maker and giver 
of all blessings.” ’—CumBERLAND. But worship is 
offered by heathens to stocks and stones; 


By reason, man a Godhead can discern, 
But how he should be worship’d cannot learn. 
DrypDrENn 

We may adore our Maker at all times and in ali 
places, whenever the heart is lifted up towards him; 
but we worship him only at stated times, and accord- 
ing to certain rules; ‘Solemn and serviceable worship 
we name, for distinction sake,whatsoever belongeth 
to the church or publick society of God, by way of 
external adoration. —Hookrer. Outward signs are but 
secondary in the act of adoration; and in divine wor- 
ship there is often nothing existing but the outward 
form. We seldom adore without worshipping ; but 
we too frequently worship without adoring. 


ee 


TO ADORE, REVERENCE, VENERATE, 
REVERE. 


Adoration has been before considered only in rela- 
tion to our Maker ; it is here employed in an improper 
and extended application to express, in the strongest 
possible manner, the devotion of the mind towards 
sensible objects: Reverence, in Latin veverentia, 
reverence or awe, implies to show reverence, from 
revereor, to stand in awe of: Venerate, in Latin vene- 
ratus, participle of wvereror, probably from venere 
beauty, signifying to hold in very high esteem for its 
superiour qualities: revere is another form of thesame 
verb. 

Reverence is equally engendered by the contempla- 
tion of superiority in a being, whether of the Supreme 
Being, as our Creator, or any earthly being ws our 
parent. It differs, however, from adoratien, in as 
much as it has a mixture of fear arising from the con- 
sciousness of weakness and dependence, or of obliga- 
tion for favours received; ‘The fear acceptable to 
God, is a filial fear, an awful reverence of the Divine 
Nature, proceeding from a just este-in for his perfec- 
tions, Which produces in us an inclination to his ser- 
vice, and an unwillingness to offend him.’—Rogerrs. 

To revere and venerate are applied only to humana 
beings, and that not so much from the relation we 
stand in to them, as from their characters and endow 
ments ; on which account these two latter terms are 
applicable to inanimate as well as animate objects. 

Adoration in this case, as in the former, essentially 
requires no external form of expression; it is best 
expressed by the devotion of the individual to the 
service of him whom he adores; ‘There is no end 
of his greatness.” The most exalted creature he has 
made is only capable of adoring it; none but himself 
can comprehend it.—Appison. Reverencing our 
Maker is altogether an inward feeling; but reverencing 
our parents includes in it an outward expression of our 
sentiments by our deportment towards them ; 


The war protracted, and the siege delay’d, 
Were due to Hector’s and this hero’s hand, 
Both brave alike, and equal in command ; 
Eneas, not inferiour in the field, 

In pious reverence to the gods excell’d.--DryDEN 


Revering and venerating are confined to the breast ot 
the individual, but they may sometimes display them 
selves in suitable acts of homage. 

Good princes are frequently adored by their subjects: 
it is a part of the Christian character to reverence our 
spiritual pastors and masters, as well as all temporal 
authorities ; ‘It seems to be remarkable that death in- 
creases our veneration for the good, and extenuates 
our hatred of the bad.—Jounson. We cught to vene- 
rate all truly good men while living, and to reveré 
their memories when they are dead‘ 


82 ENGLISH 


And had not men the hoary head rever’d, j 

And boys paid reverence when a man appear d, 

Both must have died, though richer skins they wore, 

And saw more heaps of acorns in their store. 
CREECH. 


——— 


OFFERING, OBLATION. 


Offering, from offer, and oblation, from oblatio and 
oblatus or oflatus, come both from effero (v. To offer) : 
the former is however a term of much more general 
and familiar use than the latter. Offerings are both 
moral and religious; oblation, in the proper sense, 1s 
religious only; the money which is put into the 
sacramental plate is an offering; the consecrated 
bread and wine at the sacrament is an oblation. The 
offering, in a religious sense, is whatever one offers as 
a gift by way of reverence to a superiour ; 


They are polluted offerings, more abhorr’d 
Than spotted livers in the sacrifice. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


[he winds to heav’n the curling vapours bore, 

Jnerateful of’ ring to the immortal pow’rs, 

Whose wrath hung heavy o’er the Trojan pie 
OPE. 


The vblation is the offering which is accompanied 
with some particular ceremony; ‘Many conceive in 
the oblation of Jephtha’s daughter, not a natural but 
a civil kind of death.’—Brown. The wise men made 
an offering to our Saviour ; but not properly an obla- 
tion ; the Jewish sacrifices, as in general all religious 
sacrifices, were in the proper sense oblations. ‘The 
term oblation, in a figurative sense, may be as gene- 
rally applied as offering ; 

Ye mighty princes, your oblations bring, 

And pay due honours to your awful king.—Pirr. 


The kind odlation of a falling tear—DRyDEN. 


MALEDICTION, CURSE, IMPRECATION, EX- 
ECRATION, ANATHEMA. 


Malediction, from malé and dico, signifies a saying 
ill, that is, declaring an evil wish against a person: 
curse, in Saxon kursian, comes in all probability from 
the Greek xupéw, to sanction or ratify, signifying a bad 
wish declared upon oath, or in a solemn manner: zm- 
precation, from im and preco, signifies a praying down 
evil upon a person: ezecration, from the Latin ezxe- 
cror, that is, é sacris exeludere, signifies the same as to 
excommunicate, with every form of solemn impreca- 
tion: anathema, in Greek avd@cpa, signifies a setting 
out, that is, a putting out of a religious community by 
Way of penance. 

The malediction is the most indefinite and general 
term, signifying simply the declaration of evil: curse 
is a solemn denunciation of evil: the former is em- 
ployed mostly by men; the latter by God or man: the 
rest are species of the curse pronounced only by man. 
The malediction is caused by simple anger: the curse 
is occasioned by some grievous offence: men, in the 
heat of their passions, will utter maledictions against 
any object that offends them; ‘ With many praises of 
his good play, and many maledictions on the power 
of chance, he took up the cards and threw them in the 
fire.,—Mackrenzig. God. pronounced a curse upon 
Adam, and all his posterity, after the fall; 


But know, that ere your promis’d walls you build, 
My curses shall severely be fulfill’d.—Drypen. 


The curse differs in the degree of evil pronounced 
or wished; the imprecation and execration always 
imply some positive great evil, and, in fact; as much 
evil as can be conceived by man in his anger; ‘Thus 
either host their imprecations join’d.’—Porr. The 
anathema respects the evil which is pronounced ac- 
cording to the canon law, by which a man is not only 
put ont of the church, but held up as an object of 
offence. The malediction is altogether an unallowed 
expression of private resentment; the curse was ad- 
mitted, in some cases, according to the Mosaic law; 
and that, as well as the anathema, at one time formed 
a part of the ecclesiastical discipline of the Christian 
church; ‘The bare anathemas of the church fall like 
80 many bruta fulmina upon the obstinate and schis- 
matical”—Souts. The imprecation formed a part of 
the heathenish ceremony of religion, whereby they 


SYNONYMES. 


invoked the Dire to bring down every evil on the 
heads of their enemies. They had different formulas 
of speech for different occasions, as to an enemy on his 
departure; ‘Abeas nunquam rediturus. Mela in- 
forms us that the Abrantes, a people of Africa, used to 
salute the rising and setting sun after this manner. 

The execration is always the informal expression 
of the most violent personal anger; ‘I havé seen in 
Bedlam a man that has held up his face in'a posture 
of adoration towards heaven to utter execrations and 
blasphemies.’—S rrELE. 


TEMPLE, CHURCH. 


These words designate an edifice destined for the 
exercise of religion, but with collateral ideas, which 
sufficiently distinguish them from each other. The 
templum of the Latin signified originally an open 
elevated spot marked out by the augurs with their 
lituus, or sacred wand, whence they could best survey 
the heavens on all sides; the idea, therefore, of spa- 
cious, open, and elevated, enters into the meaning of 
this word in the same manner as it does in the Hebrew 


word S5:; derived from bon, which in the Arabick 
signifies great and lofty. ‘The Greek yvads, from vatw 
to inhabit, signifies a dwelling-place, and by distinction 
the dwelling-place of the Almighty, in which sense the 
Hebrew word is also taken to denote the high and 
holy place where Jehovah peculiarly dwelleth, other- 
wise called the holy heavens, Jehovah’s dwelling or 
resting-place; whence St. Paul calls our bodies the 
temples of God when the spirit of God dwelleth in us. 
The Roman poets used the word templum in a similar 
sense ; 


Celi tonitralia templa.—Lucrer. (Lib. 1.) 


Qui templa celi summa sonitu concutit. 
TERENT. (Eun.) 


Contremuit templum magnum Jovis altitonantis. 
ENNIUs. 


The word temple, therefore, strictly signifies a spacious 
open place set apart for the peculiar presence and 
worship of the Divine Being, and is applied with pecu- 
liar propriety to the sacred edifices of the Jews. 

_ Church, which, through the medium of the Saxon 
circe, cyric, and the German kirche, is derived from 
the Greek xvptaxds, signifying literally what belonged 
to xtotos, the Lord ; whence it became a word among 
the earliest Christians for the Lord’s Supper, the 
Lord’s day, the Lord’s house, and also for an assembly 
of the faithful, and is still used in the two latter mean- 
ings; ‘ That churches were consecrated unto none but 
the Lord only, the very general name chiefly doth suf- 
ficiently show; church doth signify no other thing 
than the Lord’s house. —Hooxer. ‘The church being 
a supernatural society, doth differ from natural so- 
cieties in this; that the persons unto whom we asso- 
ciate ourselves in the one, are men simply considered 
as men; but they to whom we be joined in the other, 
are God, angels, and holy men.’—Hooxer. The word 
church, having acquired a specifick meaning, is never 
used by the poets, or in a general application like the 
word temple; ‘Here we have no temple but the wood, 
no assembly but horn-beasts..—-SHaKSPEARE. On the 
other hand, it has a diversity of particular meanings ; 
being taken sometimes in the sense of the ecclesiastical 
power in distinction from the state, sometimes for 
holy orders, &c. 


TO DEDICATE, DEVOTE, CONSECRATE, 
HALLOW. 


Dedicate, in Latin dedicatus, participle from de and 
dico, signifies to set apart by a promise; devote, in Latin 
devotus, participle from devoveo, signifies to vow for 
an express purpose; consecrate, in Latin consecratus 
from consecro or con and sacra, signifies to make sacred 
by a special act; hallow from holy, or the German 
heitig, signifies to make holy. 

There is something more positive in the act of dedi- 
cating than in that of devoting ; but less so than in that 
of consecrating. 

To dedicate and devote may be employed in both 
temporal and spiritual matters; to consecrate and hal- 
low only in the spiritual sense: we may dedicate on 
devote any thing that is at car disposal to the service 


KLNGLISH SYNONYMES 


of some object; but the former is employed mostly in 
regard to superiours, and the latter to persons without 
distinction of rank: we dedicate a house to the service 
of God; 


Warn’d by the seer, to her offended name 
We raise and dedicate this wond’rous frame. 
DRYDEN. 


Ur we devote our time to the benefit of our friends, or 
the relief of the poor; ‘Gilbert West settled himself 
in a very pleasant house at Wickham in Kent, where 
he devoted himself to piety.—JoHNson. 
dedicate or devote ourselves to an object; but the former 
always implies a solemn setting apart, springing from a 
sense of duty; the latter an entire application of one’s 
self from zeal and affeetion; in this manner he who 
gedicates himself to God,abstracts himself trom every 
object which is not immediately connected with the 
service of God; he who devotes himself to the ministry 
pursues it as the first object of his attention and regard: 
such a dedication of ourself is hardly consistent with 
our other duties as members of society; but a devotion 
of one’s powers, one’s time, and one’s knowledge to 
the spread of religion among men is one of the most 
honourable and sacred kinds of devotion. 

To consecrate is a species'of formal dedication by 
virtue of a religious observance ; it is applicable mostly 
to places and things connected with religious works ; 
‘ The greatest conqueror in this holy nation did not only 
compose the words of his divine odes, but generally 
set them to musick himself; after which his’ works, 
though they were consecrated to the tabernacle, became 
the national entertainment.’-—Appison. Hallow isa 
species of informal consecration applied to the same 
»ybjects: the church is consecrated; particular days are 
sallowed ; 


Without the walls a ruin’d temple stands, 
To Ceres hallowed once.—DRYDEN. 


FORM, CEREMONY, RITE, OBSERVANCE. 


Form in nis sense respects the form or manner of 
the action ; ceremony, in Latin ceremonia, is supposed 
to signify the rites of Ceres; rite, in Latin ritus, is 
probably changed from ratus, signifying a custom that 
s esteemed; observance signifies ‘the thing observed. 

All these terms are employed with regard to particu- 
lar modes of action in civil society. Form is here the 
most general in its sense and application; ceremony, 
rite, and observance are particular kinds of form, 
suited to particular occasions. Form, in its distinct 
application, respects all modes of acting and speaking, 
that are adopted by society at large, in every transac- 
tion of life; ceremony respects those forms of outward 
behaviour which are made the expressions of respect 
and deference; rite and vbservance are applied to 
national ceremonies in matters of religion. A certain 
form is requisite for the sake of order, method, and 
decorum, in every social matter, whether in affairs of 
state, in a court of law, in a place of worship, or in the 
private intercourse of friends. So long as distinctions 
are admitted in society, and men are agreed to express 
their sentiments of regard and respect to each other, it 
will be necessary to preserve the ceremonies of polite- 
ness which have been established. Every country has 
adopted certain rites founded upon its peculiar religious 
faith, and prescribed certain observances by which 
individuals could make a publick profession of their 
faith. Administering oaths by the magistrate is a ne- 
cessary form inlaw; ‘A long table and a square table, 
or seat about the walls, seem things of form, but are 
things of substance; for at a long table, a few at the 
upper end, in effect, sway all the business; but in the 
other form, there is more use of the counsellors’ opi- 
nions that sitlower.’—Bacon. Kissing the king’s hand 
8 a ceremony practised at court; 


And what have kings that privates have not too, 
Save ceremony ?—SHAKSPEARE, 


Baptism is one rite of initiation into the Christian 
church, and confirmation another; prayer, reading 
the Scriptures, and preaching are different religious 
observances. : 

As respects religion, the forn&is the established prac- 
tice, comprehending the rite, ceremony, and observance, 
but the word is mostly applied to that which is exter 


We may | 


63 


speech to be. necessary among all men througout th 
world doth not thereby import that all men must ne- 
cessarily speak one language; even so the necessity 
of polity and regimen in all churches may be held 
without holding any one certain form to be necessary 
in them all..—Hooxkmr. The ceremony may be said 
either of ap individual or a community; the rite is 
said only of a community; the observance, more pro- 
perly of the individual either in publick or private. 
The ceremony of kneeling during the time of prayer is 
the most becoming posture for a suppliant, whether in 
publick or private; 

Bring her up to the high altar, that she may 

The sacred ceremonies there partake.—SPENSER 


The discipline of a Christian church consists in its rites, 
to which every member, either as a layman or a priest, 
is obliged to conform; 


Live thou to mourn thy love’s unhappy fate, 
To bear my mangled body from the foe, 
Or buy it back, and fun’ral 77tes bestow.—DrypEn. 


Publick worship is an observance which no Christian 
thinks himself at liberty to neglect; ‘ Incorporated 
minds will always feel some inclination towards exte- 
riour acts and ritual vbservances.’--JOHNSON. 

It betrays either gross ignorance or wilful imperti- 
nence, in the man who sets at nought any of the esta- 
blished forms of society, paiticularly in religious mat- 
ters; ‘You may discover tribes of men without policy, 
or laws, or cities, or any of the arts of life; but no 
where will you find them without some form of reli- 
gion.’—Briair. When ceremonies are too numerous, 
they destroy the ease of social intercourse; but the 
absence of ceremony destroys all decency ; ‘ Not to use 
ceremonies at all, is to teach others not to use them 
again, and so diminish respect to himself.’—Bacon. 
In publick worship the excess of ceremony is apt to ex 
tinguish the warmth and spirit of devotion; but the 
want of ceremony deprives it of all solemnity. 


LORD’S SUPPER, EUCHARIST, COMMUNION, 
SACRAMENT. 


The Lord’s supper is a term of yvamiliar and general 
use among Christians, as designating in literal terms 
the supper of our Lord; that is, either the last solemn 
supper which he took with his disciples previous to hi. 
crucifixion, or the commemoration of that event which 
conformably to his commands has been observed by 
the professors of Christianity; ‘T’o the worthy parti 
cipation of the Lord’s supper, there is indispensably 
required a suitable preparation’—Souru. Eucharist 
is a term of peculiar use amor.g the Roman Catholicks, 
from the Greek évyapijw to give thanks, because per- 
sonal adoration, by way of returning thanks, consti- 
tutes in their estimation the chief part of the cere- 
mony; ‘This ceremony vf feasting belongs most pro- 
perly both to marriage and to the eucharist, as both of 
them have the nature of a covenant.’—Soutu. As 
the social affections are kept alive mostly by the com- 
mon participation of meals, so is brotherly love, the 
essence of Christian fellowship, cherished and vearmed 
in the highest degree by the common participation in 
this holy festival: hence, by distinction, it has been 
denominated the communion ; ‘One woman he could 
not bring to the communion, and when he reproved 
or exhorted her, she only answered that she was no 
scholar..—Jounson. As the vows which are made 
at the altar of our Lord are the most solemn which a 
Christian can make, comprehending in them the entire 
devotion of himself to Christ, the general term segra- 
mené, signifying an oath, has been employed by wiv 
of emphasis for this ordinance; ‘I could not have thy 
consent of the physicians to go to church yesterday ; 
I therefore received the holy sacrament at home.’— 
Jounson. The Roman Catholicks have employed 
the same term to six other ordinances; but the Pro 
testants, who attach a similar degree of sacredness to 
no other than baptism, annex this appellation only to 
these two. 


MARRIAGE, WEDDING, NUPTIALS. 
Marriage, from to marry, denotes the act of marry 
ing; wetding and nuptials denote the ceremony of 
being ®.rried. As marry, in French marrver, comes 


hal, aad suited for a community; tHe who Mfirmett i fromm tne Latin marito to be joined to a male; hence 


54 


marriags éomprehends the act of choosing and being | 


legally bound toa man or a woman: wedding from 
wed, and the Teutonick zzetten, to promise or betroth, 
implies the ceremony of marrying, inasmuch as it is 
binding upon the parties. MWuptials comes from the 
Latin nubo to veil, because the Roman ladies were 
veiled at the time of marriage: hence the word has 
been put for the whole ceremony itself. Marriage is 
a general term, which conveys no collateral meaning. 
Marriage is an institution which, by those who have 
been blessed with the light of Divine revelation, has 
always been considered as sacred; 


O fatal maid! thy marriage is endow’d 
With Phrygian, Latian, and Rutulian blood. 
DryDEn. 


IfFedding has always a reference to the ceremony; 
with some persons, particularly mong the lower orders 
of society, the day of their 2eddzns *s converted into 
a day of riot and intemperance; ‘Asa ary one how 
he has been employed to-day: he will tell you, per- 
haps, I have been at the ceremony of taking the manly 
robe: this friend invited me to a wedding ; that de- 
sired me to attend the hearing of his cause.’—MEt- 
mMoTH (Letters of Pliny). Nuptials may either be 
used in a general or particular import; among the 
Roman Catholicks in England it is a practice for them 
to have their nuptials solemnized by a priest of the:r 
own persuasion as well as by the Protestant clergy- 
man ; 

Fir’d with disdain for Turnus dispossess’d, 

And the new nuptiais of the Trojan guest—DRyDEN. 


MARRIAGE, MATRIMONY, WEDLOCK. 


Marriage (v. Marriage) is oftener an act than a 
state; matrimony and wedlock both describe states. 

Marriage is taken in the sense of an act, when we 
speak of the laws of marriage, the day of one’s mar- 
riage, the congratulations upon one’s marriage, a 
happy or unhappy marriage, &c.; ‘ Marriage is re- 
warded with some honourable distinctions which celi- 
bacy is forbidden to usurp.’—Jounson. It is taken in 
the sense of a state, when we speak of the pleasures 
or pains of marriage; but in this latter case, matri- 
mony, Which signifies a married life abstractedly from 
all agents or-acting persons, is preferable ; so likewise, 
to think of matrimony, and to enter into the holy state 
of matrimony, are expressions founded upon the signi- 
fication of the term. As matrimony is derived from 
mater a mother, because married women are in gene- 
ral mothers, it has particular reference to the domestick 
ttate of the two parties; broils are but too frequently 
the fruits of matrimony, yet there are few cases in 
whieh they might not be obviated by the good sense 
of those who are engaged in them. Hasty marriages 
cannot be expected to produce happiness ; young peo- 
ple who are eager for matrimony before they are fully 
aware of its consequences will purchase. their expe- 
rience at the expense of their peace ; ‘ As love generally 
produces matrimony, so it often happens that matri- 
mony produces love.’—SPECTATOR. 
_ Wedlock is the old English word for matrimony, and 
is in consequence admitted in law, when one speaks 
of children born in wedlock ; agreeably to its deriva- 
tion it has a reference to the bond of union which fol- 
lows the marriage: hence one speaks of living hap- 
pily in a state of wedlock, of being joined in holy wed- 
lock ; ‘The men who would make good husbands, if 
they visit publick places, are frighted at wedlock and 
resolve to live single.’-—Jounson. 


FUNERAL, OBSEQUIES. 


funeral, in Latin funus, is derived from funis a 
cord, because lighted cords, or torches, were carried 
before the bodies which were interred by night; the 
funeral, therefore, denotes the ordinary solemnity 
which attends the consignment of a body to the grave. 
Obsequtes, in Latin exequie, are both derived from 
sequor, which, in its compound sense, significs to per- 
form or execute; they comprehend, therefore, funerals 
attended with more than ordinary solemnity. 

We speak of the funeral as the last sad office 
which we perform for a friend ; it is accompanied by 

~thing but by mourning and sorrow ; 


ee eee eS a ee a ee ee 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


That pluck’d my nerves, those tender strings of life, 
Which, pluck’d a little more, will toll the bell 
That calls my few friends to my funeral._Y ouna. 


We speak of the obsequies as the tribute of respect 
which can be paid to the person of one who was high 
in station or publick esteem ; 


His body shall be royally interr’d. 

I will, myself, 

Be the chief mourner at his obsequies —DRyDEN 
The funeral, by its frequency, becomes so familiar an 
object that it passes by unheeded ; the obsequies which 
are performed over the remains of the great, attract 
our notice from the pomp and grandeur with which 
they are conducted. The funeral is performed for 
one immediately after his dallase but the obsequies 
may be performed at any period afterward, and iu 
this sense is not confined al to the great ; 


Some in the flow’r-strewn grave the corpse have lay’d 
And annual obsequies around it paid.—Jenyns. 


BURIAL, INTERMENT, SEPULTURE. 


Burial, trom bury, in Saxon birian, birigan, Get 
man bergen, signifies, in the original sense, to conceal 
Interment, from tnter, compounded of zn and ter7a, 
signifies the puttmg into the ground. Sepultwre, in 
French sepultwre, Latin sepultura, from sepulius, 
participle of sepelio to bury, comes from sepes 3 
hedge, signifying an enclosure, and probably likewise 


from the Hebrew F\AW to put to rest, or in a state 
of privacy. 

Under burial is comprehended simply the purpose 
of the action; under inierment and sepuiture, the 
manner as well as the motive of the action. .We bury 
in order to conceal ; ‘ Among our Saxon ancestors, the 
dead bodies of such as were slain in the field were 
not laid in graves; but lying upon the ground were 
covered with turves or clods of earth, and the more 
in reputation the persons had been, the greater and 
higher were the turves raised over their bodies. This 
some used to call biriging, some beorging of the dead ; 
all being one thing though differently pronounced, 
and from whence we yet retain our speech of burying 
the dead, that is, hiding the dead.’—VERSTEGAN 
Interment and sepulture are accompanied with reli 
gious ceremonies. 

*Bury is confined to no object or place; we bury 
whatever we deposite in the earth, and whefever we 
please ; 


When he lies along 
After your way his tale pronoane’d, shall bury 
His reasons with his body.—SHAKSPEARE. 


But tnterment and sepultwre respect only the bodies 
of the ‘deceased when deposited in a sacred place. 
Burial requires that the object be concealed under 
ground; znterment may be used for depositing in 
vaults. Selfmurderers are durted in the highways; 
Christians in general are buried in the church-yard , 


If you have kindness left, there see me laid ; 
To bury decently the injur’d maid 
Is all the favour.—W ALLER. 


The kings of England were formerly interred in West 
minster Abbey ; 


His body shall be royally inter7’d, 
And the last funeral pomps adorn his hearse. 
é DrypDrn. 


Burial isaterm in familiar use; interment serves 
frequently as a more elegant expression ; 


But good Aineas ordered on the shore 

A stately tomb, whose top a trumpet bore; 

Thus was his friend interr’d, and deathless fame 
Still to the lofty cape consigns his name.—DrypDEN. 


Sepulture is an abstract term confined to particula) 
cases, as in speaking of the iights and privileges of 
sepulture ; 

Ah! leave me not for Grecian dogs to tear, 

The common rites of sepulture bestow; 

To sooth a father’s and a mother’s wo; 

_ Let their large gifts procure an urn at least, 
And Hectoyr’s ashes in his country rest.—Pore 


* Vide Trussler: “To bury, inter ”’ 


ENGLISH SYNO...MES. 


fnterment and sepulture never depart from their 
religious import; bury is used figuratively for other 
objects and purposes. A man is said to bury himself 
alive who shuts himself out from the world ; he is said 
to bury the talent of which he makes no use, or to bury 
sn oblivion what he does not wish to call to mind ; 


This is the way to make the city flat 
And dury all, which yet distinctly ranges 
In heaps and piles of ruin.—SHaksPEaRE. 


fnter is on one occasion applied by Shakspeare also 
to other objects ; 


The evil that men do lives after them, 
The good is oft interred with their bones. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


—___, 


BEATIFICATION, CANONIZATION. 


These are two acts emanating from the pontifical 
authority, by which the Pope deciares a person, whose 
life has been exemplary and accompanied with mira- 
cles, as entitled to enjoy eternal happiness after his 
death, and determines in consequence the sort of wor- 
ship which should be paid to him. 

In the act of beatification the Pope pronounces only 
as a private person, and uses his own authority only 
in granting to certain persons, or to a religious order, 
the privilege of paying a particular worship to a deati- 
fied object. 

{n the act of canonization, the Pope speaks'as a judge 
after a judicial examination on the state, and decides 
the sort of worship which ought to be paid by the whole 
church. 


FEAST, FESTIVAL, HOLIDAY. 


Feast, in Latin festwm, or festus, changed most 
probably from feste, or feri@, which, in all proba- 
bility, comes from the Greek fepds, sacred, because 
these days were kept sacred or vacant from all secular 
labour: festival and holiday, as the words themselves 
denote, have precisely the same meaning in their ori- 
ginal sense, with this difference, that the former derives 
its origin from heathenish superstition, the latter owes 
ils rise to the establishment of Christianity in its re- 
formed state. 

A feast, in the Christian sense of the word, is ap- 
plied to every day, except Sundays, which are regarded 
as sacred, and observed with particular solemnity; a 
holyday, or, according to its modern orthography, a 
holiday, is simply a day on which the ordinary busi- 
ness is suspended: among the Roman Catholicks, there 
are many days which are kept ‘holy, and consequently 
by them denominated feasts, which in the English 
reformed church are only observed as holidays, or days 
of exemption from publick business; of this description 
are the Saints’ days, on which the publick offices are 
shut: on the other hand, Christmas, Easter, and Whit- 
suntide, are regarded in both churches more as feasts 
than as holidays. 

Feast, as a technical term, is applied only to certain 
specified holidays ; 

First, I provide myself a nimble thing, 

To be my page, a varlet of all crafts ; 

Next, two new suits for feasts and gala days. 
CUMBERLAND. 


A holiday is an indefinite term, it may be employed 
for any day or time in which there is a suspension of 
business; there are, therefore, many feasts where 
there are no holidays, and many holidays where there 
are no feasts: a feast is altogether sacred; a holiday 
has frequently nothing sacred in it, not even in its 
cause ; it may be a simple, ordinary transaction, the 
act of an individual ; 


Tt happen’d on a summer’s holiday, 
That to the green wood shade he took his way. 
DRYDEN. 


A festival has always either a sacred or a serious 
object; ‘In so enlightened an age as the present, I 
shall perhaps be ridiculed if I hint, as my opinion, 
that the observation of certain festivals is something 
more than a mere political institution’ —WatroLe. A 
feast is kept by religious worship; a holiday is kept 


* Girard: “ Beatification, canonization.” 


85 


by idleness; ‘Many worthy persons urged how great 
the harmony was between the holidays and their attri- 
butes (if I may call then so), and what a confusion 
would follow if Michaelmas-day, for instance, was 
not to be celebrated when stubble geese are in their 
highest perfection—WatLProLe. <A festzal is kept 
by mirth and festivity : some feasts are festivals, as 
in the case of the carnival at Rome; some festivals 
are holidays, as in the case of weddings and publick 
thanksgivings. * 


CLERGYMAN, PARSON, PRIEST, MINISTER. 


Clergyman, altered from clerk, clericus, signified 
any one holding a regular office, and by distinction 
one who held the holy office ; parson is either changed 
from person, that is, by distinction the person who 
spiritually presides over a parish, or contracted from 
parochianus ; priest, in German, &c. priester, is con- 
tracted from presbyter, in Greek rpecBuregos, signifying 
an elder who holds the sacerdotal office; minister, in 
Latin minister, a servant, from minus, less or inferior, 
signifies literally one who performs a subordinate office, 
and has been extended in its meaning, to signify gene- 
rally one who officiates or performs an office. 

The word clergyman applies tosuch as are regularly 
bred according to the forms of the national religion, 
and applies to none else. In thissense we speak of the 
English, the French, and Scotch clergy, without dis- 
tinction; ‘By aclergyman [ mean one in holy orders.’— 
Streets. ‘To the time of Edward III. it is probable 
that the French and English languages subsisted to- 
gether throughout the kingdom ; the higher orders, both 
of the clergy and laity, speaking almost universally 
French; the lower retaining the use of their native 
tongue. —TyRwuHittT. A parson is aspecies of cler- 
gyman, Who ranks the highest in the three orders of 
inferiour clergy; that is, parson, vicar, and curate; 
the parson being a technical term for the rector, or him 
who holds the living: in its technical sense it has now 
acquired a definite use; but in general conversation it 
is become almost a nickname. The word clergyman 
is always {substituted for parson in polite society. 
When priest respects the Christian religion it is a 
species of clergyman, that is, one who is ordained to 
officiate at the altarin distinction from the deacon, who 
is only an assistant to the priest. But the term priest 
has likewise an extended meaning in reference to such 
as hold the sacerdotal character in any form of religion, 
as the priests of the Jews, or those of the Greeks, Ro- 
mans, Indians, and the like; ‘Calla mana priest, or 
parson, and you set him in some men’s esteem ten de- 
grees below his own servant.’.—Soutu. A minister is 
one who actually or habitually officiates. Clergymen 
are therefore not always strictly ministers; nor are all 
ministers clergymen. If a clergyman delegates his 
functions altogether he is not a mznister ; nor is he 
who presides over a dissenting congregation a clergy- 
man. Inthe former case, however, it would he invidious 
to deprive the clergyman of the name of minister of 
the gospel, but in the latter case it is a misuse of the 
term clergyman to apply it to any minister who does 
not officiate according to the form of an established 
religion ; 

With leave and honour enter our abodes, 
Ye sacred ministers of men and gods.—Popr. 


BISHOPRICK, DIOCESS. 


Bishoprick, compounded of bishop and rick or reich 
empire, signifies the empire or government of a bishop: 
Diocess, in Greek dcotynots, compounded of dd and 
d:xéw, signifies an administration throughout. 

Both these words describe the extent of an episcopal! 
jurisdiction; the first with relation to the person wha 
officiates, the second with relation to the charge. 
There may, therefore, be a bishoprick, either where 
there are many diocesses or no diocess ; but according 
to the import of the term, there is properly no dzocess 
where there is no bishoprick. When the jurisdiction 
is merely titular, as in countries where the Catholick 
religion is not recognised, it is a bishoprick, but not a 
divcess. On the other hand, the bishoprick of Rome or 
that of an archbishop comprehends all the diocesses 
of thesubordinate bishops. Hence it arises that wher 
we speak of the ecclesiastical distribution of a country. 
we term the divisions bishopricks ; but wien we speak 


, 


56 


of the actual office, we term it a diocess England is 
divided into a certain number of bishopricks, not. dio- 
cesses. Every bishop visits his diocess, not his bishop- 
rick, at stated intervals. 


ECCLESIASTICK, DIVINE, THEOLOGIAN. 


Anecclesiastick derives his title from the office which 
he bears in the ecclesia or church; a divine and theo- 
logian from their pursuit after, or engagement in, 
divine or theological matters. An ecclesiastick is con- 
nected with an episcopacy; a divine or theologian is 
not essentially connected with any form of church go- 
vernment. 

An ecclesiastick need not in his own person perform 
any office, although he fills a station: a divine not 
only fills a station, but actually performs the office of 
teaching; a theologian neither fills any particular sta- 
tion, nor discharges any specifick duty, but merely fol- 
lows the pursuit of studying theology. An ecclesiastick 
is not always a divine, nor a divine an ecclesiastick ; a 
divine is always more or less a theologian, but every 
theologian is not a divine. 

Among the Roman Catholicks all monks, and in the 
Church of England the various dignitaries who perform 
the episcopal functions, are entitled ecclesiasticks ; 
‘Our old English monks seldom let any of their kings 

_depart in peace, who had endeavoured to diminish the 
power or wealth of which the ecclesiasticks were in 
those times possessed.’-—Appison. There are but few 
denominations of Christians who have not appointed 
teachers who are called divines ; ‘ Nor shall I dwell on 
our excellence in metaphysical speculations; because, 
he that reads the works of our divines will easily dis- 
cover how far human subtilty has been able to pene- 
trate’—Jounson. Professors or writers on theology 
are peculiarly denominated theologians ; ‘1 Jooked on 
that sermon (of Dr. Price’s) as the publick declaration 
of a man much connected with literary caballers. in- 
triguing philosophers, and political theologians. — 
BurKE. 


CLOISTER, CONVENT, MONASTERY. 


Cloister, in French * cléitre, from the word clos close, 
signifies a certain close place in a convent, or an enclo- 
sure of houses for canons, or in general a religious 
house ; convent, from the Latin conventus, a meeting, 
and convenio to come together, signifies a religious as- 
sembly; monastery, in French monasteére, signifies a 
habitation for monks, from the Greek pévos alone. 

The proper idea of cloister is that of seclusion; the 
proper idea of convent is that of community ; the proper 
idea of a monastery is that of sulitude. One is shut 
up in a cloister, put into a convent, and retires toa 
monastery. 

Whoever wishes to take an absolute leave of the 

orld, shuts himself up in a cloister ; 


Some solitary cloister will I choose, 
And there with holy virgins live immur’d- 
DrRyDEN. 


Whoever wishes to attach himself to a community 
that has renounced all commerce with the world, goes 
into aconvent ; ‘Nor were the new abbots less indus- 
trious to stock their convents with foreigners.’—Tyr- 
wxuitt. Whoever wishes to shun al] human inter- 
sourse retires to a monastery; ‘I drove my suitor to 
forswear the full stream of the world, and to liveina 
nook merely monastick.’—SHAKSPEARE. 

In the cloister our liberty is sacrificed : in the convent 
dur worldly habits are renounced, and those of a regular 
religious community being adopted, we submit to the 
yoke of established ordeis: in a monastery we impose a 
sort of voluntary exile upon ourselves; we live with 
the view of living only to God. 

In the ancient and true monasterics, the members 
divided their time between contemplation and labour; 
but as population increased, and towns multiplied, 
monasteries were, properly speaking, succeeded by 
convents. 

In ordinary discourse, cloister is employed in an ab- 
solute and indefinite manner: we speak of the cloister 
to designate a monastick state; as entering a. cloister ; 


* Vide Abbe Roubaud: “Cléitre, convent, mo- 
nAstére.” 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


burying one’s self in a cloister; penances and morteh 
Cations are practised in a cloister ; but it is not ths 
same thing when we speak of the cloister of the Bene 
dictines and of their monastery; or the clovster of tha 
Capuchins and their convent. 


CONVERT, PROSELYTE. 


Convert, from the Latin converto, signifies changed 
to something in conformity with the views of another; 
proselyte, fromthe Greek zpooyjAuros and mposéoxapas, 
signifies come over to the side of another. 

Convert is more extensive in its sense and application 
than proselyte : convert in its full sense includes every 
change of opinion, without respect to the subject; 
proselyte in its strict sense refers only to changes from 
one religious belief to another: there are many converts 
to particular doctrines of Christianity, and proselytes 
from the Pagan, Jewish, or Mahomedan, to the Christian 
faith: there are political as well as religious converts, 
who could not with the same strict propriety be termed 
proselytes. 

Conversion is a more voluntary actthan proselytism ; 
it emanates entirely from the mind of the agent, inde 
pendent of foreign influence ; it extends not merely to 
the abstract or speculative opinions of the individual, 
but to the whole current of his feelings and spring of 
his actions: it is the conversion of the heart and soul. 
Proselytism is an outward act, which need not extend 
beyond the conformity of one’s words and actions to a 
certain rule; convert is therefore always taken ina 
good sense: it bears on the face of it the stamp of sin 
cerity ; ‘ A believer may be excused by the most hard- 
ened atheist for endeavouring to make him a convert, 
because he does it with an eye to both their interests.’— 
ADDISON. Proselyte is a term of more ambiguous 
meaning ; the proselyte is often the creature and tool 
of a party; there may be many proselytes where there 
are noconverts ; ‘False teachers commonly make use 
of base, and low, and temporal considerations, of little 
tricks and devices, to make disciples and gain prose- 
lytes.’—TiILLOTSON. 

The conversion of a sinner is the work of God’s grace, 
either by his special interposition, or by the ordinary 
influence of his Holy Word on the heart; it is an act 
of great presumption, therefore, in those men who rest 
so strongly on their own particular modes and forms in 
bringing about this great work: they may without any 
breach of charity be suspected of rather wishing to 
make proselytes to their own party. 


TO TRANSFIGURE, TRANSFORM, 
METAMORPHOSE. 


Transfigure is to make to pass over into another 
figure; transform and metamorphose is to put into 
another form: the former being said mostly of spiritual 
beings, and particularly in reference to our Saviour ; 
the other two terms being applied to that which has a 
corporeal form. 

Transformation is commonly applied to that which 
changes its outward form; in this manner a harlequin 
transforms himself into all kinds of shapes and like- 
nesses ; 


Something you have heard 
Of Hamlet’s transformation ; so I call it, 
Since not the exteriour, nor the inward man 
Resembles what it was.—SHAKSPEARE. 


Sometimes however the word is applied to moral ob- 
jects; ‘Can a good intention, or rather a very wicked 
one so miscalled, transform perjury and hypocrisy into 
merit and perfection?’—Souru. Metamorphosis iz 
applied to the form internal as well as external, that is, 
to the whole nature; in this manner Ovid describes 
among others, the metamorphoses of Narcissus into a 
flower, and Daphne into a laurel: with the same idea 
we may speak of arustick being metamorphosed, by 
the force of art, into a fine gentleman; ‘ A lady’s shift 
may be metamorphosed into billets-doux, and come into 
her possession a second time.’—Appison. Transjigu- 
ration is frequently taken for a painting of our Sa- 
viour’s transfiguration ; ‘We have of this gentleman 
a piece of the transfiguration, which I think is held a 
work second to none in the world.’—STgELE. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


PRAYER, PETITION, REQUEST, ENTREATY, 


SUIT. 


Prayer, from the Latin preco, and the Greek zapd 
and ~vxopmat to pray, is a general term, including the 
common idea of application to some person for any 
favour to be granted; petition, from peto to seek ; re- 
quest, from the Latin reguisitus and requtro, or re, 
and quero to look after, or seek for with desire ; en- 
treaty, from the French en and traiter, signifying to 
act upon; suzt, from swe, in French suivre, Latin 
sequor to follow after; denote different modes of 
prayer, varying in the circumstances of the action and 
the object acted upon. 

The prayer is made more commonly to the Supreme 
Being; the petition is made more generally to one’s 
fellow-creatures; we may, however, pray our fellow- 
creatures, and petition our Creator: the prayer ismade 
for every thing which is of the first importance to us 
as living beings; the petition is made for that which 
may satisfy our desires: hence our prayers to the Al- 
mighty respect all our circumstances as moral and 
responsible agents ; our petitions respect the temporary 
circumstances of our present existence. When the 
term prayer is applied to one’s fellow-creatures it car- 
ries with it the idea of earnestness and submission; 
‘ Prayer among men is supposed a means to change 
the person to whom we pray; but prayer toGod doth 
not change him, but fits us to receive the things prayed 
for.’—STILLINGFLEET. 


Torture him with thy-softness, 
Nor till thy prayers are granted set him free. 
Owway. 
The petition and request are alike made to our fellow- 
creatures; but the former is a publick act, in which 
many express their wishes to the Supreme Authority ; 
the latter is an individual act between men in their 
private relations; the people petition the king or the 
parliament; a school of boys petition their master ; 


She takes petitions, and dispenses laws, 
Hears and determines every private cause. 
DRYDEN. 


A child makes a request to its parent; one friend 
makes a request to another ; 


Thus spoke [lioneus ; the Trojan crew, 
With cries and clamours his request renew. 
DRYDEN. 


The request marks an equality, but the entreaty de- 
fines no condition; it differs, however, from the former 
in the nature of the object and the mode of prefer- 
ring: the request is but.a simple expression ; the en- 
treaty is urgent: the request may be made in trivial 
matters; the entreaty is made in matters that deeply 
interest the feelings: we make the request of a friend 
to lend a book; we use every entreaty in order to di- 
vert a person from the purpose which we think detri- 
mental: one complies with a request ; one yields to 
entreaties. Yt was the dying request of Socrates, that 
they would sacrifice a cock to Aisculapius; Regulus 
was deaf to every entreaty of his friends, who wished 
him not to return to Carthage; ‘ Arguments, entreaties, 
and promises were employed in order to sooth them 
(the followers of Cortes).’—Roxzertson. 

The suit is a higher kind of prayer, varying both in 
the nature of the subject, and the character of the 
agent. A gentleman pays his suzt to a lady ; a cour- 
tier makes his suit to the prince; ‘ Seldom or never is 
there much spoke, whenever any one comes to prefer 
a suzt to another.’—Sourtu. 


TO ATONE FOR, EXPIATE. 


4ione, or at one, signifies to be in unity, at peace, 
or good friends; expzate, in Latin expiatus, participle 
of expio, compounded of ex and pio, signifies to put 
out or make clear by an act.of piety. 

Both these terms express a satisfaction for an of- 
fence ; but atone is general, expiate is particular. We 
may atone for a fault by any species of suffering; we 
expiate a crime only by suffering a legal punishment. 
A female often sufficiently atones for her violation of 
chastity by the misery she entails on herself; 


O let the blood, already spilt, atone 
For the past crimes of curs’d- Laomedon.—Drypun 


87 


There are too many unfortunace wretches in England 
who eapzate their crimes on a gallows; 


How sacred ought kings’ lives be held, 
When but the death of one 
Demands an empire’s blood for expiation.— Lx. 


Neither atonement. nor expiation always necessarily 
require punishment or even suffering from the offender 
The nature of the atonement depends on the will of 
the individual who is offended; and oftentimes the 
word implies simply an equivalent given or offered fos 
something; ‘I would earnestly desire the story-telles 
to consider, that no wit or mirth at the end of a story 
can atone for the half hour that has been lost before 
they come atit.—SrreLe. Expiations are frequently 
made by means of performing certain religious rites or 
acts of piety. Offences between man and man are 
sometimes atoned for by an acknowledgment of errour ; 
but offences towards God require an expiatory sacri- 
fice, which our Saviour has been pleased to make of 
himselt, that we, through Him, might become par- 
takers of eternal life. Hapiation, therefore, in the 
religious sense, is to atonementeas the means to the 
end: atonement is often obtained by an expiation, but 
there may be expiations where there is no atonement. 

Atonement replaces in a state of favour; expiation 
produces only a real or supposed exemption from sin 
and its consequences. .Among the Jews and heathens 
there was expiation, but no atonement; under the 
Christian dispensation there is atonement as well as 
exptation. 


ABSTINENCE, FAST. 


Abstinence is a general term, applicable to any objece 
from which we abstain; fast is a species of abstz- 
nence, namely, an abstaining from food ; ‘ Fridays are 
appointed by the Church as days of abstinence; and 
Good Friday as a day of fast..—Taytor. The gene- 
ral] term is likewise used in the particular sense, to 
imply a partial abstinence from particular food; but 
fast signifies an abstinence from food altogether; ‘I 
am verily persuaded that if a whole people were to 
enter into a course of abstinence, and eat nothing but 
water gruel for a fortnight, it would abate the rage and 
animosity of parties ;’ ‘Such a fast would have the 
natural tendency to the procuring of those ends for 
which a fasé is proclaimed.’—ApDpIsoNn. 


oo 


TO FORGIVE, PARDON, ABSOLVE, REMIT. 


Forgive, compounded of the privative for and give; 
and pardon, in French pardonner, compounded like- 
wise of the privative par or per and donner to give, 
both signify not to give the punishment that is due, to 
relax from the rigour of justice in demanding retribu- 
tion. Forgive is the familiar term ; pardon is adapted 
to the serious style. Individuals forgive each other 
personal offences; they pardon offences against law 
and morals: the former is an actof Christian charity; 
the latter an act of clemency: the former is an act that 
is confined to no condition; the latter is peculiarly the 
act of a superiour. He who has the right of being 
offended has an opportunity of forgiving the offender: 


No more Achilles draws 
His conqu’ring sword in any woman’s cause. 
The gods command me to forgive the past, 
But let this first invasion be the last.—Porr. 


He who has the authority of punishing the offence 
may pardon; ‘ A being who has nothing to pardon in 
himself may reward every man according to his works; 
but he whose very best actions must be seen with a 
grain of allowance, cannot be too mild, moderate, and 
forgiving..—Anppison. Next, to the principle of not 
taking offence easily, that of forgiving real injuries 
should be instilled into the infant mind: itis the happy 
prerogative of the monarch that he can extend his 
pardon to all criminals, except to those whose crimes 
have rendered them unworthy to live: they may be 
both used in relation to our Maker, but with a similar 
distinction in sense. God forgives the sins of his 
creatures as a father pitying his children; he pardons 
their sins as a judge extending mercy to criminals, as 
far 4s is consistent with just ce. 


bu 


* Pardon, when compared with remission, is the 
consequence of offence ; it respects principally the per- 
son offending ; it depends upon him who is offended ; 
it produces reconciliation when it is sincerely granted 
and sincerely demanded. Remission is the conse- 
quence of the crime ; it has more particular regard to 
the punishment; it is granted either by the prince or 
magistrate ; it arrests the execution of justice ; 

With suppliant prayers their powers appeage ; 

The soft Napwan race will soon repent 

Their anger, and remzt the punishment.—DryDEn. 


Remission, like pardon, is peculiarly applicable to the 
sinner with regard to his Maker. Absolution is taken 
in no other sense: it is the consequence of the fault or 
the sin, and properly concerns the state of the culprit ; 
it properly loosens him from the tie with which he is 
bound; it is pronounced either by the civil judge or 
the ecclesiastical minister ; it re-establishes the accused 
or the penitent in the rights of innocence ; 


Round in his urn the blended balls he rolls. 
Absolwes the just, and dooms the guilty souls. 
® DRYDEN. 


The pardon of sin obliterates that which is past, and 
restores the sinner to the Divine favour; it is promised 
throughout Scripture to all men on the condition of 
faith and repentance ; remzssiton of sin only averts the 
Divine vengeance, which otherwise would fall upon 
those who are guilty of it; it is granted peculiarly to 
Christians upon the ground of Christ’s expiatory sacri- 
fice, which satisfies Divine justice for all offences: ad- 
solution of sin is the work of God’s grace on the heart; 
it acts for the future as well as the past, by lessening 
the dominion of sin, and making those free who were 
before in bondage. The Roman Catholicks look upon 
absolution as the immediate act of the Pope, by virtue 
of his sacred relationship to Christ; but the Protestants 
look to Christ only as the dispenser of this blessing to 
men, and his ministers simply as messengers to declare 
the Divine will to men. 


————— 


REPENTANCE, PENITENCE, CONTRITION, 
COMPUNCTION, REMORSE. 


Repentance, from re back, and peniict to be sorry, 
signifies looking back with sorrow on what one has 
done amiss; penitence, from the same source, signifies 
simply sorrow for what is amiss. Contrition, from 
contero to rub together, or bruise as it were with sor- 
row ; compunction, from compungo to prick thorough- 
ly; and remorse, from remordeo to have a gnawing 
pain; all express modes of penitence differing in de- 
gree and circumstance. 

Repentance refers more to the change of one’s mind 
with regard to an object, and is properly confined to the 
time when this change takes place; we therefore, 
strictly speaking, repent of a thing but once; wemay, 
however, have penztence for the same thing all our 
lives, Repentance may be felt for trivial matters ; we 
thay repent of going or not going, speaking or not 
speaking: penctence refers only to serious matters ; we 
are penitent only for our sins. Errours of judgement 
will always be attended with repentance ina mind that 
is striving to do right; there is no human being so per- 
fect but that, in the sight of God, he will have occa- 
sion to be penatent for many acts of commission and 
omission. 

Repentance may be felt for errours which concern 
only ourselves, or at most offences against our fellow 
creatures ; penitence, and the other terms, are appli- 
cable only to offences against the moral and divine 
law, that law which is engraven on the heart of every 
man. We may repent of not having made a bargain 
that we afterward find would have been advantageous, 
or we may repent of having done any injury to our 
neighbour; but our penance is awakened when we 
reect on our unworthiness or sinfulness in the sight 
cf our Maker. This penitence is a general sentiment, 
which belongs to all men as offending creatures; but 
contrition, compunction, and remorse are awakened 
by reflecting on particular offences: contrition is a 
continued and severe sorrow, appropriate to one who 
has been in a continued state of peculiar sinfulness; 


Vide Abbe Girard: ‘Absolution, pardon, remis- 
sion.” 


0 Eee 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. | 


compunction is rather an occasional, but sharp sorrow 
provoked by a single offence, or a moment’s reflection , 
remorse may be temporary, but it is a still sharper 
pain awakened by some particular offence of peculiar 
magnitude and atrocity. The prodiga! son was a 
contrite sinner; the brethren of Joseph felt great com 
punction when they were carried back with their sacks 
to Egypt; David was struck with remorse for the mur- 
der of Uriah. 

These four terms depend not so much on the 
measure of guilt as on the sensibility of the offender 
Whoever reflects most deeply on the enormity of sin, 
will be most sensible of repentance, when he sees his 
own liability to offend ; ‘ This is the sinner’s hard lot, 
that the same thing which makes him need repentance, 
makes him also in danger of not obtaining it.SouTH 
In those who have most offended, anu are tume to a 
sense of their own condition, penitence will rise to deep 
contrition ; 


Heaven may forgive a crime to penitence, 
For heaven can judge if penitence be true.—DRYDEN. 


‘ Gontrition, though it may melt, ought not to sink, or 
overpower the heart of a Christian.’--Biarr. There 
is no man so hardened that he will not sone time or 
other feel compunciion for the crimes he has commit- 
ted; ‘Ail men, even the most depraved, are subject 
more or less to compunctions of conscience.’—BLAIR 
He who has the liveliest sense of the Divine goodness. 
will feel keen remorse whenever he reflects on any 
thing that he has done, by which he fears to have for 
feited the favour of so good a Being ; 
The heart, 

Piere’d with a sharp remorse for guilt, disclaims 

The costly poverty of hecatombs, 

And offers the best sacrifice itselfi—Jzrrry. 


CONSCIENTIOUS, SCRUPULOUS. 

Conscientious marks the quality of having a nica 
conscience; scrupulous, that of having a scruple 
Conscience, in Latin consctentia, from consciens, sig- 
nifies that by which a man becomes conscious to him- 
selfof right and wrong. Scruple, in Latin scrupulus 
a little hard stone, signifies that which gives pain ta 
the mind, as the stone does to the foot in walking. 

Conscientious is to scrupulous as a Whole to a part. 
A conscientious man is so altogether; a scrupulous 
man may have only particular scruples; the one is 
therefore always taken in a good sense; and the other 
at least in an indifferent, if not a bad sense. 

A conscientious man does nothing to offend his con 
science; ‘A conscientious person would rather distrust 
his own judgement than condemn his species. He 
would say, I have observed without attention, or 
judged upon erroneous maxims; I have trusted ta 
profession when I ought to have attended to conduct.’ 
Burxe.—But a scrupulous man has often his scruples 
on trifling or minor points; ‘ Others by their weakness, 
and fear, and scrupulousness, cannot fully satisfy their 
own thoughts.—PuLter. The Pharisees were scru- 
pulous without being conscientious: we must there- 
fore strive to be conscientious without being over seru- 
pulous ; ‘I have been so very scrupulous in this 
particular, of not hurting any man’s reputation, that I 
have forborne mentioning even such authors as [ could 
not name with honour. —AppIson. 


HOLINESS, SANCTITY. 


Holiness, which comes from the northern languages, 
has altogether acquired a Christian signification; it 
respects the life and temper of a Christian; sanctity 
which is derived from the Latin sanctus and sanctio, 
to sanction, has merely a moral signification, which it 
derives from the sanction of human authority. 

Holiness is to the mind of a man what sanctity is te 
his exteriour; with this difference, that holiness to a 
certain degree, ought to belong to every man professing 
Christianity ; but sanctity, as it lies in the manners, 
the outward garb, and deportment, is becoming only te 
certain persons, and at certain times. 

Holiness is a thing not to be affected; it is thar 
genuine characteristick of Christianity which is alto- 
gether spiritual, and cannot be counterfeited ;* Habitual 
preparation for the Sacrament consists in a perma 
nent hahit or principle of heliness”.—SoutuH. Sanctity, 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


on the other hand, is from its very nature exposed to 
falsehood, and the least to be trusted ; when it displays: 
itself in individuals, either by the sorrowfulness of 
their looks, or the singular cut of their garments, or 
other singularities of action and gesture, it is of the 
most questionable nature; but in one who performs 
the sacerdotal office, 1t is a useful appendage to the 
solemnity of the scene, which excites a reverential 
regard to the individual in the mind of the beholder, 
and the most exalted sentiments of that religion which 
he thus adorns by his outward profession; ‘About an 
age ago it was the fashion in England for every one 
that would be thought religious, to throw as much 
sanctity as possible into his face. —-Appison. ‘It was 
an observation of the ancient Romans, that their em- 
pire had not increased more by the strength of their 
arms, than by the sanctity of their manners.’—Ap- 
DISON. 


HOLY, PIOUS, DEVOUT, RELIGIOUS. 


Ffoly is here taken in the sense of holiness, as in the 
preceding article ; péows, in Latin pzus, is most proba- 
bably changed from dius or deus, signifying regard for 
the gods; devout, in Latin devotus, from devoveo to 
engage by a vow, signifies devoted or consecrated ; 
religious, in Latin religiosus, comes from religio and 
religa, to bind, because religion binds the mind, and 
produces in it a fixed principle. 

A strong regard to the Supreme Being is expressed 
by all these epithets; but holy conveys the most com- 
prehensive idea; pzous and devout designate most 
fervour of mind; religious is the most general and 
abstract in its signification. A holy man is in all 
respects heavenly-minded; he is more fit for heaven 
than earth: holiness, to whatever degree it is pos- 
sessed, abstracts the thoughts from sublunary objects, 
and fixes them en things that are above; it is therefore 
a Christian quality, which is not to be attained in its 
full perfection by human beings, in their present im- 
perfect state, and is attainable by some to a much 
greater degree than by others. Our Saviour was a 
perfect pattern of holiness ; his apostles after him, and 
innumerable saints and good men, both in and out of 
the ministry, have striven to imitate his example, by 
the Aoliness of their life and conversation: in such, 
however, as have exclusively devoted themselves to 
his service, this holiness may shine brighter than in 
those who are entangled with the affairs of the world; 
‘The holiest man, by conversing with the world in- 
sensibly draws something of soil and taint from it.’— 
Sours. 

Pious is a term more restricted in its signification, 
and consequently more extended in its application, 
than holy: piety is not a virtue peculiar to Christians, 
it is common to all believers in a Supreme Being; it is 
the homage of the heart and the affections to a supe- 
riour Being: from a similarity in the relationship 
between a heavenly and an earthly parent, devotedness 
of the mind has in both cases been denominated piety. 
Piety towards God naturally produces piety towards 
parents ;@for the obedience of the heart, which gives 
rise to the virtue in the one, seems instantly to dictate 
the exercise: itin theother. The difference between 
holiness and piety is obvious from this, that our Saviour 
and his apostles are characterized as holy, but not 
pious, because piety is swallowed up in holiness. “On 
the other hand, Jew and Gentile, Christian and 
Heathen, are alike termed pious, when they cannot be 
called holy, because piety is not only a more practi- 
cable virtue, but because it is more universally appli- 
cable to the dependant condition of man; ‘In every 
age the practice has prevailed of substituting certain 
appearances of piety in the place of the great duties of 
humanity and mercy.’—B aye. 

Devotion is a species of piety peculiar to the wor- 
shipper ; it bespeaks that devotedness of mind which 
displays itself in the temple, when the individual 
seems by his outward services solemnly to devote him- 
self, soul and body, to the service of his Maker; 
* Devotion expresses not so much the performance of 
any particular duty, as the spirit which must animate 
ail religious duties.’—Buarr. Piety, therefore, lies in 
the heart, and may appear externally ; but devotion 
does not properly exist except in an external ob- 
servance: a man pzously resigns himself to the will of 
God, in the midst of his afflictions; he prays devoutly 


rn 


89 


in the bosom of. his family; ‘A state of temperance, 
sobriety, and justice, without devotion, is a lifeless in- 
sipid condition of virtue.,—AppIson. 

Religious is a term of less import than either of the 
other terms; it denotes little more than the simple 
existence of: religion, or a sense of religion in the 
mind: the religious man is so, more in his principles 
than in his affections ; he is religicus in his sentiments, 
in as much as he directs all his views according to the 
will of his Maker; and he is religious in his conduct, 
in as much as he observes the outward formalities of 
homage that are due to his Maker. A holy man fits 
himself for a higher state of existence, after which he 
is always aspiring; a pious man has God inall his 
thoughts, and seeks to do his will; a devout man bends 
himself in humble adoration and pays his vows of 
prayer and thanksgiving; a religious man conforms 
in all things to what the dictates of his conscience 
require from him, as a responsible being, and a mem- 
ber of society. 

When applied to things they preserve a similar dis- 
tinction: we speak of the holy sacrament; of a pious 
discourse, a pious ejaculation ; of a devout exercise, 
a devout air; a religious sentiment, a religious life, a 
religious education, &c. 


—y 


HOLY, SACRED, DIVINE. 


Holy is here, as in the former article, a term of 
higher import than either sacred or divine: sacred, in 
Latin sacer, is derived either from the Greek dyéos 
holy or cdos whole, perfect, and the Hebrew zacah pure 
Whatever is most intimately connected with religion 
and religious worship, in its purest state, is holy, is un- 
hallowed by a mixture of inferiour objects, is elevated 
in the greatest possible degree, so as to suit the nature 
of an infinitely perfect and exalted Being. Among the 
Jews, the holy of holies was that place which was 
intended to approach the nearest to the heavenly 
abode, consequently was preserved as much as possi 
ble from all contamination with that which is earthly. 
among Christians, that religion or form of religion is 
termed holy, which is esteemed purest in its doctrine, 
discipline, and ceremonies, and is applied with equal 
propriety by the Roman Catholicks and the English 
Protestants to that which they have in common; ‘To 
fit us for a due access to the holy Sacrament, we must 
add actual preparation to habitual.—Soutn. Upon 
this ground we speak of the church as a holy place, of 
the sacrament as the holy sacrament, and the ordinances 
of the church as holy. 

Sacred is less than holy ; thé sacred derives its sane 
tion from human institutions, and is connected rather 
with our moral than our religious duties: what is holy 
is altogether spiritual, and abstracted from the earthly ; 
what is sacred may be simply the human purified from 
what is gross and corrupt: what is holy must be 
regarded with awe, and treated with every possible 
mark of reverence; what is sacred must not be violated 
nor infringed upon. The laws are sacred, but not 
holy ; 2 man’s word should be sacred, though not holy : 
for neither of these things is to be reverenced, but both 
are to be kept free from injury or external violence. 
The holy is not so much opposed to, as it is set above 
every thing else; the sacred is opposed to the profane 
the Scriptures are properly denominated holy, because 
they are the word of God, and the fruit of his Holy 
Spirit; but other writings may be termed sacred which 
appertain to religion, in distinction from the profane, 
which appertain only to worldly matters ; ‘Common 
sense could tell them, that the good God could not be 
pleased with any thing cruel, nor the most holy God 
with any thing filthy and unclean.’—Souru. ‘ Religion 
properly consists in a reverential esteem of things 
sacred.’—Sourtu. 

Divine is a term of even less import than sacred ; it 
signifies either belonging to the Deity, or being like the 
Deity ; but from the looseness of its application it has 
lost in some respects the dignity of its meaning. The 
divine is often contrasted with the human: but there 
are many human things which are denominated divine : 
Milton’s poem is entitled a divine poem, not merely on 
account of the subject, but from the exalted manner in 
which the poet has treated his subject: what is divine, 
therefore, may be so superlatively excellent as to be con- 
ceived of as having the stamp of inspiration from the 


96 . ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


Veity, which of course, as it respects human perform. cation of godliness, which at the same time supposes & 
puces, is but a hyperbolical mode of speech. temper of mind, not only to delight in, but to profit by 
From the above explanation of these terms, it is clear | such exercises: ‘ The same church is really holy in thig 
that there is a manifest difference between them, and| world, in relation to all godly persons contained in it, 
yet that their resemblance is sufficiently great for them} by a real infused sanctity.—Puarson. Righteousness 
to be applied to the same objects. We speak of the | on the other hand comprehends Christian morality, in 
Holy Spirit, and of Divine inspiration; by the first of | distinction from that of the heathen or unbeliever; a 
which epithets is understood not only what is super- | righteous man does right, not only because it is right, 
human, but what is a constituent part of the Deitys by | but because it is agreeable to the will of his Maker, and 
the second is represented merely in a general manner | the example of his Redeemer: righteousness is there- 
the source of the inspiration as coming from the Deity, | fore to godliness as the effect to the cause; ‘’Tis the 
and not from man; ‘ When a man resteth and assureth | gospel’s work toreduce man to the principles of his first 
himself upon Divine protection, he gathereth a force | creation, that is, tobe both good and wise. Our ances- 
and faith which human nature in itself could. not | tors, it seems, were clearly of this opinion. He that 
obtain.—Bacon. Subjects are denominated either | was pious and just was reckoned a righteous man. 
sacred or divine, as When we speak of sacred poems, | Godliness and integrity was called and accounted 
or divine hymns ; sacred here characterizes the subjects righteousness. And in their old Saxon righteous was 
of the poems, as those which are to be held sacred; | rightwise, and righteousness was Originally rightwise- 
and divine designates the subject of the hymns as not | ness.’—FELTHAM. The godly man goes to the sanc- 
being ordinary or merely human; it is clear, therefore, ) tuary and by converse with his Maker assimilates all 
that what is holy is in its very nature sacred, but not | his affections to the character of that being whom he 
vice versa; and that what is holy and sacred is in its worships; when he leaves the sanctuary he proves the 
very nature divine; but the divine is not always cither efficacy of his godliness by his righteous converse with 
holy or sacred. his fellow-creatures. .It is easy however for men to 
mistake the means for the end, and to rest with ayer 
ness Without righteousness, a8 100 many are apt to do 
GODLIKE, DIVINE, HEAVENLY. who seem to ake their whole duty af capitan in an 
Gtodlike bespeaks its own meaning, as like God, or | attention to religious observances, and in the indul- 
after the manner of God ; divine, in Latin divinus from | gence of extravagant feelings ;.‘ It hath been the great 
divus or Deus, signifies appertaining to G'od ; heavenly, | design of the devil and his instruments in all ages to 
or heaventlike, signifies like or appertaining to heaven. | undermine religion, by making an unhappy separation 
Godlike is a more expressive, but less common term | and divorce between godliness and morality. , But let 
than divine; the former is used only as an epithet of | us not deceive ourselves; this was always religion, and 
peculiar praise for a particular object; divine is gene- | the conditionof our acceptance with God, to endeavouz 
rally employed for that which appertains to a superiour | to be like God in purity and holiness, in justice and 
being, in distinction from that which is human. . Bene- | righteousness.’—TiLLOTSON. . 
volence is a godlike property ; 
Sure he that made us with such large discourse, 
- Looking before and after, gave us not SECULAR, 'TEMPORAL, WORLDLY. 
That capability and godlike reason, ! 


—_—_——— 


T’o rust in us unus’d.—SHAKSPEARE. Secular in Latin secularis, from seculum an age or 
he Diets 3 ‘aah i Gai ha fomlires OF maa division of time, signifies belonging to time, or this life; 

1 ae eee rm Ps Paes Milton ‘the hnman face | mporal, in Latin temporalis, from tempus time, signi- 

MDE ACE AS aCe. 2S yt poe fies lasting only for a time; worldly signifies after the 

Divine.” ‘The benefit of nature’s light is not thought manner GE Xbe oereck: 

excluded .48, UDUeCERSaTY, because the necessity iy a! Secular is oppused to ecclesiastical or spiritual, tem- 

divine light is magnified.’—Hooxmr. Divine is how- | poral and worldly are opposed to spiritual or eternal. 


ever frequently used by the poets for what is supe” |“ ‘he ideas of the world, or the outward objects and 
excellent. pursuits of the werld, in distinction from that whic’: 
Of all that see or read thy comedies, is set above the world, is implied in common by all 24x: 
Whoever in those glasses looks may find terms; but secular is an indifferent term, applicable tz 
The spots return’d, or graces of his mind; the allowed pursuits and concerns of men; temporal is 
And by the help of so divine an att, used either in an indifferent or a bad sense; and 
At leisure view and dress his nobler part. worldly mostly in a bad sense, as contrasted with things 


WaLLER. | of more value. . Wage 
As divine is opposed to human, so is heavenly to| The office of a clergyman is ecclesiastical, but that 
earthly: the Divine Being is a term of distinction for | Of a schoolmaster is secular, which is frequently vested 
the Creator from all other beings; but a heavenly being | in the same hands; ‘ This, in several men’s actions of 
denotes the angels or inhabitants of heaven, in distinc- | Common life, appertaineth unto moral; in publick and 
tion from earthly beings or the inhabitants of earth. | politick secular affairs, unto civil wisdom.’—Hooxer. 
A divine influence is to be sought for only by prayer| he upper house of parliament consists of lords spi 
to the Giver of all good things; but a heavenly temper | ritual and temporal; ‘There is scarce anygot those 
may be acquired by a steady contemplation of heavenly | decisions but gives good light, by way of authority or 
things, and an abstraction from those which are earthly. | "€asoli, to some questions that arise also between tem- 


The Divine will is the foundation of all moral law and! poral dignities, especially to cases wherein some of our 
obligation ; subordinate temporal titles have part in the contro- 


-ersy.—SELDEN. Worldly interest has a more pow 

erful sway upon the minds of the great bulk of man 

kind, than their spiritual interests; ‘Compare the hap- 
niness of men and beasts no farther than it results from 
worldly advantages.—ATTERBURY. Whoever enters 
‘nto the holy office of the ministry with merely seculaz 
views of preferment, chooses a very unfit source of 
emolument; ‘Some saw nothing in what has been done ~ 
in France but a firm and temperate exertion of freedom, 
so consistent with morals and piety, as to make it de 
serving not only of the secular applause of dashing 
Machiavelian politicians, but to make it a fit theme for 
all the devout effusions of sacred eloquence.’—BuRKE 

A too eager pursuit after temporal advantages and tem- 
poral pleasures is apt to draw the mind away from its 
regard to those which are eternal; ‘The ultimate pur 


Instructed you’d explore 
Divine contrivance, and a God adore.—BLACKMORE 


Heavenly joys are the fruit of all our labours in this 
earthly course; 


Reason, alas! It does not know itself; 

But man, vain man! would with his short-lin’d 
plummet 

Fathom the vast abyssof heavenly justice.—DrypEn. 


GODLY, RIGHTEOUS. 


Godly is a contraction of godlike (v. Godlike) ; 
righteous signifies conformable to right or truth. 
hese epithets are both used in a spiritual sense, and 
cannot, without an indecorous affectation of religion, 
be introduced into any other discourse than that which | pose of government is temporal, and that of religion is 
is properly spiritual. Godliness, in the strict sense, is | eternal happiness. —Jounson. Wordly applause will 
that outward deportment which characterizes a hea- | weigh very light when set in the balance against the 
venly temper ; prayer, reading of the Scriptures, publick | reproach of one’s own conscience; ‘ Worldly things are 
worship, and every Teligious act, enters into the signifi- / of such quality as to lessen upon dividing.’ —Grove. 


ee 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


ENTHUSIAST, FANATICK, VISIONARY. 


The enthusiast, fanatick, and visionary have dis- 
ordered imaginations; but the enthusiast is only 
affected inwardly with an extraordinary fervour, the 
fanatick and visionary betray that fervour by some out- 
ward mark; the former by singularities of conduct, the 
latter by singularities of doctrine. Fanaticks and 
visionaries are therefore always more or less enthu- 
stasts; but enthusiasts are not always fanaticks or 
visionaries. “Ev@sciasai among the Greeks, from éy 
in and @sds God, signified those supposed to have, or 
pretending to have, Divine inspiration. Fanatic? were 
so called among the Latins, from fana the temples in 
which they spent an extraordinary portion of their 
time ; they, like the éOscrasai of the Greeks, pretended 
to revelations and inspirations, during the influence of 
which they indulged themselves in may extravagant 
tricks, cutting themselves with knives, and distorting 
themselves with every species of antick gesture and 
grimace. i 

Although we are professors of a pure religion, yet 
we cannot boast an exemption from the extravagancies 
which are related of the poor heathens; we have many 
who indulge themselves in similar practices under the 
idea of honouring their Maker and Redeemer. There 
are fanaticks who profess to be under extraordinary 
influences of the spirit ; and there are enthuszasts whose 
intemperate zeal disqualifies them for taking a bene- 
ficial part in the sober and solemn services of the 
church. Visionary signifies properly one who deals in 
visions, that is, in the pretended appearance of super- 
natural objects; a species of enthusiasts who have 
sprung up in more modern times. The leaders of sects 
are commonly visionaries, having adopted this artifice 
to establish their reputation and doctrines among their 
deluded followers; Mahomet was one of the most suc- 
cessful wisionaries that ever pretended to divine inspi- 
ration; and since his time there have been visionaries, 
particularly in England, who have raised religious par- 
ties, by having recourse to the same expedient: of this 
description was Swedenborg, Huntington, and Brothers. 

Fanatick was originally confined to those who were 
under religious frenzy, but the present age has pre- 
sented us with the monstrosity of fanaticks in irreli- 
zion and anarchy ; ‘They who will not believe that 
the philosophical fanaticks who guide in these mat- 
ters have long entertained the design (of abolishing 
religion), are utterly ignorant of their character.’— 
BuRKE. Enthusiast is a term applied in general to 
every one who is filled with an extraordinary degree 
of fervour ; 


Her little soul is ravish’d, and so pour’d 
Into loose ecstasies, that she is placed 
Above herself, Musick’s enthusiast —-CRASHAW. 


Enthusiasts pretend that they have the gift of 
prophecy by dreams.’— Pacirt’s HeResioGRaPHy. 
Visionary is a term applied to one who deals in fan- 
ciful speculation; ‘This account exceeded all the Noc- 
tambuli or visionaries i have met with.—TuRNER. 
The former may sometimes be innocent, if not lauda- 
ble, according to the nature of the object; the latter is 
always censurable: the enthusiast has mostly a warm 
heart; the visionary has only a fanciful head. The 
enthusiast will mostly be on the side of virtue even 
though in an errour; the visionary pleads no cause but 
his own. The enthusiast suffers his imagination to 
follow his heart; the visionary makes his understand- 
ing bend to his imagination. Although in matters of 
religion, enthusiasm should be cautiously guarded 
against, yet we admire to see it roused in behalf of 
one’s country and one’s friends; ‘Cherish true religion 
as preciously as you will, fly with abhorrence and 
contempt, superstition and enthusiasm.’—CHATHAM. 
Visionaries, whether in religion, politicks, or science, 
are dangerous as members of society, and offensive as 
companions ; ‘The sons of infamy ridicule every thing 
as romantick that comes in competition with their pre- 
sent interest, and treat those persons as visionaries 
who dare stand up in a corrupt age, for what has not 
its immediate reward joined to it.’—-ADDISON. 


DREAM, REVERIE. 


vream, in Dutch drom, &c. comes either from the 
veltic drem, a sight, or the Greek dp&ua, a fable, or as 


9) 


probably from the word roam, signifying to wander, 


in Hebrew 9 to be agitated; reverze, in French 
reverie, like the English rave, comes from the Latin 
rabies, signifying that which is wandering or inco- 
hevent. 

Dreams and reveries are alike opposed to the reality, 
and have their origin in the imagination; but the 
former commonly pass in sleep, and the latter when 
awake: the dream may and does commonly arise 
when the imagination is in a sound state; the reverie 
is the fruit of a heated imagination ; ‘ Revery is when 
ideas float in our mind, without reflection or regard of 
the understanding.’—Lockr. Dreams come in the 
course of nature ; reveries are the consequence of a 
peculiar ferment. 

When the dream is applied to the act of one that is 
awake, it admits of another distinction from reverie. 
They both designate what is confounded, but the 
dream is less extravagant than the reverie. Ambitious 
men please themselves with dreams of future great- 
ness; enthusiasts debase the purity of the Christian 
religion by blending their own wild reveries with the 
doctrines of the Gospel. He who indulges himself in 
idle dreams lays up a store of disappointment for him- 
self when he recovers his recollection, and finds that 
it is nothing but a dream; ‘Gay’s friends persuaded 
him to sell his share of South-sea stock, but he dreamed 
of dignity and splendour, and could not bear to obstruct 
his own fortune.’—Jounson. A love of singularity 
operating on an ardent mind will too often lead men 
to indulge in strange reveries ; ‘I continued to sit mo- 
tionless, with my eyes fixed upon the curtain, some 
moments after it fell. When I was roused from 
my reverie I found myself almost alone..—Hawkgs- 
WORTH. 


IRRATIONAL, FOOLISH, ABSURD, PREPOS 
TEROUS. 


Irrational, compounded of ir or in and ratio, sigm 
fies contrary to reason, and is employed to express the 
want of the faculty itself, or a deficiency in the exer 
cise of this faculty ; foolish denotes the perversion oi 
this faculty ; absurd, trom surdus, deaf, signifies tha: 
to which one would turn a deaf ear; preposterous. 
from pre before and post behind, signifies literally tha 
side foremost which is unnatural and contrary to com 
mon sense. 

Irrational is not so strong a term as foolish: it is 
applicable more frequently to the thing than to the 
person, to the principle than to the practice; ‘The 
schemes of freethinkers are altogether irrational, and 
require the most extravagant credulity to embrace 
them.’—Appison., Foolish on the contrary is com 
monly applicable to the person as well as the thing , 
to the practice rather than the principle; ‘ The same 
well meaning gentleman took occasion at another time 
to bring together such of his friends as were addicted 
toa foolish habitual custom of swearing, in order to 
show them the absurdity of the practice—Appison 
Skepticism is the most zrrational thing that exists; 
the human mind is formed to believe, but not to 
doubt: he is of all men most foolish who stakes his 
eternal salvation on his own fancied superiority of 
intelligence and illumination. Foolish, absurd, and 
preposterous, rise in degree: a violation of common 
sense is implied by them all, but they vary according 
to the degree of violence which is done to the under- 
standing: foolish is applied to any thing, however 
trivial, which in the smallest degree offends our under 
standings: the conduct of children is therefore often 
foolish, but not absurd and preposterous, which are 
said only of serious things that are opposed to our 
judgements: it is absurd for a man to persuade another 
to do that which he in like circumstances would object 
to do himself; 


But grant that those can conquer, these can cheat, 
Tis phrase absurd to call a villain great ; 

Who wickedly is wise or madly brave 

Is but the more a fool, the more a knave.—Porpr. 


It is preposterous for a man to expose himself to the 
ridicule of others, and then be angry with those who 
will not treat him respectfully ; ‘By a preposterous 
desire of things in themselves indifferent men forego 
the enjoyment of that happiness whicli those things 
are instrumental to obtain.’ BERKELEY 


92 
iRRELIGIOUS, PROFANE, IMPIOUS. 


As,epithets to designate the character of the person, 
they seem to rise in degree. the irreligious is nega- 
live; the profane and impious are positive; the lat- 
ter being much stronger than the former: The profani 
of the Latins, from pro and fanum, i. e. procul a fano, 
far from the temple, were those not initiated, who were 
not permitted to take any part in the sacred mysteries 
and rites, whence by a natural consequence those who 
despised what was sacred. All men who are not posi- 
tively actuated by principles of religion are trreligious ; 
‘ An officer of the army in Roman Catholick countries, 
would be afraid to pass for an irreligiaus man if he 
should be seen to go to bed without offering up his 
devotions. —Appison. Who, if we include all such 
as show a disregard to the outward observances of 
religion, form a too numerous Class: profanity and 
‘impiety are however of astill more heinous nature ; 
they consist not in the mere absence of regard for reli- 
gion, but in a positive contempt of it and open out- 
rage against its laws; the profane man treats what is 
sacred as if it were profane ; ‘ These have caused the 
weak to stumble and the profane to blaspheme, offend- 
ing the one and hardening the other..—Soura. What 
a believer holds in reverence, and utters with awe, is 
pronounced with an air of indifference or levity, and 
as a matter of common discourse, by a profane man ; 
he knowing no difference between sacred and proj ane; 
but as the former may be converted into a source of 
scandal towards others; ‘Fly, ye profane; if not, 
draw near with awe.’—Youne. The impious man is 
directly opposed to the pious man; the former is filled 
with defiance and rebellion against his Maker, as the 
latter is with love and fear; the former curses, while 
the latter prays; the former is bloated with pride and 
conceit: tne latter is full of humility and self-abase- 
ment: we have a picture of the former in the devils, 
and of the latter in the saints. When applied to 
things, the term zrreligious seems to be somewhat 
more positively opposed to religion: an zrreligious 
book is not merely one in which there is no religion, 
but that also which is detrimental to religion, such as 
skeptical or licentious writings: the profane in this 
ease is not always a term of reproach, but is employed 
to distinguish what is expressly spiritual in its nature, 
from that which is temporal: the history of nations is 
profane, as distinguished from the sacred history con- 
tained in the Bible: the writings of the heathens are 
altogether profane as distinguished from the moral 
writings of Christians, or the believers in Divine Reve- 
lation. On the other hand, when we speak of a pro- 
fane sentiment, or a profane joke, profane lips, and 
the like, the sense is personal and reproachful ; ‘ No- 
thing is profane that serveth to holy things.—RaLreu. 
Impious is never applied but to what is personal, and 
in the very worst sense; an impious thought, an im- 
pious wish, or an impious vow, are the fruits of an 
imptous mind ; 

Love’s great divinity rashly maintains 
Weak impzous war with an immortal God. 
CuoMBERLAND. 


TO FORSWEAR, PERJURE, SUBORN. 

Forswear is Saxon; perjure is Latin; the preposi- 
tion for and per are both privative, and the words 
signify literally to swear contrary to the truth ; this is, 
however, not their only distinction: to forswear is 
applied to all kinds of oaths; to perjure is employed 
cnly for such oaths as have been administered by the 
wivil magistrate. 

A soldier forszocars himself who breaks his oath of 
allegiance by desertion ; and a subject forswears him- 
self who takes an oath of allegiance to his Majesty 
which he afterward violates ; 


False as thou art, and more than false forsworn! 

Not sprung from noble blood, nor goddess born; 

Why should I own ? what worse have [ to fear ? 
Drypen. 


A man perjures himself in a court of law who swears 
to the truth of that which he knows to be false; ‘ The 
common oath of the Scythian was by the sword and 
the fire, for that they accounted those two special 
divine powers which should work vengeance on the 
perjurers.—SPENSER. Forswear is used only in the 
proper sense: perjwre may be used figuratively with 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


regard to lovers’ vows; he who deserts his mistress te 
whom he has pledged his affection is a perjured man : 


Be gone, for ever leave this happy sphere ; 
For perjur’d lovers have no mansions here—Lur. 


Forswear and perjure are the acts of individuals ; 
suborn, from the Latin subornare, signifies to make to 
forswear: a perjured mau has all the guilt upon him- 
self; but he who is suborned shares his guilt with the 
suborner , 

They were suborn’d ; 
Matcolm and Donalbain, the king’s two sons, 
Are stole away and fled.mSHaKSPEARE 


DEVIL, DEMON. 


Devil, in old German tiefel, Saxon deofl, Welst 
diafwl, French diable, Italian diavolo, Dutch duyfdel, 
Greek didBodos, from dtaBdAXw, to traduce, signifies 
properly a calumniator, and is always taken in the bad 
sense, for the spirit which incites to evil, and tempts 
men through the medium of their evil passions; 
demon, in Latin demon, Greek dainwv, from ddw to 
know, signifies one knowing, that is, having preter 
natural knowledge, and is taken either in a bad or 
good sense for the power that acts within us and con- 
trols our actions. 

Since the devil* is represented as the father of all 
wickedness, associations have been connected with the 
name that render its pronounciation in familiar dis- 
course offensive to the chastened ear; while demon is 
a term of indifferent application, that is commonly 
substituted in its stead to designate either a good or an 
evil spirit. 

Among Jews and Christians the term demon is taken 
always in a bad sense; but the Greeks and Romans 
understood by the word demon any spirit or genius 
good or evil, but particularly the good spirit or guardian 
angel, who was supposed to accompany a man from 
his birth. Socrates professed to be always under the 
direction of such a demon, and his example has been 
followed by other heathen philosophers, particularly 
those of the Platonick sect. Hence the use of these 
terms in ordinary discourse, the devil being always 
considered as the supernatural agent, who, by the 

| divine permission, acts on the hearts and minds of 
men; but a demon is applied generally and indefinitely 
in the sense of any spirit. The devil is said in prover- 
bial discourse to be in such things as go contrary to 
the wish; the demon of jealousy is said to possess the 
mind that is altogether carried away with that passion. 
Men who wish to have credit for move goodness than 
they possess, and to throw the load of guilt off them- 
selves, attribute to the devil a perpetual endeavour to 
draw them into the commission of crimes; ‘The 
enemies we are to contend with are not men but 
devils” —T1LLotTson. Wherever the demon of discord 
has got admittance, there is a farewell to all the com- 
forts of social life; ‘My good demon, who sat at my 
right hand during the course of this whole vision, 
observing in me a burning desire to join that glorious 
company, told me he highly approved of that generous 
ardour with which I seemed. transported..—Appison, 


HERETICK, SCHISMATICK, SECTARIAN OR 
SECTARY, DISSENTER, NONCONFORMIST. 


A heretick is the maintainer of heresy (v. Hetcero- 
doz); the schismatick is the author or promoter of 
schism; the sectarian or sectary is the member of a 
sect ; the dissenter is one who dissents from the estab- 
lishment; and the nonconformist one who does not 
conform to the establishment. A man is a heretick 
only for matters of faith and doctrine, but he is a 
schismatick in matters of discipline and practice. The 
heretick therefore is not always a schismatick, nor the 
schismatick a heretick. Whoever holds the doctrines 
that are common to the Roman Catholick and the 
reformed Churches, is not a heretick in the Protestant 
sense of the word; although he may in many outward 
formalities be a schismatick. The Calvinists are not 
hereticks, but they are for the most part schismaticks ; 
on the other hand, there are many members of the 
establishment, who hold though they do not avow 
heretical notions. 


* Vide Abbe Girard: “ Diable, demon 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


The heretick is considered as such with regard to the 
Vatholick Church, or the whole body of Christians, 
holding the same fundamental principles; ‘When a 
Papist uses the word hereticks he generally means 
Protestants, when a Protestant uses the word, he 
zenerally means any persons wilfully and contentionsly 
obstinate in fundamenta: errours.—Warts. Bul the 
schismatick and sectarian are considered as such with 
regard to particular established bodies of Christians. 
Schism, from the Greek oxiSw, to split, denotes an 
action, and the schismatick is an agent who splits for 
himself in his own individual capacity: the sectarian 
does not expressly perform a part, he merely holds a 
relation; he does not divide any thing himself, but 
belongs to that which is already cut or divided. The 
schismatick, therefore, takes upon himself the whole 
moral responsibility of the schism; but the sectarian 
does not necessarily take an active part inthe measures 
of his sect; whatever guilt attaches to schism attaches 
to the schismatick ; he is a voluntary agent, who acts 
from an erroneous principle, if not an unchristian tem- 
per: the sectarian is often an involuntary agent; he 
follows that to which he has been incidentally attached. 
It is possible, therefore, to be a schismatick, and nota 
sectarian; as also to be a sectarian, and not a schis- 
matick. ‘Those professed members of the establish- 
ment who affect the title of evangelical, and wish to 
palm upon the Church the peculiarities of the Calvin- 
istick doctrine, and to ingraft-their own modes and 
forms into its discipline, are schismaticks, but not sec- 
tarians; ‘The schismaticks disturb the sweet peace 
of our Church.—Howen. On the other hand, those 
who by birth and education are attached to a sect, are 
sectarians, but not always schismaticks; ‘In the 
house of Sir Samuel Luke, one of Cromwell’s officers, 
Butler observed so much of the character of the sec- 
taries, that he is said to have written or begun his poem 
at this time’—Jounson.. Consequently, schismatick 
is a term of much greater reproach than sectarzan. 

The schismatick’ and sectarian have a reference to 
any established body of Christians of any country; 
but dissenter is a term applicable only to the inhabit- 
ants’of Great Britain, and bearing relation only to 
the established Church of England: it includes not 
only those who have individually and personally re- 
nounced the doctrines of the Church, but those who 
are in a state of dissent or difference from it.. Dis- 
senters are not necessarily either schismaticks or sec- 
tarians, for British Roman Catholicks, and the Presby- 
terians of Scotland, are all dissenters, although they 
are the reverse of what is understood by schismatick 
and sectarian: it is equally clear that all schismaticks 
and sectarians are not dissenters, because every esta- 
blished community of Christians, all over the world, 
have had individuals, or smaller bodies of individuals, 
setting themselves up against them: the term dis- 
senter being in a great measure technical, it may be 
applied individually or generally without conveying 
any idea of reproach; ‘Of the dissenters, Swift did 
not wish to infringe the toleration, but he opposed 
their encroachments.’—Jounson. The same may be 
said of nonconformist, Which is a more special term, 
including only such as do not conform to some esta- 
blished or national religion; ‘ Watts is at least one of 
the few poets with whom youth and ignorance may be 
safely pleased; and happy will that reader be, whose 
mind is disposed, by his verses or his prose, to imitate 
him in all but his nenconformity..—Jounson. Con- 
sequently, all members cf the Romish Church, or of 
#e Kirk of Scotland, are excluded from the number 
of nonconformists; while, on the other hand, all 
British-born subjects, not adhering to these two forms, 
and at the same time renouncing the established form 
of their country, are of this number, among whom may 
be reckoned Independents, Presbyterians, Baptists, 
Quakers, Methodists, and all other such sects\as have 
been formed since the reformation. 


HETERODOXY, HERESY. 


Heterodoxy, from the Greek érepos and d6%n, signifies 
another or a different doctrine ; heresy, from the Greek 
alosots a choice, signifies an opinion adopted by indivi- 
dua! choice. 

* Tc be of a different persuasion is heterodoxy ; to 


© Vide Roubaud: * Hérétique, hétérodoxe.”’ 


93 ; 


have a faith of one’s own is heresy; the ‘heterodory 
characterizes the opinions formed; the heresy charac- 
terizes the individual forming the opinion: thé hete- 
rodoxy exists independently and for itself; ‘ All wrong 
notions in religion are ranked under the general name 
of heterodoz.’—Goupine. The heresy sets itself up 
against others; ‘ Heterodoxies, false doctrines, yea, 
and heresies, may be propagated by prayer as well as 
preaching.’—Buuu. As all division supposes errour 
either on one side or on both, the words heterodépy 
and heresy are applied only to human opinions, and 
strictly in the seuse of a false opinion, formed in dis- 
tinction from: that which is better founded; but the 
former respects any opinions, important or otherwise ; 
the latter refers only to matters of importance: the 
heresy is therefore a fundamental errour. There has 
been much heterodoxy in the Christian world at all 
times, and among these have been heresies denying 
the plainest and most serious truths which have beer 
acknowledged by the great body of Christians since 
the Apostles. 


os 


OMEN, PROGNOSTICK, PRESAGE. 


All these ternis express some token or sign of what 
is to come ; omen, in Latin omen, probably comes from 
the Greek ofoyac to think, because it is what gives 
rise to much conjecture; prognostick, in Greek rpoy- 
yustkov, from rooyvécxw, to Know before, signifies the 
sign by which one judges a thing before hand, because 
a prognostick is rather a deduction by the use of the 
understanding ; the presage is the sentiment of pre- 
saging, or the thing by which one presages. 

The omen and prognostick are both drawn from ex- 
ternal objects; the presage is drawn from one’s own 
feelings. ‘The omen is drawn from objects that have 
no necessary connexion with the thing they are made 
to represent; it is the fruit of the imagination, and 
rests on superstition; the prognostick, on the contrary, 
is a sign which partakes in some degree of the quality 
of the thing denoted. Omens were drawn by the 
heathens from the flight of birds, or the entrails of 
beasts; ‘Aves dant omina dira.’—TipuLt.Lus. And 
oftentimes from different incidents; thus Ulysses, 
when landed on his native island, prayed to Jupiter 
that he would give him a double sign by which he 
might know that he should be permitted to slay the 
suitors of his wife; and when he heard the thunder, 
and saw a maiden supplicating the gods in the temple, 
he took these for omens that he should immediately 
proceed to put in execution his design; the omen was 
therefore considered as a supernatural sign sent for a 
particular purpose; ‘A signal omen stopp’d the passing 
host.’—Porr. Prognosticks, on the other hand, are 
discovered only by an acquaintance with the objects 
in which they exist, as the prognosticks of a mortal 
disease are known to none so well as the physician ; 
the prognosticks of a storm or tempest are best known 
to the mariner ; 


Though your prognosticks run too fast, 
They must be verified at last—Swirr. 


In an extended sense, the word omen is also applied to 
objects which serve as a sign, or enable a person 
to draw a rational inference, which brings it nearer in 
sense to the prognostick and the presage; but the 
omen may be used of that which is either good or baa, 
the prognostick mostly of that which is bad. It is 
an omen of our success, if we find those of whom we 
have to ask a favour in a good humour; ‘ Hammond 
would steal from his fellows into places of his privacy 
there to say his prayers, omens of his future pacific 
tempe? and eminent devotion.’—Fr.u. The spirit of 
discontent which pervades the countenances and dis- 
course of a people is a prognostick of some popular 
commotion ; 
Careful observers 
By sureprognosticks may foretell ashower.—SwirFvT. 


Presage, when signifying a sentiment, is commonly 
applied to what is unfavourable ; ‘I know but one way 
of fortifying my soul against these gloomy presages 
that is, by securing to myself the protection of that 
Being who disposes of events..—Appison. But when 
taken for that by which one presages, it is understood 
favourably, or in an indifferent sense. The quickness 
of powers discoverable in a boy is sometimes a vre- 
sage of his future grea ‘ness ; 


94 


Ours joy fill’d, and shout 
Presage of victory.—MILToN. 


*O AUGUR, PRESAGE, FOREBODE, 
BETOKEN, PORTEND. 


Augur, in French augurer, Latin augurium, comes 
from avis a bird, as an augury was originally, and at 
«jl times, principally drawn from the song, the flight, 
or other actions of birds. The augurium of the 
Latins, and the ofévtopa of the Greeks, was a species 
of divination practised by the augurs, who professed 
to foretell events, either from the heavenly phenomena, 
from the chattering or flight of birds, from the sacred 
chickens, according to the manner of their eating their 
meat; from quadrupeds, such as wolves, foxes, goats, 
&c.; or, lastly, from what they called the dire, or the 
accidents which befell persons, as sneezing, stumbling, 
spilling salt, or meeting particular objects; whence by 
a natural extension in the meaning of the term, it has 
been used to signify any conjecture respecting futurity. 
Presage, in French présage, from the Latin pre and 
sagio to be instinctively wise, signifies to be thus wise 
about-what is to come; forebode is compounded of 
fore, and the Saxon bodian, and the English bid, to 
offer or to declare, signifying to pronounce on futurity ; 
betoken signifies to serve as a token; portend, in Latin 
portende, compounded of por for pro and tendo, signi- 
fies to set or show forth. 

To augur signifies either to serve or make use of as 
an adugury ; to forbode and presage is to form a con- 
clusion in one’s own mind: to betoken or portend is to 
serve as asign. Persons or things augur or presage ; 
persons only forebode ; things only betoken or portend. 
4uguring is a caiculation of some future event, in 
which the imagination seems to amuch concerned 
as the understanding: presaging  atheraconclusion 
or deduction of what may be from what is; it lies in 
the understanding more than in the imagination: fore- 
boding lies altogether in the imagination. ‘T'hings are 
said to betoken, which present natura] signs ; those are 
said to portend, which present extraordinary or super- 
natural signs. 

it augurs ill for the prosperity of a country or a 
state when its wealth has increased so as to take away 
the ordinary stimulus to industry, and to introduce an 
mordinate love of pleasure; ‘There is always an 
augury to be taken of what a peace is likely to be, 
from the preliminary steps that are made to bring it 
about’—Burxe. We presage the future greatness of 
aman from the indications which he gives of possess- 
ing an elevated character; ‘ An opinion has been long 
conceived, that quickness of invention, accuracy of 
judgement, or extent of knowledge, appearing before 
the usual time, presage a short life’—JoHnson. A 
distempered mind is apt to forebode every ill from the 
most trivial circumstances; ‘ What conscience fore- 
bodes, revelation verifies, assuring us that a day is ap- 
pointed when God will render to every man according 
to his works.’—Buair. We see with pleasure those 
actions in a child which betoken an ingenuous temper ; 


All more than common menaces an end: 
A blaze detokens brevity of life, 
As if bright embers should emit a flame.—Youne. 


A mariner sees with pain the darkness of the sky 
which portends a storm ; 


Skill’d in the wing’d inhabitants of the air, 
What auspices their notes and flights declare, 
O! say—for all religious rites portend 

A happy voyage and a prosp’rous end.—Drypry 


The moralist augurs no good to the morals of a nation 
from the lax discipline which prevails in the education 
of youth; he presages the loss of independence to 
the minds of men in whom proper principles of subor- 
dination have not been early engendered. Men some- 
times forebode the misfortunes which happen to them, 
but they oftener forebode evils which never come. 


TO FORETELL, PREDICT, PROPHESY, 
PROGNOSTICATE. 


To foretell, compounded of fore and tell ; predict, 
from pre and dico; prophesy, in French prophetiser, 
Latia prophetiso, Greek rpogyredw, all signify to tell, 
expound, or declare what is to happen, and convey the 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


idea of a verbal communication of futurity to others 
prognosticate, from the Greek mpoyiwaoKw to know 
beforehand, to bode or imagine to one’s self before 
hand, denotes the action of feeling rather than spear 
ing of things to come. 
~ Foretell is the most general in its sense, and familiar 
in its application ; we foretell common events ; we may 
predict that which is common or uncommon; prophe- 
cetes are for the most part important; foretelling is an 
ordinary gift; one foretells by a simple calculation or 
guess ; 

Above the rest, the sun, who never lies, 

Foretells the change of weather in the skies. 

DRYDEN. 


To predict and prophesy are extraordinary gifts ; one 
predicts either by a superiour degree of intelligence, or 
by a supernatural power real or supposed ; ‘'Thecon- 
sequences of suffering the French to establish them- 
selves in Scotland, are predicted with great accuracy 
‘In Christ they ‘all 
meet with an invincible evidence, as if they were not 
predictions, but after relations; and the penmen of 
them not prophets, but evangelists’ —Soura. One 
prophesies by means of inspiration real or supposed ; 


and discernment.’-—-RoBERTSON. 
An ancient augur prophesied from hence, 
‘“‘ Behold on Latian shores a foreign prince !” 


Drypen. 


Men of discernment and experience easily foretell the 
events of undertakings which fall undér their notice. 
The priests among the heathens, like the astrologers 
and conjurers of more modern times, pretended to pre- 
dict events that effected nations and empires. ‘The 
gift of prophecy was one among the number of the 
supernatura! gifts communicated to the primitive 
Christians by the Holy Ghost. ‘No arguments ,made 
a stronger impression on these Pagan converts, thas 
the predictions relating to our Saviour, in those old 
prophetick writings deposited among the hands of the 
greatest enemies to Christianity.—Anpison. 
Prediction as a noun is employed for both the verbs 
foretell and predict ; it is therefore a term of less value 


| than prophecy. We speak of a prediction being veri- 


fied, and a prophecy fulfilled: the predictions of alma- 
nack-makers respecting the weather are as seldom 
verified as the prophecies of visionaries and enthusiasts 
are fulfilled respecting the death of princes or the 
affairs of governments. To prognosticate is an act cf 
the understanding; it is guided by outward symptoms 
as arule; it is only stimulated and not guided by out 
ward objects; a physician prognosticates the crisis of 
a disorder by the symptoms discoverable in the patient, 
“Who that should view the small beginnings of some 
persons could imagine or prognosticate those vast in 
creases of fortune that have afterward followed them 
—Souru. 


CONJECTURE, SUPPOSITION, SURMISE. 


Conjecture, in French conjecture, Latin conjectura 
from conjicio or con andjacio to throw together, sig- 
nifies the thing put together or framed in the mind 
without design or foundation; supposition, in French 
supposition, from suppono, compounded of sub and 
pono to put in the place of a thing, signifies to ~~ 
one’s thouglits in the place of reality ; swrmise, cc 
pounded of su7 or sub and mise, Latin missus pa 
ciple of mitto to send or put forth, has an origing 
‘ meaning similar to the former. 

All these terms convey an idea of something in the 
mind independent of the reality; but conjecture is 
founded less on rational inference than supposition ; 
and surmise less than either; any circumstance, how 
ever trivial, may give rise to a conjecture ; some rea 
sons are requisite to produce a supposition; a parti- 
cular state of feeling or train of thinking may of itself 
create a surmise. 

Although the same epithets are generally applicable 
to all these terms, yet we may with propriety say that 
a conjecture is idle; a supposition false; a surmise 
fanciful. 

Conjectures are employed on events, their causes, 
consequences, and contingencies; ‘In the casting of 
lots, @ man cannot, upon any ground of reason, bring 
the event so much as under conjecture. —SouTu. Sup 
position is concerned in speculative ;oints; ‘ This is 


~~ 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


only an snfallibility upon supposition, that if a thing 
be true it is impossible to be false..—TiLLoTson. Sur- 
mise is employed on personal concerns; ‘To Jet go 
private swrmises whereby the thing is not made better 
or worse; if just and allowable reasons might lead 
them to do as they did, then are these censures frus- 
trate.—Ho»Ker. The secret measures of government 
give rise to various conjectures ; all the suppositions 
which are formed respecting comets seem at present to 
fall short of the truth: the behaviour of a person will 
often occasion a surmise respecting his intentions and 
proceedings, let them be ever so disguised. Antiqua- 
rians and etymologists deal muchin conjectures ; they 
have ample scope afforded them for asserting what can 
be neither proved nor denied; ‘Persons of studious 
and contemplative natures often entertain themselves 
with the history of past ages, or raise schemes and®con- 
ectures upon futurity.—Appison. Religionists are 
pleased to build many suppositions of a doctrinal na- 
ture on the Scriptures, or, more properly, on their own 
partial and forced interpretations of the Scriptures ; 
‘Even in that part which we have of the journey to 
Canterbury, it will be necessary, in the following Re- 
view of Chaucer, to take notice of certain defects and 
inconsistencies, which can only be accounted for upon 
the supposition that the work was never finished by 
the author.—Tyrwuitt. It isthe part of prudence, 
as well as justice, not to express any surmises which 
we may entertain, either as to the character or conduct 
of others, which may not redound to their credit ; 
‘ Any the least surmise of neglect has raised an aver- 
sion in one man to another,’—Souru. 


TO CONJECTURE, GUESS, DIVINE 


Conjecturing, in the same sense as before (vide Con- 
gecture), in nearly allied to guessing and divining ; 
guess, in Saxon and Low German zissen, is connected 
with the word ghost, and the German geist, &c. spirit, 
signifying the action of a spirit; divine, from the Latin 
divinus and Deus a God, signifies to think and know 
as independently as a God. 

We conjecture that which may be; ‘ When we look 
upon such things as equally may or may not be, human 
reason can then, at the best, but conjecture what will 
be’—Sourn. We gwess that a thing actually is or 
was; 


Incapable and shallow innocents ! 
You cannot guess who caused your father’s death. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


We conjecture at the meaning of a person’s actions; 
we guess that it is a certain hour. The conjecturing 
is opposed to the full conviction of a thing; the guess- 
ing is opposed to the certain knowledge of a thing; 


And these discoveries make us all confess 
That sublunary science is but guess.—DmNHAM. 


A child gwesses at that portion of his lesson which he 
has not properly learned; a fanciful person employs 
conjecture where he cannct draw any positive con- 
clusion. 

To guess and conjecture both imply, fur the most 
part, the judging or forming an opinion without any 
grounds; but sometimes they are used for a judgement 
on some grounds; ‘One may guess by Plato’s writings, 
that his meaning as to the inferiour deities, was, thar 
they who would have them might, and they who would 
not might leave them alone; hut that himself had a 
right opinion concerning the true God.’—ST1LLine- 
FLEET. 


Now hear the Grecian fraud, and from this one 
Conjecture all the rest.—DRYDEN. 


To guess and conjecture are the natural acts of the 
mind: divine, in its proper sense, is a supernatural act; 
in this sense the heathens affected to divine that which 
was known only to an Omniscient Being; and impos- 
tors in Our time presume to divine in matters that are 
set above the reach of human comprehension. The 
term is however employed to denote a speciesof guess- 
mg in different matters, as to divine the meaning of a 
mystery ; 

Walking they talk’d, and fruitlessly divin’d 

What friend the priestess by those worda design’d. 

DRYDEN. 


95 
TO DOUBT, QUESTION, DISPUTE. 


Doubt, in French douter, Latin dubito trom dubius, 
comes from déw and évdvatw, in the same manner ag 
our frequentative doubt, signifying to have two opin- 
ions ; question, in Latin guestio, from quero, to inquire, 
signifies to make a question or inquiry: dispute, from 
the Latin disputo, or dis asunder and puto to think, sig 
nifies literally to think differently. 

These terms express the act of the mind in staying 
its decision. The doubt lies altogether in the mind; it 
is aless active feeling than questioning or disputing : 
by the former we merely suspend decision ; by the latter 
we actually demand proofs in order to assist us in de- 
ciding. We may doubt in silence; we cannot question 
or dispute without expressing it directly or indirectly. 

He who suggests doubts does it with caution; he 
who makes a guestion throws in difficulties with a 
degree of contidence. Doubts insinuate themselves 
into the mind oftentimes involuntarily on the part of the 
doubter ; questions are always made with an express 
design. We doubt in matters of general interest, on 
abstruse as well as common subjects; we question 
mostly in ordinary matters that are of a personal inte- 
rest: disputing is no less personal than questioning, but 
the dispute respects the opinions or assertions of 
another; the question respects his moral character or 
qualities; we doubt the truth of a position; ‘For my 
part I think the being of a God is so little to be doubted, 
that I think it is almost the only truth we are sure of.’ 
—Appison. We question the veracity of an author; 


Our business in the field of fight 
Is not to question, but to prove our might.—Popr. 


The existence of mermaids was doubted for a great 
length of time ; but the testimony of creditable persons, 
who have lately seen them, ought now to put it out of 
all doubt. When the practicability of any plan is ques- 
tioned, it is unnecessary to enter any farther into its 
merits. When the authority of the person is disputed 
it is in vain for him to offer his advice or opinion; 


Now I am sent, and am not to dispute 
My prince’s orders, but to execute. 


The doubt is frequently confined to the individual, 
the question and dispute frequently respect others, 
We doubt whether we shall be able to succeed; we 
question another’s right to interfere ; we dispute a per 
son’s claim to any honour; we doubt whether a thing 
will answer the end proposed; we question the utility 
of any one making the attempt; we dispute the justice 
of any jegal sentence; in this application of the terms 
question and dispute, the former expresses a less deci- 
sive feeling and action than the latter. 

There are many doubtful cases in medicine, where 
the physician is at a loss to decide; there are many 
questionable measures proposed by those who are in or 
out of power which demand consideration. 'There aré 
many disputable points between man and man which 
cause much angry feeling and disposition; to doubt 
every thing is more inimical to the cause of truth, than 
the readiness to believe every thing; a disposition to 
question Whatever is said or done by others, is much 
more calculated to give offence than to prevent decep- 
tion. A disposition to dispute every thing another says 
or does renders a person very unfit to be dealt with. 


DOUBT, SUSPENSE. 


The doubt respects that which we should believe; the 
suspense, from the Latin suspensus and suspendeo to 
hang upon, has regard to that which we wish to know 
or ascertain. We are in doubt for the want of evi- 
dence; we are in suspense for the want of certainty. 
The doubt interrupts our progress in the attainment of 
truth; ‘Could any difficulty have been proposed, the 
resolution would have been as early as the proposal; it 
could not have had time to settle into doubt..—Soutn. 
The suspense impedes us in the attainment of our 
objects, or in our motives to action: the former is con. 
nected principally with the understanding; the latter 
acts upon the hopes; it is frequently a state between 
hope and fear. We have our doubts about things that 
have no regard to time; ‘Gold is a wonderful clearer 
of the understanding; it dissipates every doubt and 
scruple in aninstant.,—Appison. Weare in suspense 
about things that are to happen in future, or that are 
about to be done: ‘The bundle of hay on either side 


96 ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


striking his (the ass’s) sight and smell in the same pro- 
portion, would keep him in perpetual suspense. —ADDI- 
son. Those are the least inclined to doubt who have 
the most thorough knowledge of a subject; those are 
the least exposed to the unpleasant feeling of suspense 
who confine their wishes to the present; 

Ten days the prophet in suspense remain’d, 

Would no man’s fate pronounce ; at last constrain d 

By Ithacus, he solemnly design’d 

Mie for the sacrifice.—DRryDEN. 


DOUBTFUL, DUBIOUS, UNCERTAIN, PRECARIOUS. 


The doubtful admits of doubt (v. Doubt, suspense) : 
the dubious creates suspense. The doubtful is said of 
things in which we are required to have an opinion ; 
the dubious respects events and things that must 
speak for themselves. In dowbtful cases it is advise- 
able for a judge to lean to the side of mercy; ‘In 
handling the right of war, Iam not willing to inter- 
mix matter doubtful with that which is out of doubt.’ 
—Bacon. While the issue of a contest is dubious, 
all judgment of the parties, or of the case, must be 
carefully avoided ; 

His utmost pow’r, with adverse power oppos’d 

In dubious battle on the plains of heav’n. 

MILTON, 
It is worthy of remark, however, that doubtful aad 
dubious, being both derivations from the same Latin 
words dubito and dubius, are or may be indifferently 
used in many instances, according as it may suit 
the verse or otherwise ; 


The Greeks with slain Tlepolemus retir’d, 

Whose fall Ulysses view’d with fury fir’d ; 
Doubtful if Jove’s great son he should pursue, 

Or pour his vengeance on the Lycian crew.—PorpeE. 


‘At the lower end of the room is to be a side-table 
for persons of great fame, but dubious existence, 
such as Hercules, Theseus, Aineas, Achilles, Hec- 
tor, and others.’—SwiFt. 

Doubtful and dubious have always a relation to 
the person forming the opinion on the subject in 
question; uncertain and precarious are epithets 
which designate the qualities of the things them- 
selves. Whatever is uncertain may from that very 
circumstance be doubtful or dubious to those who 
attempt to determine upon them; but they may be 
designated for their uncertainty without any regard 
to the opinions which they may give rise to, 

A person’s coming may be doubtful or uncertain ; 
the length of his stay is oftener described as uncer- 
tain than as doubtful. The doubtful is opposed to 
that on which we form a positive conclusion; the 
uncertaim to that which is definite or prescribed. 
The efiicacy of any medicine is doubtful ; the man- 
ner of its operation may be uncertain. While our 
knowledge is limited, we must expect to meet with 
many things that are doubtful; ‘In doubiful cases 
reason still determines for the safer side ; especially 
if the case be not only doubtful, but also highly con- 
cerning, and the venture be a soul, and an eternity.’ 
—Soutu. As every thing in the world is exposed 
to change, and all that is future is entirely above 
our control, we must naturally expect to find every 
thing unesertain, but what we see passing before us ; 


Near old Antandros, and at Ida’s foot, 

The timber of the sacred grove we cur 

And build our fleet, uncertain yet to find 

What place the gods for our repose assign’d. 
DRYDEN. 


Precarious, from the Latin precarius and precor to 
pray, signifies granted to entreaty, depending on the 
will or humor of another, whence it is applicable to 
whatever is obtained from others.. Precarious is the 
highest species of uncertainty, applied to such things 
as depend on future casualties in opposition to that 
which is fixed and determined by design. The wea- 
ther is wncertain ; the subsistence ofa person who has 
no stated income or source of living must be precari- 
ous. Itis uncertain what day a thing may take place, 
until it is determined ; ‘Man, without the protec- 

ion of a superior Being, is secure of nothing that 


he enjoys, and uncertain of every thing he hopes for. 
—TILLotson. There is nothing more precarious than 
what depends upon the favour of statesmen; ‘The 
frequent disappointments incident to hunting induced 
men to establish a permanent property in their flocks 
and herds, in order to sustain themselves in a less pre 
carious manner.’—BLACKSTONE. 


DEMUR, DOUBT, HESITATION, OBJECTION 


The demur, the doubt, and the hesitation are here 
employed in the sense either of what causes demur 
doubt, and hesitation, or of the states of mind them 
selves; the objection, from objicio, or ob and jacio ta 
throw in the way, signifies what is thrown in the way 
so asgo stop our progress. } ’ 

Demurs are often in matters of deliberation ; doubt 
in regard to matters of fact; hesitation in matters of 
ordinary conduct; and objections in matters of common 
consideration. It is the business of one who gives 
counsel to make demurs; it is the business of the in- 
quirer to suggest doubts ; it is the business of all occa- 
sionally to make a hesitation who are called upon to 
decide; it is the business of those to make objections 
whose opinion is consulted. Artabanes made many 
demurs to the proposed invasion of Greece by Xerxes~ 
‘ Certainly the highest and dearest concerns of a tem- 
poral life are infinitely less valuable than those of an 
eternal; aud consequently ought, without any demur 
at all, to be sacrificed to them whenever they come ir 
competition with them.’—Soutu. Doubts have been 
suggested respecting the veracity of Herodotus as an 
historian ; ( 

Our doubts are traitors, 
And make us lose, by fearing to attempt 
The good we oft might win.—SHAKSPEARE. 


It is not proper to ask that which cannot be granteu 
without hesitation; ‘A spirit of revenge makes him 
curse the Grecians in the seventh book, when they 
hesitate to accept Hector’s challenge.’—Popr. And 
it is not the part of an amiable disposition to make a 
hesitation in complying with a reasonable request : 
there are but few things which we either attempt to de 
or recommend to others that is not liable to some kind 
of an objection. 

A demur stops the adjustment of any plan or the 
determination of any question : 


But with rejoinders and replies, 

Long bills, and answers stuff’d with lies, 

Demur, imparlance, and assoign, 

The parties ne’er could issue join.—Swirr 
A doubt interrupts the progress of the mind in coming 
to a state of satisfaction and certainty: they are both 
applied to abstract questions or such as are of general 
interest; ‘This skeptical proceeding will make every 
sort of reasoning on every subject vain and frivolous, 
even that skeptical reasoning itself which has per- 
guaded us to entertain a doubt concerning the agree- 
ment of our perceptions.’-—BuRKE. - 

Hesitation and objection are more individual and 

private in their nature. Hesitation lies mostly in the 
state of the will; objection is rather the offspring of 
the understanding. The hesitation interferes with. 
the action; ‘If every man were wise and virtuous, 
capable to discern the best use of time and resolute te 
practise it, it might be granted, I think, without hesita- 
tion, that total liberty would be a blessing.’—Jounson. 
The objection affects the measure or the mode of ac 
tion; ‘Lloyd was always raising objections and ve 
moving them.’—JOHNSON. 


TO DEMUR, HESITATE, PAUSE. 


Demur, in French demeurer, Latin demorari, signifies 
to keep back ; hesitate, in Latin hesitatwm, participle of 
hesito, a frequentative from hero, signifies, first to stick 
at one thing and then another; pause, in Latin pausa, 
from the Greek ravw, to cease, signifies to make astand. 

The idea of stopping is common to these terms, tc 
which signification is added some distinct collateral 
idea for each: we demur from doubt or difficulty ; we 
hesitate from an undecided state of mind; we pause 
from circumstances. Demurring isthe act of an equal’ 
we demur in giving our assent; hesitating is often the 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


sctof » superlour; we hesitate in giving our consent: 
when a proposition appears to be unjust we demur in 
supporting it on the ground of its injustice; ‘In order 
.9 banish an evil out of the world that does not only 
produce great uneasiness to private persons, but has 
also a very bad influence on the publick, I shall endea- 
your to show the folly of demurring.—ApDDISON. 
When a request of a dubious nature is made to us we 
hesitate in complying with it; ‘I want no solicitations 
for me to comply where it would be ungenerous for me 
to refuse; for can I hesitate a moment to take upon 
myself the protection of a daughter of Correllius ?— 
Meumotn’s Lerrers or PLiny. Prudent people are 
most apt to demur; but people of a wavering temper 
are apt to hesitate: demurring may be often unneces- 
sary, but it is seldom injurious; hesitating is mostly 
injurious when it is not necessary ; the former is ém- 
ployed in matters that admit of delay; the latter in 
cases where immediate decision is requisite. 
Demurring and hesitating are both employed as acts 
of the mind; pausing is an external action: we demur 
and hesitate in determining ; we pause in speaking or 
doing any thing ; 
Think, O think, 
And ere thou plunge into the vast abys:, 
Pause on the verge awhile, ]Jook down and see 
Thy future mansion.—PorTEUvs. 


TO SCRUPLE, HESITATE, WAVER, 
FLUCTUATE. 


‘Lo scruple (v. Conscientious) simply keeps us from 
deciding; the hesitation, from the Latin hesito, fre- 
quentative of hereo to stick, signifying to stick first at 
one thing and then another; the wavering, from the 
word wave, signifying to move backward and forward 
like a wave; and fluctwation, from the Latin fluctus a 
wave, all bespeak the variable state of the mind: we 
scruple simply from motives of doubt as to the pro- 
priety of a thing ; we hesitate and waver from various 
motives, particularly such as affect our interests. 
Conscience produces scruples, fear produces hesitation, 
passion produces wavering : a person scruples to do 
an action which may hurt his neighbour or offend his 
Maker; he hesiéates to doa thing which he fears may 
not prove advantageous to him ; he wavers in his mind 
between going or staying, according as his inclinations 
impel him to the one or the other; aman who does not 


scruple to say or do as he pleases will be an offensive | 


companion, if not a dangerous member of society; 
‘The Jacobins desire a change, and they will have it 
if they can: if they cannot have it by English cabal, 


they wi” .aake no sort of scruple to have it by the cabal | 


of France..—Burke. He who hesitates only when the 
doing of good is proposed, evinces himself a worthless 
member of society; ‘ The lords of the congregation did 
not hesitate a moment whether they should employ 
their whole strength in one generous effort to rescue 
their religion and liberty from impending destruction.’ 
—Rozsertson. He who wavers between his duty and 
his inclination, will seldom maintain a long or doubtful 
contest; ‘It is the greatest absurdity to be wavering 
and unsettled without closing with that side which ap- 
pears the most safe and probable.’—Appison. 

To fluctuate conveys the idea of strong agitation ; 
to zwaver, that of constant motion backward and for- 
ward: when applied in the moral sense, to fluctuate 
designates the action of the spirits or the opinions ; 
to waver is said only of the will or opinions: he who 
is alternately merry and sad in quick succession is said 
to be fluctuating ; or he who has many opinions in 
quick succession is said to fluctuate; but he who can- 
not form an opinion, or come to a resolution, is said to 
WAVE. 

Fluctuations and waverings are both opposed to a 
manly character; but the former evinces the uncon- 
trolled influence of the passions, the total want of that 
equanimity which characterizes the Christian; the 
latter denotes the want of fixed principle, or the neces- 
sary decision of character: we can never have occasion 
to fluctuate, if we never raise our hopes and wishes 
seyond what is attainable; 


The tempter, but with show of zeal and love 
To man, and indignation at his wrong, 
New part puts on, and as to passion mov’d 
Fluctuates disturb’d.—MirTon. 

Zi 


97 


We can never have occasion to waver, if we know auo 
feel what is right,and resolve never to swerve from it; 
‘ Let a man, without trepidation or wavering, proceed 
in discharging his duty.”—Buair. 


———— 


TO HESITATE, FAULTER, STAMMER, 
STUTTER. 


Hesitate signifies the same as in the preceding 
article; falter or faulter seems to signify to commit a 
fault or blunder, or it may be a frequentative of to fa! 
signifying to stumble; stammer, in the Teutonic stam- 


mern, comes most probably from the Hebrew TUMD 
to obstruct; stutter is but a variation of stammer. 

A defect in utterance is the idea which is common in 
the signification of all these terms: they differ either as 
to the cause or the mode of the action. With regard 
to the cause, a hesitation results from the state of the 
mind, and an interruption in the train of thoughts; 
falter arises from a perturbed state of feeling; stammer 
and stutter arise either from an incidental circum- 
stance, or more commonly from a physical defect in the 
organs of utterance. A person who is not inthe habits 
of publick speaking, or of collecting his thoughts into 
a set form, will be apt to hesitate even in familiar con- 
versation; he who first addresses a publick assembly 
will be apt to falter. Children who first begin to read 
will stammer at hard words: and one who has an 
impediment in his speech will stutter when he attempts 
to speak ina hurry. — 

With regard to the mode or degree of the action, 
hesitate expresses iess than falter: stammer less than 
stutter. 

The slightest difficulty in uttering words constitutes 
a hesitation ; a pause or the repetition of a word may 
be termed hesitating ; ‘To look with solicitude and 
speak with hesztation is attainable at will; but the 
show of wisdom is ridiculous when there is nothing to 
cause doubt, as that of valour when there is nothing to 
be feared.’"—Jounson. To falter supposes a failure 
in the voice as well as the lips when they refuse to do 
their office ; 


And yet was every faultering tongue of man, 

Almighty Father! silent in thy praise, 

Thy works themselves would raise a general voice. 
THOMSON. 


Stammering and stuttering are confined principally to 
the useless moving of the mouth ; 
Lagean juice 
Will stamm’ring tongues and stagg’ring feet produce. 
DrypDxn. 


He who stammers brings forth sounds, but not the night 
sounds, without trials, and efforts; he who stutters 
remains for some time in a state of agitation without 
uttering a sound. 


QUESTION, QUERY. 


The question is the thing called in question, or that 
which is sought for by a question ; queryis but a vari- 
ation-of guere, from the verb guero to seek or inquire, 
signifying simply the thing sought for. 

Questions and queries are both put for the sake of 
obtaining an answer; but the former may be fora 
reasonable or unreasonable cause; a query is mostly a 
rational question: idlers may put guestions from mere 
curiosity; learned men put gweries forthe sake of 
information. 


TO ASK, INQUIRE, QUESTION, 
INTERROGATE. 


Ask, comes from the Saxon ascian, low German 
esken, eschen, German hetschen, Danish adske, &c. 
which for the most part signify to wish for, and come 
from the Greek @:dw to think worthy; whence this 
word in English has been employed for an expression 
ot’ our wishes, for the purpose of obtaining what we 
want from others; inguzre, Latin inguiro, compounded 
of in and quero, signifies to search after; question, in 
Latin is a variation of the same word ; interrogate 
Latin interrogatus, participle of ¢nterrogo, com 
pounded of inter and rego, signifies to ask alternately 
or an asking between different persons. : 

We perform all these actions in order to get info; 


¥8 


mation: but we ask for general purposes of conve- 
aience; we inguire from motives of curiosity; we 
question and wnterrogate from motives of discretion. 
To ask respects simply one thing; to inquire respects 
one or many subjects; to question and interrogate is 
to ask repeatedly, to examine by questioning and in- 
terrogating, and in the latter case more authoritatively 
than in the former. 

{Indifferent people ask of each other whatever they 
wish to know; ‘ Upon my asking her who it was, she 
cold me it was a very grave elderly gentleman, but 
hat she did not know his name.’—Appison. Learners 
nquire the reasons of things which are new to thein; 


You have oft znquir’d 
After the shepherd that complain’d of love. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


Masters question their servants, or parents their chil- 
dren, when they wish to ascertain the real state of 
any Case ; 
But hark you, Kate, 
I must not henceforth have you question me 
Whither I go.—SHAKSPEARE. 


Magistrates interrogate criminals when they are 
rought before them; ‘Thomson was introduced to 
the Prince of Wales, and being gayly interrogated 
about the state of his affairs, said, ‘‘ that they were in 
amore poetical posture than formerly.” ’"—JoHNson. 
It is very uncivil not to answer whatever is asked even 
by the meanest person: it is proper to satisfy every 
inquiry, so as to remove doubt: questions are some- 
times so impertinent that they cannot with propriety 
be answered: interrogations from unauthorized per- 
sons are little better than insults. To ask and interro- 
gate are always personal acts; to inquire and question 
are frequently applied to things, the former in the sense 
of seeking (v. Examination), and the latter in that 
of doubting (v. To Doubt). 


EXAMINATION,*SEARCH, INQUIRY, 
RESEARCH, INVESTIGATION, SCRUTINY. 


Examination comes from the Latin examino and 
examen, the beam by which the poise of the balance is 
held, because the judgement keeps itself as it were in 
a balance in examining ; search, in. French chercher. 
is a variation of seek and see; inquiry signifies the 
same as in the preceding article; 7esearch is an inten- 
sive of search ; investigation, from the Latin vesti- 
gium, a track, signifies seeking by the tracks or foot- 
steps; scrutiny, from the Latin scrutor, to search, and 
scrutum, lumber, signifies looking for among lumber 
and rubbish, i. e. to ransack and turn over. 

Examination is the most general of these terms, 
which all agree in expressing an active effort to find 
out that which is unknown. The examination is 
made either by the aid of the senses or the under- 
standing, the body or the mind; the search is princi- 
pally a physical action; the znqutry is mostly intel- 
lectual ; we examine a face or we examine a subject ; 
we scarch a house or a dictionary; we inquire into a 
matter. An examination is made for the purpose of 
forming a judgement; the search is made for ascer- 
taining a fact; the inquiry is made in order to arrive 
at truth. To examine a person, is either by means 
of questions to get at his mind, or by means of looks 
to become acquainted with his person; to search a 
person is by corporeal contact to learn what he has 
about him. We examine the features of those who 
interest us; officers of justice search those who are 
suspected; but, with the prepositions for or after, the 
verb search may be employed in a moral application ; 
‘If you search purely for truth, it will be indifferent to 
you where you find it.’—BupereLn. Examinations and 
inquzries are both made by means of questions; but 
the former is an official act for a specifick end, the 
latter is a private act for purposes of convenience or 
pleasure. Students undergo examinations from their 
teachers; they pursue their znquirzes for themselves. 

An examination or an inquiry may be set on foot 
on any subject: but the examination is direct; it is 
the setting of things before the view, corporeal or men- 
tal, in order to obtajn a conclusion; ‘ The body of man 
ss such a subject as stands the utmost test of examina- 
tion.’—Apvison. The inquiry is indirect ; it is a cir- 
cuitous method of coming to the knowledge of what 
was not known before; ‘ Jnquirzes after happiness are 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


not so necessary and useful to mankind as the arts of 
consolation.,—Appison. The student examines the 
evidences of Christianity, that he may strengthen his 
own belief; the government institute an inguiry into 
the conduct of subjects. A research is an inquiry inta 
that which is remote; an investigation is a minute 
inquiry ; a scrutiny is a strict examination. Learned 
men of inquisitive tempers make their researches intu 
antiquity ; 
To all inferiour animals ’tis giv’n 


T’ enjoy the state allotted them by heav’n ; 
No vain researches e’er disturb their rest.—_JENyYNS 


Magistrates investigate doubtful and mysterious affairs; 
physicians investigate the causes of diseases; ‘We 
have divided natural philosophy into the invesieg ation 
of tauses, and the production of effects.’—Bacon. 
Men scrutinize the actions of those whom they hold 
in suspicion ; ‘ Before I go to bed, Imake a scrutiny 
what peccant humours have reigned in me that day. 
—-Howr.u. Acuteness and penetration are pecniiarly 
requisite in making researches ; patience and perse: 
verance are the necessary qualifications of the investi- 
gator; a quick discernment will essentially aid the 
scrutinizer. 


TO EXAMINE, SEEK, SEARCH, EXPLORE 


These words are here considered as they designate 
the looking upon places or objects, in order to get 
acquainted with them. To examine (v. Examination) 
expresses less than to seek and search: and these less 
than to explore, which, from the Latin ez and ploro, 
signifies to burst forth, whether in lamentation o1 
examination. 

We examine objects that are near; we seck those 
that are remote or not at hand; search those that are 
hidden or out of sight; we explore those that are un 
known or very distant. The painter examines a land 
scape in order to take a sketch of it; 


Compare each phrase, examine ev’ry line, 
Weigh ev’ry word, and ev’ry thought refine —Pors 


One friend seeks another when they have parted ; 


[ have a venturous fairy, that shall seek 
The squirrel’s hoard, and fetch thee thence new nuts 
SHAKSPEARS. 


The botanist searches after curious plants; the inqui- 
sitive traveller explores unknown regions; the writes 
examines the books from which he intends to draw 
his authorities; ‘Men will look into our lives, ane 
examine our actions, and inquire into our conversa- 
tions; by these they will judge the truth and reality 
of our profession..—TiLLoTson. A person seeks an 
opportunity to effect a purpose; 
Sweet peace, where dost thou dwell ? 
tT humbly crave 
Let me once know, 
I sought thee in a secret cave, 
And ask’d if peace were there.-—HERBER 


The antiquarian searches every corner in which he 
hopes to find a monument of antiquity ; 


Not thon, nor they shall search the thoughts that roll 
Up in the close recesses of my soul.—Popr. 


The classick explores the learning and wisdom of the 
ancients ; 


Hector, he said, my courage bids me meet 
This high achievement, and explore the fleet.—-Pers 


TO DISCUSS, EXAMINE. 


Discuss, in Latin discussus, participle of discutio, 
signifies to shake asunder or to separate thoroughly so 
as to see the whole composition; examine has the same 
signification as in the preceding article, because the 
judgement holds the balance in examining. 

The intellectual operation expressed by these terms 
is applied to objects that cannot be immediately dis- 
cerned or understood, but they vary both in mode and 
degree. Discussion is altogether carried on by verbal 
and personal communication; examination proceeda 
by reading, reflection, and observation ; we often exa- 
mine therefore by discussion, which is properly one 
mode of examination: a discussion is always carried 
on by two or more persons; an examination may be 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 99 


carried on by one only: politicks are a frequent though 
not always a pleasant subject of discussion in social 
meetings ; ‘A country fellow distinguishes himself as 
much in the church-yard as a citizen does upon the 
change; the whole parish politicks being generally 
discussed in that place either after sermon.or before 
the bell rings.’--App1son.. Complicated questions can- 
not be too thoroughly examined ; ‘Men follow their 
inclinations without examining whether there be any 
principles which they ought to torm for regulating their 
sonduct.’—-Biarr. Discussion serves for amusement 
rather than for any solid purpose; the cause of truth 
seldom derives any immedfate benefit from it, although 
the minds of men may become invigorated by a col- 
lision of sentiment: examination is of great practical 
utility in the direction of our conduct: all decisions 
must be partial, unjust, or imprudent, which are made 
without previous examination. 


TO PRY, SCRUTINIZE, DIVE INTO. 


Pry is in all probability changed from prove, in the 
sense of try; scrutinize comes from the Latin scrutor 
to search thoroughly (wv. Examination) dive expresses 
the physical action of going under water to the bottom, 
and figuratively of searching to the bottom. 

Pry is taken in the bad sense of looking more nar- 
rowly into things than one ought: scrutinize and dive 


into are employed in the good sense of searching things | 


to the bottom. 


A person who pries looks into that which does not | 


belong to him; and too narrowly also into that which 
may belong to him; it is the consequence of a too 
eager curiosity or a busy, meddling temper: a person 


sometimes be taken in an improper sense for moral 
objects; ‘Checking our inquisitive solicitude about 
what the Almighty hath concealed, let us diligently 
improve what he hath made known.’—Buair. 

Curious and inquisitive may be both used in a bad 
sense ; prying is never used otherwise than in a bad 
sense. Jnquisitive, as in the former case, is a mode 
of curiosity, and prying isa species of eager cwriosity. 
A curious person takes unallowed means of learning 
that which he ought not to wish to know; an inguisi- 
tive person puts many impertinent and troublesome 
questions; a prying temper is unceasing in its endca- 
vours lo get acquainted with the secrets of others. 
Curiosity is a fault common to females; imquisitive- 
ness is most general among children; a prying temper 
belongs only to people of low character. 

A well-disciplined mind checks the first risings of 
idle curiosity: children should be taught early to sup- 
press an inguisitive temper, which may so easily be 
come burdensome to others: those who are of a pry- 
img temper are insensible to every thing but the desire 
of unveiling what lies hidden; such a disposition is 
often engendered by the unlicensed indulgence of curio 
sity 1n early life, which becomes a sort of passion in 
riper years; ‘By adhering tenaciously to his opinion, 
and exhibiting other instances of a prying disposition, 
Lord George Sackville had rendered himself disa- 
greeable to the commander-in-chief.’—SMoLLET. 


CONCEIT, FANCY. 


Concett comes immediately from the Latin con 
ceptus, participle of concipio to conceive, or form in 
the mind; fancy, in French phantasie, Latin phan- 


who scrutinizes looks into that which is intentionally ; tasia, Greek ¢ayracta, from davrdw to make appear, 


concealed from him; it is an act of duty flowing out 
of his office: a person who dives penetrates into that 
which lies hidden very deep; he is impelled to this 
action by the thirst of knowledge and a laudable 
curiosity. 

A love of prying into the private affairs of families 
makes a person a troublesome neighbour ; ‘ The peace- 
able man never Officiously seeks to pry into the secrets 
of others” —Buarr. Itis the business of the magistrate 
to scrutinize into all matters which affect the good 
order of society ; ‘He who enters upon this scrutiny 
(into the depths of the mind) enters into a labyrinth.’ 
—Souru. There are some minds so imbued with a 
love of science that they delight to dive into the secrets 
of nature ; 


Tn man the more we dive, the more we see, 
Heaven’s signet stamping an immortal make. 
Youna. 


—_—_—— 


CURIOUS, INQUISITIVE, PRYING. 


Curious, in French curteux, Latin curiosus, from 
cura care, signifying full of care; inquzsitive, in Latin 
inquisitus, from inquire to inquire or search into, 
signifies a disposition to investigate thoroughly; pry- 
ing signifies the disposition to pry, try, or sift to the 
bottom. 
> The disposition to interest one’s self in matters not 
ot immediate concern to one’s self is the idea common 
to ail these terms. Curiosityis directed to all objects 
that can gratify the inclination, taste, or understand- 
ing; inquisitiveness to such things only as satisfy the 
understanding. 

The curious person interests himself in all the 
works of nature and art; he is curtous to try effects 
and examine causes: the inquisitive person endea- 
vours to add to his store of knowledge. Curtesityem- 
ploys every means which falls in its way in order to 
procure gratification; the curious man uses his own 
powers or those of others to serve his purpose ; inqguz- 
sitiveness is indulged only by means of verbal inquiry ; 
the inquisitive person collects all from others. A tra- 
veller is curious who examines every thing for him- 
self; ‘Sir Francis Bacon says, some have been so 
curious as to remark the times and seasons, when the 
stroke of an envious eye is most effectually pernicious.’ 
—Sreeie. He is inguisitive when he minutely ques- 
tions others. Inguisitiveness is therefore to curiosity 
as a part to the whole; whoever is curious will natu- 
rally be inquisitive, and he who is inguisitive is so 
from a species of curiosity; but inguisitiveness may 

ed 


and gaivyw to appear. 

These terms equally express the working of the 
imagination in its distorted state; but conceit denotes 
a much greater degree of distortion than fancy; what 
we conceit is preposterous ; what we fancy is unreal 
or only apparent. Concezt applies only to internal] ob- 
jects; it is mental in the operation and the result; it is 
a species of invention; ‘Strong conceit, like a new 
principle, carries all easily with it, when yet above 
common sense.’—Locxks. Fancy is applied to ex- 
ternal objects, or whatever acts on the senses: nervous 
people are subject to strange concetts; timid people 
fancy they hear sounds, or see objects in the dark 
which awaken terror. 

Those who are apt to conceit oftener conceté that 
which is painful than otherwise; 


Some have been wounded with conceit, 
And died of mere opinion strait—Buruirr. 


Conceiting either that they are always in danger of 
dying, or that all the world is their enemy. ‘There 
are however insane people who concezt themselves to 
be kings and queens; and some indeed who are not 
called insane, who conceit themselves, very learned 
while they know nothing, or very wise and clever, 
while they are exposing themselves to perpetual ridi- 
cule for their folly, or very handsome while the world 
calls them plain, or very peaceable while they are 
always quarrelling with their neighbours, or very 
humble while they are tenaciously sticking for their 
Gown: it would be well if such concetés afforded a 
harmless pleasure to their authors, but unfortunately 
they only render them more offensive and disgusting 
than they would otherwise be. 

Those who are apt to fancy, never fancy any thing 
to please themseives ; 


Desponding fear, of feeble fancies full, 
Weak and unmanly, loosens every power. 
THOMSON. 


They fancy that things are too long or too short, too 
thick or too thin, too cold or too hot, with a thousand 
other fancies equally trivial in their nature; thereby 
proving that the slightest aberration of the mind is a 
serious evil, and productive of evil. 

When taken in reference to intellectual objects, con- 
ceit is mostly in a bad sense; ‘ Nothing can be more 
plainly impossible than for a man “to be profitable to 
God,’’ and consequently nothing can be more absurd 
than for a man to cherish so irrational a conceit.’— 
Appison. But fancy may be employed in a good 
sense; ‘My friend, Sir Roger de Coverley, told me 


a 


100 ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


other day, that he had been reading my paper upon 
Westminster Abbey, in which, says he, there are a 
great many ingenious fancies.’—ADDISON. 


OPINIATED OR OPINIATIVE, CONCEITED, 
EGOISTICAL. 


A fondness for one’s opinion bespeaks the opiniated 
man‘ a fond conceit of one’s self bespeaks the con- 
ceited man: a fond attachment to one’s self bespeaks 
the egotstical man: a liking for one’s self or one’s own 
is evidently the common idea that runs through these 
terms ; they differ in the mode and in the object. 

An opiniated man is not only fond of his own 
opinion, but full of his own opiniun: he has an opinion 
on every thing, which is the best possible opinion, and 
is delivered therefore freely to every one, that they 
may profit in forming their own opinions ; ‘ Down 
was he cast from all his greatness, as it is pity but all 
such politick opiniators should..—Soutu. A conceited 
man has a conceit or an idle, fond opinion of his own 
talent; it is not only high in competition with others, 
but it is so high as to be set above others. The con- 
ceited man does not want to follow the ordinary means 
of acquiring knowledge: his conceit suggests to him 
that his talent will supply labour, application, reading 
and study, and every other contrivance which men 
have commonly employed for their improvement; he 
sees by intuition what another learns by experience 
and observation ; he knows in a day what others want 
vears to acquire; he learns of himself what others are 
contented to get by means of instruction; ‘No great 
measure at a very difficult crisis can be pursued which 
s not attended with some mischief; none but conceited 
pretenders in publick business hold any other lan- 
guage.—Burxke. The egoistical man makes himself 
the darling theme of his own contemplation ; he ad- 
mires and Joves himself to that degree that he can talk 
and think of nothing else; his children, his house, his 
garden, his rooms, and the like, are the incessant 
theme of his conversation, and become invaluable 
from the mere circumstance of belonging to him; 
‘ To show their particular aversion to speaking in the 
first person, the gentlemen of Port Royal branded 
this form of writing with the name of egotism.’— 
ADDISON. 

An opiniated man is the most unfit for conversa- 
tion, which only affords pleasure by an alternate and 
equable communication of sentiment. <A conceited 
man is the most unfit for co-operation, where a junc- 
tion of talent and effort is essential to bring things to 
a conclusion ; an egotistical man is the most unfit to 
be a companion or friend, for he does not know how 
to value or like any thing out of himself. 


SELF-WILL, SELF-CONCHIT, SELF 
SUFFICIENCY. 


Self-will signifies the zl in one’s self: sclf-concett, 
conceit of one’s self: self-sufficiency, sufficiency in 
one’s self. As characteristicks they come very near 
to each other, but that depravity of the will which 
refuses to submit to any control either within or with- 
out is born with a person, and is among the earliest 
indications of character; in some it is less predomi- 
nant than in others, but if not early checked, it is 
that defect in our natures which will always prevail ; 
self-conceit is a vicious habit of the mind which is 
superinduced on the original character; it is that 
which determines in matters of judgement; a self- 
willed person thinks nothing of right or wrong: what- 
ever the impulse of the moment suggests, is the motive 
to action ; 

To wilful men 
The injuries that they themselves procur’d, 
Must be their sehooimasters.—SHAaKSPEARE. 


Phe self-concetted person is always much concerned 
about right and wrong, but it is enly that which he 
conceives to be right and wrong; ‘Nothing so haughty 
and assuming as ignorance, where self-conceit bids it 
set up for infallible.—Soutu. Self-sufficiency is a 
species of self-conceit applied to action: as a self-con- 
ceited person thinks of no opinion but his own; a self- 
sufficient person refuses the assistance of every one in 
whatever he is called upon to do: 


There safe in self-sufficient impudence 

Without experience, honesty, or sense, 
Unknowing in her interest, trade, or laws, 

He vainly undertakes his country’s cause.—Jgnyns 


PRIDE, VANITY, CONCEIT. 


Pride is in all probability connected with the werd 
parade, and the German pracht show or splendour, 
as it signifies that high-flown temper in aman which 
makes him paint to himself every thing in himself as 
beautiful or splendid; vanity, in Latin vanitas, from 
vain and vanus, is compounded of ve or valde and 
inanis, signifying exceeding emptiness ; conceit signi- 
fies the same as.in the preceding article (v. Conceivt, 
Fancy). 

The valuing of one’s self on the possession of any 
property is the idea common to these terms, but they 
differ either in regard to the object.or the manner of 
the action. Pride is the term of most extensive impor 
and application, sad comprehends in its significatior 
not only that of the other two terms, but likewise ideas 
peculiar to itself. 

Pride is applicable to every object, good or, bad. 
high or low, small or great; vanity is applicable only 
to small objects: préde is therefore good or bad; vanity 
is always bad, it is always emptiness or nothingness. 
A man is proud who values himself on the possession 
of his literary or scientifick talent, on his wealth, on his 
rank, on his power, on his acquirements, or his supe- 
riority over his competitors ; he is vain of his person, 
his dress, his walk, or any thing that is frivolous. 
Pride is the inherent quality in man; and while it 
rests on noble objects, it is his noblest characteristick ; 
vanity is the distortion of one’s nature flowing from a 
vicious constitution or education: pride shows itself 
variously according to the nature of the object on 
which it is fixed; a noble pride seeks to display itself 
in all that can command the respect or admiration of 
mankind ; the pride of wealth, of power, or of othet 
adventitious properties, commonly displays itself in an 
unseemly deportment towards others; vanity shows 
itself only by its eagerness to catch the notice of others. 
‘ Vanity makes men ridiculous, pride odious, and arn 
bition terrible—Sreruir. 


’Tis an old maxim in the schools, 
That vanity’s the food of fools.—Swirx. 


Pride (says Blair) makes us esteem ourselves: vanity 
makes us desire the esteem of others. But if pride is, 
as I have before observed, self-esteem, or, which is 
nearly the same thing, self-valuation, it cannot properly 
be said to make us esteem ourselves. Of vanity I have 
already said that it makes us anxious for the notice and 
applause of others; but I cannot with Dr. Blair say 
that it makes us desire the esteem of others, because 
esteem is too substantial a quality to be sought for by 
the vain. Besides, that which Dr. Blair seems to assign 
as aleading and characteristick ground of distinction 
between pride and vanity is only an incidental pro 
perty.. A man is said to be vain of his clothes, if he 
gives indications that he values himself upon them asa 
ground of distinction ; although he should not expressly 
seek to display himself to others. . 

Ovncert is that species of self-valuation that respects 
one’s talents only ; it is so far thereforeclosely allied to 
pride; but a man is said to be proud of that which he 
really has, but to be conceited of that which he really 
has not: aman may be proud to an excess, of merits 
which he actually possesses; but when he is conceited 
his merits are all in hisown concett ; the latteris there- 
fore obviously founded on falsehood altogether; ‘The 
self-concett of the young is the great source of those 
dangers to which they are exposed.’—Buair. 


PRIDE, HAUGHTINESS, LOFTINESS, 
DIGNITY. 


Pride is here employed principally as respects the 
temper of the mind; the other terms are employed 
either as respects the sentiment of the mind, or the ex 
ternal behaviour. 

Pride is here as before (v. Pride) a generick term: 
haughtiness, or the spirit of being haughty or high 
spirited (v. Haughty) ; loftiness, or the spirit of being 
lifted up; and dignity, or the sense of worth or value, 
are but modes of pride. Pride, inasmuch as it consists 
purely of self-esteem, is a positive sentiment which one 


ENGLISH 


may entertain independently of-other persons: it lies.in 
the inmost recesses of the human heart, and mingles 
itself insensibly with our affections and passions; it 
is our companion by night and by day; in publick or in 
private ; it goes with a man wherever he goes, and 
stays with him where he stays; it is a never-failing 
source of satisfaction and self-complacency under every 
circumstance and in every situation of human life. 
Haughtiness is that mode of pride which springs out 
of one’s comparison of one’s self with others: the 
Aaughty man dwells on the inferiority of others; the 
proud manin the strict sense dwells on his own per- 
fections. Loftiness is a mode of pride which raises 
the spirit above objects supposed to be inferiour; it does 
not set a man so much above others as above himself, 
or that which concerns himself. Dignity is a mode of 
pride which exalts the whole man, it is the entire con- 
sciousness of what is becoming himself and due to 
himself. 

Pride assumes such a variety of shapes, and puts on 
such an infinity of disguises, that it is not easy always 
to recognise it at the first glance; but an insight into 
human nature will suffice to convince us that it is the 
spring of all human actions. Whether wesee a man 
professing humility and self-abasement, or a singular 
degree of self-debasement, or any degree of self-exalta- 
tion, we may rest assured that his own pride or con- 
scious self-importance is not wounded by any such 
measures; but that in all cases he is equally stimulated 
With the desire of giving himself in the eyes of others 
that degree of importance to which in his own eyeshe 
is entitled; ‘Every demonstration of an implacable 
rancour and an untameable pride were the only en- 
couragements we received (from the regicides) to the 
renewal of our supplications.—Burxks. Haughtiness 
is an unbending species or mode of pride which does 
not stoop to any artifices to obtain gratification; but 
compels others to give it what it fancies to be its due; 
‘ Provoked by Edward’s haughtiness, even the passive 
Baliol beganto mutiny. —Ropertson. Loftiness and 
dignity are equally remote from any subtle pliancy, but 
they are in no less degree exempt from the unamiable 
characteristick of haughtiness which makes a man 
bear with oppressive sway upon others. A lofty spirit 
and adigwity of character preserve aman from yielding 
to the contamination of outward objects, but leave his 
judgement and feeling entirely free and unbiassed with 
respect to others ; ‘Waller describes Sacharissa as a 
predominating beauty of lofty charms and imperious 
influence.’--JoHnson. ‘Assoon as Almagro knew his 
fate to be inevitable, he met it with the dignity and for- 
titude of a veteran.’—RoBERTSON. 

As respects the external behaviour, a haughiy car- 
riage is mostly unbecoming; a lofty tone is mostly 
justifiable, particularly as circumstances may require ; 
and a dignijied air is without qualification becoming the 
man who possesses real dignity. 


HAUGHTINESS, DISDAIN, ARROGANCE. 


Haughtiness is the abstract quality of haughty, as in 
the preceding article; disdain from the French de- 
daigner, or the privative de and dignus worthy, sig- 
nifies thinking a thing to be worthless; arrogance, from 
arrogate, or the Letin ar or ad rogo to ask, signifies 
claiming or taking to one’s self. 

Haughtiness (says Dr. Blair) is founded on the high 
opinion we entertain of ourselves; disdain, on the low 
opinion we have of others; arrogance is the result of 
both, but if any thing, more of the former than the 
latter. Haughtiness and disdain are properly senti- 
ments of the mind, and arrogance a mode of acting 
resulting from a state of mind; there may therefore 
be haughtiness and disdain which have not betrayed 
themselves by any visible action; but the sentiment of 
arrogance is always accompanied by its corresnonding 
action: the haughty man is known by the air of supe- 
riority which he assumes; the disdainful man by the 
contempt which he shows to others: the arrogant man 
hy his lofty pretensions. 

Haughtiness and arrogance are both vicious; they 
are built upon a false idea of ourselves; ‘The same 
haughtiness that prompts the act of injustice will more 
strongly incite its justification.--Jounson. ‘Turbu 
ient, discontented men of quality, in proportion as they 
are puffed up with personal pride and arrogance, 
generally despise their own order.—Burxe. Disdain 


SYNONYMES. ‘ 10 


may be justifiable when provoked by what is infamous 
a lady must treat with disdain the person who insults 
her honour; but otherwise it is a highly unbecoming 
sentiment ; 


Didst thou not think such vengeance must await 
The wretch that, with his crimes all fresh about him, 
Rushes, irreverent, unprepar’d, uncall’d, 

Into his Maker’s presence, throwing back 

With insolent disdain his choicest gift?}—PorTEUvs. 


HAUGHTY, HIGH, HIGH-MINDED. 


Haughty, contracted from high-hearty, in Dutch 
hoogharty, signifies literally high-spirited, and like the 
word high, is derived through the medium of the 
Northern languages, from the Hebrew 33% to be high, 

Haughty characterizes mostly the outward beha- 
viour ; high respects both the external behaviour, and 
the internal sentiment; high-minded marks the senti- 
ment only, or the state of the mind. 

With regard to the outward behaviour, haughty is a 
stronger term than high. a haughty carriage bespeaks 
not only a high opinion of one’s self, but a strong mix- 
ture of contempt for others: a high carriage denotes 
simply a high opinion of one’s self: haughtiness is 
therefore always offensive, as it is burdensome to 
others ; but height may sometimes be laudable in as 
much as it is justice to one’s self: onecan never give a 
command in a haughty tone without making others 
feel their inferiority in a painful degree; we may some- 
times assume a high tone in order to shelter ourselves 
from insult. 

With regard to the sentiment of the mind, high de- 
notes either a particular or an habitual state; high 
minded is most commonly understood to designate an 
habitual state; the former may be either good or bad 
according to circumstances; the latter is expressly in- 
consistent with Christian humility. He is high whom 
virtue ennobles; his height is independent of adventi- 
tious circumstances, it hecomes the poor as well as the 
rich; he is properly high who is set above any mean 
condescension; high-mindedness, on the contrary, in- 
cludes in it a self-complacency that,rests upon one’s 
personal and incidental advantages rather than upon 
what is worthy of ourselves as rational agents. Supe 
riours are apt to indulge a haughty temper which does 
but excite the scorn and hatred of those who are com 
pelled to endure it; 


Let gifts be to the mighty queen design’d, 
And mollify with pray’rs her haughty mind. 
DryYDEN 


A high spirit is not always serviceable to one in depen 
dent circumstances; but when regulated by discretion, 
it enhances the value of a man’s character; ‘Who 
knows whether indignation may not succeed to terreur, 
and the revival of high sentiments, spurning away the 
illusion of safety purchased at the expense of glory, 
may not drive us to a generous despair.,—Burkr. No 
one can be high-minded without thinking better of 


himself, and worse of others, than he ought to think ;, 


‘The wise will determine from the gravity of the case ; 
the irritable, from sensibility to oppression; the high- 
minded from disdain and indignation at abusive power 
in unworthy hands.—Burkeg. 


worse i 


TO CONTEMN, DESPISE, SCORN, DISDAIN 


Contemn, in Latin contemno, compounded of con and 
temno, is probably changed from tumino, and is derived 


from the Hebrew Sy9{) to pollute or render worthless, 
which is the cause of contempt; despise, in Latin 
despicto, compound of de and specio, signifies to look 
down upon, which is a-strong mark of contempt ; scorn, 
varied from our word shorn, signifies stripped of all 
honours and exposed to derision, which situation is the 
cause of scorn; disdain has the same signification as 
in the preceding article. 

The above elucidations sufficiently evince the feeling 
towards others which gives birth to all these actions. 
But the feeling of contempt is not quite so strong as that 
of despising, nor that of despising so strong as those 
of scorning and disdaining ; the latter of which ex- 
presses the strongest sentiment of all. Persons are 
contemned for their moral qualities: they are despised 
on account of their outward circumstances, their 


102 


characters, or their endowsaents. Superiours may be 
contemned ; inferiours only, real or supposed, are de- 
spised. . : i 

Contempt, as applied to persons, is not incompatible 
with a Christian temper when justly provoked by their 
character; but despising is distinctly forbidden and 
seldom warranted. Yet it is not so much our business 
Lo contemn others as to contemn that which is con- 
temptible ; but we are not equally at liberty to despise 
the person, or any thing belonging to the person, of 
another. Whatever springs from the free will of an 
other may be a subject of contempt; but the casualties 
of fortune or the gifts of Providence, which are alike 
independent of personal merit, should never expose a 
person to be despised. We may, however, contemn a 
person for his impotent malice, or despise him for his 
meanness. 

Persons are not scorned or disdained, but they may 


~~ye-treated with scorn or disdain ; they are both impro- 


per expressions of contempt or despite ; scorn marks 
the sentiment~ef a little, vain mind; disdain of a 
haughty and perverted mind. A_ beautiful woman 
looks with scorn on her whom she despises for the 
want of this natural gift. The wealthy man treats 
with disdain him whom he despises for his poverty. 
There is nothing excites the contempt of mankind so 
powerfully as a mixture of pride and meanness; * Con- 
tempt and derision are hard words; but in what man- 
ner can one give advice to a youth in the pursuit and 
possession of sensual pleasures, or afford pity to an old 
man in the impotence and desire of enjoying them.’— 
Streets. Amoment’s reflection will teach us the folly 
and wickedness of despising another for that to which 
by the will of Providence we may the next moment be 
exposed ourselves; ‘It is seldom that the great or the 
wise suspect that they are cheated and despised.’— 
Jounson. There are silly persons who will scorn to 
be seen in the company of such as have not an equal 
share of finery 


Infamous wretch ! 
So much below my scorn, I dare not kill thee. 
DRYDEN. 


And there are weak upstarts of fortune, who disdain 
to look at those who cannot measure purses with them- 
selves; 


Yet not for those, 
For what the potent victor in his rage 
Can else inflict, do I repent or change, 
Though chang’d in outward lustre, that fix’d mind 
And high disdain from sense of injur’d merit. 
MILTON. 


3s 


In speaking of things independently of others, or as 
immediately connected with ourselves, all these terms 
may be sometimes employed in a good or an indifferent 
sense. 

When we contemn a mean action, and scorn to con- 
ceal by falsehood what we are called upon to acknow- 
ledge, we act the part of the gentleman as well as the 
Christian ; ‘ A man of spirit should contemn the praise 
of the ignorant.—Srzeitz. And it is inconsistent 
with our infirm and dependent condition, that we 
should feel inclined to despise any thing that falls in 
our way ; 


Thrice happy they, beneath their northern skies, 

Who that worst fear, the fear of death, despise ; 

Provoke approaching fate, and bravely scorn 

To spare that life which must so soon return. 
Rowe. 


Much less are we at liberty to disdain to do any thing 
which our station requires; ‘It is in some sort owing 
to the bounty of Providence that disdaining a cheap 
and vulgar happiness, they frame to themselves imagi- 
nary goods, in which there is nothing can raise desire 
but the difficulty of obtaining them.,—BrerKELEY. We 
ought to think nothing unworthy of us, nothing de- 
grading to us, but that which is inconsistent with the 
will of God: there are, however, too many who affect 
to despise small favours as not reaching their fancied 
deserts, and others who disdain to receive any favour 
at all, from mistaken ideas of dependence and obliga- 
tion ; 


Virtue disdains to lend an ear 
To the mad people’s sense of right.—FRancis. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


- CONTEMPTIBLE, CONTEMPTUOUS. 


These terms are very frequently, though very erro 
neously, confounded in common discourse. 

Contemptible is applied to the thing deserving esx- 
tempt ; Contemptuous to that which is expressive of 
_contempt. Persons, or what is done by persons, may 
be either contemptible or contemptuaus; but a thing is 
only contemptible. 

A production is contemptible ; a sneer or look is con- 
temptuous ; ‘Silence, or a negligent indifference, pro- 
ceeds from anger mixed with scorn, that shows an- . 
other to be thought by you too contemptible to be re- 
garded.’—Appison. ‘ My sister’s principles in many 
particulars differ; but there has been always such a 
harmony between us that she seldom smiles upon those 
who have suffered me to pass with a contemptuous 
negligence. —HAWKESWORTH. 


CONTEMPTIBLE, DESPICABLE, PITIFUL. 


Coutemptible isnot so strong as despicable or pitiful 

A person may be contemptible for his vanity or weak 
ness; but he is despicable for his servility and base- 
ness of character; he is pitiful for his want of man- 
liness and becoming spirit. A lie is at all times con 
temptible ; it is despicable when it is told for purposes 
of gain or private interest; it is pitiful when accom 
panied with indications of unmanly fear. It is con 
temptible to take credit to one’s self for the good action 
one has not performed ; ‘ Were every man persuaded 
from how mean and low a principle this passion (for 
flattery) is derived, there can be no doubt but the 
person who should attempt to gratify it would then be 
as contemptible as he is now successful.’—StTreue. It 
is despicable to charge another with the faults which 
we ourselves have committed; ‘T’o put on an artful 
part to obtain no other but an unjust praise from the 
undiscerning is of all endeavours the most despicable.’ 
—StTee.xE. It is pitiful to offend others, and then 
attempt to screen ourselves from their resentment 
under any shelter which offers; ‘There is something 
pitifully mean in the inverted ambition of that man 
who can hope for annihilation, and please himself to 
think that Iss whole fabrick shall crumble into dust.’— 
Streets. It is contemptible for a man in a superiour 
station to borrow of his inferiours; itis despicable in 
him to forfeit his word; it is pztiful in him to attempt 
to conceal aught by artifice. 


CONTEMPTUOUS, SCCRNFUL, DISDAINFUL. 


These epithets rise in sense by a regular gradation. 

Contemptuous is general, and applied to whatever 
can express contempt: scornful and disdainful are 
particular ; they apply only to outward marks: one is 
contemptuous Who is scornful or disdainful, but not 
vice versa. 

Words, actions, and looks are contemptuous ; looks 
sneers, and gestures are scornful and disdain ful. 

Contemptuous expressions are always unjustifiable 
whatever may be the contempt which a person’s con- 
duct deserves, it is unbecoming in another to give him 
any indications of the sentiment he feels. Scornfut 
and disdainful smiles are resorted to by the weakest or 
the worst of mankind; ‘ Prior never sacrifices accuracy 
to haste, nor indulges himself in contemptuous negli- 
gence or impatient idleness..Jounson. ‘As soon as 
Mavia began to look round, and saw the vagabond 
Mirtillo who had so long absented himself from hex 
circle, she looked upon him with that glance which 
in the language of oglers is called the scornful’ - 
STEELE. 

In vain he thus attempts her mind to move, 

With tears and prayers and late repenting love; 

Disdainfully she looked, then turning round, 

She fix’d her eyes unmov’d upon the ground. 

Drypzy 


TO LAUGH AT, RIDICULE. 


Laugh, through the medium of the Saxon Alahan 
old German lakan, Greek ye\déw, comes from the He 


| brew PN with no variation in thé meaning; ridi 


cule, from Latin rideo, has the same origina) meaning 
Both these verbs are used here in the improper sense 
for laughter, blended with more or less of contempt: 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. | ~ 103 


but the former displays itself by the natural expression 
of laughter ; the latter shows itself by a verbal ex- 
pression : the former is produced by a feeling of mirth, 
on observing the real or supposed weakness of an- 
vther; the latter is produced by a strong sense of the 
absurd or irrational in another: the former is more im- 
mediately directed to the person who has excited the 
feeling ; the latter is more commonly produced by the 
thing than by persons. We laugh at a_ person to his 
face; but we ridicule his notions by writing or in the 
course of conversation; we laugh at the individual; 
we ridicule that which is maintained by one or many. 
It is better to laugh at the fears of a child than to 
atterapt to restrain them by violence, but it is still better 
to overcome them if possible by the force of reason ; 
‘Men laugh at one another’s cost..—Swirt. Ridicule 
is not the test of truth; he therefore who attempts to 
misuse it against the cause of truth, will bring upon 
himself the contempt of all mankind ; but folly can be 
assailed with no weapon so effectual as ridicule ; 
‘it is easy for aman who sits idle at home and has no- 
body to please but himself, to ridicule or censure the 
common practices of mankind.’—Jounson. The phi- 
losopher Democritus preferred to laugh at the follies of 
men, rather than weep for them like Heraclitus; infi- 
dels have always employed ridicule against Chris- 
tianity, by. which they have betrayed not only their 
want of argument, but their personal depravitv in 
laughing where they ought to be most serious. 


LAUGHABLE, LUDICROUS, RIDICULOUS, 
COMICAL, OR COMICK, DROLL. 


Laughable signifies exciting or fit to excite laughter ; 
ludicrous, in Latin. ludicer or ludicrus, from ludus a 
game, signifies causing game or sport; ridiculous ex- 
citing or fit to excite ridicule ; comical, or comick, in 
Latin comécus, from the Greek xwpwdfa comedy, and 
k@pn a village, because comedies were first performed 
in villages, signifies after the manner of comedy ; 
droll, in French dréle, is doubtless connected with the 
German roile a part, in the phrase etne rolle spielen to 
play a trick or perform a part. 

Hither the direct action of laughter or a correspond- 
ing sentiment is included in the signification of all 
these terms: they differ principally in the cause which 
produces the feeling; the lawghable consists of objects 
in general whether personal or otherwise; the lwdz- 
crous and ridiculous have more or less reference to 


that which is personal. What is laughable may excite, 


simple merriment independently of all personal refer- 
ence, unless we admit what Mr. Hobbes, and after 
him Addison, have maintained of all lawghter, that it 
springs from pride. But without entering into this 
nice question, [ am inclined to distinguish between the 
laughable which arises from the reflection of what is 
to our own advantage or pleasure, and that which 
arises from reflecting on what isto the disadvantage of 
another. The droll tricks of a monkey, or the hu- 
morous stories of wit, are laughable from the nature 
of the things themselves; without any apparent allu- 
sion, however remote, to any individual but the one 
whose senses or mind is gratified ; 


They’ll not show their teeth in way of smile, 
Though Nestor swear the jest be laughable. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


The ludicrous and ridiculous are however species of 
the laughable which arise altogether from reflecting 
on that which is to the disadvantage of another. The 
ludicrous lies mostly in the outward circumstances of 
the individual, or such as are exposed to view and 
serve asa show; 'The action of the theatre, though 
modern states esteem it but dwdicrous unless it be sati- 
rical and biting, was carefully watched by the ancients 
that it might improve mankind in virtue..—Bacon. 
Che ridiculous applies to every thing personal, whe- 
ther external or internal; ‘ Infeliz paupertas has no- 
thing in it more intolerable than this, that it renders 
men ridiculous.” —Souts. The ludicrous does not 
comprehend that which is so much to the desparage- 
ment of the individual as the ridiculous; whatever 
there is in ourselves which excites laughter in others, 
is accompanied in their minds with a sense of our in- 
feriority: and consequently the ludicrous always pro- 
duces this feeling; but only in a slight degree com- 
pared with the ridiculous, which awakens a positive 


sense of contempt. Whoever is in a ludzcrous situ 
ation is, let it be in ever so small a degree, placed in’ 
an inferiour station, with regard to those by whom he 
is thus viewed; but he who is rendered ridiculous is 
positively degraded. It is possible, therefore, for a 
person to be in aludicrous situation without any kind 
of moral demerit, or the slightest depreciation of his 
moral character; since that which renders his situation 
ludicrous is altogether independent of himself ; or it 
becomes ludicrous only in the eyes of incompetent 
judges. ‘Let an ambassador,” says Mr. Pope, ‘‘ speak 
the best sense in the world, and deport himself in the 
most graceful manner before a prince, yet if the tail of 
his shirt happen, as I have known it happen to a very 
wise man, to hang out behind, more people will laugh 
at that than attend to the other.’? This is the ludz- 
crous. Thesame can seldom be said of the ridiculous ; 
for as this springs from positive moral causes, it re 
flects on the person ‘to whom it attaches in a less ques- 
tionable shape, and produces positive disgrace. Per- 
sons very rarely appear ridiculous without being really 
so; and he who is really ridiculous justly excites con- 
tempt. 

Droil and comical are in the proper sense applied to 
things which cause laughter, as when we speak of a 
droli story, or a comical incident, or a comick song; 


A comick subject loves an humble verse, 
Thyestes scorns a low and comick style. 
RoscoMMon 


‘In the Augustine age itself, notwithstanding the cen 
sure of Horace, they preferred the low buffoonery and 
drollery of Plautus to the delicacy of Terence.’— 
Warton. These epithets may be applied to the per 
son, but not so as to reflect disadvantageously on the 
individual, like the preceding terms. 


TO DERIDE, MOCK, RIDICULE, RALLY, 
BANTER. 


Deride, compounded of de and the Latin rideo; and 
ridicule, from rideo, both signify to laugh at; mock, in 
French moquer, Dutch mocken, Greek pwxaw, signifies 
Jikewise to laugh at; rally is doubtless connected with 
rail, which is in all probability acontraction of revile ; 
and banter is possibly a corruption of the French 
badiner to jest. 

Strofig expressions of contempt are designated by all 
these terms. 

Derision and mockery evince themselves by the out- 
ward actions in general; ridicule consists more in 
words than actions; rallying and bantering almost 
entirely in words. Deride is not so strong a term as 
mock, but much stronger than ridicule.. There is 
always amixture of hostility in derision and mockery ; 
but ridicule is frequently unaccompanied with any 
personal feeling of displeasure. Dertsion is often 
deep, not loud; it discovers itself in suppressed laughs, 
contemptuous sneers or gesticulations, and cutting ex- 
pressions: mockery is mostly noisy and outrageous; it 
breaks forth in insulting buffoonery, and is sometimes 
accompanied with personal violence: the former con- 
sists of real but contemptuous laughter; the latter 
often of affected laughter and grimace. Derision and 
mockery are always personal ; ridicule may be directed 
to things as well as persons. Dertston and mockery 
are a direct attack on the individual, the latter still 
more so than the former; ridicule is as often used in 
Writing as in persona! intercourse. é 

Derision and mockery are practised by persons in 
any station; rzdicule is mostly used by equals. A 
person is derided and mocked for that which is offen- 
sive as well as apparently absurd or extravagant; he 
is ridiculed for what is apparently ridiculous. Our 
Saviour was exposed both to the derision and mockery 
of his enemies: they derided him for what they dared 
to think his false pretensions to a superiowr mission ; 
they mocked him by planting a crown of thorns, and 
acting the farce of royalty before him. 

Derision may be provoked by ordinary circum 
stances ; mockery by that which is extraordinary. 
When the prophet Elijah in his holy zeal mocked the 
false prophets of Baal, or when the children mocked 
the prophet Elisha, the term deride would not have 
suited either for the occasion or the action; but two 
people may deride each other in their angry disputes 
or unprincipled people may deride those whom they 


104 


cannot imitate, or condemn. Derision and mockery 
are altogether incompatible with the Christian temper ; 
ridicule is justifiable in certain cases, particularly when 
itis not personal. When a man renders himself an 
object of derision, it does not follow that any one is 
justified in deriding him ; 

Satan beheld their plight, 
And to his mates thus in derision call’d: 
O friends, why come not on those victors proud ? 

Mitton. 


Insults are not the means for correcting faults: mockery 
is very seldom used but for the gratification of a malig- 
nant disposition; hence it is a strong expression when 
used figuratively ; 3 


Impell’d with steps unceasing to pursue 
Some fleeting good that mocks me with the view. 
GOLDSMITH. 


Although ridicule is not the test of truth, and ought 
not to be employed in the place of argument, yet there 
are some follies too absurd to deserve more serious 
treatment ; 


Want is the scorn of every fool, 
And wit in rags is turn’d to ridicule—DRYDEN. 


Rally and banter, like derision and mockery, are 
altogether personal acts, in which application they are 
very analogous to ridicule. Ridicule is the most gene- 
ral term of the three; we often rally and banter by 
ridiculing. ‘There is more exposure in ridiculing ; 
reproof in rallying ; and provocation in bantering. A 
person may be ridiculed on account of his eccentri- 
cities; he is rallied for his defects} he is bantered for 
accidental circumstances: the two former actions are 
often justified by some substantial reason; the latter is 
an action as puerile as it is unjust, it is a contemptible 
species of mockery. Self-conceit and extravagant fol- 
lies are oftentimes best corrected by good-natured 7idz- 
cule; & man may deserve sometimes to be rallied for 
his want of resolution; ‘The only piece of pleasantry 
in Paradise Lost, is where the evil spirits are described 
as rallying the angels upon the success of their new 
invented artillery.—Appison. Those who are of an 
ill-natured turn of mind will banter others for their 
misfortunes, or their personal defects, rather than not 
say something to their annoyance; ‘ As to your man- 
ner of behaving towards these unhappy young gentle- 
men (at College) you describe, let it be manly and 
easy; if they banter your regularity, order, decency, 
and love of study, banter in return their neglect of it.’ 

CuaTHAM. 


RIDICULE, SATIRE, IRONY, SARCASM. 


Ridicule signifies the same as in the preceding arti- 
cle; satire and irony have the same original meaning 
as given under the head of Wit; sarcasm, from the 
Greek capxacpos, and capkitw, from caps flesh, signifies 
literally to.tear the flesh. 

Ridicule has simple laughter in it; satzre has a mix- 
ture of ill-‘nature or severity; the former is employed 
in matters of a shameless or trifling nature, sometimes 
improperly on deserving objects; ‘ Nothing is a greater 
mark of a degenerate and vicious age than the com- 
mon ridicule which passes. on this state of life (mar- 
riage).’—Appison. Satire is employed either in per- 
sonal or grave matters; ‘A man resents with more 
bitterness a satire upon his abilities than his practice.’ 
- Hawkesworru. Jrony is disguised satire; an 
tronist seems to praise that which he really means to 
condemn; ‘ When Regan (in King Lear) counsels him 
to ask her sister forgiveness, he falls on his knees and 
asks her with a striking kind of zrony how such sup- 
plicating language as this becometh him.’—Jounson. 
Sarcasm is bitter and personal satire; all the others 
may be successfully and properly employed to expose 
folly and vice; but sarcasm, which is the indulgence 
only of personal resentment, is never justifiable ; ‘ The 
severity of this sarcasm stung me with intolerable 
rage.’ —_HaAWKESWORTH. 


TO JEST, JOKE, MAKE GAME, SPORT. 


Jest is in all probability abridged from gesticulate, 
vecause the ancient mimicks used much gesticulation 
in breaking their gests on the company ; joke, in Latin 


jocus, comes in all probability from the Hebrew DAV¥ 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


to laugh; to make game signifies here to make the sub 
jectof game or play ; to sport signifies here to spert 
With, or convert into a subject of amusement. 

One jests in order to make cthers laugh; one jokes 
in order to please one’s self. The jest 1s directed at 
the object; the joke is practised with the person or on 
the person. One attempts to make a thing laughable 
or ridiculous by jesting about it, or treating it in a 
jesting manner ; one attempts to excite good humour 
in others, or indulge it in one’s self by joking with 
them. Jests are therefore seldom harmless: jokes are 
frequently allowable.. The most serious subject may 
be degraded by being turned into a jest ; ‘ 


But those who aim at ridicule, 
Should fix upon some certain rule, 
Which fairly hints they are in jest.--Sye1rr. 


Melancholy or dejection of the mind may be conve 
niently dispelled by a joke; 

How fond are men of rule and place, 

Who court it from the mean and base, 

They love the cellar’s vulgar joke, 

And lose their hours in ale and smoke.—Gay. 


Court fools and buffoons used formerly to break their 
jests upon every subject by which the} thought to en- 
tertain their employers: those who know how to joke 
with good-nature and discretion may contribute to the 
mirth of the company: to make game of is applicable 
only to persons: to make a sport of or sport with, is 
applied to objects in general, whether persons or things . 
both are employed like jest in the bad sense of treating 
a thing more lightly than it deserves; ‘ When Sam- 
son’s eyes were out, of a public magistrate he was 
made a public sport.’—Souru. 

_ Tojest consists of words or corresponding signs ; it 
is peculiarly appropriate to one who actsa part: to 
joke consists not only of words, but of simple actions. 
which are calculated to produce mirth ; it is peculiarly 
applicable to the social intercourse of friends: to make 
game of consists more of laughter than any; it has 
not the ingenuity of the jest, nor the good-nature of 
the joke ; it is the part of the fool who wishes to make 
others appear what he himself really is: to sport with 
or to make sport of, consists not only of simple actions, 
but of conduct; it is the errour of a weak mind that 
does not know how to set a due value on any thing , 
the fool sports with his reputation, when he risks the 
loss of it fora bauble . 


TO SCOFF, GIBE, JEER, SNEER. 


Scoff comes from the Greek oxdnrtw to deride; gabe 
and jeer are connected with the word gabble and jab- 
ber, denoting an unseemly mode of speech; sneer is 
connected with sneeze and nose, the member by which 
sneering is performed. 

Scofing is a general term for expressing contempt; 
Wwe may scoff either by gibes, jeers, or sneers; or we 
may scoff by opprobrious language and contemptuous 
looks: to gibe, jeer, and sneer, are personal acts; the 
gibe and jeer consist of words addressed to an indivi 
dual; the former has most of ill-nature and reproach 
init ; 

Where town and country vicars flock in tribes, 
Secur’d by numbers from the laymen’s gibes.—Swirr. 


The latter has more of ridicule or satire in it; 


Midas, expos’d to all their jeers, 
Had lost his art, and kept his ears.—Swirr. 


They are both, however, applied to the actions of 
vulgar people, who practise their coarse jokes on each 
other ; 


Shrewd fellows and such arch wags! A tribe 
That meet for nothing but to gibe.—Swirr. 


‘That jeerengy demeanour is a quality of great off nce 
to others, and danger towards a man’s self.-—ULorp 
WENTWORTH. Scoff and sneer are directed either to 
persons or things as the object; gibe and jeer only 
towards persons: scoff is taken only in the preper 
sense; sneer derives its meaning from the literal act 
of sneering : the scoffer speaks lightly of that whicr 
deserves serious attention ; 


The fop, with learning at defiance 
Scoffs at the pedant and the science. —Gay 


The sneerer speaks either actually with a sneer or us 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


it were by implication with a sneer; ‘There is one 
short passage still remaining (of Alexis the poet’s) 
which conveys a sneer at Pythagoras.’—CUMBERLAND. 
The scoffers at religion set at naught all thoughts of 
decorum, they openly avow the little estimation in 
which they hold it; the sneerers at religion are more 
sly, but not less malignant; they wish to treat religion 
with contempt, but not to bring themselves into the 
contempt they deserve ; 


And sneers as learnedly as they, 
Like females o’er their morning tea.—Swirr 


TO DISPARAGE, DETRACT, TRADUCE, 
DEPRECIATE, DEGRADE, DECRY. 


Disparage, compounded of dis and parage, from 
par equal, signifies to make unequal or below what it 
ought to be; detract, in Latin detractum, participle 
of detraho, from de and traho to draw down, signifies 
to set a thing below its real value; traduce, in Latin 
traduco or transduco, signifies to carry from one to 
another that which is unfavourable; depreciate, from 
the Latin pretium, a price, signifies to bring down the 
price; degrade, compounded of de and grade or gradus 
a step, degree, signifies to bring a degree or step lower 
than one has been before; decry signifies literally to 
cry down. 

The idea of lowering the value of an object is com- 
mon to all these words, which differ in the circum- 
stances and object of the action. Disparagement is 
the most indefinite in the manner: detract and traduce 
are specifick in the forms by which an object is lowered : 
disparagement respects the mental endowments and 
qualifications: detract and traduce are said of the 
moral character ; the former, however, in a less specifick 
manner than the latter; We disparage a man’s per- 
formance by speaking slightingly of it; we detract 
from the merits of a person by ascribing his success to 
chance ; we traduce him by handing about tales that 
are unfavourable to his reputation: thus authors are 
apt to disparage the writings of their rivais; ‘It isa 
hard and nice subject for a man to speak of himself; it 
grates his own heart to say any thing of disparagement, 
and the reader’s ears to hear any thing of praise from 
him.’—Cowtrry. A person may detract from the'skill 
of another; ‘I have very often been tempted to write 
invectives upon those who have detracted from my 
works; but I look upon it as a peculiar happiness that 
I have always hindered my resentments from proceed- 
ing to this extremity..—Appison. Or he may traduce 
him by relating scandalous reports ; ‘Both Homer and 
Virgil had their compositions usurped by others; both 
were envied and traduced during their lives.” —W a.Lsu. 

To disparage, detract, and traduce, can be applied 
only to persons, or that which is personal; depreciate, 
degrade, and decry, to whatever is an object of esteem; 
We aepreciate and degrade, therefore, things as well as 
persons, and decry things: to depreciate is, however, 
not so strong a term as to degrade ; for the language 
which is employed to depreciate will be mild compared 
with that used for degrading : we may depreciate an 
object by implication, or in indirect terms; but harsh 
and unseemly epithets are employed for degrading: 
thus a man may be said to depreciate human nature, 
who does not represent it as capable of its true eleva- 
tion; he degrades it who sinks it below the scale of 
rationality. We may depreciate or degrade an indi- 
vidual, a language, and the like; we decry measures 
and principles: the two former are an act of an indi- 
vidual ; the latter is properly the act of many. Some 
men haye such perverted notions that they are always 
depreciating whatever is esteemed excellent in the 
world; ‘The business of our modish French authors 
is to depreciate human nature, and consider it under 
its worst appearances.’.—Appison. They whose in- 
terests have stifled all feelings of humanity, have de- 
graded the poor Africans, in order to justify the en- 
slaving of them; ‘ Akenside certainly retained an unne- 
cessary and outrageous zeal for what he called and 
thought liberty; a zeal which sometimes disguises 
from the world an envious desire of plundering wealth, 
or degrading greatness.’—Jounson. Political parti- 
zans commonly deery the measures of one party, in 
order to exalt those of another; ‘Ignorant men are 
very subject to decry those beauties in a celebrated 
work which they have not eyes to discover.,— ADDISON. 


. 


105 


TO DISPARAGE, DEROGATE, DEGRADE. 


Disparage and degrade have the same meaning as 
given in the preceding article; derogate, in Latin 
derogatus, from derogo to repeal in part, signifies to 
take from a thing. | 

Disparage is here employed, not as the act of per- 
sons, but of things, in which case it is allied to dero- 
gate, but retains its indefinite and general sense as 
before: circumstances may disparage the perform- 
ances of a writer;,or they may derogate from the 


-honours and dignities of an individual: it would be a 


high disparagement to an author to have it known 
that he had been guilty of plagiarism; it derogates 
from the dignity of a magistrate to take part in popular 
measures. ‘T'o degrade is here, as in the former case, 
a much stronger expression than the other two: what- 
ever disparages or derogates does but take away 
a part from the value; but whatever degrades sinks it 
many degrees in the estimation of those in whose eyes 
it is degraded ; in this manner religion is degraded by 
the low arts of its enthusiastick professors ; ‘Of the 
mind that can deliberately pollute itself with ideal 
wickedness, for the sake of spreading the contagion in 
society, I wish not to conceal or excuse the depravity. 
Such degradation of the dignity of genius cannot be 
contemplated but with grief and indignation.’—Joun- 
son. Whatever may tend to the disparagement of a 
religious profession, does injury to the cause of truth; 
“Tis no disparagement to philosophy, that it cannot 
deify us’—Guanvitte. Whatever derogates from 
the dignity of a man in any office is apt to degrade the 
office itself; ‘I think we may say, without derogating 
from those wonderful performances (the [liad and 
/Mneid), that there is an unquestionable magnificence 
in every part of Paradise Lost, and indeed a much 
greater than could have been formed upon any Pagan 
system.’—ApDDISON. 


od 


TO ASPERSE, DETRACT, DEFAME, 
SLANDER, CALUMNIATE. 


Asperse, in Latin aspersus, participle of aspergo tc 
sprinkle, signifies in a moral sense to stain with spots, 
detract has the same signification as given under the 
head of disparage; defame, in Latin defamo, com- 
pounded of the privative de and fama fame, signifies to 
deprive of reputation; slander is doubtless connected 
with the words slur, sully, and sovl, signifying to stain 
with some spot ; calumniate, from the Latin calumnia, 


and the Hebrew mod 5 infamy, signifies to load with 
infamy. 

All these terms denote an effort made to injure the 
character by some representation. 4sperse and de 
tract mark an indirect misrepresentation; defame, 
slander, and calumniate, a positive assertion. 

To asperse is to fix a stain on a moral character ; to 
detract is to lessen its merits and excellencies. Asper- 
stons always imply something bad, real or supposed; 
detractions are always founded on some supposed 
good in the object that is detracted: to defame is 
openly to advance some serious charge against the 
character: to slander is to expose the faults of another 
in his absence: to calumniate is to communicate se- 
cretly, or otherwise, circumstances to the injury of 
another. 

Aspersions and detractions are never positive false- 
hoods, as they never amount to more than insinuations ; 
defamation is the publick communication of facts, whe- 
ther true or false: slander involves the discussion ot 
moral qualities, and is consequently the declaration of 
an opinion as well as the communication of a fact: 
calumny, on the other hand, is a positive communica- 
tion of circumstances known by the narrator at the 
time to be false. .Aspersions are the efiect of malice 
and meanness; they are the resource of the basest 
persons, insidiously to wound the characters of thase 
whom they dare not openly attack: the most virtuous 
are exposed to the malignity of the asperser; ‘It is 
certain, and observed by the wisest writers, that there 
are women who are noi nicely chaste, and men not 
severely honest, in all families; therefore let those 
who may be apt to raise aspersions upon ours, please 
to give us an impartial account of their own, and we 
shall be satisfied.’—Srerte: Detraction is the effect 
of envy: when a man is not disposed or able to follow 
the example of another, he strives to detract from the 


606 sy 


merit of his actions by questioning the purity of his 
motives: distinguished persons are the most exposed 
<o the evil tongues of detractors ; ‘What made their 
enmity the more entertaining to all the rest of their 
sex was, that in their detraction from each other, nei- 
ther could fall upon terms which did not hit herself as 
much as her adversary.—STuxLe. Defamation is the 
consequence of personal resentment, or a busy inter- 
“erence with other men’s affairs; it is an unjustifiable 
exposure of their errours or vices, which is often visited 
with the due vengeance of the law upon the offender ; 
‘What shall we say of the pleasure a man takes in a 
defamatory libel? Is it not a heinous sin in the sight 
of God ?—Appison. Slander arises either from a 
mischievous temper, or a gossipping humour ; it is the 
resource of ignorant and vacant minds, who are in 
want of some serious occupation: the slanderer deals 
unmercifully with his neighbour, and speaks without 
regard to truth or falsehood ; 


Slander, that worst of poisons, ever finds 
An easy entrance to ignoble minds.—HERVEY. 


Calumny is the worst of actions, resulting from the 
worst of motives; to injure the reputation of another 
by the sacrifice of truth, is an accumulation of guilt 
which is hardly exceeded by any one in the whole 
catalogue of vices; -‘ The way to silence calumny, says 
Bias, is to be always exercised in such things as are 
praiseworthy.,—Appison. Slanderers and calumni- 
ators are so near a-kin, that they are but too often 
found in the same person: it is to be expected that 
when the slanderer has exhausted all his surmises and 
censure upon his neighbour, he will not hesitate to 
calumniate him rather than remain silent. 

If I speak slightingly of my neighbour, and insi- 
nuate any thing against the purity of his principles, or 
the rectitude of his conduct, I asperse him: if he be 
a charitable man, and I ascribe his charities to a selfish 
motive, or otherwise take away from the merit of his 
conduct, I am guilty of detraction: if I publish any 
thing openly that injures his reputation, I am a de- 
famer ; if 1 communicate to others the reports that are 
in circulation to his disadvantage, | am a slanderer ; 
if I fabricate any thing myself and spread it abroad, I 
am a calumniator. 


TO ABASE, HUMBLE, DEGRADE, DISGRACE, 
DEBASE. 


To abase expresses the strongest degree of self-hu- 
miliation, from the French abaisser, to bring down or 
make low, which is compounded of the intensive sylla- 
ble a or ad and baisser from bas low, in Latin basis 
the base, which is the lowest part of acolumn, It is 
at present used principally in the Scripture language, 
or in ametaphorical style, to imply the laying aside all 
the high pretensions which distinguish us from our 
fellow-creatures, the descending to a state compara- 
tively low and mean; to humble, in Fretich humilier, 
from the Latin humilis humble, and humus the ground, 
naturally marks a prostration to the ground, and figura- 
tively a lowering the thoughts and feelings. Accord- 
ing to the principles of Christianity whoever abaseth 
himself shall be exalted, and according to the same 
principles wheever reflects on his own Jittleness and 
unworthiness will daily humble himself before his 
Maker. 

To degrade (v. To disparage), signifies to lower in 
the estimation of others. It supposes already a state 
of elevationeither in outward circumstances or in pub- 
lick opinion; disgrace is compounded of the privative 
dis and the noun grace or favour. To disgrace pro- 
perly implies to put out of favour, which is always at- 
tended more or less with circumstances of ignominy, 
and reflects contempt on the object; debase is com- 
pounded of the intensive syllable de and the adjective 
base, signifying to make very base or low. 

The modest man abases himself by not insisting on 
the distinctions to which he may be justly entitled : 
the penitent man humbles himself ky confessing his 
errours; the man of rank degrades himself by a too 
familiar deportment with hisinferiours; he disgraces 
himself by hismeanness and irregularities, and debases 
his character by his vices. 

We can never. be abased by abasing ourselves, but 
we may be humbled by unseasonable humiliations, or 


SNGLISH SYNONYMES. 


scending from our rank, and disgraced by the exposure 
of our unworthy actions. 3 

The great and good man may be abased and hum 
bled, but never degraded or disgraced ; his glory fol 
lows him in his abasement or humiliation ; his great- 
ness protects him from degradation, and his virtue 
shields him from disgrace. 


’Tis immortality, ’tis that alone 

Amid life’s pains, abasements, emptiness, 

The sou! can comfort.— Youne. 

My soul is justly humbled in the dust.—Rowe. 


It is necessary to abase those who will exalt them 
selves; to humble those who have lofty opinions of 
themselves ; ‘If the mind be curbed and hwmbled too 
much in children; if their spirits be abased and broken 
much by too. strict a hand over them; they lose alk 
their vigour and industry..—Locxr. Those who act 
inconsistently with their rank and station are fre- 
quently degraded ; but it is more common for others to 
be unjustly degraded through the envy and ill-will of 
their inferiours; ‘It is very disingenuous to level the 
best of mankind with the worst, and for the faults of 
particulars to degrade the whole species.—HueGuEs 
Folly and wickedness bring disgrace on courts, where 
the contrary ought to be found ; 


You’d think no fools disgraced the former reign, 
Did not some grave examples still remain.—Pors. 


The misuse of things for inferiour purposes debase 
their value; ‘It is a kind of taking God’s name in 
vain, to debase religion with such frivolous disputes.’— 
Hooker. 

Of all these terms degrade and disgrace are the 
most nearly allied to each other; but the former has 
most regard to the external rank and condition, the 
latter to the moral estimation and character. What- 
ever is low and mean is degrading for those who are 
not of mean condition; whatever is immoral is dis- 
graceful to all, but most so to those who ought to know 
better. It is degrading for a nobleman to associate 
with prize-fighters and jockeys; it is disgraceful for 
him to countenance the violation of the laws, which 
he is bound to protect; it is degrading for aclergyman 
to take part in the ordinary pleasures and occupations 
of mankind in general; it is disgraceful for him to 
indulge in any levities; Domitian degraded himself by 
the amusement which he chose of catching flies; he 
disgraced himself by the cruelty which he mixed with 
his meanness; king John of England degraded himself 
by his mean compliances to the pope and the barons, 
and disgraced himself by many acts of injustice and 
cruelty. 

The higher the rank of the individual the greater his 
degraaution: the higher bis character, or the more 
sacred his office, the greater his disgrace, if he act in- 
consistently with its dignity: but these terms are nof 
confined to any rank of life; there is that which is 
degrading and disgraceful for every person, however 
low his station; when a man forfeits that which he 
owes to himself, and sacrifices bis independenee to his 
vices, he degrades himself; ‘ When a hero is to be — 
pulled down and degraded it is best done in doggerel.” 
—Appison. ‘Sodeplorable is the degradation of our 
nature, that whereas before we bore the image of God, 
we now only retain the image of men..—Souru. He 
who forfeits the good opinion of those who know him 
is disgraced, and he who fails to bestow on an object 
the favdur or esteem which it is. entitled to disgraces 
it; ‘We may not so.in any one kind admire her, that 
we disgrace her in any other; but let all her ways 
be according unto their place and degree adored.’—. 
Hooker. But although the term disgrace when gene- 
rally applied is always taken in a bad sense, yet in re- 
gard to individuals it may be taken in an indifferent * 
sense; it is possible to be disgraced, or to lose the 
favour of a patron, through his caprice, without any 
fault on the part of the disgraced person; ‘ Philips died 
honoured and lamented, before any part of his reputa- 
tion had withered, and before his patron St.John had 
disgraced him.’ alte : 

Men are very liable to err in their judgements on 
what is degrading and disgraceful; but all who are 
anxious to uphold the station and character in which 
they have been placed,may safely observe this rule 
that nothing can be so degrading as the violation o: 
truth and sincerity, and nothing so disgraneful as & 

io) 


improper concessions; we may be degraded by de- | breach of moral rectitude or prepriety. Z: 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


These terms may be employed with a similar dis- 
tinction in regard to things ; a thing is degraded which 
falls any degree in the scale of general estimation ; 


All higher knowledge, in her presence, falls 
Degruded.—MI1LTon. 


A thing is disgraced when it becomes or is made less 
lovely and desirable than it was; 


And where the vales with violets once were crown’d, 
Now knotty burrs and thorns disgrace the ground. 
DRYDEN. 


——— 


TO ABASH, CONFOUND, CONFUSE. 


“ibash is an intensive of abase, signifying to abase 
thoroughly in spirit; confound and confuse are derived 
from different parts of the same Latin verb confundo, 
and its participle confusus. Confundo is compounded 
of con and fundo to pour together. To confound and 
confuse then signify properly to melt together or into 
one mass what ought to be distinct; and figuratively, 
as it is here taken, to derange the thoughts In such 
manner as that they seem melted together. 

Abash expresses more than confound, and confound 
more than confuse; shame contributes greatly to 
abashment ; what is sudden and unaccountable serves 
to confound ; bashfulness and a variety of emotions 
give rise to confusion. 

The haughty man is abashed when he is humbled in 
the eyes of others, or the sinner when he stands con- 
victed ; ‘If Peter was so abashed when Christ gave 
him a, look after his denial; if there was so much 
dread in his looks when he was a prisoner ; how much 
greater will it be when he sits as a judge.’—Souru. 
The wicked man is confounded when his villany is 
suddenly detected ; 


Alas! Tam afraid they have awak’d, 
And ’tis not done: th’ attempt, and not the deed, 
Confounds us !—SHAKSPERARE. 


A modest person may be confused in the presence of 
his superiours; ‘The various evils of disease and 
poverty, pain and sorrow, are frequently derived from 
others; but shame and confusion are supposed to pro- 
seed from ourselves, and to be incurred only by the 
misconduct which they furnish. --HaAWKESWoORTH. 

Abash is always taken in a bad sense: neither the 
scorn of fools, nor the taunts of the oppressor, will 
abash him who has a conscience veid of offence to- 
wards God and man. Tobe confounded is not always 
the consequence of guilt: superstition and ignorance 
are liable to be confounded by extraordinary pheno- 
mena; and Providence sometimes thinks fit to con- 
found the wisdom of the wisest by signs and wonders, 
far above the reach of human comprehension. Con- 
fusion is at the best an infirmity more or less excusa- 
ble according to the nature of the cause: a steady 
mind and a clear head are not easily confused, but per- 
sons of quick sensibility cannot always preserve a 
perfect collection of thought in trying situations, and 
those who have any consciousness of guilt, and are 
not very hardened, will be soon thrown into confusion 
by close interrogatories. 


DISHONOUR, DISGRACE, SHAME. 


Dishonowr implies the state of being without honour, 
or the thing which does away honour ; disgrace signi- 
fies the state of disgrace, or that which causes the dis- 
grace (v. Abase); shame denotes either the feeling of 
being ashamed, or that which causes this feeling. 

Disgrace is more than dishonour, and less than 
shame. ‘he disgrace is applicable to those who are 
not sensible of the dishonour, and the shame for those 
who are not sensible of the disgrace. The tender 
mind is alive to dishonour : those who yield to their 
passions, or are hardened in their vicious courses, are 
alike insensible to disgrace or shame. Dishonour is 
seldom the consequence of any offence, or offered with 
any intention of punishing; it lies mostly in the con= 
sciousness of the individual. Disgrace and shame 
are the direct consequences of misconduct: but the 
former applies to circumstances of less importance 
than the latter; consequently the feeling of being in 
disgrace is not so strong as that of shame. A citizen 
feels it a dishonour not to be chosen to those offices of 

sust and honour for which he considers himself eligi- 


107 


ble; it is a disgrace to a schoolboy to be placed the 
lowest in his class ; which is heightened into shame if 
it brings him into punishment ; 


Like a dull actor now, 
I have forgot my part, and I am out 
Even to a full d¢sgrace.—SHAKSPEARE. 


‘I was secretly concerned to see human nature in so 
much wretchedness and disgrace, but could not for- 
bear smiling to hear Sir Roger advise the old woman 
to avoid all communications with the devil.’—Ap- 
DISON. 

The fear of dishonour acts as a laudable stimulus to 
the discharge of one’s duty; the fear of disgrace or 
shame serves to prevent the commission of vices or 
crimes. A soldier feels it a dishonour not to be placed 
at the post of danger; 


»T is no dishonour for the brave to die.—DrRyDEN. 


But he is not always sufficiently alive to the disgrace 
of being punished, nor is he deterred from his irregu- 
larities by the open shame to which he is sometimes put 
in the presence of his fellow-soldiers ; 


Where the proud theatres disclose the scene 

Which interwoven Britons seem to raise, 

And show the triumph which their shame displays, 
DrRypDxEn. 


As epithets these terms likewise rise in sense, and are 
distinguished by other characteristicks; a dishonourable 
action is that which violates the principles of honour ; 
a disgraceful action is that which reflects disgrace ; a 
shameful action is thatof which one ought to be fully 
ashamed: it is very dishonourable for a man not to 
keep his word, or for a soldier not to maintain his 
post ; 

He did dishonourable find 
Those articles which did our state decrease. 
Danixu. 


It is very disgraceful for a gentleman to associate with 
those who are his inferiours in station and education ; 
‘Masters must correct their servants with gentleness, 
prudence, and mercy, not with upbraiding and dis- 
graceful lJanguage.—TayiLor (Holy Living). It is 
very shameful for a gentleman to use his rank and in 
fluence over the lower orders only to mislead them from 
their duty ; 


This all through that great prince’s pride did fall, 
And came to shameful end.—SPENsER. 


A person is likewise said to be dishonourable who is 
disposed to bring dishonour upon himself; but things 
only are disgraceful or shameful: adishonourable man 
renders himself an outcast among his equals; he must 
then descend to his inferiours, among whom he may 
become familiar with the disgraceful and the shameful: 
men of cultivation are alive to what is dishonourable ; 
men of all stations are alive to that which is for them 
disgraceful, or to that which is in itself shameful: the 
sense of what is dishonourable is to the superiour what 
the sense of the disgraceful is to the inferiour; but the 
sense of what is shameful is independent of rank or 
station, and forms a part of that moral sense which is 
inherent in the breast of every rational creature. Who- 
ever therefore cherishes in himself a lively sense of 
what is dishonourabdle or disgraceful is tolerably secure 
of never committing any thing that is shameful. 


ey 


DISCREDIT, DISGRACE, REPROACH, 
SCANDAL. 


Discredit signifies the loss of credit ; disgrace, the 
loss of grace, favour, or esteem; reproach stands for 
the thing that deserves to be reproached; and scandal 
for the thing that gives scandal or offence. 

The conduct of men in their various relations with 
each other may give rise to the unfavourable sentiment 
which is expressed in common by these terms. Things 
are said to reflect discredit, or disgrace to bring reproach 
or scandal, on the individual. These terms seem to 
rise in sense one upon the other: disgrace is a stronger 
term than discredit; reproach than disgrace; ac 
scandal than reproach. 

Discredit interferes with a man’s credit or respecta 
bility ; disgrace marks him out as an object of unfa- 
vourable distinction; reproach makes him a subject of 
reproachful conversation ; scandal makes him an 


108 


of offence or even abhorrence. As regularity in hours, 
regularity in habits or modes of living, regularity in 
payments, are a credit to a family; so is any deviation 
from this order to its discredit ; as moral rectitude, 
kindness, charity, and benevolence, serve to ensure the 
good-will and esteem of men; so do instances of unfair 
dealing, cruelty, inhumanity, and an unfeeling temper, 
tend to the disgrace of the offender: as a life of dis- 
dnguished virtue or particular instances of moral ex- 
cellence, may cause a man to be spoken of in strong 
terms of commendation; so will flagrant atrocities or a 


course of immorality cause his name and himself to be 


the general subject of reproach: as the profession of a 
Christian with a consistent practice is the greatest or- 
nament which a man can put on: so is the profession 
with an inconsistent practice the greatest deformity 
that can be witnessed; it is calculated to bring a scandal 
on religion itself inthe eyes of those who do not know 
and feel its intrinsick excellencies. 

Discredit depends much on the character, circum- 
stances, and situation of those who discredit and those 
who are discredited. Those who are in responsible 
situations, and have had confidence reposed in them, 
must have a peculiar guard over their conduct not to 
bring discredit on themselves: disgrace depends on the 
temper of men’s minds as well as collateral circum- 
stances; where a nice sense of moral propriety is pre- 
valent in any community, disgrace inevitably attaches 
to a deviation from good morals. Reproach and scandal 
refer more immediately to the nature of the actions than 
the character of the persons; the former being em- 
ployed in general matters; the latter mostly in a reli- 
tious application: it is greatly to the discredit of all 
neadsof publick institutions, when they allow of abuses 
‘hat interfere with the good order of the establishment, 
dr divert it from its original purpose; ‘’T is the duty 
of every Christian to be concerned for the reputation 
or discredit his life may bring on his profession.’— 
Rogers. ‘Whenamanis made up wholly of the dove 
without the least grain of the serpent in his composi- 
tion, he becomes ridiculous in many circumstances of 
his life, and very often discredits his best actions.’— 
Appison. In Sparta the slightest intemperance re- 
flected great disgrace on the offender ; 


And he whose affluence disdain’d a place, 
Brib’d by a title, makes it a disgrace.—BRown. 


In the present age, when the views of men on Chris- 
tianity and its duties are so much more enlightened than 
they ever were, it is a reproach to any nation to con- 
tinue to traffick in the blood of its fellow-creatures ; 
‘The cruelty of Mary’s persecution equalled the deeds 
of those tyrants who have been the reproach to human 
nature’—RoxsrertTson. The blasphemous indecencies 
of which religious enthusiasts are guilty in the excess 
of their zeal is a scandal to all sober-minded Christians ; 


His lustful orgies he enlarged 


Even to the hill of scandal, by the grove 
Of Moloch homicide.—Mi1Lron. 


INFAMOUS, SCANDALOUS. 


Infamous, like infamy (v. Infamy), is applied to both 
persons and things; scandalous, or causing scandal, 
only to things: a character is ¢nfamous, or a transaction 
is infamous; but a transaction only is scandalous, 
Infamous and scandalous are both said of that which 
is calculated to excite great displeasure in the minds of 
all who hear it, andto degrade the offenders in the 
general estimation; but the infamous seems to be that 
which produces greater publicity, and more general 
reprehension, than the scandalous, consequently is that 
which is more serious in its nature, and a greater vio- 
lation of good morals. Many of the leaders in the 
French revolution rendered themselves infamous by 
their violence, their rapine, and their murders; ‘ There 
is no crime more infamous than the violation of truth.’ 
—Jounson. Thetrick which was played upon the sub- 
scribers to the South Sea Company was a scandalous 
fraud; ‘It isa very great, though sad and scandalous 
truth, that rich men are esteemed and honoured, while 
the ways by which they grow rich are abhorred.’— 
So0uTH 


INFAMY, IGNOMINY, OPPROBRIUM. 
Infamy is the opposite to good fame; it consists in 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


anevilreport; ignominy, from nomen a name, signifies 
an ill name, a stained name; opprobrium, a Latin 
word, compounded of op or ob and probrum, signifies 
the highest degree of reproach or stain. 

The idea of discredit or disgrace in the highest pos 
sible degree is common to all these terms: but infamy 
is that which attaches more to the thing than to the 
person ; 7gnominy is thrown upon the person; and op 
probrium is thrown upon the agent rather than the 
action. : 

The infamy causes either the person or thing to be 
ill spoken of by all; abhorreiice of both is expressed by 
every mouth, and the ill report spreads from mouth to 
mouth; ignominy causes the name and the person to 
be held in contempt; and to become debased in the 
eyes of others: opprobrium causes the person to be 
spoken of in severe terms of reproach, and to be 
shunned as something polluted. ‘The infamy ofa 
traitorous proceeding is increased by the addition of 
ingratitude; the ignominy of a publick punishment is 
increased by the wickedness of the offender ; oppro 
brium sometimes falls upon the innocent, when cir 
cumstances seem to convict them of guilt. 

Infamy is bestowed by the publick voice; it does not 
belong to one nation or one age, but to every age: the 
infamy of a base transaction, as the massacre of the 
Danes in England, or of the Hugonots in France, will 
be handed down to the latest posterity ; ‘The share of 
infamy that is likely to fall to the lot of each individuat 
in publick acts is smallindeed.’—BurkKE. Jgnominy is 
brought on a person by the act of the magistrate: the 
publick sentence of the law, and the infliction of that 
sentence, exposes the name to publick scorn; the igno- 
miny, however, seldom extends beyond the individuals 
who are immediately concerned in it: every honest 
man, however humble hisstation and narrow his sphere, 
would fain preserve his name from being branded with 
the ignominy of either himself, or any of his family, 
suffering death on the gallows ; 


For strength from truth divided, and from just, - 
Tilaudable naught merits but dispraise, 
And ignominy.—MILTON. 


Opprobrium is the judgement passed by the publick; 
it is more silent and even more confined than the infamy 
and the ignominy; individuals are exposed to it ac 
cording to the nature of the imputations under which 
they lie: every good man would be anxious to escape 
the opprobrium of having forfeited his integrity ; 


Nor he their outward only with the skins 

Of beasts, but inward nakedness much more. 

Opprobrious, with his robe of righteousness 

Arraying, cover’d from his father’s sight. 
MILTON. 


TO REVILE, VILIFY. 


Revile, from the Latin vilis, signifies to reflect upon 
a person, or retort upon him that which is vile: to 
vilify, signifies to make a thing vile, that is, to set it 
forth as vile. : 

To revile is a personal act, it is addressed directly to 
the object of offence, and is addressed for the purpose of 
making the person vile in his own eyes : to vilify is an 
indirect attack which serves to make the object appear 
vile in the eyes of others. Revile is said only of per 
sons, for persons only are reviled ; but vilify is said 
mostly of things, for things are often vilified. To revile 
is contrary to all Christian duty ; it is commonly re- 
sorted to by the most worthless, and practised upon the 
most worthy ; 

But chief he gioried with licentious style, 

To lash the great, and monarchs to revile.—PopE. 
To vilify is seldom justifiable ; for we cannot vilify 
without using improper language; it is seldom resorted 
to but for the gratification of ill nature: ‘There is no- 
body so weak of invention that cannot make some 
little stories to wilzfy his enemy.’—ADDISON. 


REPROACH, CONTUMELY, OBLOQUY. 


Reproach has the same signification as given under 
To Blame; contumely, from contumeo, that 1s, contra 
tumeo, signifies to swell up against; obloquy, from ob 
and loquor, signifies speaking against or to the dis 
paragement of. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


‘The idea of contemptuous or angry treatment of 
uthers is common to all these terms; but reproach is 
the general, contwmely and obloquy are the particular 
terms Reproach is either deserved or undeserved ; 
the name of Puritan is applied as a term of reproach 
to such as affect greater purity than others; the name 
of Christian isa name of reproach in ‘Turkey ; but re- 
proach taken absolutely is always supposed to be unde- 
served, and to be itself a vice; 


Has foul reproach a privilege from heav’n ?—Popr. 
p 8 


Contumely is always undeserved; it is the insolent 
swelling of a worthless person against merit in dis- 
tress; our Saviour was exposed to the contumely of 
the Jews; ‘The royal captives followed in the train, 
amid the horrid yells, and frantick dances, and in- 
famous contumelies, of the furies of hell..—Burxg. 
Obloquy is always supposed to be deserved; it is ap- 
plicable to those whose conduct has rendered them 
objects of general censure, and whose name therefore 
has almost become a reproach., A man who uses his 
power only to oppress those who are connected with 
him will naturally and deservedly bring upon himself 
much obloguy ; ‘Reasonable moderation hath freed us 
from being subject unto that kind of obloguy, whereby 
as the church of Rome dcth, under the colour cf love 
towards those things which lie harmless, maintain ex- 
tremely most hurtful corruptions ; so we, peradvénture 
might be upbraided, that under colour of hatred to- 
wards those things that are corrupt, we are on the 
other side as extreme, even against most harmless ordi- 
nances.’—HooxkEr. e 


REPROACHFUL, ABUSIVE, SCURRILOUS. 


Reproachful, when applied to the person, signifies 
full of reproaches ; when to the thing, deserving of 
reproach: abusive is only applied to the person, signi- 
fying after the manner of abuse: scurrilous, from 
scurra a buffoon, is employed as an epithet either for 
persons or things, signifying using scurrility, or the 
language of a buffoon. The conduct of a person is 
reproachful in as much as it provokes or is entitled to 
the reproaches of others; the language of a person is 
reproachful when it abounds in reproaches, or par- 
takes of the nature of a reproach: a person is abusive 
who indulges himself in abuse or abusive language: 
and he is scurrilous who adopts scurrility 01 scur~1- 
dous language. 

When applied te the same object, whether to the 
pérson or to the thing, they rise in sense. the reproach- 
ful is less than the abusive, and this than the scur- 
rilous: the reproachful is sometimes warranted by 
the provocation; but the abusive and scurrilous are 
always unwarrantable: reproachful language may be 
consistent with decency and propriety of speech, but 
when the term is taken absolutely, it is generally in the 
bad sense; ‘Honour teaches a man not to revenge a 
contumelious or reproachful word, but to be above 
it’—Soutru. Abusive and scurrilous language are 
outrages against the laws of good breeding, if not of 
morality ; 


Thus envy pleads a nat’ral claim 

To persecute the Muse’s fame, 

Our poets in all times abusive, 

¥rom Homer down to Pope inclusive. 
SwIrt. 


¢ Let your mirth be ever void of all scurrzlity and biting 
words to any man.’—Sir Henry Sipnzy. A parent 
maay sometimes find it necessary to address an unruly 
son in reproachful terms; or one friend may adopt a 
reproachful tone to another; none, however, but the 
lowest orders of men, and those only when their angry 
passions are awakened, will descend to abusive or 
scurrilous language. 


TO REPROBATE, CONDEMN. 


To reprobate, which is a variation of reproach, is 
much stronger than to condemn, which bears the same 
general meaning as givenunder Jo Blame; we always 
condemn when we reprobate, but not vice versa: to 
reprobate is to condemn in strong and reproachful lan- 

uage. 
fisbord in society, and to loosen the ties by which men 
are bound to each other; ‘Simulation (according to 
mv Lord Chesterfield) is by no means to be renrobated 


We reprobate all measures which tend to sow | 


L109 


as a disguise for chagrin or an engine of wit.’—Mac- 
KENZIE. We condemn all disrespectful language to 
wards superiours ; 
I see the right, and I approve it too; 
Condemn the wrong, and yet the wrong pursue. 
TATE. 


We reprobate only the thing ; we condemn the person 
also: any act of disobedience in a child cannot be too 
strongly reprobated; a person must expect to be con- 
demned when he involves himself in embarrassments 
through his own imprudence. 


ABUSE, INVECTIVE. 


Abuse, which from the Latin abutor, signifying to 
injure by improperly using, is here taken in the meta- 
phorical application for ill-treatment of persons; invec- 
tive, from the Latin znveho, signifies to bear upon or 
against. Harsh and unseemly censure is the idea 
common to these terms; but the former is employed 
more properly against the person, the latter against the 
thing. 

Abuse is addressed to the individual, and mostly by 
word of mouth: invective is communicated mustly by 
writing. Abuse is dictated by anger, which throws oft 
ail constraint, and vioiates all decency: invective is 
dictated by party spirit, or an intemperate warmth of 
feeling in matters of opinion. Abuse is always re- 
sorted to by the vulgar in their private quarrels: in- 
vective is the ebullition of zeal and ill-nature in publick 
concerns. 

The more rude and ignorant the man, the more 
liable he is to indulge in abuse ; ‘ At an entertainment 
given by Pisistratus to some of his intimates, Thra- 
sippus, a man of violent passion, and inflamed with 
Wine, took some occasion, not recorded, to break out 
into the most violent abuse and insult.’—Cumuerr- 
LAND. The more restless and opiniated the par 
tisan, Whether in religion or politicks, the more ready 
he is to deal in invective ; ‘This is a true way of 
examining a libel; and when men consider that no 
man living thinks hetter of their heroes and patrons for 
the panegyrick given them, none can think themselves 
lessened by their invective.—StruLe. We must ex- 
pect to meet with abuse from the vulgar whom we 
offend; and if we are in high stations, our conduct will 
draw forth invective from busybodies, whom spleen 
has converted into oppositionists. 


DECLAIM, INVEIGH. 


Declaim, in Latin declamo, that is, de and clamo, 
signifies literally to cry in a set form of words; inveigh 
is taken in the same sense as given in the preceding 
article. 

To declaim is to speak either for or against a person; 
declaiming is in all cases a noisy kind of oratory; ‘It 
is usual for masters to make their boys declaim on both 
sides of an argument.’—Swirr. To inveigh signifies 
always to speak against the object ; in this latter appli- 
tion publick men and publick measures are subjects for 
the declaimer; private individuals afford subjects for 
inveighing ; the former is under the influence of parti- 
cular opinions or prejudices; the latter is the fruit of 
personal resentment or displeasure: patriots (as they 
are called) are always declaiming against the conduct 
of those in power, or the state of the nation; and not 
unfrequently they profit by the opportunity of indulging. 
their private pique by inveighing against particular 
members of the government who have disappointed 
their expectations of advancement. <A declaimer is 
noisy ; he is a man of words; he makes long and Joud 
speeches; ‘Tully (was) a good orator, yet no good 
poet; Sallust, a good historiographer, but no good de- 
claimer.—FOTHERBY. An inveigher is virulent and 
personal; he enters into private details, and often 
indulges his malignant feelings under an affecied re- 
gard for morality; ‘Ill-tempered and extravagant in 
vectives against papists, made by men, whose persons 
wanting authority, as much as their speeches do rea 
son, do nothing else but set an edge on our adversaries" 
sword.’—JacKson. Although both these words may 
be applied to moral objects, yet declamations are more 
directed towards the thing, and invectives against the 


person; ‘The grave and the merry have equally 
thought therss!ves ot ‘iherty ta conelnide, either with 


110 


declamatory comptaints, or satirical censures of female 
folly.—Jounson. 


Scarce were the flocks refresh’d with morning dew, 
When Damon stretch’d beneath an olive shade, 
And wildly staring upward thus znveigh'd 

Against the conscious gods. -DRYDEN. 


TO BLAME, REPROVE, REPROACH, UPBRAID, 
CENSURE, CONDEMN. 


Blame, in French blamer, probably from the Greek 
BeBddupat, perfect of the verb BAdxrw to hurt, signi- 
fying to deal harshly with; reprove comes from the 
Latin reprobo, which signifies the contrary of probo, 
to approve; reproach, in French veprocher, com- 
pounded of re and proche, proximus near, signifies to 
cast back upon a person; wpbraid, compounded of up 
or upon, and braid or breed, signifies to hatch against 
one; censure, in French censure, Latin censura, the 
censorship, or the office of censor; the censor being a 
Roman magistrate, who took cognizance of the morals 
and manners of the people, and punished offences 
against either; condemn, in French condamner, Latin 
condemno, compounded of con and damno, from 
damnum, a loss or penalty, signifies to sentence to 
some penalty. 

The expression of one’s disapprobation of a person, 
or of that which he has done, is the common idea in 
the signification of these terms; but to blame expresses 
less than to reprove. We simply charge with a fault 
in blaming ; but in reproving, severity is mixed with 
the charge. Reproach expresses more than either; it 
is to blame acrimoniously. We need not hesitate to 
blame as occasion may require; but it is proper to, be 
cautious how we deal out reproof where the necessity 
of the case does not fully warrant it; and it is highly 
culpable to reproach without the most substantial 
reason, 

To blame and reprove are the acts of a superiour ; to 
reproack, unbraid, that of an equal: to censure and 
condemn leave the relative condition of the parties 
andefined. Masters blame or reprove their servants; 
parents their children; friends and acquaintances 
reproach and upbraid each other ; persons of all con- 
ditions may censure or be censured, condemn or be con- 
demned, according to circumstances. 

Blame and reproof are dealt out on every ordinary 
occasion; reproach and upbraid respect personal 
matters, and always that which affects the moral 
character ; censure and condemnation are provoked by 
faults and misconduct of different descriptions. Every 
fault, however trivial, may expose a person to blame, 
particularly if he perform any office for the vulgar, 
who are never contented; 


Chafe not thyself abouu the rabble’s censure: 
They blame or praise, bur as one leads the other. 
PROWDE. 


Intentional errours, however small, seem necessarily to 
call for reproof, ana yet it is a mark of an imperious 
temper to substitute reproof in the place of admoni- 
tion, when the latter might possibly answer the pur- 
pose ; ‘In all termsof reproof, when the sentence ap- 
pears to arise from pérsonal hatred or passion, it is not 
then made the cause vf mankind, but a misunder- 
standing between two persons.’—STexLe. There is 
nothing which provokes a reproach sooner than ingra- 
litude, although the offender is not entitled to so much 
notice from the injured person ; 


The prince replies: ‘ Ah cease, divinely fair, 
Nor add reproaches to the wounds I bear.’—Popz. 


Mutual upbraidings commonly follow between those 
who have mutually contributed to their misfortunes ; 


Have we not known tnee, slave! Of all the host, 
The man who acts the least wpbraids the most. 
Pops. 


The defective execution of a work is calculated to 
draw down censure upon its author, particularly if he 
betray a want of modesty ; 


Though ten times worse themselves, you'll frequent 
view 
hose who with keenest rage will censure you.—PiTT. 


Che mistakes o% a general, or a minister of state, will 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


provoke condemnation, particularly if his integrity be 
called in question; 


Thus they in mutual accusation spent 
The fruitless hours, but neither self-condemning, 
Minton. 


Blame, reproof, and upbraiding, are always ad- 
dressed directly to the individual in person; reproach, 
censure, and condemnation, are sometimes conveyed 
through an indirect channel, or not addressed at all to 
the party who is the object of them. Whena master 
blames his servant, or a parent reproves his child, or 
one friend upbratds another, he directs his discourse to 
him to express his disapprobation. A man willalways 
be reproached by his neighbours for the vices he com 
mits, however he may fancy himself screened from 
their observation; ‘The very regret of being surpassed 
in any valuable quality, by a person of the same abili- 
ties with ourselves, will reproach our own laziness, 
and even shame us intoimitation.—Roerrs. Writers 
censure each other in their publications; 


Men may censure thine (weakness) 
The gentler, if severely thou exact not 
More strength from me, than ii thyself was found. 
Mitton 


The conduct of individuals is sometimes condemned by 
the publick atlarge ; ‘They who approve my conduct in 
this particular are much more numerous than those 
who condemn it.’—-SPECTATOR. 

Blame, reproach, upbraid, and condemn, may be ap- 
plied to ourselves; reproof and censure are applied to 
others: we blame ourselves for acts of imprudence; 
our consciences reproach us for our weaknesses, ard 
upbraid or condemn us for our sins. 


REPREHENSION, REPROOF. 


Personal blame or censure is implied by both these 
terms, but the former is much milder than the latter. 
By reprehension the personal independence is not sc 
sensibly affected as in the case of reproaf : people of 
all ages and stations whose conduct is exposed to the 
investigation of others are liable to reprekension ; but 
children only or such as are in a subordinate capacity 
are exposed to reproof. The reprehension amounts 
to little more than passing an unfavourable sentence 
upon the conduct of another ; ‘ When a man feels the 
reprehension of a friend, seconded by his own heart, 
he is easily heated into resentment.’—JoHNsON. Re- 
proof adds to the reprehension an unfriendly address 
to the offender ; ‘ There is an oblique way of reproof 
which takes off from the sharpness of it. —STErELe 
The master of a school may be exposed to the repre 
hension of the parents for any supposed impropriety: 
his scholars are subject to his frequent reproof. 


TO CHECK, CHIDE, REPRIMAND, REPROVE, 
REBUKE. 


Check derives its figurative signification from the 
check-mate, amovement in the game of chess, whereby 
one stops one’s adversary from making a further move ; 
whence to check signifies to stop the course of a per 
son, and on this occasion by the exercise of authority ; 
chide isin Saxon cidan, probably connected with cyldan 
toscold; reprimand is compounded of the privative 
syllable repri and mand, in Latin mando to commend, 
signifying not to commend; reprove, in French re- 
prouver, Latin reprobo, is compounded of the privative 
syllable ve and probo, signifying to find the contrary of 
good, that is, to find bad, to blame; rebuke is com- 
pounded of re and duke, in French bouche the mouth, 
signifying to stop the mouth. 

The:-idea of expressing one’s disapprobation of a 
person’s conduct is common to all these terms. 

A person is checked that he may not continue to do 
what is offensive; he is chidden for what he has done 
that he may not repeat it: impertinent and forward 
people require to be checked, that they may not become 
intolerable ; 


I hate when vice can bolt her arguments, 


And virtue has no tongue to check her pride. 
MILTon. 


Thoughtless people are chidden when they give hurtful 
proofs of their carelessness; ‘ What had he to do te 
chide at me ?—SHAKSPEARE. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES, 


People are checked by actions and looks, as well as 
words ; 


But if aclam’rous vile plebeian rose, 
Him with reproof he check’d, or tam’d with blows. 
— SROPE. 


They are chidden by words only: a timid person is 
easily checked; the want even of due encouragement 
will serve to damp his resolution: the young are per- 
petually falling into irregularities which require to be 
chidden ; 

His house was known to all the vagrant train, 

He chid their wanderings, but reliev’d their pain. 

GOLDSMITH. 


To chide marks a stronger degree of displeasure than 
reprimand, and reprimand than reprove or rebuke ; a 
person may chide or reprimand in anger, he reproves 
and rebukes with coolness: great offences call forth 
chid.ngs ; omissions or mistakes occasion or require a 
reprimand; ‘This sort of language was very severely 
reprimanded by the Censor, who told the criminal 
‘s that he spoke in contempt of the court.” ’—AppIsoNn 
AND STEELE. Irregularities of conduct give rise to 
reproof ; ‘He who endeavours only the happiness of 
him whom he reproves, will always have the satisfac- 
tion of either obtaining or deserving kindness.’—Joun- 
son. Improprietics of behaviour demand rebuke ; 
‘With all the infirmities of his disciples he calmly 
bore; and his rebukes were mild when their provoca- 
tions were great.’—BuairR. 

Chiding and reprimanding are employed for offences 
against the individual, and in cases where the greatest 
disparity exists in the station of the parties; a child 
is chid by his parent; a servant is reprimanded by his 
nvaster. 

Reproving and rebuking have less to do with the 
relation or station of the parties, than with the nature 
of the offence: wisdom, age, and experience, or a spi- 
ritual mission, give authority to reprove or rebuke those 
whose conduct has violated any law, human or divine: 
the prophet Nathan reproved king David for his 
heinous offences against his Maker; our Saviour re- 
buked Peter for his presumptuous mode of sveech. 


TO ACCUSE, CHARGE, IMPEACH, ARRAIGN. 


Accuse, in Latin accuso, compounded of ac or ad 
and cuso or causa a cause or trial, signifies to bring to 
trial; charge, from the word cargo a burden, signities 
to lay a burden ; impeach, in French empecher to hinder 
or disturb, compounded of em or in and pes the foot, 
signifies to set one’s foot or one’s self against an- 
other; arraign, compounded of ar or ad and raign 
or range, signifies to range, or set at the bar of a 
tribunal. 

The idea of asserting the guilt of another iscommon 
to these terms. .Accuse in the proper sense is applied 
particularly to crimes, but it is also applied to every 
species of offence; charge may be applied to crimes, 
but is used more commonly for breaches of moral con- 
duct; we accuse a person of murder; we charge him 
with dishonesty. 

Accuse is properly a formal action; charge is an in- 
Formal action ; criminals are accused, and their accusa- 
tion is proved in a court of judicature to be true or 
false; ‘The Countess of Hertford, demanding an au- 
dience of the Queen, laid before her the whole series 
of his mother’s cruelty, and exposed the improbability 
of an accusation, by which he was charged with an 
intent to commit a murder that could produce no ad- 
vantage.’ —_Jounson (Life of Savage). Any person 
may be charged, and the charge may be either sub- 
stantiated or refutedin the judgement of a third per- 
son; ‘Nor was this irregularity the only charge which 
Lord Tyrconnel brought against him. Having given 
him a collection of valuable books stamped with 
his own arms, he had the mortification to see them 
in a short time exposed for sale..—Jounson (Life of 
Savage). 

Impeach and arraign are both species of accusing ; 
the former in application to statesmen and state con- 
cerns, the latter in regard to the general conduct or 
principles ; with this difference, that he who impeaches 
only asserts the guilt, but does not determine it; but 
those who arraign aiso take upon themselves to de- 
tide: statesmen are impeached for misdemeanours in 


11] 


the administration of government; ‘ ristogiton, with 
revengeful cunning, ¢mpeached several courtiers and 
intimates of the tyrant’—CumMBERLAND. Kings ar 
raign governours of provinces and subordinate princes, 
and in this manner kings are sometimes arraigned be- 
fore mock tribunals: our Saviour was arraigned before 
Pilate; and creatures in the madness of presumption 
arraign their Creator; ‘O the inexpressible horrour 
that will seize upon a poor sinner, when he stands ar 
raigned at the bar of Divine justice.’—Souru. 


TO ACCUSE, CENSURE. 


To accuse (v. To Accuse) is only to assert the guilt 
of another; to censure (v To Censure) is to take that 
guilt for granted. We accuse only to make known the 
offence, to provoke inquiry; we censure in order to 
inflict a punishment. An accusation may be false or 
true; a censure mild or severe: Itis extremely wrong 
to accuse another without sufficient grounds; ‘If the 
person accused maketh his innocence plainly to appear 
upon his trial, the accuser is immediately put to an 
ignominious death.—Swirr. But still worse to cen- 
sure him without the most substantial grounds; ‘A 
statesman, who is possesed of real merit, should look 
upon his political censurers with the same neglect that 
a good writer regards his criticks.’—ApDDISON. 

Every one is at liberty to accuse another of offences 
which he knows him for a certainty to have committed ; 
but none can censure Who are not authorized by their 
age or station. ccusing is for the most part employed 
for publick offences, or for private offences of much 
greater magnitude than those which call for censwre ; 
‘Mr. Locke accuses those of great negligence who 
discourse of moral things with the least obscurity in 
the terms they make use of.’--BupérLu. ‘If any 
man measure his words by his heart, and speak as he 
thinks, and do not express more kindness to every 
man than men usually have for any man, he can 
hardly escape the censure of the want of breeding.’—- 
TILLOTSON. 


TO CENSURE, ANIMADVERT, CRITICISE. 


To censure (v. To Accuse) expresses less than to 
animadvert oY criticise ; one may always censure when 
one animadverts or critictses; animadvert, in Latin 
animadverto, i.e. animum verto ad, signifies to turn the 
mind towards an object, and, in this case, with the view 
of finding fault with it: to criticise, from the Greek 
kplyw to judge, signifies to pass a judgement upon an 
other. 

To censure and animadvert are both personal, the 
one direct, the other indirect; criticism is directed to 
things, and not to persons only. 

Censuring consists in finding some fault real or sup- 
posed; it refers mostly to the conduct of individuals. 
Animadvert consists in suggesting some errour or im- 
propriety; it refers mostly to matters of opinion and 
dispute ; criticism consists in minutely examining the 
intrinsick characteristicks, and appreciating the merits 
of each individually, or the whole collectively ; it refers 
to matters of science and learning. 

To censure requires no more than simple assertion : 
its justice or propriety often rests on the authority of 
the individual ; ‘Many an author has been dejected at 
the censure of one whom he has Jooked upon as an 
idiot.—AppIson. Animadversions require to be accom- 
panied with reasons; those who animadvert on the 
proceedings or opinions of others must state some 
grounds for their objections; ‘I wish, Sir, you would 
do us the favour to animadvert frequently upon the 
false taste the town is in, with relation to the plays as 
well as operas.’—STEELE. Criticism is altogether argu- 
mentative and illustrative: it takes nothing for granted, 
it analyzes and decomposes, it compares and combines, 
it asserts and supports the assertions; ‘It is ridiculous 
for any man to criticise on the works of another, who 
has not distinguished himself by his own perform- 
ances.’— ADDISON. 

The office of the censurer is the easiest and least 
honourable of the three; it may be assumed by igno- 
rance and impertinence, it may be performed for the 
purpose of indulging an angry or imperious temper, 
The task of animadverting is delicate; it may be ree 
sorted to for the indulgence of an overweening self. 
conceit. The office of a critick is loth ardnous and 


12 


honourable ; it cannot be filled by any one incompetent 
or the charge without exposing his arrogance and folly 
o merited contempt. 


TO CENSURE, CARP, CAVIL. 


Censure has the same general meaning as given in 
the preceding articles (v. To Accuse) ; carp, in Latin 
carpo, signifies to pluck; cavil, in French caviller, 
in Latin cavillor, from cavillum a hollow man, and 
cavus hollow, signifies to be unsound or unsubstantial 
jn speech. 

To censure respects positive errours; to carp and 
cavil have regard to what is trivial or imaginary; the 
former is employed for errours in persons; the latter 
for supposed defects in things. Censures are frequently 
necessary from those who have the authority to use 
them; a good father will censure his children when 
their conduct is censurable: but censure may likewise 
be frequently unjust and frivolous; ‘From aconscious- 
ness of his own integrity, a man assumes force enough 
to despise the little censures of ignorance and malice.’— 
BupGELL. Carping and cavilling are resorted to only 
to indulge ill-nature or self-conceit; whoever owes 
another a grudge will be most disposed to carp at all he 
does in order to lessen him in the esteem of others: 
those who contend more for victory than truth will be 
apt to cavil when they are at a loss for fair argument: 
party politicians carp at the measures of administra- 
tion; ‘It is always thus with pedants; they will ever 
be carping, if a gentleman or man of honour puts pen 
to paper.’.—STrELE. Infidels cavzl at the evidences of 
Christianity, because: they are determined to disbe- 
ieve; ‘Envy and cavil are the natural fruits of lazi- 
ness and ignorance, which was probably the reason that 
in the heathen mythology Momus is said to be the son 
of Nox and Somnus, of darkness and sleep.’-—Appison. 


ANIMADVERSION, CRITICISM, STRICTURE. 


Animadversion (v. To Censure) includes censure and 
reproof; criticism implies scrutiny and judgement, 
whether for or against; and stricture, from the Latin 
strictura and stringo to touch lightly upon, compre- 
hends a partial investigation mingled with censure. 
We animadvert on a person’s opinions by contradicting 
or correcting them; we criticise a person’s works by 
minutely and rationally exposing their imperfections 
and beauties; we pass strictures on publick measures 
by descanting on them cursorily, and censuring them 
partially. 

Animadversions are too personal to be impartial ; 
consequently they are seldom just; they are mostly 
resorted to by those who want to build up one system 
on the ruins of another; but the term is sometimes 
employed in an indifferent sense; ‘'These things fall 
under a province you have partly pursued already, and 
therefure demand your animadversion for the regu- 
lating so noble an entertainment as that of the stage.’— 
STEELE. Criticism is one of the most important and 
honourable departments of literature; a critick ought 
justly to weigh the merits and demerits of authors, but 
of the two his office is rather to blame than to praise ; 
much less injury will accrue to the cause of literature 
from the severity than from the laxity of criticism; 

Just criticism demands not only that every beauty or 
blemish be minutely pointed out in its different degree 
and kind, but also that the reason and foundation of 
excellencies and faults be accurately ascertained.’— 
Warton. Stricturcs are mostly the vehicles of party 
spleen ; like most ephemeral productions, they are too 
superficial to be entitled to serious notice; but this term 
is 2iso used in an indifferent sense for cursory critical 
remarks; ‘ T’o the end of most plays I have added short 
strictures, containing a general censure of faults or 
praise of excellence.’—JouHNSON. 


COMPLAINT, ACCUSATION. 


Both these terms are employed in regard to the con- 
duct of others, but the complaint, from the verb to com- 
plain, is mostly made in matters that personally affect 
the complainant; the accusation (v. to Accuse) is made 
ef matters in general, but especially those of a moral 
nature. A complaint is made for the sake of obtaining 
redress; an accusation is made for the sake of ascer- 


a NSD 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


taining the fact or bringing topunishment. A complavse 
may be frivolous; an accusation false. People in 
subordinate stations should be careful to give no cause 
for complaint ; ‘On this occasion (of an interview with 
Addison), Pope made his complaint with frankness and 
spirit, asa man undeservedly neglected and opposed.’— 
Jounson. The most guarded conduct will not protect 
any person from the unjust accusations of the maleyo- 
lent; ‘With guilt enter distrust and discord, mutual 
accusation and stubborn self-defence.’—Jounson. 


. 


TO FIND FAULT WITH, BLAME, 
OBJECT TO. 


All these terms denote not simply feeling, but atso 
expressing dissatisfaction with some person or thing. 
To jind fault with signifies here to point out a fault. 
either in some person or thing; to blame is said only of 
the person ; object is applied to the thing only: we find 
fault with a person for his behaviour; we find fuult 
with our seat, our conveyance, and the like; we blame 
a person for his temerity or his improvidence; we 
object to a measure that is proposed. We jind fault 
with or blame that which has been done; we object to 
‘that which is to be done. 

Finding fault isa familiar action applied to matters 
of personal convenience or taste ; blame and object to, 
particularly the latter, are applied to serious objects. 
Finding fault is often the fruit of a discontented 
temper: there are some whom nothing will please, anu 
who are ever ready to find fault with whatever comes 
in their way; ‘Tragi-comedy you have yourself found 
fault with very justly..—Bup@érLi. Blame is a matter 
of discretion; we blame frequently in order to correct ; 
‘It isa most certain rule in reason and moral philosophy, 
that where there is no choice, there can be no blame.’ 
—Sovuts. Odjecting to is an affair either of caprice 
or necessity ; some capriciously object to that which is 
proposed to them merely from a spirit of opposition ; 
others object to a thing from substantial reasons ; ‘Men 
in all deliberations find ease to be of the negative side, 
to object, and foretel difficulties.’—-Bacon. 


TO OBJECT, OPPOSE. 


To object, from ob and jacio to cast, is to cast in the 
way ; to oppose is to place in the way ; there is, there- 
fore, very little original difference, except that casting is 
a more momentary and sudden proceeding, placing is a 
more premeditated action; which distinction, at the 
same time, corresponds with the use of the terms in 
ordinary life: to object to a thing is to propose or start 
something against it; but to opposeit is to set one’s self 
up steadily against it: one objects to ordinary matters, 
that require no reflection; one opposes matters that call 
for deliberation, and afford serious reasons for and 
against: a parent objects to his child’s learning the 
classicks, or to his running about the streets ; he opposes 
his marriage when he thinks the connexion or the cir- 
cumstances not desirable: we object to a thing from 
our own particular feelings; we oppose a thing because 
we judge it improper; capricious or selfish people will 
object to every thing that comes across their own hu- 
mour;.‘About this time, an Archbishop of York 
objected to clerks (recommended to benefices by the 
Pope), because they were ignorant of English.’—Tyr- 
wuitt. Those who oppose think it necessary to assign, 
at least, a reason for their opposition ; 


*T was of no purpose to oppose, 
She ’d hear to no excuse in prose.—Swirt. 


OBJECTION, DIFFICULTY, EXCEPTION. 


The objection (v. Demur) is here general; it compre- 
hends both the difficulty and the exception, which are 
but species of the objection; the objeetion and the diffi 
culty are started; the exception is made; the objection 
to a thing is in general that which renders it less desi 
rable; but the difficulty is that which renders it less 
practicable; there is an objection against every scheme 
which incurs a serious risk ; ‘I would not desire what 
you have written to be omitted, unless I had the merit 
of removing your objection.’—Porr. The want of 
means to begin, or resources to carry on a scheme, are 
serious difficulties ; ‘In the examination of every great 
and comprehensive plan, such as that of Christianity 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


*uficuliies may occur.’—Bxiarr. In application to 
moral or intellectual subjects, the objection interferes 
with one’s decision; the difficulty causes perplexity in 
the mind; ‘ They mistake dificudties for impossibili- 
ties ; a pernicious mistake certainly, and the more per- 
nicious, for that men are seldom convinced till their 
convictions do them nogood.—Sourn. ‘Thereis ever 
between all estates a secret war. I know well this 
speech is the objection, and not the decision; and that 
it is after refuted.—Bacon. 

The objection and exception both respect the nature, 
the moral tendency, or moral consequences of a thing ; 
but the objection may be frivolous or serious ; the ez- 
ception is something serious: the objection is positive ; 
the exception is relatively considered, that is, the thing 
excepted from other things, as not good, and conse- 
quently objectedto. Objections are madesometimes to 
proposals for the meresake of getting rid of an engage- 
ment: those who do not wish to give themselves trou- 
ble find an easy method of disengaging themselves, by 
making objections te every proposition ; ‘ Whoever 
makes such objections against an hypothesis, hath a 
right to be heard, let his temper and genius be what it 
will’—BurnetT. Lawyers make exceptions to charges 
which are sometimes not sufficiently substantiated : 
‘ When they deride our ceremonies as vain and frivo- 
lous, were it hard to apply their exceptions, even to those 
civil ceremonies, which at the coronation, in parlia- 
ment, and all courts of justice, are used.’—CRANMER. 
In all engagements entered into, it is necessary to make 
exceptions to the parties, whenever there is any thing 
eaceptionable in their characters: the present promis- 
~uous diffusion of knowledge among the poorer orders 

s very objectionable on many grounds ; the course of 
eading, which they commonly pursue, is without ques- 
ion highly exceptionable. 


———e 


TO CONTRADICT, OPPOSE, DENY 


To contradict, from the Latin contra and dictum, sig- 
nifies a speech against a speech; to oppose, in French 
opposer, Latin oppesui, perfect of eppono from op or ob 
and pono, signifies to throw in the way or against a 
ihing ; to deny, in French denier, Latin denego, is com- 
pounded of de, ne, and ago or dico, signifying to say no. 

To contradict, as the origin of the word sufficiently 
denotes, is to set up assertion against assertion, and is 
therefore a mode of opposition, whether used in a gene- 
ral or a particular application. Logicians call those 
propositions contradictory which, in all their terms, are 
most completely opposed to each other; as ‘All men 
axe liars;’ ‘Nomen are liars.’ A contradiction neces- 
sarily supposes a verbal, though not necessarily a per- 
sonal, opposition; a person may unintentionally con- 
tradict himself, as is frequently the case with liars; 
and two persons may contradict each other without 
knowing what either has asserted; ‘The Jews hold 
that in case two rabbies should contradict one another, 
they were yet bound to believe the contradictory asser- 
tions of both.’—Souru. 

But although contradicting must be more or less 
verbal, yet, in an extended application of the term, the 
contradiction may be implied in the action rather than 
in direct words, as when a person by his good conduct 
contradicts the sianders of his enemies; ‘ There are 
many who are fond of contradicting the common re- 
ports of fame.’—-Apptson. In this application, contra- 
dict and oppose are clearly distinguished from each 
other. So likewise in personal disputes contradiction 
implies opposition only as far as relates to the words; 
opposing, on the other hand, comprehends not only the 
spirit of the action, but also a great diversity in the 
mode; we may contradict from necessity, or in self- 
defence; we oppose from conviction, or a less honour- 
able nature; we contradict by a direct negative; we 
oppose by means of argument or otherwise. It is a 
breach of péliteness ever to contradict flatly; itis a 
vi¢lation of the moral law to oppose without the most 
su vstantial grounds; 


; f That tongue 
Inspir’d with contradiction durst oppose 
A third part of the gods.—Mitron. 


To contradict and to deny may be both considered as 
modes of verbal opposition, but one contradicts an as- 
sertion, and denies a fact; the contradiction implies 
the setting up one person’s authority or opinion against 

& 


113 


that of another; the denial implies the maintaining a 
person’s veracity in opposition to the charges or insi- 
nuations of others. Contradicting is commonly em 
ployed in speculative matters; ‘If a gentleman is a 
little sincere in his representations, he is sure to have a 
dozen contradicters. —Swirt. Denying in matters of 
personal interest; ‘One of the company began to rally 
him (an infidel) upon his devotion on shipboard, which 
the other denied in so high terms, that it produced the 
lie on both sides, and endedina duel..—Appison. De- 
nying may, however, be employed as well as conira- 
dicting in the course of argument; but we deny the 
general truth of the position by contradicting the parti- 
cular assertions of the individuals ; ‘In the Socratic way 
of dispute, you agree to every thing your opponent ad- 
vances; in the Aristotelic, you are still denying and 
contradicting some part or other of what he says.’— 
ADDISON. 

When contradict respects other persons, it is fre- 
quently a mode of oppos¢tion, as we may most effectu- 
ally oppese a person by contradicting what he asserts 
but contradiction does not necessarily imply oppost- 
tion; the former is simply a mode of action, the latter 
comprehends both the action and the spirit, with which 
it is dictated: we contradict from necessity or in self- 
defence; we oppose, from conviction or some personal 
feeling of a less honourable nature. When we hear a 
friend unjustly charged of an offence, it is but reasona- 
ble to contradict the charge; objectionable measures 
may call for opposition, but it is sometimes prudent to 
abstain from opposing what we cannot prevent. 

Contradict is likewise used in denying what is laid 
to one’s charge; but we may deny without contradict- 
ing, in answer to a question: contradiction respects 
indifferent matters ; denying is always used in matters 
of immediate interest. 

Contradiction is employed for correcting others; de 
nying is used to clear one’s self: we may contradict 
falsely when we have not sufficient ground for contra- 
dicting ; and we may deny justly when we rebut an 
unfair charge. 


TO DENY, DISOWN, DISCLAIM, DISAVOW. 


Deny (v. To deny) approaches nearest to the sense 
of disown when applied to persons ; disown, that is, not 
to own, on the other hand, bears a strong analogy to 
deny when applied to things. 

In the first case deny is said with regard to one’s 
knowledge of or connexion with a person; disowning 
on the other hand is a term of Jarger import, including 
the renunciation of all relationship or social tie: the 
former is said of those who are not related ; the latter 
of such only ag are related. Peter denied our Saviour, 
‘We may deny God in all those acts that are morally 
good or evil; those are the proper scenes in which we 
act our confessions or denials of him.’—Souru. A 
parent can scarcely be justified in disowning his child 
let his vices be ever so enormous; a child can never 
disown its parent: in any case without violating the 
most sacred duty. 

In the second case deny is said in regard to things 
that concern others as well as ourselves; disown only 
in regard to what isdone by one’s self or that in which 
one is personally concerned. A person denies that 
there is any truth in the assertion of another; ‘ The 
Earl of Strafford positively denied the words.’-—CLa 
RENDON. He disowns all participation in any affair ; 


Then they who brother’s better claim disown, 
Expel their parents, and usurp the throne. 
DrypeEn. 


We may deny having seen a thing; we may disown 
that we did it ourselves. Our veracity is often the 
only thing implicated ina denial ; our guilt, innocence 
or honour are implicated in what we disown. A wi 
ness denies what is stated as a fact; the accused paré/ 
disowns what is laid to his charge. : 

A denial is employed only for outward actions oz 
events; thai which can be related may be denied. dis 
owning extends to whatever we can own or possess 
we may disown our feelings, our name, our connex- 
ions, and the like. 

Christians deny the charges which are brought 
against the gospel by its enemies; ‘If, like Zeno, any 
one shall walk about and yet deny there is any motion 
in nature, surely that inan was constituted for Anti 


114 


cyra, and were a fit companion for those who, having a 
conceit they are dead, cannot be convicted unto the 
society of the living.—Brown. The apostles would 
never disown the character which they held as mes- 
Yengers of Christ; 


Sometimes lest man should quite his pow’r disown, 
He makes that power to trembling nations known. 
JENYNS. 


Disclaim and disown are both personal acts respect- 
ing the individual who is the agent: to disclaim is to 
ehrow off a claim, as to disown is not to admit as one’s 
own; as claim, from the Latin clamo, signifies to de- 
clare with a loud tone what we want as our own; so 
to disclaim is with an equally loud or positive tone, to 
give upa claim ; this is a more positive act than to dis- 
awn, Which may be performed by insinuation, or by the 
mere abstaining to own. 

He who feels himself disgraced by the actions that 
are done by his nation, or his family, will be ready to 
disclaim the very name which he bears in common 
with the offending party ; 


The thing call’d life, with ease I can disclaim, 
And think it over-sold to purchase fame.—DrypEn. 


An absurd pride sometimes impels men to disown their 
relationship to those who are beneath them in external 
rank and condition; 


Here Priam’s son, Deiphobus, he found: 

He scarcely knew him, striving to disown 

His blotted form, and blushing to be known. 
DRYDEN. 


An honest mind will disclaim all right to praise which 
it feels not to belong to itself; the fear of ridicule some- 
times makes a man dzsown that which would redound 
to his honour: ‘ Very few among those who profess 
themselves Christians, disclaim all concern for their 
souls, disown the authority, or renounce the expecta- 
tions of the gospel.’—Roarrs. 

To disavow is to avow thata thingisnot. The disa- 
vowal isa general declaration; the denzal is a particu- 
lar assertion; the former is made voluntarily and un- 
asked for, the latter is always in direct answer to a 
charge: we disavow in matters of general interest 
where truth only is concerned ; we deny in matters of 
personal interest where the character or feelings are 
Implicated. 

What is disavowed is generally in support of truth; 
what is denied may often he in direct violation of truth: 
an honest mind will always disavow whatever has 
been erroneously attributed to it; ‘Dr. Solander disa- 
vows some of those narrations (in Hawkesworth’s 
voyages), or at least declares them to be grossly misre- 
presented.”—Brattix. A timid person sometimes 
denies what he knows to be true from a fear of the 
consequences ; ‘The king now denied his knowledge 
of the conspiracy against Rizzio, by public proclama- 
tions. —RospertTson. Many persons have disavowed 
being the author of the letters which are known under 
the name of Junius ; the real authors whohave denied 
their concern in it (as doubtless they have) availed 
themselves of the subterfuge, that since it was the affair 
of several, no one individually could call himself the 
author. 


TO CONTROVERT, DISPUTE. 


Controvert, compounded of the Latin contra and 
verto, signifies to turn against another in discourse, or 
direct one’s self against another. 

Dispute, in Latin disputo, from dis and puto, signi- 
fies literally to think differently, or to call in question 
the opinion of another, which is the sense that brings 
it in closest alliance with controverting. 

To controvert has regard to speculative points; to 
dispute respects matters of fact: there is more of oppo- 
sition in controversy; more of doubt in disputing: a 
sophist controverts ; a skeptick disputes ; the plainest 
and sublimest truths of the Gospel have been all con- 
troverted in their turn by the self-sufficient inquirer ; 
‘The demolishing of Dunkirk was so eagerly insisted 
on, and so warmly controverted, as had like to have 
produced a challenge.’—Buper.u. The authenticity 
of the Bible itself has been disputed by some few 
individuals; the existence of a God by still fewer; 


Now [I am sent, and am not to dispute 
My prince’s orders, but to execute.—DRYDEN. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


Controversy is worse than an unprofitable task; 
instead of eliciting truth, it does but expose the failings 
of the parties engaged , ‘ How cometh it to pass that 
We are so rent with mutual contentions, and that the 
church is so much troubled? If men had been willing 
to learn, all these controversies might have died the 
very day they were first brought forth.—Hooxmr. 
Disputing is not so personal, and consequently not so 
objectionable: we never controvert any point without 
seriously and decidedly intending to oppose the notions 
of another ; we may sometimes dispute a point for the 
sake of friendly argument, or the desire of information: 
theologians and politicians are the greatest controver- 
sialists ; it is the business of men in general to dis 
pute whatever ought not to be taken for granted; 
‘ The earth is now placed. so conveniently that plants 
thrive and flourish in it, and animals live; this is 
matter of fact and beyond all dispute.’—BEnTLEy. 
When dispute is taken in the sense of verbally main- 
taining a point in opposition to ancther, it ceases to 
have that alliance to the word controvert, and comes 
nearest to the sense of argue (v. Argue). : 


INDUBITABLE, UNQUESTIONABLE, INDIS- 
PUTABLE, UNDENIABLE, INCONTRO- 
VERTIBLE, IRREFRAGABLE. 


Indubitable signifies admitting of no doubt (vide 
Doubt); unquestionable, admitting of no question 
(v. Doubt); indisputable, admitting of no dispute 
(v. To controvert); undeniable, not to be denied ‘ 
(v. To deny, disown); incontrovertible, not to be 
controverted (v. To controvert); irrefragable, from 
frango to break, signifies not to be broken, destroyed, 
or done away. These terms are all opposed to uncer- 
tainty; but they do not imply absolute certainty, for 
they all express the strong persuasion of a person’s 
mind rather than the absolute nature of the thing: 
when a fact is supported by such evidence as admits 
of no kind of doubt, it is termed indubitable; ‘A full 
or a thin house will indubitably express the sense of a 
majority. —HawkEeswortH. When the truth of an 
assertion rests on the authority of a man whose cha- 
racter for integrity stands unimpeached, it is termed 
unquestionable authority; ‘From the unquestionable 
documents and dictates of the law of nature, [ shall 
evince the obligation lying upon every man to show 
gratitude..—Soutu. When a thing is believed to exist 
on the evidence of every man’s senses, it is termed 
undeniable ; ‘So undeniable is the truth of this (viz. the 
hardness of our duty), that the scene of virtue is laid 
in our natural averseness to things excellent.’— 
SouTu. When a sentiment has always been held as 
either true or false, without dispute, it is termed indis 
putable ; ‘Truth, knowing the indisputable claim shie 
has to all that is called reason, thinks it below her to 
ask that upon courtesy in which she can plead a pro- 
perty..—Soutu. When arguments have never been 
controverted, they are termed incontrovertible; ‘Our 
distinction must rest upon a steady adherence to the 
incontrovertible rules of virtue.—Buatr. And when 
they have never been satisfactorily answered, they are 
termed irrefragable ; ‘There is none who walks se 
surely, and upon such irrefragable grounds of pru 
dence, as he who is religious.’—Soutu. 


TO ARGUE, DISPUTE, DEBATE. 


To argue is to adduce arguments or reasons in 
support of one’s position ; to dispute, in Latin disputo 
compounded of dis and puto, signifies to think differ 
ently, in an extended sense, to assert a different opi 
nion; to debate, in I'rench debattre, compounded of 
the intensive syllable de and battre, to beat or fight, 
signifies to contend for and against. ' 

To argue is to defend one’s self; dispute to oppose 
another; to debate is to dispute in a formal manner. 
To argue on a subject is to explain the reasons or 
proofs in support of an assertion; to argue with a 
person is to defend a position against him: to dispute 
a thing is to advance objections against a position ; to 
dispute with a person is to start objections against his 
positions, to attempt to refute them: a debate is a dis- 
putation held by many. To argue does not neces 
sarily suppose a conviction on the part of the arguer, 
that what he defends is true; nora real difference of 
Opinion in his opponent; for some men have such a 


* 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


ftching propensity for an argument, that they will 
attempt to prove what nobody denies; and in some 
cases the term argue may be used in the sense of ad- 
ducing reasons more for the purpose of producing 
mutual confirmation and illustration of truth than for 
the detection of falsehood, or the questioning of opi- 
nions ; 

Of good and evil much they argued then.—MILTon. 


To dispute always supposes an opposition to some per 
son, but not a sincere opposition to the thing; for we 
may dispute that which we do not deny, for the sake 
of holding a dispute with one whois of different senti- 
ments: to debate presupposes a multitude of clashing 
or opposing opinions. Men of many words argue for 
the sake of talking: men of ready tongues dispute for 
the sake of victory: men in Parliament often debate 
for the sake of opposing the ruling party, or from any 
other motive than the love of truth. 

Argumentation is a dangerous propensity, and ren- 
ders a man an unpleasant companion in society; no 
one should set such a value on his opinions as to up- 
trude the defence of them on those who are uninter- 
ested in the question ; ‘ Publick arguing oft serves not 
only to exasperate the minds, but to whet the wits of 
hereticks.’—Decay or Pirty. Disputation, as a scho- 
lastick exercise, is well fitted to exert the reasoning 
powers and awaken a spirit of inquiry ; 


Thus Rodmond, train’d by this unhallow’d crew, 

The sacred social passions never knew: 

Unskill’d to argue, in dispute yet loud, 

Beld without caution, without honours proud. 
F'ALCONER. 


Debating in Parliament is by some converted into a 
trade; he who talks the loudest, and makes the most 
vehement opposition, expects the greatest applause ; 


The murmur ceas’d: then from his lofty throne 

The king invok’d the gods, and thus begun: 

I wish, ye Latins, what ye now debate 

Had been resolv’d before it was too late. 
DRYDEN. 


TO CONSULT, DELIBERATE, DEBATE. 


To consult, in French consutter, Latin consulto,is a 
frequentative of consulo, signifying to counsel toge- 
ther; to deliberate, in French deliberer, Latin delibero, 
compounded of de and libro, or libra a balance, signi- 
fies to weigh as in a balance. 

Consultations always require two persons at least ; 
deliberations require many, or only a man’s self: an 
individual may consult with one or many; assemblies 
commonly deliberate: advice and information are 
given and received in consultations; ‘Ulysses (as 
Homer tells us) made a voyage to the regions of the 
‘dead, to consult Tiresias how he should return to his 
country..—Appison. Doubts, difficulties, and objec- 
tions, are started and removed in deliberations; 
‘Moloch declares himself abruptly for war, and ap- 
pears incensed with his companions for losing so much 
time as even to deliberate upon it..—Appison. We 
communicate and hear when we consult; we pause 
and hesitate when we deliberate: those who have to 
co-operate must frequently consult together ; those 
who have serious measures to decide upon must coolly 
deliberate. 

To debate (v. To argue) and to consult equally mark 
the actsof pausing or withholding the decision, whether 
applicable to one or many. To debate supposes always 
a contrariety of opinion ; to deliberate supposes simply 
the weighing or estimating the value of the opinion 
that is offered. Where many persons have the liberty 
of offering their opinions, it is natural to expect that 
there will be debating ; 


To seek sage Nestor now the chief resolves ; 

With him in wholesome counsels to debate 

What yet remains to safe the sinking state. 
Pope. 


When any subject offers that is complicated and ques- 
tionable, it calls for mature deliberation ; 


; When man’s life is in debate, 
The judge can ne’er too long deliberate. 


DRYDEN. 
It is lamentable when passion gets such an ascendency 
in the mind of any one, as to make him debate which 
o* 


11 


course of conduct he shall pursue; the want of dels 
beration, whether in private or publick transactions, ig 
a more fruitful source of mischief than almost any 
other. . 


——— 


TO OPPOSE, RESIST, WITHSTAND, 
THWART. 


Oppose (v. To object, oppose,) is the general term, 
signifying simply to put in the way; resist, signifies 
literally to stand back, away from, or against; with 
in withstand has the force of re in resist ; thwart, from 
the German quer cross, signifies to come across. 

The action of setting one thing up against another 
is obviously expressed by all these terms, but they 
differ in the manner and the circumstances. To op- 
pose simply denotes the relative position of two objects, 
and when applied to persons it does not necessarily 
imply any personal characteristick: we may oppose 
reason or force to force; or things may be opposed te 
each other which are in an opposite direction, as a 
house to a church. Resist is always an act of more or 
less force when applied to persons; it is mostly a cul 
pable action, as when men resist lawful authority , 
resistance is in fact always bad, unless in case of 
actual self-defence. Opposition may be made in any 
form, as when we oppose a person’s admittance into a 
house by our personal efforts; or we oppose his admis- 
sion into a society by a declaration of our opinions. 
Resistance is always a direct action, as when we resist 
an invading army by the sword, or we resist the evi- 
dence of our senses by denying our assent ; or, in re- 
lation to things, when wood or any hard substance 
resists the violent efforts of steel or iron to make an 
impression. 

Withstand and thwart are modes of resistance appli- 
cable only to conscious agents. ‘To withstand is nega- 
tive; it implies not to yield to any foreign agency: 
thus, a person withstands the entreaties of another to 
comply with a request. T'o thwart is positive; it is 
actively to cross the will of another: thus, humour 
some people are perpetually thwarting the wishes of 
those with whom they are in connexion. Habitual 
opposition, whether in act or in spirit, is equally 
senseless; none but conceited or turbulent people are 
guilty of it; 

So hot th’ assault, so high the tumult rose, 

While ours defend, and while the Greeks oppose. 

DRYDEN 


Oppositionists to government are dangerous members 
of society, and are ever preaching up resistance to 
constituted authorities ; 


To do allour sole delight 
As being the contrary to his high will 
Whom we vesist.—MILTON. 


‘ Particular instances of second sight have been given 
with such evidence, as neither Bacon nor Boyle have 
been able to resist.—Jounson. It is a happy thing 
when a young man can withstand the allurements of 
pleasure ; 


For twice five days the good old seer withstood 
T'l’ intended treason, and was dumb to blood. 
DRYDEN. 


It is a part of a Christian’s duty to bear with patience 
the untoward events of life that thwart his purposes ; 
‘The understanding and will never disagreed (before 
the fall) ; for the proposals of the one never thzoarted 
the inclinations of the other.’—SoutTu. 


od 


TO CONFUTE, REFUTE, DISPROVE, 
OPPUGN. 


Confute and refute, in Latin confuto and refuto, are 
compounded of con against, re privative, and futo, ob 
solete for arguo, signifying to argue against or to argue 
the contrary; disprove, compounded of dis privaiive 
and prove, signifies to prove the contrary ; oppugn, In 
Latin oppugno, signifies to fight in order to remove or 
overthrow. : 

To confute respects what is argumentative ; refute 
what is personal ; disprove whatever is represented or 
related; oppugn whatever is held or maintained. 

An argument is confuted by provirg its fallacy; a 
charge is refuted by proving one’s \Wnocence: ar 


116 


assertion is disproved by proving that itis false ; a doc- 
trine is oppugned by a course of reasoning. _ 

Paradoxes may be easily confuted ; calumnies may 
be easily refuted; the marvellous and incredible 
stories of travellers may be easily disproved; heresies 
and skeptical notiops ought to be oppugned. 

The pernicious doctrines of skepticks, though often 
confuted, are as often advanced with the same degree 
of assurance by the free-thinking, and I might say the 
“unthinking few who imbibe their spirit; 

The learned do, by turns, the learn’d confute, 
Yet all depart unalter’d by dispute—OrRERY 


{t is the employment of libellists to deal out their mali- 
cious aspersions against the objects of their malignity 
in a manner so loose and indirect as to preclude the 
possibility of refutation ; ‘Philip of Macedon refuted 
by the force of gold alJ the wisdom of Athens.’—Ap- 
DIsON. It would be a fruitless and unthankful task to 
attempt to disprove all the statements which are cir- 
culated in a common newspaper , 


Man’s feeble race what ills await! 

Labour and penury, the rdcks of pain, 
Disease, and sorrow’s weeping train, 

And death, sad refuge from the storm of fate, 
The fond complaint, my song! disprove, 
And justify the laws of Jove.—CoLtins. 


alis the duty of ministers of the Gospel to oppugn all 
doctrines that militate against the established faith of 
Christians; ‘ Ramus was one of the first oppugners of 
the old philosophy, who disturbed with innovations 
the quiet of the schools.’—JoHNSON 


TO IMPUGN, ATTACK 


To impugn, from the Latin im and pugno, signifying 
to fight against, is synonymous with attack only in re- 
gard to doctrines or opinions; in which case, to 7m- 
vugn signifies to call in question, or bring arguments 
against; to attack is to oppose with warmth. Skep- 
ticks impugn every opinion, however self-evident or 
well-grounded they may be: infidels make the most 
indecent attacks upon the Bible, and all that is held 
sacred by the rest of the world. 

He who impugns may sometimes proceed insidiously 
and circuitously to undermine the faith of others: he 
who attacks always proceeds with more or less vio- 
lence. To impugn is not necessarily taken in a bad 
sense; we may sometimes impugn absurd doctrines by 
a fair train of reasoning: to attack is always objec- 


tionable, either in the mode of the action, or its object, : 


or in both; it is a mode of proceeding oftener em- 
ployed in the cause of falsehood than truth: when 
there are no arguments wherewith to zmpugn a doc- 
trine, it is easy to attack it with ridicule and scurrility. 


TO ATTACK, ASSAIL, ASSAULT, 
ENCOUNTER. 


Attack, in French attaquer, changed from attacher, 
in Latin attactum, participle of attingo, signifies to 
bring into close contact; assail, assault, in French 
assailer, Latin assilio, assaltum, compounded of as 
or ad and salio, signifies to leap upon; encounter, in 
French rencontre, compounded of en or in and conire, 
in Latin contra against, signifies to run or come 
against. 

Attack is the generick, the rest are specifick terms. 
To attack is to make an approach in order to do some 
violence to the person ; to assail or assault is to make 
a sudden and vehement attack; to encounter is to 
meet the attack of another. One attacks by simply 
offering violence without necessarily producing an ef- 
fect; one assails by means of missile weapons; one 
assaults by direct personal violence; one encounters 
by opposing violence to violence 

Men and animals attack or encounter ; men only, in 
the literal sense, assail or assault. Animals attack 
each other with the weapons nature has bestowed upon 
them; ‘King Athelstan attacked another body of the 
Danes at sea near Sandwich, sunk nine of their ships, 
and put the rest to flight.—Humer. Those who pro- 
voke a multitude may expect to have their houses 
br windows assailed with stones, aud their persons 
Sssaulted ; 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


So when he saw his flatt’ring arts to fati 
With greedy force he ’gan the fort t? assail. 
SPENSER 


And double death did wretched man invade, 
By steel assaulted, and by gold betray’d—DryprN 


It is ridiculous to attempt to encounter those who are 
superiour in strength and prowess; ‘ Putting themselves 
in order of battle, they encountered their enemies.’— 
KNowLEs. 

They are all used figuratively. Men attack with 
reproaches or censures ; they assail with abuse; they 
are assaulted by temptations; they encounter oppost 
tion and difficulties. A fever attacks ; horrid shrieks 
assail thé ear; dangers are encountered. Thereputa- 
tions of men in publick life are often wantonly attack- 
ed; ‘The women might possibly have carried this 
Gothick building higher, had nota famous monk, 
Thomas Conecte by name, attacked it with great zeal 
and resolution..—Appison. Publick men are assailed 
in every direction by the murmurs and complaints of, 
the discontented ; 


Not truly penitent, but chief to try 

Her husband, how far urg’d his patience bears, 

His virtue or weakness which way to assail. 
Mitton. 


They often encounter the obstacles which party spirit 
throws in the way, without reaping any solid advan- 
tage to themselves; ‘ It is sufficient that you are able to 
encounter the temptations which now assault you 

when God sends trials he may send strength.’—- 
TAayLoR. 


ATTACK, ASSAULT, ENCOUNTER, ONSET, 
CHARGE. 


An attack and assault (v. To attack) may be made 
upon an unresisting object: encounter, onset, and 
charge, require at least two opposing parties. An 
aitack may be slight or indirect; an assaulé must 
always be direct and mostly vigorous. An attack upon 
a town need not be attended with any injury to the 
walls or inhabitants; but an assault is commonly con- 
ducted so as to effect its capture. Attacks are made 
by robbers upon the person or property of another ; 
assaults upon the person enly ; ‘ There is one species 
of diversion which has not been generally condemned, 
though it is produced by an attack upon those wha 
have not voluntarily entered the lists ; who find them- 
selves buffetted in the dark, and have neither means 
of defence nor possibility of advantage.—Hawkezs 
worTH. ‘We do not find the meeknessof alambin a 
creature so armed for battle and assault as the lion.’— 
ADDISON. 

An encounter generally respects an unformal casual 
meeting between single individuals; onset and charge 
aregular attack between contending armies; onset is 
employed for the commencement of the battle; charge 
for an attack from a particular quarter. When knight- 
errantry was in vogue, encounters were perpetually 
taking place between the knights and their antagonists, 
who often existed only in the imagination of the com- 
batants: encounters were, however, sometimes fierce 
and bloody, when neither party would yield to the 
other while he had the power of resistance ; 


And such a frown 
Each cast at th’ other, as when two black clouds, 
With heav’n’s artillery fraught, come rattling on 
Hovering a space, till winds the signal blow, 
To join their dark encounter in mid air.—MILTon, 


The French are said to make impetuous onsets, but 
not to withstand a continued attack with the same per- 
severance and steadiness as the English; 


Onsets in love seem best like those in war, 
Fierce, resolute, and done with all the force —TatEr 


A furious and well-directed charge from the cavalry 
will sometimes decide the fortune of the day; 


O my Antonio! I’m all on fire; 

My soulis up in arms, ready to charge, 

And bear amid the foe with conqu’ring troops. 
CoNn@REVE 


AGGRESSOR, ASSAILANT. 


Aggressor, from the Latin aggressus, participle o. 
aggredior, compounded of ag or ad, and gredior te 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


step, signifies on2 stepping up to, falling upon, or attack- 
ing; assailant, from assail, in French assailer, com- 
pounded of as or ad, and salio to leap upon, signifies 
one leaping up, or attacking any one vehemently. 

The characteristick idea of aggressor is that of one 
going up to another in a hostile manner, and by a na- 
tural extension of the sense commencing an attack: 
the characteristick idea of assazlant is thatof one com- 
mitting an act of violence on the person. 

An aggressor offers to do some injury either by 
word or deed; an assailant actually commits some 
violence: the former commences a dispute, the latter 
carries it on with a vehement and direct attack. An 
aggressor is blameable for giving rise to quarrels; 

here one is the aggressor, and in pursuance of his 
first attack kills the other, the law supposes the action, 
howeyer sudden, to be malicious.’—Jounson (Life of 
Savage). An assailant is culpable for the mischief 
he does; 


What ear so fortified and barr’d 
Against the tuneful force of vocal charms, 
But would with transport to such sweet assailants 
Surrender its attention 7--Mason. 


Were there no aggressors there would be no dis- 
putes; were there no assailants those disputes would 
not be serious. 

An aggressor may be an assailant, or an assailant 
may be an aggressor, but they areas frequently distinct. 


TO DISPLEASE, OFFEND, VEX. 


Displease naturally marks the contrary of pleasing; 
offend, from the Latin offendo, signifies to stumble in 
the way of; vez, in Latin vezo, is a frequentative of 
veho, signifying literally to toss up and down. 

These words express the act of causing a painful 
sentiment in thc m itd by some impropriety, real or 
supposed, onon <‘wnopart. Displease is not always 
applied to that ..;.m personally concerns curselves; 
although offend an. rex have always more or less of 
what is personal m them: a superiour may be dis- 
pieoson with one who is under his charge for improper 

haviour toward persons in general ; 


Meantime imperial Neptune heard the sound 

Of raging billows breaking on the ground ; 

Displeas’d and fearing for his wat’ry reign, 

He rear’d his awful head above the main. 
DRYDEN. 


He will be offended with him for disrespectful behaviour 
toward himself, or neglect of his interests; ‘The em- 
peror himself came running to the place in his armour, 
severely reproving them of cowardice who had for- 
saken the place, and grievously offended with them who 
had kept such negligent watch.’—Kno.LLes. What 
displeases has less regard to what is personal than what 
offends ; asupposed intention in the most, harmless act 
may cause offence, and on the contrary the most 
offending action may not give offence where the inten- 
tion of the agent is supposed to be good; ‘ Nathan’s 
fable of the poor man and his lamb had so good an effect 
as to convey instruction to the ear of a king without 
offending it..— ADDISON. 

Displease respects mostly the inward state of feeling ; 
offend and vex have most regard to the outward cause 
which provokes the feeling: a humoursome person may 
be displeased without any apparent cause; but a cap- 
tious person will at least have some avowed trifle for 
which heis offended. Vex expresses more than offend ; 
it marks in fact frequent efforts to offend, or the act of 
offending under aggravated circumstances: we often 
unintentionally displease or offend ; but he who veaes 
has mostly that object in view in so doing: any instance 
of neglect displeases ; any marked instance of neglect 
offends ; any aggravated instance of neglect veres ; the 
feeling of displeasureis more perceptible and vivid than 
shat of offence ; butit isless durable : the feeling of vera- 
tion is as transitory as that of displeasure, but stronger 
than either. Displeasure and vexation betray them- 
selves by an angry word or look; offence discovers itself 
in the whole conduct: our displeasure is unjustifiable 
when it exceeds the measure of another’s fault; it isa 
mark of great weakness to take offence at trifles ; persons 
of th2 greatest irritability are exposed to the most fre- 


117 


the foul fiend veres.,—SHAKSPRARE. These terms may 
all be applied to the action of unconscious agents on the 
mind; ‘Foul sights do rather displease, in that they 
excite the memory of foul things, than in the immediate 
objects. Therefore, in pictures, those foul sights do not 
much offend.’—Bacon. ‘Gross sins are plainly seen, 
and easily avoided by persons that profess religion. But 
the indiscreet and dangerous use of innocent and lawful 
things, as it does not shock and offend our consciences, 
so it is difficult to make people at all sensible of the 
danger of it.’.—Law. 


These and a thousand mix’d emotions more, 
From ever-changing views of good and ill, 
Form’d infinitely various, vez the mind 
With endless storm.—THomson. 


Ag epithets they admit of a similar distinction: it is 
very displeasing to parents not to meet with the most 
respectful attentions from children, when they give 
them counsel; and such conduct on the part of children 
is highly offensive to God: when we meet with an of- 
fensive object, we do most wisely to turn away from 
it: when we are troubled with vexatious affairs, our 
best and only remedy is patience. 


DISLIKE, DISPLEASURE, DISSATISFAC- 
TION, DISTASTE, DISGUST. 


Dislike signifies the opposite to liking, or being alike 
to one’s self or one’s taste; displeasure, the opposite to 
pleasure ; dissatisfaction, the opposite to satisfaction ; 
distaste and disgust, from the Latin gustus a taste, 
both signify the opposite to an agreeable taste. 

Dislike and dissatisfaction denote the feeling or sen- 
timent produced either by persons or things: displea- 
sure, that produced by persons mostly; distaste and 
disgust, that produced by things oniy, 

In regard to persons, dislike is the sentiment of equals 
and persons unconnected; displeasure and dissatis- 
faction, of superiours, or such as stand in some sort of 
relation to us. Strangers may feel a dislike upon seeing 
each other: parents or masters may feel dispieaswre or 
dissatisfaction : the former sentiment is occasioned by 
their supposed faults in character; the latter by their 
supposed defective services. One dislikes a person for 
his assumption, loquacity, or any thing not agreeable 
in his manners ; ‘The jealous man is not indeed angry 
if you dislike another; but if you find those faults 
which are found in his own character, you discover not 
only your dislike of another but of himself.’—Appison. 
One is displeased witha person for his carelessness, or 
any thing wrong in his conduct; ‘ The threatenings of 
conscience suggest to the sinner some deep and dark 
malignity contained in guilt, which has drawn upor 
his head such high displeasure from heaven.’—B.arr. 
One is dissatisfied with a person on account of thesmall 
quantity of work which he has done, or his manner of 
doing it. Displeasure is awakened by whatever is 
done amiss: dissatisfaction is caused by what happens 
amiss or contrary to our expectation. Accordingly the 
word dissatisfaction is not confined to persons of a 
particular rank, but to the nature of the connexion 
which subsists between them. Whoever does not re- 
ceive what they think themselves entitled to from an- 
other are dissatisfied. A servant may be dissatisfied 
with the treatment he meets with from his master ; 
and may be said therefore to express dissatisfaction, 
though not displeasure ; ‘Ido not like to see any thing 
destroyed: any void in society. It was therefore with 
no disappointment or dissatisfaction that my observa- 
tion did not present to me any incorrigivle vice in the 
noblesse of France.’—Burkxg. 

In regard to things, dislike is a casual feeling not 
arising from any specifick cause. A dissatisfaction is 
connected with our desires and expectations; we 
dislike the performance of an actor from one or many 
causes, or from no apparent cause; but we are dissatis- 
fied with his performance if it fall short of what we 
were led to expect. In order to lessen the number 
of our dislikes we ought to endeavour not to dislike 
without a cause ; and in order to lessen our dissatis- 
faction we ought to be moderate in our expectation. 

Dislike, distaste, and disgust rise on each other in 
their signification. The distaste is more than the dis- 
like: and the disgust more than the distaste. The 


quent vezations ; ‘Do poor Tom some charity, whom | dislike is a partial feeling, quickly produced and quickly 


118 


subsiding ; the distaste is a settled feeling, gradually 
produced, and permanent in its duration; disgust is 
either transitory or otherwise; momentarily or gradually 
produced, but stronger than either of the two others. 

Caprice has a great share in our likes and dislikes ; 
‘ Dryden’s dislike of the priesthood is imputed by Lang- 
baine, and I think by Brown, toa repulse which he 
suffered when he solicited ordination..—Jounson. Dis- 
taste depends upon the changes to which the constitu- 
tion physically and mentally is exposed ; ‘ Because true 
history, through frequent satiety and similitude of 
things, works a distaste and misprision in the minds of 
men, poesy cheereth and refresheth the soul, chanting 
things rare and various..—Bacon. Disgust owes its 
origin to the nature of things and their natural operation 
on the minds of men; ‘ Vice, for vice is necessary to be 
shown, should always excite disgust..—JoHnson A 
child likes and dislikes his playthings without any ap- 
parent cause for the change of sentiment: after a long 
illness a person will frequently take a distaste to the 
food or the amusements which before afforded him 
much pleasure: what is indecent or filthy is a natural 
object of disgust to every person whose mind is not 
depraved. It is good to suppress unfounded dislikes ; 
it is difficult to overcome a strong distaste; it is ad- 
visable to divert our attention from objects calculated 
to create disgust. 


DISLIKE, DISINCLINATION. 


Dislike is opposed to liking; disinclination is the 
reverse of inclination. 

Dislike applies to what one has or does: disinclina- 
tion only to what one does: we dislike the thing we 
have, or dislike to do a thing; but we are disinclined 
only to doa thing. 

They express a similar feeling, but differing in de- 
gree. Disinclination is but a small degree of dislike ; 
dislike marks something contrary; disinclination does 
not amount to more than the absence of an inclination. 
None but a disobliging temper has a dislike to comply 
with reasonable requests ; 


Murmurs rise with mix’d applause, 
Just as they favour or dislike the cause.—DryDEN. 


The most obliging disposition may have an occasional 
disinclination to comply with a particular request; 
“To be grave to a man’s mirth, or inattentive to his 
discourse, argues a disinclination to be entertained by 
him.’—STEExE. 


od 


DISPLEASURE, ANGER, DISAPPROBATION. 


Displeasure signifies the feeling of not being pleased 
With either persons or things; anger comes from the 
Latin angor vexation, and ango to vex, which is com- 
pounded of an or ad against, and ago to act; disappro- 
bation is the reverse of approbation. 

Between displeasure and anger there is a difference 
both in the degree, the cause, and the consequence of 
the feeling: displeasure is always a softened and 
gentle feeling; anger is always a harsh feeling, and 
sometimes rises to vehemence and madness. Dis- 
pleasure is always produced by some adequate cause, 
teal or supposed; anger may be provoked by every or 
any Cause, according to the temper of the individual; 
‘ Man is the merriest species of the creation ; all above 
or below him are serious; he sees things in a different 
light from other beings, and finds his mirth arising 
trom objects that perhaps cause something like pity or 
displeasure in a higher nature—Appison. Dzsplea- 
sure is mostly satisfied with a simple verbal expression ; 

- but anger, unless kept down with great force, always 
seeks to return evil for evil; ‘From anger in its full 
import, protracted into malevolence and exerted in re- 
venge, arise many of the evils to which the life ef man 
is exposed.’—Jounson. Displeasure and disapproba- 
tion are to be compared in as much as they respect the 
conduct of those who are under the direction of others: 
displeasure is an act of the will, it is an angry senti- 
ment; ‘ True repentance may be wrought in the hearts 
of such as fear God, and yet incur his displeasure, the 
deserved effect whereof is eternal death.—Hooxrrr. 
Disapprobation is an act of the judgement, it is an 
opposite opinion; ‘The Queen Regent’s brothers 
knew her secret disapprobation of the violent mea 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


sures they were driving (.a.’.—-RoBERTson. Any marr 
of self-will in a child is calculated to excite displea- 
sure; a mistaken choice in matrimony may produce 
disapprobation in the parent. 

Displeasure is always produced by that which is 
already come to pass; d:sapprobation may be felt upon 
that which is to take place: a master feels displeasure 
at the carelessness of his servant; a parent expresses 
his disapprobation of his son’s proposal to leave his 
situation: it is sometimes prudent to check our dis- 
pleasure ; and mostly prudent to express our dis- 
approbation: the former cannot be expressed without 
inflicting pain 5 the latter cannot be withheld when re. 
quired without the danger of misleading. 


ANGER, RESENTMENT, WRATH, IRE, 
INDIGNATION. 


Anger has the same original meaning as in the pre 
ceding article; resentment, in French ressentiment, 
from ressentir, is compounded of re and sentir, signi 
fying to feel again, over and over, or for a continuance; 
wrath and ire are derived from the same source, 
namely, wrath, in Saxon wrath, and ire, in Latin ira 
anger, Greek gis contention, all which spring from the 


Hebrew 77} heat or anger; éndignation, in French 
indignation, in Latin indignatio, from indignor, to 
think or feel unworthy, marks the strong feeling which 
base conduct awakens in the mind. 

An impatient agitation against any one who acts 
contrary to our inclinations or opinions is the charac 
teristick of all these terms. Resentment is less vivid 
than anger, and anger than wrath, ire, or indignation. 
Anger is a sudden sentiment of displeasure; resent- 
ment is a continued anger; wrath is a heightened 
sentiment of anger, which is poetically expressed by 
the word ire. 

Anger may be either a selfish or a disinterested 
passion; it may be provoked by injuries done to our- 
selves, or injustice done to others: in this latter sense 
of' strong displeasure God is angry with sinners, and 
good men may, to a certain degree, be angry with those 
under their control, who act improperly; ‘ Moralists 
have defined anger to be a desire of revenge for some 
injury offered”—STrELE. Resentment is a brooding 
sentiment, altogether arising from a sense of persona! 
injury; it is associated with a dislike of the offender 
as much as the offence, and is diminished only by the 
infliction of pain in return; in its rise, progress, and 
effects, it is alike opposed to the Christian spirit ; 
‘The temperately revengeful have leisure to weigh the 
merits of the cause, and thereby either to smother 
their secret resentments, or to seek adequate re- 
parations for the damages they have sustained.’— 
STEELE. Wrath and ire are the sentiment of a supe- 
riour towards an inferiour, and when provoked by per- 
sonal injuries discovers itself by haughtiness and 2. 
vindictive temper ; 


Achilles’ wrath, to Greece the direful spring 
Of woes unnumber’d, heavenly goddess ae 
Porr. 


As a sentiment of displeasure, wrath is unjustifiable 
between man and man; but the wrath of God may 
be provoked by the persevering impenitence of sinners : 
the zre of a heathen god, according to the gross views 
of Pagans, was but the wrath of man associated with 
greater power; it was altogether unconnected with 
moral displeasure; the same term is however applied 
also to the heroes and princes of antiquity ; 


The prophet spoke: when with a gloomy frown 
The monarch started from his shining throne ; 

Black choler fill’d his breast that boil’d with ire, 
And from his eye-balls flash’d the living fire.—Popr. 


Indignation is a sentiment awakened by the unworthy 
and atrocious conduct of others; as it is exempt from 
personality, it is not irreconcilable with the temper of 
a Christian; ‘It is surely not to be observed without 
indignation, that men may be found of minds mean 
enough to be satisfied with this treatment; wretches 
who are proud to obtain the privileges of madmen.’— 
Jounson. A warmth of constitution sometimes gives 
rise to sallies of anger ; but depravity of heart breeds 
resentment ; unbending pride is a great source of 
wrath; but indignation flows from a high sense of 
honour and virtue. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


ANGER, CHOLER, RAGE, FURY. 


Anger signifies the same as in the preceding article ; 
choler, in French colére, Latin cholera, Greek xoAépa, 
comes from yxod¥ bile, because the overflowing of the 
bile is both the cause and consequence of choler ; rage, 
in French rage, Latin rabies madness, and rabio to 


rave like a madman, comes from the Hebrew 7‘) to 
tremble or shake with a violent madness; fury, in 
French furie, Latin furor, comes probably from fero 
to carry away, because one is carried or hurried by the 
emotions of fury. : 

These words have a progressive force in their signi- 
fication. Choler expresses something more sudden 
and virulent than anger ; rage is a vehement ebulli- 
tion of anger; and fury is an excess of rage. Anger 
may be so stifled as not to discover itself by any out- 
ward symptoms; choler is discoverable by the pale- 
ness of the visage: rage breaks forth into extravagant 
expressions and violent distortions; fury takes away 
the use of the understanding. 

Anger is an infirmity incident to human nature ; it 
ought, however, to be suppressed on all occasions ; 
‘The maxim which Periander of Corinth, one of the 
seven sages of Greece, left as a memorial of his know- 
ledge and benevolence, was yéAou kpdret, be master of 
thy anger.’—JouHNson. Choler is a malady too physi- 
cal to be always corrected by reflection ; . 


Must I give way to your rash choler? 
ShallI be frighted when a madman stares ? 
SHAKSPEARE. 


Rage and fury are distempers of the soul, which 
nothing but religion and the grace of God can cure; 


Oppose not rage, while rage is in its force, 
But give it way awhile and let it waste. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


Of this kind is the fury to which many men give 
way among their servants and dependants.’—JoHn- 
BON. 


os 


RESENTFUL, REVENGEFUL, VINDICTIVE. 


Resentful signifies filled with resentment; revenge- 
ful, that is, filled with the spirit or desire of revenge; 
vindictive, from vindico to avenge or revenge, signi- 
fies either given to revenge, or after the manner of 
revenge. 

Resentful marks soiely the state or temper of the 
mind, revengeful also extends to the action; a person 
is resentful who retains resentment in his mind with- 
out discovering it in any thing but his behaviour; he 
is revengeful if he displays his feeling in any act of 
revenge or injury toward the offender. Resentful 
people are affected with trifles; ‘Pope was as resent- 
ful of an imputation of the roundness of his back, as 
Marshal Luxembourg is reported to have been on the 
sarcasm of King William.’—Tyers. <A revengeful 
temper is oftentimes not satisfied with a small portion 
of revenge ; 


If thy revengeful heart cannot forgive, 
Lo! here I lend thee this sharp-pointed sword, 
Which hide in this true breast—SHaksprare. 


Revengeful is mostly said of the temper or the person; 
but vindictive or vindicative, as it is sometimes written, 
is said either of the person who is prone to revenge or 
of the thing which serves the purpose of revenge or 
punishment; ‘Publick revenges are for the most part 
fortunate; but in private revenges itisnot so. Vindi- 
cative persons live the life of witches, who, as they 
are mischievous, so end they unfortunate.’,—Bacon. 
‘Suits are not reparative, but vindictive, when they 
are conrmenced against insolvent persons.’—KrtTLe- 
WELL. 


TO AVENGE, REVENGE, VINDICATE. 


Avenge, revenge, and vindicate, all spring from the 
same source, namely, the Latin vindico, the Greek 
évoixahouat, compounded of éy in and df«n justice, sig- 
nifying to pronounce justice or put justice in force. 

The idea common to these terms is that of taking up 
zome one’s cause. 

To avenge is to punish in behalf of another; to re- 
venge is to pun/sh for one’s self; to vindicate is to de- 
fend another 


119 


The wrongs of a person are avenged or revenged, 
his rights are vindicated. : 

The act of avenging, though attended with the in 
fliction of pain, is oftentimes an act of humanity, and 
always an act of justice; none are the sufferers but 
such as merit it for their oppression, while those are 
benefited who are dependent for support: this is the 
act of God himself, who always avenges the oppressed 
who look up to him ior support; and it ought to be the 
act of all his creatures, who are invested with the 
power of punishing offenders and protecting the help 
less; 

The day shall come, that great avenging day, 

When Troy’s proud glories in the dust ence 

OPE. 


Revenge is the basest of all actions, and the spirit of 
revenge the most diametrically opposed to the Christian 
principles of forgiving injuries, and returning good for 
evil; it is gratified only with inflicting pain without 
any prospect of advantage; ‘By a continued series 
of loose, though apparently trivial gratifications, the 
heart is often thoroughly corrupted, as by the commis- 
sion of any one of those enormous crimes which spring 
from great ambition, or great revenge. —Buair. Vin- 
dication is an act of generosity and humanity ; it is the 
production of good without the infliction of pain: the 
claims of the widow and orphan call for vindication 
from those who have the time, talent, or ability, to 
take their cause into their own hands: England can 
boast of many noble vindicators of the rights of 
humanity, not excepting those which concern the brute 
creation ; ‘Injured or oppressed by the world, the good 
me looks up to a Judge who will vindicate his cause ’ 
—B.alrR. 


ANGRY, PASSIONATE, HASTY, IRASCIBLE. 


Anger, signifies either having anger, or prone te 
anger ; passionate, prone to the passion of anger; 
hasty, prone to excess of haste from intemperate feel- 
ing; zrascible, able or ready to be made angry, from 
the Latin zra anger. 

Angry denotes a particular state or emotion of the 
mind; passionate and hasty express habits of the 
mind. An angry man is in a state of anger; a pas 
stonate or hasty man is habitually prone to be pas 
sionate or hasty. The angry has less that is vehe 
ment and impetuous in it than the passionate; the 
hasty has something less vehement, but more sudden 
and abrupt in it than either. 

The angry man is not always easily provoked, nor 
ready to retaliate ; but he often retains his anger until 
the cause is removed; ‘It is told by Prior, in a pane 
gyrick on the Duke of Dorset, that his servants used 
to put themselves in his way when he was angry, be- 
cause he was sure to recompense them for any indig- 
nities which he made them suffer..—Jounson. The 
passtonate man is quickly roused, eager to repay the 
offence, and speedily appeased by the infliction of pain 
of which he afterward probably repents; ‘There is in 
the world a certain class of mortals known, and con- 
tentedly known by the name of passionate men, who 
imagine themselves entitled, by that distinction, to be 
provoked on every slight occasion.’-Jonnson. The 
hasty man is very soon offended, but not ready to 
offend in return; his angry sentiment spends itself in 
angry words ; 


The king, who saw their squadrons yet unmov’d, 
With hasty ardour thus the chiefs reprov’d.—Poprr. 


These three terms are all employed to denote a tem 
porary or partial feeling ; zrasczble, on the other hand, 
is solely employed to denote the temper, and is applied 
to brutes as well as men; ‘ Weare here in the country 
surrounded with blessings and pleasures, without any 
occasion of exercising our irascible faculties.’—Diary 
TO Popr. 


DISPASSIONATE, COOL. 


Dispassionate is taken negatively, it maths merely 
the absence of passion; cool (v. Cool) is taken posi 
tively, it marks an entire freedom from passion. 

Those who are prone to be passionat:} must learn te 
be dispassionate ; those who are of a cool tempera 
ment will not suffer their passions to be roused. Da 


120 


passionate solely respects angry or irritable sentiments; 
cool respects any perturbed feeling: when we meet 
with an angry disputant it is necessary to be dispas- 
stonate in order to avoid quarrels; ‘ As to violence 
the lady (Madame D’Acier) has infinitely the better of 
the gentleman (M. dela Motte). Nothing can be more 
polite, dispassionate, or sensible, than his manner of 
managing the dispute.—Porz. In the moment of 
danger our safety often depends upon our coolness ; 
‘IT conceived this poem, and gave loose to a degree of 
resentment, which perhaps I ought not to have in- 
dulged, but; which in a cooler hour I cannot altogether 
condemn.’—CowPeERr. 


TO DISAPPROVE, DISLIKE. 


To disapprove is not to approve, or to think not 
good ; to dislike is not to like, or to find unlike or un- 
suitable to one’s wishes. 

Disapprove is an act of the judgement; dislike is 
an act of the will. To approve or disapprove is pecu- 
liarly the part of a superiour, or one who determines 
the conduct of others; to dislike is altogether a per- 
sonal act, in which the feelings of the individual are 
consulted. Itis a misuse of the judgement to disap- 
prove where we need only dislike ; ‘The poem (Sam- 
son Agonistes) has a beginning and an end, which 
Aristotle himself could not have disapproved, but it 
must be allowed to want a middle..—Jounson. It is 
a perversion of the judgement to disapprove, because 
we dislike; ‘Theman of peace will bear with many 
whose opinions or practices he dislikes, without an 
open and violent rupture.’—B.airR. 


DISGUST, LOATHING, NAUSEA. 


Disgust has the same signification as given under 
the head of Dislike, Displeasure, &c.; loathing sig- 
nifies the propensity to loathe an object; nausea, in 
Latin nausea, from the Greek vats a ship, properly de- 
notes sea sickness. 

Disgust is less than loathing, and that than nausea. 
When applied to-sensible objects we are disgusted 
with dirt; we loathe the smell of food if we have a 
sickly appetite; we nauseate medicine: and when 
applied metaphorically, we are disgusted with aflecta- 
tion ; ‘An enumeration of examples to prove a posi- 
tion which nobody denied, as it was from the begin- 
ning superfluous, must quickly grow disgusting.’— 
Jounson. We loathe the endearments of those who 
are offensive ; 


Thus winter falls, 
A heavy gloom oppressive o’er the world, 
Through nature’s shedding influence malign, 
The soul of man dies in him, loathing life. 
‘THOMSON. 


We nauseate all the enjoyments of life, after having 
made an intemperate use of them, and discovered their 
inanity ; 
TW’ irresoluble oil, 

So gentle late and blandishing, in floods 

Of rancid bile o’erflows : what tumults hence, 

What horrors rise, were nauseous to relate. 

ARMSTRONG. 


OFFENCE, TRESPASS, TRANSGRESSION, 
MISDEMEANOUR, MISDEED, AFFRONT. 


Offence is here the general term, signifying merely 
the act that offends, or runs counter to something else. 

Offence is properly indefinite ; it merely implies an 
object without the least signification of the nature of 
the object; trespass and transgression have a positive 
reference to an object trespassed upon or transgress- 
ed ; trespass 1s contracted from trans and pass that is 
a passing beyond; and transgress from trans and 
gressus a going beyond. ‘The offence therefore which 
constitutes a trespass arises out of the laws of pro- 
perty ; a passing over or treading upon the property of 
another is a trespass; the offence which constitutes a 
transgression flows out of the laws of society in gene- 
ral which fix the boundaries of right and wrong ; who- 
ever therefore goes beyond or breaks through these 
bounds is guilty of a transgression. The trespass is 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


aspecies of offence which pecutiarly applies to tne 
land or premises of individuals; transgression is a 
species of moral as well as political evil. Hunters are 
apt to commit trespasses in the eagerness of their pur- 
suit; the passions of men are perpetually mislead- 
ing them, and causing them to commit various trans - 
gressions ; the term trespass is sometimes employed 
improperly as respects time and other objects; trans: 
gression is always used in one uniform sense as re- 
spects rule and law; we trespass upon the time or 
patience of another ; 


Forgive the barbarous trespass of my tongue. 
Otway. 


We transgress the moral or civil law; 


To whom with stern regard thus Gabriel spake : 
Why hast thou, Satan, broke the bounds prescrib’d 
To thy transgressions 2—MiLTON. 


The offence is either publick or private; the misde- 
meanour is properly a private offence, although impro 
perly applied for an offence against publick law; the 
misdemeanour signifies the wrong demeanour or an 
offence in one’s demeanour against propriety ; ‘Smaller 
faults in violation of a publick law are comprised under 
the name of mzsdemeanour.’—BLacKstTonge. ‘The mis- 
deed is always private, it signifies a wrong deed, or a 
deed which offends against one’s duty. Riotous and 
disorderly behaviour in company are serious misde- 
meanours ; every act of drunkenness, lying, fraud, 
or immorality of every kind, are misdeeds ; 


Fierce famine is your lot, for this misdeed, 
Reduc’d to grind the plates on which you feed. 
DryDEN 


The offence is that which affects persons or princi 
ples, communities or individuals, and is committed 
either directly or indirectly against the person; ‘Slight 
provocations and frivolous offences are the most fre- 
quent causes of disquiet.’-—Biair. An affront is alto- 
gether personal and directly brought to bear against 
the front of the particular person; ‘God may some 
time or other think it the concern of his justice and 
providence too to revenge the affronts put upon the 
laws of man.’—Sourn. It is an offence against an- 
other to speak disrespectfully of him in his absence ; 
it is an affront to push past him with violence and 
rudeness. 

Offences are against either God or man; the tres- 
pass is always an offence against man; the transgres- 
sion is against the will of God or the laws of men; 
the misdemeanour is more particularly against the 
established order of society; the misdeed is an offence 
against the Divine Law; the affront is an offence 
against good manners. 


OFFENDER, DELINQUENT. 


The offender is he who offends in any thing, either 
by commission or omission; ‘When any offender is 
presented into any of the ecclesiastical courts he is 
cited to appear there. —Brveripge. The delinquent, 
from delinguo to fail, signifies properly he who fails by 
omission, but the term delinquency is extended to a 
failure by the violation of a law; ‘The killing of a 
deer or boar, or even a hare, was punished with the 
loss of the delinquent’s eyes.’—Hums. Those who go 
into a wrong place are offenders; those who stay 
away when they ought to go are delinquents ; there 
are many offenders against the Sabbath who commit 
violent and open breaches of decorum ; there are still 
more delinquents who never attend a publick place of 
worship. 


OFFENDING, OFFENSIVE. 


Offending signifies either actually offending or cat 
culated to offend; offensive signifies calculated to 
offend at all times; a person may be offending in his 
manners to a particular individual, or use an offending 
expression on a particular occasion without any impy- 
tation on his character ; 


And tho’ th’ offending part felt mortal pain, 
Th’ immortal part its knowledge did retain. 
DENHAN. 


If a person’s manners are affensive, it reflects both og 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


his temper and education ; ‘ Gentleness corrects what- 
ever is offensive in our manners.’—BLAIR. 


UNOFFENDING, INOFFENSIVE, HARMLESS. 


Unoffending denotes the act of not offending ; in- 
offensive the property of not being disposed or apt to 
offend; harmless, the property of being void of harm. 
Unoffending expresses therefore only a partial state ; 
inoffensive and harmless mark the disposition and cha- 
racter. A child is wnoffending as long as he does no- 
thing to offend others; but he may be offensive if he 
discover an unamiable temper, or has unpleasant man- 
ners ; ‘ The unoffending royal little ones (of France) 
were not only condemned to languish in solitude and 
darkness, but their bodies left to perish with disease.’— 
Szwarp. A creature is inoffensive that has nothing 
in itself that can offend ; 

For drink, the grape 
She crushes, inoffensive must.—MILTON. 


That is harmless which has neither the will nor the 
power to harm; ‘When the disciple is questioned 
about the studies of his master, he makes report of 
some mfnute and frivolous researches which are intro- 
duced only for the purpose of raising a harmless laugh.’ 
—CuMBERLAND. Domestick animals are frequently 
very inoffensive ; it is a great recommendation of a 
ouack medicine to say that it is harmless- 


INDIGNITY, INSULT. 


Ihe indignity, from the Latin dignus worthy, signi- 
fying unworthy treatment, respects the feeling and 
condition of the person offended: the insult (v. Af- 
front) respects the temper of the offending party. We 
measure the indignity in our own mind; it depends 
upon the consciousness we have of our own worth: 
we measure the insult by the disposition which is dis- 
covered in another to degrade us. Persons in high 
stations are peculiarly exposed to indignities : persons 
in every station may be exposed to insults. The royal 
family of France suffered every indignity which vul- 
gar rage could devise; ‘ The two caziques made Mon- 
tezumas’ officers prisoners, and treated them with 
great indignity.—Rosertson. Whenever people 
harbour animosities towards each other, they are apt 
to discover them by offering insults when they hav ethe 
opportunity; ‘Narvaez having learned that Cortez 
was now advanced with a small body of men, consi- 
dered this as an insult which merited immediate chas- 
tisement..—Rosertson. IJndignities may however 
be offered to persons of all ranks; but in this case it 
always consists of more violence than a simple insult ; 
it would be an indignity to a person of any rank to be 
compelled to do any office which belongs only to a 
beast of burden. 

It would be an indignity to a female of any station 
to be compelled to expose her person; on the other 
hand, an insult does not extend beyond an abusive 
expression, a triumphant contemptuous look, or any 
breach of courtesy. 


i 


AFFRONT, INSULT, OUTRAGE. 


Affront, in French affronte, from the Latin ad and 
frons, the forehead, signifies flying in the face of a 
person; insult, in French znsulte, comes from the 
Latin znsulto to dance orleap upon. The former of 
these actions marks defiance, the latter scorn and tri- 
umph; outrage is compounded of out or utter and 
rage or violence, signifying an act of extreme violence. 

An affront is a mark of reproach shown in the pre- 
sence of others ; it piques and mortifies: an insult is 
an attack made with insolence; it irritates and pro- 
vokes: an outrage combines all that is offensive; it 
wounds and injures. An intentional breach of polite 
ness, or a want of respect where it is due, is an 
affront ; ‘The person thus conducted, who was Han- 
nibal, seemed much disturbed, and could not forbear 
complaining to the board of the affronts he had met 
with among the Roman historians.—Appison. An 
express mark of disrespect, particularly if coupled with 
any external indication of hostility, is an insult; ‘It 
may very reasonably be expected that the old draw 
upon themselves the greatest part of those insults 
which they s¢ much lament, and that age is rarely 


12] 


despised but when if is contemptible.’—Jounson 
When the insult breaks forth into personal violence it 
is an outrage; ‘This is the round of a passicnate 
man’s life; he contracts debts when he is furious, 
which his virtue, if he has virtue, obliges him to dis- 
charge at the return of reason. He spends his time in 
outrage and reparation.’—JOHNSON. 

Captious people construe every innocent freedom 
into an affront. When people are ina state of ani- 
mosity, they seek opportunities of offering each other 
insults. Intoxication or violent passion impel men to 
the commission of outrages. 


TO AGGRAVATE, IRRITATE, PROVOKE, 
EXASPERATE, TANTALIZE. 


Aggravate, in Latin aggravetus, participle of ag 
gravo, compounded of the intensive syllable ag or ad 
and gravo to make heavy, signifiesto make very heavy ; 
irritate, in Latin zrritatus, participle of zrrito, which 
is a frequentative from ira, signifies to excite anger; 
provoke, in French provoquer, Latin provoco, com- 
pounded of pro forth, and voco to call, signifies to 
challenge or defy; exasperate, Latin exasperatus, 
participle of exaspero, is compounded of the intensive 
syllable ex and asper rough, signifying to make things 
exceedingly rough, tantalize, in French tantaliser, 
Greek rayradi2u, comes from Tantalus, a king of 
Phrygia, who, having offended the gods, was destined 
by way of punishment to stand up to his chin in water 
with a tree of fair fruit hanging over his head, both 
of which, as he attempted to allay his hunger and 
thirst, fled from his touch; whence to tantalize signi- 
fies to vex by exciting false expectations. 

All these words, except the first, refer to the feelings 
of the mind, and in familiar discourse that also bears 
the same signification ; but otherwise respects the out: 
ward circumstances. 

The crime of robbery is aggravated by any circum 
stances of cruelty ; whatever comes across the feelings 
irritates ; whatever awakens anger provokes ; what 
ever heightens this anger extraordinarily exasperates ; 
whatever raises hopes in order to frustrate them tanta 
lizes. 

An appearance of unconcern for the offence and its 
consequences aggravates the guilt of the offender; 
‘ Asif nature had not sown evils enough in life, we 
are continually adding grief to grief, and aggravating 
the common calamity by our cruel treatment of one 
another..—Appison. A grating harsh sound irritates 
if long continued and often repeated ; so also reproaches 
and unkind treatment irritate the mind; ‘ He irritated 
many of his friends in London so much by his letters, 
that they withdrew their coritributions.’—JoHNnson 
(Life of Savage). Angry words provoke, particularly 
when spoken with an air of defiance ; ‘ The animad- 
versions of Criticks are commonly such as may easily 
provoke the sedatest writer to some quickness of 
resentment.’—-Jounson. When provocations become 
multiplied and varied they exasperate ; ‘ Opposition 
retards, censure exasperates, or neglect depresses.’— 
Jounson. The weather by its frequent changes tan- 
talizes those who depend upon it for amusement; 
‘Can we think that religion was designed only fora 
contradiction to nature; and with the greatest and 
most irrational tyranny in the world to tantalize 2’— 
Sours. 

Wicked people aggravate their transgressions by 
violence: susceptible and nervous people are most 
easily trritated ; proud people are quickly provoked ; 
hot and fiery people are soonest exasperated: those 
who wish for much, and wish for it eagerly, are 
oftenest tantalized 


TO TEASE, VEX, TAUNT, TANTALIZE, 
TORMENT. 


Tease is most probably a frequentative of tear; vex 
has the same signification as given under the head of 
displease: taunt is probably contracted from tantalize, 
the original meaning of which is explained in ihe pre- 
ceding article: torment, from the Latin tormentum 
and torqueo to twist, signifies to give pain by twisting, 
or griping. The idea of acting upon others so as to 
produce a painful sentiment is common to all these 
terms ; they differ in the mode of the action, and ix 
the degree of the effest. 


122 


All these actions rise in importance ; to tease con- 
sists in that which is most trifling ; to torment in that 
which is most serious. We are teased by a fly that 
buzzes in our ears; we are vexed by the carelessness 
and stupidity of our servants; we are taunted by the 
sarcasms of others; we are tantalized by the fair 
prospects which only present themselves to disappear 
again; we are tormented by the importunities of 
troublesome beggars. It is the repetition of unpleasant 
trifles which teases ; ‘Louisa began to take a little 
mischievous pleasure in teasing. —CUMBERLAND. It 
is the crossness and perversity of things which vez ; 


Still may the dog the wand’ring troops constrain 
Of airy ghosts, and vez the guilty train —DryDeEn. 


in this sense things may be said figuratively to be 
vexed ; 
And sharpen’d shares shall vez the fruitful ground, 
DRYDEN. 


It is contemptuous and provoking behaviour which 
taunts , 


Sharp was his voice, which in the shrillest tone, 
Thus with injurious tawnts attack the throne. 
Pore. 


It is the disappointment of awakened expectations 
which tantalizes ; ‘When the maid (in Sparta) was 
once sped, she was not suffered to tantalize the male 
part of the commonwealth.’—Appison. It is the repe- 
tition of grievous troubles which torments ; ‘Truth 
exerting itself in the searching precepts of self-denial 
and mortification is tormenting to vicious minds.’— 
Sourn. We may be teased and tormented by that 
which produces bodily or mental pain; we are vexed, 
taunted, and tantalized only inthe mind. [ritable 
and nervous people are most easily teased ; captious 
and fretful people are most easily vexed or taunted ; 
sanguine and eager people are most easily tantalized : 
iu all these cases the imagination or the bodily state 
of the individual serves to increase the pain; but per- 
sons are tormented by such things as inflict positive 
rain. 


YVEXATION, MORTIFICATION, CHAGRIN. 


Vexation, signifies either the act of vexing, or the feel- 
ing of being vexed; mortification, the act of mortify- 
ing, or the feeling of being mortified; chagrin, in 
French chagrin, from aigrir, and the Latin acer sharp, 
signifies a sharp feeling. 

FVexation springs from a variety of causes, acting 
unpleasantly on the inclinations or passions of men ; 
mortification is a stkong degree of vexation, which 
arises from particular circumstances acting on parti- 
cular passions: the loss of a day’s pleasure is a vexa- 
tion to one who is eager for pleasure; the loss of a 
prize, or the circumstance of coming into disgrace 
where we expected honour, is a mortification to an 
ambitious person. Vezation arises principally from 
our wishes and views being crossed; mortification, 
from our pride and self-importance being hurt; chagrin, 
from 2 mixtvre of the two ; disappointments are always 
attended with more or less of vezation, according to 
the circumstances which give pain and trouble ; ‘ Po- 
verty is an evil complicated with so many circum- 
stances of uneasiness and vexation, that every man is 
studious to avoid it’—Jounson. Anexposure of our 
poverty may be more or less of a mortification, accord- 
ing to the value which we set on wealth and gran- 
deur; ‘I am mortified by those compliments which 
were designed to encourage me.’—Porr. A refusal of 
a request will produce more or less of chagrin as it is 
accompanied with circumstances more or less mortify- 
ing to our pride; ‘It was your purpose to balance my 
chagrin at the inconsiderable effect of that essay, by 
representing that it obtained some notice.’—HI.t. 


CRIME, MISDEMEANOUR. 


Crime (v. Crime) is to misdemeanour (v. Offence), 
as the genus to the species: a misdemeanour is in the 
technical sense a minor crime. Housebreaking is 
under all circumstances a crime; but shoplifting or 
pilfering amounts only to a misdemeanour. 

Corporeal! punishments are most commonly annexed 
to crimes; pecuniary punishments frequently to ms- 
demeanours. In the vulgar use of these terms, mis- 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


demeanour is moreover distinguished from crime, by 
not always signifying a violation of publick law, but 
only of private morals; in which sense the term crame 
implies what is done against the state; 


No crime of thine cur present sufferings draws, 
Not thou, but Heav’n’s disposing will the cause 
Porz. 


The misdemeanour is that which offends individuals 
or small communities; ‘I mention this for the sake of 
several rural squires, whose reading does not rise so 
high as to ‘the present state of England,’ and who 
are often apt to usurp that precedency which by the 
jaws of their country is not due to them. Their want 
of learning, which has planted them in this station 
may in some measure excuse their misdemeanour.’— 
ADDISON. 


CRIME, VICE, SIN. 


Crime, in Latin crimen, Greek xpiva, signifies a 
judgement, sentence, or punishment ; also the cause of 
the sentence or punishment, in which latter sense it ig 
here taken: vice, in Latin vitium, from vite to avoid, 
signifies that which ought to be avoided: sim, inSaxon 
synne, Swedish synd, German sunde, old German 
sunta, sunto, &c. Latin sontes, Greek otyrns, from sive 
to burt, signifies the thing that hurts: sam being of al} 
things the most hurtful. 

A crime is a social offence; a vice is a persona) 
offence: every action which does injury to others, 
either individually or collectively, is a crime; that 
which does injury to ourselves is a vice. 

A crime consists in the violation of human laws; 
‘The most ignorant heathen knows and feels that, 
when he has committed an unjust and cruel action, he 
has committed a crime and deserves punishment.’— 
Buair. Vice consists in the violation of the moral 
law; ‘If aman makes his vices publick, though they 
be such as seem principally to affect himself (as drunk- 
enness or the like), they then become, by the bad ex- 
ample they set, of pernicious effects to society.’— 
BLacKsToNnE. Sin consists in the violation of the Di- 
vine law; ‘Every single gross act of stm is much the 
same thing to the conscience that a great blow or fall 
is to the head; it stuns and bereaves it of all use of 
its senses for a time.’—Souru. Sin, therefore, com- 
prehends both crime and vice ; but there are many sins 
which are not crimes nor vices : crimes are tried before 
a human court, and punished agreeably to the sentence 
of the judge; vices and sims are brought before the 
tribunal of the conscience ; the former are punished in 
this world, the latter will be punished in the world to 
come, by the sentence of the Almighty: treason is one 
of the most atrocious crimes; drunkenness one of the 
most dreadful vices ; religious hypocrisy one of the most 
heinous sins. 

Crimes cannot be atoned for by repentance; society 
demands reparation for the injury committed: vices 
continue to punish the offender as long as they are che- 
rished: sins are pardoned through the atonement and 
mediation of our blessed Redeemer, on the simple con 
dition of sincere*Ytepentance. Crimes and vices disturb 
the peace and good order of society, they affect men’s 
earthly happiness only ; siz destroys the soul, both for 
this world and the world to come: crimes sometimes 
go unpunished ; but sin carries its own punishment 
with it: murderers who escape the punishment due to 
their crimes commonly suffer the torments which at- 
tend the commission of such flagrant sins. Crimes are 
particular acts; vices are habitual acts of commission ; 
sins are acts of commission or omission, habitual or 
particular: personal security, respect for the laws, and 
regard for one’s moral character, operate to prevent the 
commission of crimes or vices ; the fear of God deters 
from the commission of sin. 

A crime always involves a violation of a law; a vice, 
whether in conduct or disposition, always diminishes 
moral excellence and involves guilt; a s¢z always sup- 
poses some perversity of will in an accountable agent 
Children may commit crimes, but we may trust trat 
in the divine mercy they. will not all be imputed to them 
as sins. Of vices, however, as they are habitual, we 
have no right to suppose that any exception will be 
made in the account of our sins. 

Crimes vary with times and countries; vices may be 
more or less pernicious; but sim is as unchangeable in 
its nature as the Being whom it offends. Smuggling 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


and forgery are crimes in England, which in other 
countries are either not known or not regarded: the 
wice of gluttony is not so dreadful as«that of drunken- 
ness; every sin as an offence against an infinitely good 
and wise Being, must always bear the same stamp of 
guilt and enormity. . 

By the affectation of some writers in modern times, 
the word crime has been used in the singular to denote, 
in the abstract sense, a course of criminal conduct, but 
the innovation is not warranted bythe necessity of the 
case, the word being used in the plural number, in that 
sense, as to be encouraged in the commission of crimes, 
not of crime. 


CRIMINAL, GUILTY. 


Criminal, from crime, signifies belonging or relating 
to a crime; guilty, from guilt, signifies having guilt : 
Zuilt comes from the German gelten to pay, and yelt a 
fine, debt, or from guile and beguile, according to Horne 
Tooke; ‘ Gul is ge-wigled guiled, guil’d, guilt; the 
past participle of ge-wiglian and to find guzlz in any one, 
is to find that he has been guiled, or as we now say, 
beguiled, as wicked means witched or bewitched.’— 
(Diversions of Purley.) 

Criminal respects the character of the offence ; ‘ True 
modesty avoids every thing that is criminal; false 
modesty every thing that is unfashionable.’—Appison. 
Guilty respects the fact of committing the offence, or 
more properly the person committing it; 


Guilt hears appall’d with deeply troubled thought; 
And yet not always on the guzlty head 
Descends the fated flash—T Homson. 


The criminality of a person is estimated by all the cir- 
cumstances of his conduct which present themselves to 
observation; his guilt requires to be proved by evi- 
dence. The criminality is not a matter of question, 
but of judgement; the guzilt is often doubtful, if not po- 
sitively concealed. ‘The higher the rank of a person, 
the greater his criminality if he does not observe an 
upright and irreproachable conduct; ‘If this perseve- 
rance in wrong often appertains to individuals, it much 
more frequently belongs to publick bodies; in them the 
disgrace of errour, or even the criminality of conduct, 
belongs to so many, that no one is ashamed of the part 
which belongs to himself..— Watson. Wherea num- 
ber of individuals are concerned in any unlawful pro- 
ceeding, the difficulty of attaching the gut to the real 
offender is greatly increased ; ‘When these two are 
taken away, the possibility of guilt, and the possibility 
of innocence, what restraint can the belief of the creed 
lay upon any man ?—Hammonp. 

Criminality attaches to the aider, abettor, or encou- 
rager; but guzlt, in the strict sense only, to the perpe- 
trator of whatis bad. A person may therefore some- 
times be criminal without being guilty. He who con- 
ceals the offences of another may, under certain cir- 
cumstances, be more criminal than the guilty person 
himself. On the other hand, we may be guilty with- 
out being criminal: the latter designates something 
positively bad, butthe former is qualified by the object 
of the guilt. Those only are denominated criminal 
who offend seriously, either against publick law or pri- 
vate morals; but a person may be said to be guilty, 
cither of the greatest or the smallest offences. He who 
contradicts another abruptly in conversation is guilty 
of a breach of politeness, but he is not criminal, 

Criminal is moreover applied as an epithet to the 
things done; guilty is mostly applied to the person doing. 
We commonly speak of actions, proceedings, intentions, 
and views, as criminal; but of the person, the mind, 
or the conscience, as guilty. It is very criminal tosow 
dissension among men; although: there are too many 
who from a busy temper are guilty of this offence. 


CRIMINAL, CULPRIT, MALEFACTOR, FELON, 
CONVICT. 


All these terms are employed for a publick offender : 
but the first conveys no more than this general idea; 
while the others comprehend some accessory idea in 
their signification: criminal (v. Criminal, Guilty) is a 
general term, and the rest are properly species of cr?- 
minals; culprit, from the Latin culpa, and prehensus 
taken in a fault, signifies the criminal who is directly 
charged with his offence: malefactor, eompounded of 
‘he Latin terms male and factor, signifies an evil-doer, 


NN ———————————————————————————————————————————— 


{23 


that is, one who does evil, in distinction from him who 
does good: felon, from felony, in Latin felonia a capital 
crime, comes from the Greek gyAdors an imposture 
because fraud and villany are the prominent features 
of every capital offence: convict, in Latin, convictus, 
participle of convince to convince or prove, signifies one 
proved or found guilty. 

When we wish to speak in general of those who by 
offences against the laws or regulations of society have 
exposed themselves to punishment, we denominate 
them criminals; ‘If I attack the vicious, I shall only 
set upon them in a body, and will not be provoked by 
the worst usage I can receive from others, to make an 
example of any particular criminal.’—Appison. Wher 
we consider persons as already brought before a trib 
nal, we call them culprits ; 


The jury then withdrew a moment, 

As if on weighty points to comment, 

And right or wrong resolved to save her, 
They gave a verdict in her favour. 

The culprit by escape grown bold, 

Pilfers alike from young and old—Mooreg 


When we consider men in regard to the moral turpi: 
tude of their character, as the promoters of evil rather 
than of good, we entitle them malefactors ; 


For this the malefactor goat was laid 
On Bacchus’ altar, and his forfeit paid—Drypen. 


When we consider men as offending by the grosser vio- 
lations of the law, they are termed felons ; ‘He (Earl 
Ferrers) expressed some displeasure at being executed 
as a common felon, exposed to the eyes of such a mul- 
titude.’—SmoLu When we consider men as already 
under the sentence of the law, we denominate them 
convicts ; 


Attendance none shall need, nor train, where none 
Are to behold the judgement, but the judged ; 
Those two: the third best absent is condemn’d 
Convict by flight, and rebel to all law, 

Conviction to the serpent none belongs.—M1LTon 


The punishments inflicted on criminals vary accord- 
ing to the nature of their crimes, and the spirit of the 
laws by which they are judged: a guilty conscience 
will give a man the air of a culprit in the presence ot 
those who have not authority to be either his accusers 
or judges: it gratified the malice of the Jews to cause 
our blessed Saviour to be crucified between two male- 
factors; itis am important regulation in the internal 
economy of a prison, to have felons kept distinct from 
each other, particularly if their crimes are of an atro- 
cious nature: it has not unfrequently happened, that 
when the sentence of the law has placed convicts in 
the lowest state of degradation, their characters have 
undergone so entire a reformation, as to enable them to 
attain a higher pitch of elevation than they had ever 
enjoyed before. 


CULPABLE, FAULTY. 


Culpable, in Latin culpabdilis, from culpa a fault or 
blame, signifies worthy of blame, fit to be blamed; 
faulty, from fault, having faults. 

We are culpable from the commission of one fault ; 
we are faulty from the number of faults; culpable is 
a relative term; faulty is absolute; we are culpable 
with regard to a superiour whose intentions we have not 
fulfilled; we are faulty whenever we commit any 
faults. A master pronounces his servant culpable for 
not having attended to his commands; ‘In the com- 
mon business of life, we find the memory of one like 
that of another, and honestly impute omissions not to 
involuntary forgetfulness, but culpable inattention.’— 
Jounson. An indifferent person pronounces another 
as faulty whose faults have come under his notice; 
‘In the consideration of human life the satirist never 
falls upon persons who are not glaringly faulty.,— 
STEELE. It is possible therefore to be faulty without 
being culpable, but not vice versd. 


GUILTLESS, INNOCENT, HARMLESS. 


Guiltless, without guilt, is more than innocent: tn- 
nocence, from noceo to hurt, extends no farther than the 
quality of not hurting by any direct act ; guzltless com- 
prehends the quality of not intending to hurt: it is 
possible, therefore, to be znnocent without being guils- 
less, though not vice versd; he who wishes for the 


124 


death of another is not guiltless, though he may be 
innocent of the crime of murder. Guiltless seems to 
regard a man’s general condition ; innocent his parti- 
cular condition: no man is guiltlese in the sight of 
God, for no man is exempt from the guilt ofsin; but he 
may be innocent in the sight of men, or innocent of all 
such intentiona offences as render him obnoxious to 
his fellow-creatures. G‘uililessness was that happy 
state of perfection which men lost at the fall; 


Ah! why should all mankind 
For one man’s fault thus guiltless be condemn’d, 
If guiltless ? But from me what can proceed 
But all corrupt 7—MILTon. 


Innocence is that relative or comparative state of per- 
fection which is attainable here on earth: the highest 
state of innocence is an ignorance of evil; ‘When Adam 
sees the several changes of nature about him, he ap- 
nears in a disorder of mind suitable to one who had 
forfeited both his innocence and his happiness.’—Ap- 
DISON. 

Guiltless is in the proper sense applicable only to 
the condition of man; and when applied to things, it 
still has a reference to the person ; 


But from the mountain’s grassy side 
A guiltless feast I bring ; 
A scrip with fruits and herbs supplied, 
And water from the spring.—GoLpsMITH. 


Innocent is equally applicable to persons or things; a 
person is znnocent who has not committed any injury, 
or has not any direct purpose to commit an injury; or 
a conversation is zmnocent which is free from what 
is hurtful. Innocent and harmless both recommend 
themselves as qualities negatively good; they desig- 
nate an exemption either in the person or thing from 
injury, and differ only in regard to the nature of the in- 
jury : innocence respects moral injury, and harmless 
physical injury: a person is znnocent who is free from 
moral impurity and wicked purposes; he is harmless 
if he have not the power or disposition to commit any 
violence; a diversion is znnocent which has nothing in 
it likely to corrupt the morals; ‘A man should endea- 
vour to make the sphere of lis zxnocent pleasures as 
wide as possible, that he may retire into them with 
safety..—Appison. A game is harmless which is not 
likely to inflict any wound, or endanger the health ; 


Full on his breast the Trojan arrow fell, 
But harmless bounded from the plated steel. 
ADDISON. 


IMPERFECTION, DEFECT, FAULT, VICE. 


Imperfection denotes either the abstract quality of 
imperfect, or the thing which constitutes it zmperfect ; 
defect signifies that which is deficient or falls short, 
from the Latin deficto to fall short; fault, from fail, 
signifies that which fails; vice, signifies the same as 
explaimed under the head of Crime. 

These terrzs are applied either to persons or things. 
An imperfection in a person arises from his want of 
perfection, and the infirmity of his nature; there is no 
one without some point of ¢mperfection which is ob- 
vious to others, if not to himself: he may strive to 
diminish it, although he cannot expect to get altogether 
rid of it: a defect is a deviation from the general con- 
stitution of man; it is what may be natural to the man 
as an individual, but not natural to man as a species; 
in this manner we may speak of a defect in the speech, 
or a defect in temper. The fault and vice rise in de- 
gree and ciiaracter above either of the former terms; 
they both reflect disgrace more or less on the person 
possessing them; but the fawlé always characterizes 
the agent, and is said in relation to an individual; the 
vice characterizes the action, and may be considered 
abstractedly: hence we speak of a man’s faults as the 
things we may condemn in him; but we may speak of 
the vices of drunkenness, lying, and the like, without 
any immediate reference to any one whe practises 
these vices. When they are both employed for an in- 
dividual, their distinction is obvious: the fault may 
lessen the amiability or excellence of the character ; 
the vice is a stain; a single act destroys its purity, an 
habitua? practice is a pollution. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


In regard to things the distinction depends upon the 
preceding explanation in a great measure, for we can 
scarcely use these words without thinking on man as 
a moral agent, who was made the most perfect of all 
creatures, and became the most imperfect; and from 
our imperfection has arisen, also, a general imperfec- 
tion throughout all the works of creation. ‘The word 
imperfection is therefore the most unqualified term of 
all: there may be zmperfection in regard to our Maker; 
or there may be imperfection in regard to what we 
conceive of perfection: and in this case the term 
simply and generally implies whatever falls short in 
any degree or manner of perfection; ‘It is a pleasant 
story that we, forsooth, who are the only zmperfect crea- 
tures in the universe, are the only beings that will not 
allow of imperfection..—StTrELn. Defect is a positive 
degree of imperfection : it is contrary both to our ideas 
of perfection or our particular intention: thus, there 
may be a defect in the materials of which a thing is 
made; or a defect in the mode of making it: the term 
defect, however, whether said of persons or things, 
characterizes rather the object than the agent; ‘This 
low race of men take a particular pleasure in finding 
an eminent character levelled to their condition by a 
report of its defects, and keep themselves in counte- 
nance, though they are excelled in a thousand virtues, 
if they believe that they have in common with a great 
person any one fault.’—Appison. Fault, on the other 
hand, when said of things, always refers to the agent: 
thus we may say there is.a defect in the glass, or a de- 
fect in the spring ; but there is.a fault in the workman 
ship, or a fault in the putting together, and the like 
Vice, with regard to things, is properly a serious on 
radical defect; the former lies in the constitution of 
the whole, the latter may lie in the parts ; the former 
lies in essentials, the latter lies in the accidents; there 
may be a defect in the shape or make of a horse; but 
the vice is said in regard to his soundness or unsound- 
ness, his docility or indocility ; ‘ did myself the honour 
this day to make a visit to a lady of quality, who is 
one.of those who are ever railing at the wices of the 
age.’—STEELE. 


IMPERFECTION, WEAKNESS, FRAILTY, 
FAILING, FOIBLE. 


Imperfection (v. Imperfection) has already been con 

sidered as that which in the most extended sense 
abridges the moral perfection of man; the rest are but 
modes of imperfection, varying in degree and circum- 
stances; ‘ You live in a reign of human infirmity, 
where every one has imperfections. —BLaiR. Weak 

ness iS a positive and strong degree of imperfection, 
which is opposed to strength; it is what we do not so 
necessarily look for, and therefore distinguishes the in- 
dividual who is liable to it; ‘The folly of allowing 
ourselves to delay what we know cannot finally be 
escaped, is one of the general weaknesses which, to a 
greater or less degree, prevail in every mind.’—JoHn- 
son. Frailty is another strong mode of imperfection 
which characterizes the fragility of man, but not of all 
men; it differs from weakness in respect to the object. 
A weakness lies more in the judgement or in the senti 

ment; frazity lies more in the moral features of an 
action; ‘ There are circumstances which every man 
must know will prove the occasions of calling forth 
his latent frailtzes.—Buair. It is a weakness in a 
man to yield to the persuasions of any one against his 
better judgement; it is a frailty to yield to intemper 

ance or illicit indulgences. Fazlings and foibles are 
the smallest degrees of imperfection to which the 
human character is liable: we have all our fatlings in 
temper, and our fozbles in our habits and our prepos 

sessions; and he, as Horace observes, is the best whe 
has the fewest ; ‘ Never allow small failings to dwell 
on your attention so much as to deface the whole of an 
amiable character’—Buarr. ‘ Witty men have some- 
times sense enough to know their own foibles, and 
therefore they craftily shun the attacks of an argu- 
ment.’—Watts. For our imperfections we must seek 
superiour aid: we must be most on our guard against 
those weaknesses to which the softness or susceptibility 
of our minds may most expose us, and against those 
frailties into which the violence of our evil passions 
may bring us: toward the failings and foibles of 
others we may be indulgent, but should be ambitious 
to correct them in ourselw 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


YO FAIL, FALL SHORT, BE DEFICIENT. 


Fail, in French faillir, German, &c. fehlen, like the 
word fall, comes from the Latin fallo to deceive, and 


the Hebrew bp4 to fall or decay. 

To fail marks the result of actions or efforts; a per- 
son fails in his undertaking: fall short designates 
either the result of actions, or the state of things; a 
person falls short in his calculation, or in his account ; 
the issue falls short of the expectation: to be deficient 
marks only the state or quality of objects; a person is 
deficient in good manners. People frequently fad in 
their best endeavours for want of knowing how to 
apply their abilities; ‘I would not willingly laugh but 
to instruct; or, if I sometimes faz/ in this point, when 
my mirth ceases to be instructive, it shall never cease 
to be innocent.—Appison. When our expectations 
are immoderate, it is not surprising,if our success falls 
short of our hopes and wislies; ‘ There is not in my 
opinion any thing more mysterious in nature than this 
instinct in animals, which thus rises above reason, 
and fails infinitely short of it.—Appison. There is 
nothing in which people discover themselves to be 
more deficient than in keeping ordinary engagements ; 


While all creation speaks the pow’r divine, 
Is it deficient in the main design 7—JENYNs. 


To fail and be deficient are both applicable to the 
characters of men; but the former is mostly employed 
for the moral conduct, the latter for the outward beha- 
viour: hence a man is said to fail in his duty, in the 
discharge of his obligations, in the performance of a 
promise, and the like ; but to be deficzent in politeness, 
in attention to his friends, in his address, in his manner 
of entering a room and the like. 


FAILURE, FAILING. 


The failure (v. To fail) bespeaks the action, or the 
result of the action; the failing is the habit, or the 
habitual faclure : the failure is said of one’s under- 
takings, or in any point generally in which one fazls ; 
‘ Though some violations of the petition of rights may 
perhaps be imputed to him (Charles I.), these are more 
to be ascribed to the necessity of his situation, than to 
any failure in the integrity of his principles..—Huma. 
The failing is said of one’s moral character ; ‘ There 
is scarcely any failing of mind or body, which instead 
of producing shame and discontent, its natural effects, 
has not one time or other gladdened vanity with the 
hope of praise. —Jounson. The failure is opposed to 
the success; the fai/zng to the perfection. The mer- 
chant must be prepared for failw7es in his speculations ; 
the statesman for failures in his projects, the result of 
which depends upon contingencies that are above 
human control. With our failings, however, it is 
somewhat different; we must never rest satisfied that 
we are without them, nor contented with the mere 
consciousness that we have them. 


FAILURE, MISCARRIAGE, ABORTION 


Failure (v. To fail) has always a reference to the 
agent and his design ; miscarriage, that is, the carrying 
or going wrong, is applicable to all sublunary concerns, 
without reference to any particular agent; abortion, 
irom the Latin aborior, to deviate from the rise, or to 
pass away before it be come to maturity, is in the pro- 
per sense applied to the process of animal nature, and 
In the figurative sense, to the thoughts and designs 
which are conceived in the mind. 

Failure is more definite in its signification, and 
‘imited in its application; we speak of the failures of 
individuals, but of the miscarriages of nations or 
things : the failure reflects on the person so as to excite 
towards him some sentiment, either of compassion, 
displeasure, or the like; ‘He that attempts to show, 
however modestly, the failures of a celebrated writer, 
shall surely irritate his admirers.—Jounson. The 
miscarriage is considered mostly in relation to the 
course of human events; ‘The miscarriages of the 
great designs of princes are recorded in the histories of 
the world.’—Jounson. The failure of Xerxes’ expe- 
dition reflected disgrace upon himself; but the mis- 
carriage of military enterprises in general are attri- 
butable to the elements, or some such untoward cir- 
eumstance. ‘I'he abortion, in its proper sense, is a 


125 


species of miscarriage, and in application a species of 
failure, as it applies only to the designs of conscious 
agents; but it does not carry the mind back to the 
agent, for we speak of the abortion of a scheme with 
as little reference to the schemer, as when we speak of 
the miscarriage of an expedition; ‘ All abortion is 
from infirmity and defect.’—SouTH. 


INSOLVENCY, FAILURE, BANKRUPTCY. 


All these terms are properly used in the mercantile 
world, but are not excluded also in a figurative sense 
from general application. Insolvency, from in priva- 
tive, and solvo to pay, signifying not to pay, denotes a 
state, namely, the state of not being able to pay what 
one owes; failure, from to fail, signifies the act of fazl 
ing in one’s business, or a cessation of business for 
want of means to carry it on; bankruptcy, from the 
two words banca rupta, or a broken bank, denotes the 
effect of a failure, namely, the breaking up of the 
capital and credit by which a concern is upheld. The 
word bankruptcy owes its origin to the Italians, by 
whom it is called bancorctto, because originally the 
money-changers of Italy had benches at which they 
conducted their business, and when any one of them 
failed his bench was broken. These terms are seldom 
confined to one person, or description of persons. As 
an incapacity to pay debts is very frequent among 
others besides men of business, znsolvency is said of 
any such persons; a gentleman may die in a state of 
insolvency who does not leave effects sufficient to cover 
all demands; 


fiven the dear delight 
Of sculpture, paint, intaglios, books and coins, 
Thy breast, sagacious prudence! shall connect 
With filth and beggary, nor disdain to link 
With black insolvency.—SHENSTONE. 


Although failure is here specifically taken for a failure 
in business, yet there may bea fazlwre in one particular 
undertaking without any direct insolvency: a failure 
may likewise only imply a temporary fazlure in pay- 
ment, or it may imply an entire faclure of the concern ; 
‘The greater the whole quantity of trade, the greater 
of course must be the positive number of fazlures, 
while the aggregate success is still in the same propor 
tion..—Burxs. As a bankruptcy is a legal transac- 
tion, which entirely dissolves the firm under which 
any business is conducted, it necessarily implies a 
failure in the full extent of the term; yet it does not 
necessarily imply an znsolvency ; for some men may, 
in consequence of a temporary failure, be led to com- 
mit an act of bankruptcy, who are afterward enabled 
to give a full dividend to all their creditors; ‘By an 
act of insolvency all persons who are in too low a way 
of dealing to be bankrupts, or notin a mercantile state 
of life, are discharged from all suits and imprisonments, 
by delivering up all their estates and effects.’-—BLacx- 
stone. But from the entire state of destitution which 
a bankruptcy involves in it, the term is generally taken 
for the most hopeless state of want; ‘Perkin gathered 
together a power neither in number nor in hardiness 
contemptible; but in their fortunes to be feared, being 
bankrupts, and many of them felons.’"—Bacon. _ It is 
also used figuratively; ‘Sir, if you spend word for 
word with me I shall make your wit bankrupt._SuHaxs- 
PEARE. 


ERROUR, FAULT. 


Errour, from erro to wander or go astray, respects 
the act; fault, from fail, respects the agent: the errouwr 
may lay in the judgement, or in the conduct; but the 
fault lies in the will or intention: the errours of youth 
must be treated with indulgence: but their faults must 
on all accounts be corrected; errour is said of that 
which is individual and partial; 


Bold is the task when subjects, grown too wise, 
Tnstruct a monarch where his errour lies.—PoPz. 


Fault is said of that which is habitual; ‘ Other faulés 
are not under the wife’s jurisdiction, and should if 
possible escape her observation, but jealousy calls upon 
her particularly for its cure..—Appison. It is an errour 
to use intemperate language at any time; it is a faxle 
in the temper of some persons who cannot restrain 
their anger. 


126 


ERROUR, MISTAKE, BLUNDER. 


Errour, as in the preceding article, 
wandering, or the state of being gone astray ; a mistake 
is a taking amiss or wrong ; blunder is not improbably 
changed from blind, and signifies any thing done blindly. 

Errour in its universal sense is the general term, 
since every deviation from what is right in rational 
agents is termed errour, which is strictly opposed to 
truth: errour is the lot of humanity ; into whatever 
we attempt to do or think errour will be sure to creep: 
the term therefore is of unlimited use ; the very men- 
tion of it reminds us of our condition: we have errours 
of judgement; errours of calculation; errours of the 
head; and errours of the heart; ‘Idolatry may be 
looked upon ag an errour arising from mistaken devo- 
tion.—Appison. The otker terms designate modes of 


errour, Which mostly refer to the common concerns of « 


life: mistake is an errour of choice ; blunder an errour 
of action: children and careless people are most apt to 
make mistakes; ‘It happened that the king himself 
passed through the gallery during this debate, and 
smiling at the mzstake of the dervise, asked him how 
he could possibly be so dull as not to distinguish a 
palace from acaravansary.’—Appison. Ignorant, con- 
ceited and stupid people commonly commit blunders : 
‘Pope allows that Dennis had detected one of those 
blunders which are called bulls..—Jounson. A mis- 
take must be rectified; in commercial transactions it 
may be of serious consequence: a blunder must be set 
right; but blunderers are not always to be set right ; 
and biunders are frequently so ridiculous as only to ex- 
cite laughter. 


TO DEVIATE, WANDER, SWERVE, STRAY. 


Deviate, from the Latin devius, and de via, signifies 
literally to turn out of the way; wander, in German 
wandern, OY wandeln, a frequentative of wenden to 
turn, signifies to turn frequently ; swerve, probably 
from the German schweifen to ramble, schweben to 
soar, &c. signifies to take an unsteady, wide, and indi- 
rect course; stray is probably a change from erro to 
wander. 

Deviate always supposes a direct path; wander in- 
cludes nosuchidea. The act of deviating is commonly 
faulty, that of wandering is indifferent: they may fre- 
quently exchange significations; the former being jus- 
tifiable by necessity ; and the latter arising from an un- 
steadiness of mind. Deviate is mostly used in the 
moral acceptation; wander may be used in either 
sense. A person deviates from any plan or rule laid 
down; he wanders from the subject in which he is 
engaged. As no rule can be laid down which will not 
admit of an exception, it is impossible but the wisest 
will find it necessary in their moral conduct to deviate 
occasionally; yet every wanton deviation from an es- 
tablished practice evinces a culpable temper on the 
part of the deviator ; ‘While we remain in this life 
We are subject to innumerable temptations, which, 
if listened to, will make us deviate from reason and 
goodness.’—-SprcTaTor. Those who wander into the 
regions of metaphysicks are in great danger of losing 
themselves; it is with them as with most wanderers, 
that they spend their time at best but idly ; 

Our aim is happiness; ’t is yours, ’tis mine; 
He said ; ’t is the pursuit of all that live, 
Yet few attain it, if ’t was e’er attain’d; 

But they the widest wander from the mark, 
Who thro’ the flow’ry paths of sauntering joy 
Seek this coy goddess.— ARMSTRONG. 


To swerve is to deviate from that which one holds 
right; to stray is to wander in the same bad sense: 
men swerve from their duty to consult their interest ; 


Nor number, nor example, with him wrought, 
To swerve from truth MILTon. 
The young stray from the path of rectitude to seek 
that of pleasure ; 
Why have I stray’d from pleasure and repose, 
To seek a good each government bestows? 
GOLDSMITH. 


TO DIGRESS, DEVIATE. 


Both in the original and the accepted sense, these 
werds express goig out of the ordinary course; but 


marks the act of | C28€s. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


| digress is used only in particular, and deviate in genera: 
We digress only in a narrative whether writ 
ten or spoken; we deviate in actions as well as in 
words, in our conduct as well as in writings. 

Digress is mostly taken in a good or indifferent 
sense; ‘ The digressions in the Tale of a Tub, relating 
to Wotton and Bentley, must be confessed to discover 
want of knowledge or want of integrity..JoHnson 
Deviate in an indifferent or bad sense; ‘A resolution 
was taken (by the authors of the Spectator) of courting 
general approbation by general topicks ; to this practice 
they adhered with few deviations.’—Jounson. Al- 
though frequent digressions are faulty, yet occasionally 
it is necessary to digress for the purposes of explana- 
tion : every deviation is bad, which is not sanctioned 
by the necessity of circumstances. 


TO WANDER, TO STROLL, RAMBLE, ROVE, 
ROAM, RANGE. 


Wander signifies the same as in the article Deviate ; 
stroll is probably an intensive of to roll, that is, to go 
in a planless manner, ramble from the Latin re and 
ambulo, is to walk backward and forward; and rove is 
probably a contraction of ramble; roam is connected 
with our word room, space, signifying to go in a wide 
space, and the Hebrew [2))%, to be violently moved 
backward and forward; range, from the noun range, 
a rank, row, or extended space, signifies to go over a 
great space, but within certain limits. The idea of 
going in an irregular and free manner iscommon to al 
these terms. 

To wander is to go out of the path that has been 
already marked out; 


But far about they wander from the grave 
Of him, whom his ungentle fortune urg’d 
Against his own sad breast to lift the hand 
Of impious violence.—THomson. 


Sometimes wandering may be an involuntary action 
a person may wander to a great distance, or for an in 
definite length of time ; in this manner a person wan- 
ders who has lost himself in a wood; or it may bea 
planless course ; 


I will go lose myself, 
And wander up and down to view the city. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


To stroll is to go in a fixed path, but strolling is a vo 
luntary action, limited at our discretion; thus, when 3 
person takes a walk, he sometimes strolls from one 
path into another, as he pleases; ‘I found by the voice 
of my friend who walked by me, that we had insensibly 
strolled into the grove sacred to the widow.’—Anppr- 
son. To ramble is to wander without any, object, and 
consequently with more than ordinary irregularity: in 
this manner he who sets out to take a walk, without 
knowing or thinkimg where he shall go, rambles as 
chance directs; ‘I thus rambled from pocket to pocket 
until the beginning of the civil wars.—Appison. To 
rove is to wander in the same planless manner, but to 
a wider extent ; a fugitive who does not know his road, 
roves about the country in quest of some retreat ; 


Where is that knowledge now, that regal thought 

With just advice and timely counsel fraught ? 

Where now, O judge of Israel, does it ce 
RIOR. 


To roam is to wander from the impulse of a disordered 
mind ; in this manner a lunatick who has broken loose 
may roam about the country; so likewise a person 
who travels about, because he cannot rest in quiet at 
home, may also he said to roam in quest of peace; 


She looks abroad, and prunes herself for flight, 

Like an unwilling inmate longs to roam 

From this dull earth, and seek her native home. 
JENYNS. 


To range is the contrary of to roam; asthe latter indl- 
cates a disordered state of mind, the former indicates 
composure and fixedness; we range within certain 
limits, as the hunter ranges the forest, the shepherd 
ranges the mountains ; 


The stag too singled from the herd, where long 


He rang’d the branching monarch of the shades 
Before the tempest drives.—THoMSON 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


BLEMISH, DEFECT, FAULT. 


B.emish is probably changed from the word blame, 
signifying that which causes blame; defect and fault 
have the same signification as given under the head of 
imperfection. 

Blemish respects accidents or incidental properties 
of an object: defect consists in the want of some spe- 
cifick propriety in an object; fault conveys the idea 
not only of something wrong, but also of its relation to 
the author. There is a blemish in fine china; a defect 
in the springs of a clock; and a fault in the con- 
trivanee. An accident may cause a blemish in a fine 
painting; ‘There is another particular which may be 
reckoned among the blemishes, or rather, the false 
beauties, of our English tragedy: I mean those parti- 
eular speeches which are commonly known by the 
name of rants. —Appison. ‘The course of nature may 
occasion a defect in a person’s speech; ‘It has been 
often remarked, though not without wonder, that a 
man is more jealous of his natural than of his moral 
qualities; perhaps it will no longer appear strange, if 
it be considered that natural defects are of necessity, 
and moral of choice.—Hawkrsworty. The care- 
lessness of the workman is evinced by the faults in the 
workmanship; ‘ The resentment which the discovery 
of a fault or folly produces must bear a certain pro- 
portion to our pride.’—Jounson. A blemish may be 
easier remedied than a defect is corrected, or a fault 
repaired. 


BLEMISH, STAIN, SPOT, SPECK, FLAW. 


Blemish comes immediately from the French blémir 
to grow pale, but probably in an indirect manner from 
dlame; stain, in French teindre, old French destetndre, 
comes from tie Latin tingo to die; spot is not impro- 
bably connected with the word spit, Latin sputum, 


and the Hebrew f}5)0, to adhere as something extra- 
neous ; speck, in Saxon specce, probably comes from 
the same Hebrew root; flaw, in Saxon floh, fliece, 
German jleck, low German fick or plakke, a spot or a 
fragment, a piece, most probably from the Latin plaga, 
Nae mAnya a strip of land, or a stripe, a wound in the 
body. 

In the proper sense blemish is the generick term, the 
rest are specifick: a stain, a spot, speck, and flaw, are 
blemishes, but there are likewise many blemishes which 
are neither stains, spots, specks, nor flaws. 

Whatever takes off from the seemliness of appear- 
ance is a blemish. In works of art, the slightest dim- 
ness of colour, or want of proportion, is a blemish. 
A stain and spot sufficiently characterize themselves, 
as that which is superfluous and out of its place. A 
speck is asmall spot; and a flaw, which is confined to 
hard substances, mostly consists of a faulty inden- 
ture on the outer surface. A blemish tarnishes; a 
stain spoils; a spot, speck, or flaw, disfigures. A 
blemish is rectified, a stain wiped out, a spot or speck 
removed. 

These terms are also employed figuratively. Even 
an imputation of what is improper in our moral con- 
duct is a blemish in our reputation; ‘It is impossible 
for authors to discover beauties in one another’s works: 
they have eyes only for spots and blemishes.’—Avp1- 
son. The failings of a good man are so many spots 
in the bright hemisphere of his virtue: there are some 
vices which affix 2 stan on the character of nations, 
as well as of the individuals who are guilty of them; 


By length of time, 
The scurf is worn away of each committed crime; 
No speck is left of their habitual stains, 
But the pure ether of the soul remains.—DrypeEn. 


A blemish or a spot may be removed by a course of 
good conduct, but a stain is mostly indelible: it is as 
great a privilege to have an unblemished reputation, or 
@ spotless character, as it is a misfortune to have the 
stain of bad actions affixed to our name: ‘ There are 
many who applaud themselves for the singularity of 
their judgement, which has searched deeper than 
others, and found a flaw in what the generality of man- 
kind have admired.’—Appison. 


DEFECTIVE, DEFICIENT. 


Defective expresses the quality or property of having 
a defect (v Blemish); deficient is employed with re- 


127 


gard to the thing itself that is wanting. A book may 
be defecteve, in consequence of some leaves being 
deficient. A deficiency is therefore often what consti- 
tutes a defect. Many things, however, may be defective 
without having any deficiency, and vice versd. What 
ever is misshapen, and fails, either in beauty or utility, 
is defective; that which is wanted to make a thing 
complete is deficient. It is a defect in the eye when it 
is so constructed that things are not seen at their proper 
distances ; ‘ Providence, for the most part, sets us upon 
a level. if it renders us perfect in one accomplish 
ment, it generally leaves us defective in another ’— 
Appison. There isa deficiency in a tradesman’s ac- 
counts, when one side falls short of the other ; ‘Tf 
there be a deficiency in the speaker, there will not be 
sufficient attention and regard paid to the thing spoken.’ 
—Swirt. 

Things only are said to be defective; but persons 
may be termed deficient either in attention, in good 
breeding, in civility, or whatever else the occasion 
may require. That which is defective is most likely 
to be permanent; but a deficiency may be only occa- 
sional, and easily rectified. 


BAD, WICKED, EVIL. 


Bad, in Saxon bad, baed, in German bés, is probably 
connected with the Latin pejus worse, and the Hebrew 


Ww” to be ashamed; wicked is probably changed 
from witched or bewitched, that is, possessed with an 
evil spirit; bad respects moral and physical qualities 
in general; wicked only moral qualities; evil, in Ger- 
man t#ebel, from the Hebrew ssn pain, signifies that 
which is the prime cause of pain; evzl therefore, in its 
full extent, comprehends both badness and wicked- 
NESS. 

Whatever offends the taste amd sentiments of a 
rational being is bad; food is bad when it disagrees 
with the constitution; the air is bad which has any 
thing in it disagreeable to the senses or hurtful co the 
body; books ‘are bad which only inflame the imagina- 
tion or the passions ; ‘ Whatever we may pretend, a3 
to our belief, it is the strain of our actions that must 
show whether our principles have been good or bad.’ 
—Buair. Whatever is wicked offends the moral 
principles of a rational agent: any violation of the 
law is wicked, as law is the support of human society ; 
an act of’ injustice or cruelty is wicked, as it opposes 
the will of God and the feelings of humanity ; 


For when th’ impenitent and wicked die, 
Loaded with crimes and infamy ; 
If any sense at that sad time remains, 
They feel amazing terrour, mighty pains. 
é POMFRET. 


Evil is either moral or natural, and may be applied to 
every object that is contrary to good; but the term is 
employed only for that which is in the highest degree 
bad or wicked ; 


And what your bounded view, which only saw 

A little part, deem’d evil, is no more ; 

The storms of wintry time will quickly pass, 

And one unbounded spring encircle all—THomson. 


When used in relation to persons; both refer to the 
morals, but bad is more general than wicked; a bad 
man is one who is generally wanting in the perform 
ance of his duty; a wicked man is one who is charge- 
able with actual violations of the law, human or 
Divine; such a one has an evil mind. A bad cha- 
racter is the consequence of immoral conduct; but no 
man has the character of being wicked who has not 
been guilty of some known and flagrant vices: the 
inclinations of the best are evil at certain times 


BADLY, ILL. 


Badly, in the manner of bad (v. Bad); ill, in 
Swedish ill, Icelandick tlur, Danish ill, &c. is sup- 
posed by Adelung, and with some degree of justice, 
not to be acontraction of evil, but to spring from the 
Greek od\ds destructive, and o\Atdw to destroy. 

These terms are both employed to modify the actions 
or qualities of things, but badly is always annexed to 
the action, and iJl to the quality: as to do any thing 
badly, the thing is badly done; an zil-judged scheme, 
an zll-contrived measure an ill-disposed person. 


128 


DEPRAVITY, DEPRAVATION, CORRUPTION. 
Depravity, from the Latin pravitas and pravus, in 


Greek fa:Bds, and the Hebrew J) to be disordered, 
or put out of its established Order, signifying the 
quality of not being straight; depravation, in Latin 
depravatio, signifies the act of making depraved; 
corruption, in Latin corruptio, corrumpo, from rumpo 
to break, marks the disunion and decomposition of the 
arts. 

' * All these terms are applied to objects which are 
contrary to the order of Providence, but the term de- 
gravity characterizes the thing as it is; the terms de- 
pravation and corruption designate the making or 
causing it to be so: depravity therefore excludes the 
idea of any cause; depravation always refers us to 
the cause or external agency: hence we may speak of 
depravity as natural, but we speak of depravation 
and corruption as the result of circumstances: there 
is a depravity in man, which nothing but the grace of 
God can correct ; ‘ Nothing can show greater depravity 
of understanding than to delight in the show when the 
reality is wanting..—Jounson. The introduction of 
dbscenity on the stage tends greatly to the depravation 
of morals; bad company tends to the corruption of a 
young man’s morals; ‘ The corruption of our taste is 
not of equal consequence with the depravaiton of our 
virtue.’-—W arRTON. 

Depravity or depravation implies crookedness, or a 
distortion from the regular course; corruption implies 
a dissolution as it were in the component parts of 
bodies. 

Cicero says that depravity is applicable only to the 
mind and heart; but we say a depraved taste, and 
depraved humours in regard to the body. A depraved 
taste loathes common food, and longs for that which 
is unnatural and hurtful. Corruption is the natural 
Meee by which* material substances are disorgan- 
ized. 

In the figurative application of these terms they 
preserve the same signification. Depravity is cha- 
racterized by being directly opposed to order, and an 
established system of things; corruption marks the 
vitiation or spoiling of things, and the ferment that 
leads to destruction. Depravity turns things out of 
their ordinary course; corruption destroys their essen- 
tial qualities: Depravity is a vicious state of things, 
in which all is deranged and perverted; corruption is 
a vicious state of things, in which all is sullied and 
polluted. That which is depraved loses its proper man- 
ner of acting and existing; ‘The depravation. of hu- 
man will was followed by a disorder of the harmony 
of nature. —Jounson. That which is corrupted loses 
its virtue and essence; ‘We can discover that where 
there is universal innocence, there will probably be 
universal happiness ; for why should afflictions be per- 
mitted to infest beings who are not in danger of cor- 
ruption from blessings ??—JoHNSON. 

The force of irregular propensities and distempered 
imaginations produces a depravity of manners; the 
force of example and the dissemination of bad princi- 
ples produce corruption. A judgement not sound or 
right is depraved; a judgement debased by that which 
is vicious is corrupted. What is depraved requires 
be reformed: what is corrupted requires to be purified. 
Depravity has most regard to apparent and excessive 
disorders; corruption to internal and dissolute vices. 
‘* Manners,” says Cicero, ‘are corrupted and depraved 
by the love of riches.’’ Port Royal says that God has 
given up infidels to the wandering of a corrupted 
and depraved mind. These words are by no means a 
pleonasm or repetition, because they represent two 
distinct images; one indicates the state of a thing very 
much changed in its substance; the other the state of 
a thing very much opposed to regularity. ‘ Good 
God! (says Masillon the preacher), what a dreadful 
account will the rich and powerful have one day to 
give; since, besides their own sins, they will have to 
account before Thee for publick disorder, depravity of 
morals, and the corruption of the age!’ Publick dis- 
orders bring on naturally depravity of morals; and sins 
of vicious practices naturally give birth to corruption. 
Depravity is more or Jess open; it revolts the sober 
upright understanding ; corruption is more or less dis- 


* Vide Roubaud: “Depravation, corruption.”— 
Vrussler; ‘ Depravity, corruption.” 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


guised in its operations, but fatal in its effects: tne 
former sweeps away every thing before it like a tor 
rent; the latter infuses itself into the moral frame like 
a slow poison. | 

That is a depraved state of morals in which the 
gross vices are openly practised in defiance of all de 
corum; ‘The greatest difficulty that occurs in ana 
lyzing his (Swift’s) character, is to discover by what 
depravity of intellect.he took delight in revolving ideas 
from which almost every other mind shrinks with dis- 
gust.—JoHunson. That is a corrupt state of society 
in which vice has secretly insinuated itself into all the 
principles and habits of men, and concealed its defor- 
mity under the fair semblance of virtue and honour , 


Peace is the happy natural state of man; 
War his corruption, his disgrace.—THOMSON. 


The manners of savages are most likely to be de- 
praved; those of civilized nations to be corrupt, when 
luxury and refinement are risen to an excessive pitch. 
Cannibal nations present us with the picture of human 
depravity; the Roman nation, during the time of the 
emperors, affords us an example of almost universal 
corruption. 

From the above observations, it is clear that depra- 
vity is best applied to those objects to which common 
usage has annexed the epithets of right, regular, fine, 
&c.; and corruption to those which may be charac- 
terized by the epithets of sound, pure, innocent, or 
good. Hence we say depravity of mind and corrup- 
tion of heart; depravity of principle and corruption 
of sentiment or feeling: a depraved character ; a cor- 
rupt example; a corrupt influence; ‘No depravity of 
the mind has been more frequently or justly censured 
than ingratitude..—Jounson. ‘I have remarked in a, 
former paper, that credulity is the common failing of 
inexperienced virtue, and that he who isspontaneously 
suspicious may be justly charged with radical corrup 
tion.’— JOHNSON. 

Tn reference to the arts or belles lettres we say either 
depravity or corruption of taste, because taste has its 
rules, is liable to be disordered, is or is not conformable 
to natural order, is regular or irregular; and on the 
other hand it may be so intermingled with sentiments 
and feelings foreign to its own native purity as to give 
it justly the title of corrupt. 

The last thing worthy of notice respecting the two 
words depravity and corruption, is that the «former is 
used for man in his moral capacity ; but the latter for 
man ina pol.tical capacity : hence we speak of human 
depravity, but the corruption of government; ‘ The 
depravity of mankind is so easily discoverable, that 
nothing but the desert or the cell can exclude it from 
notice.’—Jounson. ‘Every government, say the poli 
ticians, is perpetually degenerating toward corrup- 
tion.’ —J OHNSON. 


WICKED, UNJUST, INIQUITOUS, 
NEFARIOUS 


Wicked (v. Bad) is here the generick term; inzqgui- 
tous, from iniguus unjust, signifies that species of 
wickedness which consists in violating the law of right 
between man and man; nefarious, from the Latin 
nefas wicked or abominable, is that species of wzcked- 
ness which consists in violating the most sacred obli- 
gations. The term wicked, being indefinite, is com- 
monly applied in a milder sense than iniquitous ; and 
iniquitous than nefarious: it is wicked to deprive 
another of his property unlawfully, under any circum- 
stances ; 


In the corrupted currents of this world, 
Offence’s gilded hand may shove by justice ; 
And oft ’t is seen, the wicked prize itself 
Buys out the law.—SHaksPEARE. 


It is iniquitous if it be done by fraud and circum- 
vention; and nefarious if it involves any breach of 
trust, or is in direct violation of any known law: any 
undue influence over another, in the making of his 
will, to the detriment of the rightful heir, is iniquitous ; 
‘Lucullus found that the province of Pontus had 
fallen under great disorders and oppressions from the 
iniquity of usurers and publicans. —PRripgaux. Any 
underhand dealing of a servant to defraud his master 
is nefarious, or any conspiracy to defraud or injure 
wthers is called nefarious ; ‘ That unhallowed villany 


, ENGLISH 


nefarrously attempted upon the personof our agent.’— 
MILTON. 


TO CONTAMINATE, DEFILE, POLLUTE, 
TAINT, CORRUPT. 


Contaminate, in Latin contaminatus, participle of 


contamino, comes from the Hebrew 739¥) to pollute ; 
defile, compounded of de and jfile or vile, signifies to 
make vile; pollute, in Latin pollutus, participle of 
polluo, compounded of per and lxo or lavo to wash or 
dye, signifies to infuse thoroughly; taint, in French 
teint, participle of teindre, in Latin tingo, signifies to 
dye or stain; corrupt, signifies the same as in the pre- 
ceding article. 

Contaminate is not so strong an expression as defile 
or pollute; but it is stronger than taint ; these terms 
are used in the sense of injuring purity: corrupt has 
the idea of destroying it. Whatever is impure con- 
taminates, what is gross and vile in the natural sense 
defiles and in the moral sense pollutes; what is con- 
tagious or infectious corrupts; and what is corrupted 
may taizt other things. Improper conversation or 
reading contaminates the mind of youth; ‘The drop 
of water after its progress through all the channels of 
the street isnot more contaminated with filth and dirt, 
than a simple story after it has passed through the 
mouths of a few modern tale-bearers.—HawkEs- 
wortu. Lewdness and obscenity defile the body and 
pollute the mind ; 


When from the mountain tops with hideous cry 

And'clatt’ring wings the hungry harpies fly, 

They snatch the meat, defiling all they find, 

And parting leave a loathsome stench behind. 
DRYDEN. 


Her virgin statue with their bloody hands 
Poliuted, and profan’d her holy bands.—DrypDEn. 


Loose company corrupts the morals; ‘ All men agree 

that licentious poems do, of all writings, soonest cor- 
pt the heart.’—StTreLte. The coming in contact 

witb a corrupted body is sufficient to give a taint ; 


Your teeming ewes shall no strange meadows try, 
Nor fear a rot from tainted company.—DRyYDEN. 


If young people be admitted to a promiscuous inter- 
course with society, they must unavoidably witness 
objects that are calculated to contaminate their thoughts 
if not theirinclinations, They are thrown in the way 
of seeing the lips of females defiled with {the grossest 
indecencies, and hearing or seeing things which can- 
not be heard or seen without polluting the soul: it 
cannot be surprising if after this their principles are 
found to be corrupted before they have reached the age 
af maturity. 


CONTACT, TOUCH. 


Contact, Latin Contactus, participle of contingo, 
compounded of con andtango to touch together, is dis- 
tinguished from the simple word touch, not so much in 
sense as in grammatical construction; the former ex- 
pressing a state, and referring to two bodies actually in 
that state; the latter on the other hand implying the 
abstract act of touching: we speak of things coming 
or being in contact, but not of the contact instead of 
the touch of a thing: the poison which comes from the 
poison-tree is so powerful in its nature, that it is not 
necessary to come in contact with it in order to feel its 
yaneful influence; ‘We are attracted towards each 
other by general sympathy, but kept back from contact 
in private interest’—Jounson. Some insects are 
armed with stings so inconceivably sharp, that the 
smallest touch possible is sufficient to produce a punc- 
ture into the flesh; ‘Odeath! where is now thy sting ? 
O grave! where is thy victory? Where are the ter- 
rours with which thou hast so long affrighted the 
nations? At the toucf of the Divine rod, thy visionary 
horrours are ficd.”.—Buarr. 


CONTAGION, INFECTION, 


Both these terms imply the power of communicating 

.something bad, but contagion, from the Latin verb 

sontingo to come in contact, proceeds from a simple 

touch; and infection, from the Latin verb inficio or 
- 9 


SYNONYMES. 


123 


in and facto to put in, proceeds by receiving something 
inwardly, or having it infused. 

Some things act more properly by contagion, others 
by infection ; the more powerful diseases, as the plague 
or yellow fever, are communicated by contagion ; they 
are therefore denominated contagious ; the less viru 
lent disorders, as fevers, consumptions, and the like, 
are termed infectious, as they are communicated by 
the less rapid process of infection ;: the air is contagious 
or infectious according to the same rule of distinction : 
when heavily overcharged with noxious vapours and 
deadly disease, it is justly entitled contagious, but in 
ordinary cases infectious. In the figurative sense, vice 
is for the same obvious reason termed contagious ; ‘If 
I send my son abroad, it is scarcely possible to keep 
him from the reigning contagion of rudeness.’—LincKe 
Bad principles are denominated infectrous ; 


But we who only do infuse 

The rage in them like bouté-feus, 

’T is our example that instils 

In them the infection of our ills.—_BuTLes 


Some young people, who are fortunate enough to shun 
the contagion of bad society, are, perhaps, caught by the 
infection of bad principles, acting as a slow poison on 
the moral constitution. 


CONTAGIOUS, EPIDEMICAL, PESTI- 
LENTIAL. 


Contagious signifies having contagion (v. Contagion ii 
epidemical, in Latin epidemicus, Greek émidjutos, that fs 
éxt and jos among the people, signifies universally 
spread; pestilential, from the Latin pestis the plague, 
signifies having the plague, or a similar disorder. 

The contagious applies to that which is capable of 
being caught, and ought not, therefore, to be touched; 
the epidemical to that which is already caught or circu 
lated, and requires, therefore, to. be stopped; the pestz 
lential to that which may breed an evil, and is, there- 
fore, to be removed: diseases are contagious or epi- 
demical; the air or breath is pestilential. 

They may all be applied morally or figuratively in 
the same sense. 

We endeavour to shuna contagious disorder, that is 
may not come near us; we endeavour to purify a peste- 
lential air, that it may not beinhaled to our injury; we 
endeavour to provide against epidemical disorders, that 
they may not spread any farther. 

Vicious example is contagious ; 

No foreign food the teeming ewes shall fear, 
No touch contagious spread its influence here. 
Warton 


Certain follies or vices of fashion are epidemical in 
almost every age; ‘Among all the diseases of the mind, 
there is not one more epidemical or more pernicious than 
the love of flattery. —StrrxLe. The breath of infidelity 
is pestilential ; 

Capricious, wanton, bold, and brutal lust 

Is meanly selfish ; when resisted, cruel; 

And like the blast of pestilential winds, 

Taints the sweet bloom of nature’s fairest forms. 

MILTON 


BLAMELESS, IRREPROACHABLE, UNBLE- 
MISHED, UNSPOTTED, OR SPOTLESS. 


Blameless signifies literally void of blame (v. To 
blame) ; irreproachable, that is, not able to be re- 
proached (v. To blame) ; unblemished, that is, without 
blemish (v. Blemish); unspotted, that is, without spot 
(v. Blemish). 

Blameless is less than irreproachable; what is 
blameless is simply free from blame, but that which is 
irreproachable cannot be blamed, or have any reproack 
attached to it. It isgood to say of aman that he leads 
a blameless life, but it is a high encomium to say, that 
he leads an irreproachable life: the former is but the 
negative praise of one who is known only for his harm- 
lessness; the latter is but positive commendation of 
aman who is well known for his integrity in the dif 
ferent relations of society ; 


The sire of Gods, and all th’ ethereal train, 

On the warm limits of the farthest main, 

Now mix with mortals, nor disdain to grace 
The feasts of Adthiopia’s blameless race.—PoPE 


130 


Take particular care that your amusements be of an 
wrreproachable kind.’—Buair. 

Unblemished and unspotted are applicable to many 
obiects, besides that of personal conduct; and when 
applied to this, their origina! meaning sufficiently points 
out their use in distinction from the two former We 
may say of a man that he has an irreproachable or an 
unblemished reputation, and unspotted or spotless purity 
of life; 

But now those white unblemish’d manners, whence 

The fabling poets took their golden age, 

Are found no more amid these iron times. 

THOMSON. 


But the good man, whose soul is pure, 

Unspotted, regular, and free 

From all the ugly stains of lust and villany, 

Of mercy and of pardon sure, 

Looks through the darkness of the gloomy night, 

And sees the dawning of a glorious day. 
PoMFRET. 


Hail, rev’rend priest! To Phcebus’ awful dome 
A suppliant I from great Atrides come. 
Unransom’d here, receive the spotless fair, 
Accept the hecatomb the Greeks prepare.—Porr. 


TO PRAISE, COMMEND, APPLAUD, EXTOL. 


Praise comes from the German pretsen to value, and 
our own word price, signifying to give a value toa 
thing ; commend, in Latin commendo,compounded of 
com and mando, signifies to commit to the good opinion 
of others; applaud (v. Applause) ; extol, in Latin ex- 
tollo, signifies to lift up very high. 

All these terms denote the act of expressing appro- 
bation. The praise is the most general and indefinite ; 
it may rise to a high degree, but it generally implies a 
lower degree: we praise a person generally ; we com- 
mend him particularly : we praise him for his diligence, 
sobriety, and the like; we commend him for his per- 
formances, or for any particular instance of prudence 
or good conduct. To applaud is an ardent mode of 
praising ; we applaud a person for his nobleness of 
spirit: to extol isa reverential mode of praising ; we 
extola man for his heroick exploits. Praise is confined 
to no station, though with most propriety bestowed by 
superiours or equals: commendation is the part of a 
superiour; a parent commends his child for an act of 
charity: applause is the act of many as well as of one; 
theatrical performances are the frequent subjects of 
publick applauses; extol is the act of inferiours, who 
declare thus decidedly their sense of a person’s supe- 
riority. 

In the scale of signification commend stands the 
lowest, and extol the highest; we praise in stronger 
terms than we commend : to applaud is to praise inloud 
terms; to extol is to pratse in strong terms; 


The servile rout thcir careful Cesar praise, 
Him they extol ; they worship him alone. 
DRYDEN. 


He who expects praise will not be contented with 
simple commendation: praise, when sincere, and be- 
stowed by one whom we esteem, is truly gratifying: 
but it is a dangerous gift for the receiver; happy that 
ae who has no occasion to repent the acceptance 
of it; 
How happy them we find, 

Who know by merit to engage mankind, 

Prais’d by each each tongue, by ev’ry heart belov’d, 

For virtues practis’d, and for arts improv’d.—Jenyns. 


Commendation is always sincere, and may be very 
beneficial by giving encouragement; ‘When school- 
boys write verse, it may indeed suggest an expectation 
of something better hereafter, but deserves not to be 
commended for any real merit of their own.’-—Cowrrr. 
Applause is noisy ; it is the sentiment of the multitude, 
who are continually changing ; 


While from both benches, with redoubled sounds, 
Th’ applause of lords and commoners abounds. 
Drypen. 


APPLAUSE, ACCLAMATION, PLAUDIT. 


Applause, from the Latin applaudo, signifies literally 
to clap the hands or siamp the feet to a thing; accla- 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES 


mation, from acclamo, signifies a crying out to a thing 
These two words answer to the plausus ane acclamatio 
of the Romans, which were distinguished from each 
other in the same manner; but the plausus war an 
artful way of moving the hands so as to produce an 
harmonious sound by way of applause, particular’y in 
the theatre; 


Datus in theatro, 
Cum tibi plausus.—Horace. 


In medio plausa, plausus tune arte carebat.—Ovip 


Stantiaque in plausum tota theatra juvent. 
PROPERTIUS. 


The word plausus was sometimes used in the sense of 
applause expressed by words; the acclamatio was an 
expression by the voice only, but it was either a mark 
of approbation or disapprobation ; favourable acclama 
tions were denominated laudationes et bona vota, the 
unfavourable were exsecrationes et convicia, all which 
were expressed by a certain prescribed modulation of 
the voice. Plaudit, or, as it was originally written, 
plaudite, isthe imperative of the verb plaudo, and was 
addressed by the actors to the spectators at the close of 
the performance by way of soliciting their applause ; 


Si plausoris eges aulea manentis, et usque 
Sessuri, donec cantor, vos plaudite, dicat. 
Horace. 


Hence the term plaudit denotes a single act of applause, 
but is now mostly employed figuratively ; 


True wisdom must our actions so direct 
Not,only the last plaudit to expect—DENHAM. 


These terms express a publick demonstration ; the 
former by means of a noise with the hands or feet ; the 
latter by means of shouts and cries: the former being 
employed as a testimony of approbation; the latter as 
a sanction, or an indication of respect. An actor looks 
for applause; a speaker looks for acclamation. 

What a man does calls forth applause, but the person 
himself is mostty received with acclamations. At the 
hustings popular speeches meet with appiause, and 
favourite members are greeted with loud acclamations ; 


Amid the loud applauses of the shore 
Gyas outstripp’d the rest and sprung before. 
DRypDzn. 
‘When this illustrious person (the duke of Marlbo 
rough) touched on the shore, he was received by the 
acclamations of the people.’—STEELE. 


ENCOMIUM, EULOGY, PANEGYRICK. 


Encomium, in Greek éyxémov, signified a set form 
of verses, used for the purposes of praise; eulogy, in 
Greek évAoyia, from e3 and déyos, signifies well spoken, 
or a good word for any one; panegyrick, in Greek 
mavynyvokds, from nds the whole, and dyvpis an as- 
sembly, signifies that which is spoken before an assem 
bly, a solemn oration. 

The idea of praise is common to all these terms: but 
the first seems more properly applied to the thing, or 
the unconscious object; the second to the person in 
general, or to the characters and actions of men in 
general; the third to the person of some particular indi- 
vidual: thus we bestow encomiums upon any work of 
art, or production of genius, without reference to the 
performer; we bestow eulogies on the exploits of a 
hero, who is of another age or country; but we write 
panegyricks either in a direct address, or in direct 
reference to the person who is panegyrized: the enco- 
mium is produced by merit, real or supposed ; the eulogy 
may spring from admiration of the person eulogized ; 
the panegyrick may be mere flattery, resulting from 
servile dependence: great encomiwms have been paid 
by all persons to the constitution of England; ‘ Our 
lawyers are, with justice, copious in their encomiums 
on the common law.’—Biackstonr. Our naval and 
military heroes have received the eulogies of many 
besides their own countrymen; ‘ Sallust would say of 
Cato, ‘That he had rather be than appear good:” 
but indeed this eulogiwm rose no higher than to an inof- 
fensiveness.’—Srrex.e. Authors of no mean reputa- 
tion have condescended to deal out their panegyricks 
pretty freely in dedications to their patrons ; 


On me, when dunces are satirick, 
Itake it for a panegyrick.—Swirt. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


LAUDABLE, PRAISEWORTHY COM- 
MENDABLE. 


Laudable, from the Latin laudo to praise, is in sense 
iterally praiseworthy, that is, worthy of praise, or to 
de praised (v. To praise) ; commendable signifies enti- 
tled to commendation. 

Lauduble is used in a general application ; prazse- 
wortny and commendable are applied to individuals: 
things are laudable in themselves; they are prazse- 
worthy or commendable in this or that person. 

That which is laudable is entitled to encouragement 
and general approbation; an honest endeavour to be 
useful to one’s family or one’s self is at all times lau- 
dable, and will ensure the support of all good people. 
What is praiseworthy obtains the respect of all men: 
as all have temptations to do that which is wrong, the 
performance of one’s duty is in all cases prazseworthy ; 
but particularly so in those cases where it opposes one’s 
interests and interferes with one’s pleasures. What is 
commendable is not equally important with the two 
former ; it entitles a person only to a temporary or par- 
tial expression of good will and approbation: the per- 
formance of those minor and particular duties which 
belong to children and subordinate persons is in the 
proper sense commendable. 

It is a Jaudable ambition to wish to excel in that 
which is good; ‘ Nothing is more laudable than an 
inquiry after truth.—Appison, It is very praise- 
worthy in a child to assist its parent as occasion may 
require ; ‘Ridicule is generally made use of to laugh 
men out of virtue and good sense by attacking every 
thing praiseworthy in human life.’--Appison. Si- 
lence is commendable in a young person when he is 
reproved ; ‘Edmund Waller was born to a very fair 
estate by the parsimony or frugality of a wise father 
and mother, and he thought it so commendable an ad- 
vantage that he resolved to improve it with his utmost 
care '—CLARENDON. 


TO CONTEND, STRIVE, VIE. 


Contend, in Latin contendo, compounded of con or 
contra and tendo to bend one’s steps, signifies to exert 
one’s self against any thing; strzve, in Dutch streven, 
low German strevan, high German streben, is probably 
a frequentative of the Latin strepo to make a bustle; 
vie is probably changed from view, signifying to look 
at with the desire of excelling. 

Contending requires two parties; strive either one 
ortwo. There is no contending where there is not 
an opposition ; but a person may strive by himself. 

Contend and strive differ in the object as well as 
mode: we contend for a prize; we strive for the mas- 
tery : we contend verbally; but we never strive with- 
out an actual effort, and labour more or less severe. 
We may contend with a person ata distance; but 
striving requires the opponent, when there is one, to 
be present. Opponents in matters of opinion contend 
for what they fancy to be the truth; sometimes they 
contend for trifles ; 


Mad as the seas and the winds, when both contend 
Which is the master.—SHAKSPEARE. 


Combatants strive to overcome their adversaries, either 
by dint of superiour skill or strength. In contention 
the prominent idea is the mutual efforts cf two or more 
persons for the same object; but in striving the pro- 
minent idea is the efforts of one to attain an object; 
hence the terms may sometimes be employed in one 


and the same connexion, and yet expressing these col- 
lateral ideas ; 


Mad as the winds 
When for the empire of the main they strive. 
DENNIS. 


Contend is frequently used in a figurative sense, in 
application to things; strive very seldom. We con- 
tend with difficulties; and in the spiritual application, 
we may be said to strive with the spirit. 

Vie has more of striving than contending in it; we 
strive to exce] when we vie, but we do not strive with 
any one; there is no personal collision or opposition : 
those we vie with may be as ignorant of our persons 
as our intentions. The term vie is therefore frequently 
applied to unconscious objects ; 


131 
} Shall a form 

Of elemental dross, of mould’ring clay, 

Vie with these charms imperial ? 

Mason (on Truth) 


Vying is an act of no moment, but contending and 
striving are always serious actions: neighbours often 
vie with each other in the finery and grandeur of their 
house, dress, and equipage. 


COMPETITION, EMULATION, RIVALRY. 


Competition, from the Latin competo, compounded 
of com or con and peto, signifies to sue or seek together, 
to seek for the same object; emulation, in Latin emu- 
latio, from e@mulor, and the Greek Gydda a contest, 
signifies the spirit of contending; rivalry, from the 
Latin rivus the bank of a stream, signifies the undi 
vided or common enjoyment of any stream which is 
the natural source of discord. 

Competition expresses the relation of a competitor, ' 
or the act of seeking the same object; emulation ex- 
presses a disposition of the mind toward pariicuJar 
objects ; rzvalry expresses both the relation and the 
disposition of a rival. Emulation is to compstition as 
the motive to the action ; emulation produces competi- 
tors, but it may exist without it; ‘Of the ancients 
enough remains to excite our emulatzon and direct our 
endeavours,’—JOHNSON. 

Competition and emulation have the same marks to 
distinguish them from rivalry. Competition and emu- 
lation have honour for their basis; rivalry is but a © 
desire for selfish gratification. A competitor strives to 
surpass by honest means; he cannot succeed so well 
by any other; ‘It cannot be doubted but there is as 
great a desire of glory ina ring of wrestlers or cudgel 
players as in any other more refined competition for 
superiority. —Hueurs. A rival is not bound by any 
principle ; he seeks to supplant by whatever means 
seem to promise success; ‘Those, that have been 
raised by the interest of some great minister, trample 
upon the steps by which they rise, to rzval him in his 
greatness, and at length step into his place.—Souru. 
Anwafair competitor and a generous rival are equally 
anusual and inconsistent. Competition animates to 
exertion; rivalry provokes hatred :* competition seeks 
to merit success; rzvalry is contented with obtaining 
it; ‘To be no man’s rival in love, or competitor in 
business, is a character which, if it does not recom- 
mend you as it ought to benevolence among those 
whom you live with, yet has it certainly this effect, 
that you do not stand so much in need of their appro- 
bation as if you aimed at more. —STrxELr. Competi- 
tors may sometimes become rivals in spirit, although 
rivals will never become competitors. 

It is further to be remarked, that competition sup 
poses some actual effort for the attainment of aspecifick 
object set in view : r7valry may consist of a continued 
wishing for and aiming at the same general end with- 
out necessarily comprehending the idea of close action. 
Competitors are in the same line with each other, 
rivals may work toward the same point at a great dis- 
tance from each other. Literary prizes are the objects 
of competition among scholars; ‘ The prize of beauty 
was disputed till you were seen, but nowall pretenders 
have withdrawn their claims; there is no competition 
but for the second place.’—Dryprn. The affections 
of a female are the object of rivals ; 


Oh, love! thou sternly dost thy power maintain, 
And wilt not bear a rival in thy reign, 
Tyrants and thou all fellowship disdain.—Drypsn 


William the Conqueror and Harold were competitors 
for the crown of England; Auneas and Turnus were 
rivals for the hand of Lavinia. In the games which 
were celebrated by Atneas in honour of his father 
Anchises, the naval competitors were the most eager 
in the contest. Juno, Minerva, and Venus, were rival 
goddesses in their pretensions to beauty. 


TO CONTEND, CONTEST, DISPUTE. 


To contend signifies generally to strive one against 
another ; to contest, from the Latin contestor, to call 
one witness againt another ; and dispute, from dispute 


* Vide Abbe Roubaud: ‘ Emulation, rivalité.” 


132 


to think differently, or maintain a different opinion, 
are different modes of contending. We may contend 
for or déspute a prize, but the latter is a higher form of 
expression, adapted to the style of poetry ; 


Permit me not tolanguish out my days, 

But make the best exchange of life for praise. 

This arm, this lance, can well dispute the prize 
' DRYDEN. 


We cannot contest or dispute without contending, 
although we may contend without contesting or dis- 
puting. 'To contend is confined to the idea of setting 
one’s self up against another; to contest and dispute 
must include some object contested or disputed. Con- 
tend is applied to all matters, either of personal interest 
or speculative opinion ; contest always to the former ; 
dispute mostly to the latter. We contend with a per- 
son, and contest about a thing; 


*Tis madness to contend with strength Divine 
DRYDEN. 


During the present long and eventful contest between 
England and France, the English have contended with 
their enemies as successfully by landas by sea. Tri- 
fling matters may give rise to contending ; serious 
points only are contested. Contentions are always 
conducted personally, and in general verbally ; con- 
tests are carried on in different manners according to 
the nature of the object. ‘The parties themselves 
mostly decide contentions; but contested matters 
mostly depend upon others to decide. 

’ For want of an accommodating temper, men are 
frequently contending with each other about little 
points of convenience, advantage, or privilege, which 
they ought by mutual consent to share, or voluntarily 
to resign ; . 

Death and nature do contend about them 

Whether they live or die.—SHaKsPEARE. 


When seats in parliament or other posts of honour are 
to be obtained by suffrages, rival candidates contest 
their claims to publick approbation; ‘As the same 
causes had nearly the same effects in the different 
countries of Europe, the several crowns either lost or 
acquired authority, according to their different success 
in the contest..—HuME. 

When we assert the right, and support this assertion 
With reasons, we contend for it, 


"T is thus the spring of youth, the morn of life, 

Rears in our minds the rival seeds of strife; 

Then passion riots, reason then contends, 

And on the conquest every bliss depends. 
SHENSTONE. 


But we do not contest until we take serious measures 
to obtain what we coniend for; 


The poor worm 
Shall prove her contest vain. Life’s little day 
Shall pass, and she is gone. While I appear 
Flush’d with the bloom of youth through heav’n’s 
eternal year.—Mason (on Truth). 


Contend isto dispute as a part to the whole: two parties 
dispute conjointly; they contend individually. Each 
contends for his own opinion, which constitutes the 
dispute. Theological disputants often contend with 
more warmth than discretion for their favourite hy- 
pothesis ; ‘The question which our author would con- 
- tend for, if he did not forget it, is what persons have a 
right to be obeyed.’—Lockr. With regard to claims, 
it is possible to dispute the claim of another without 
contending for it for ourselves; ‘ Until any point is de- 
termined to be a law, it remains disputable by any 
subject.—Swirt. 


CONTENTION, STRIFE. 


Though derived from the preceding verbs (v. To 
contend, strive), have a distinct meaning in which they 
are analogous. The common idea to them is that of 
opposing one’s self to another with an angry humour. 

Contention is mostly occasioned by the desire of 
seeking one’sown. Strife springs from a quarrelsome 
temper. Greedy and envious people deal in contention, 
the former because they are fearful lest they should not 
get encugh; the latter because they are fearful lest 
others should get too much ; 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


With these four more of lesser fame 

And humble rank, attendant came ; 

Hypocrisy with smiling grace, 

And Impudence, with brazen face, 

Contention bold, with iron lungs, 

And Slander, with her hundred tongues. 
Moors 


Where bad tempers that are under no control coma 
in frequent collision, perpetual strife will be the con 
sequence ; ‘ A solid and substantial greatness of sou. 
looks down with a generous neglect on the censures and 
applauses of the multitude, and places a man beyond 
the little noise and strife of tongues.-—AppDISoN. 


1'O DIFFER, VARY, DISAGREE, DISSEN'. 


Differ, in Latin differo or dis and fero, signifies tc 
make into two; vary, in Latin vario to make various, 
from varus a spot or speckle, because that destroys the 
uniformity in the appearance of things; to disagree is 
literally not to agree; and dissent, in Latin dissentio or 
dis and sentio, is to think or feel apart or differently. 

Differ, vary, and disagree, are applicable either to 
persons or things; dissent to persons only. First as to 
persons; to differ is the most general and indefinite 
term, the rest are but modes of difference; wemay differ 
from any cause, or in any degree; we vary only in 
small matters ; thus persons may differ or vary in their 
statements. ‘There must be two at least to differ; and 
there may be an indefinite number: one may vary, o1 
an indefinite number may vary; two or a specifick 
number disagree ; thus two or more may differ in an 
account which they give; one person may vary at dif 
ferent times in the account which he gives; and two 
particular individuals disagree: we may differ in mat 
ters of fact or speculation ; we vary only in matters of 
fact; we disagree mostly in matters of speculation. 
Historians may dzfer in the representation of an affair, 
and authors may differ in their views of a particular 
subject; narrators vary in certain circumstances; two 
particular philosophers disagree in accounting for a 
phenomenon. 

To disagree isthe act of one man with another: to 
dissent is the act of one or more in relation to a com 
munity; thus two writers on the same subject may 
disagree in their conclusions, because they set out from 
different premises; men dissent from the established 
religion of their country according to their education 
and character. 

When applied to the ordinary transactions of life, 
differences may exist merely in opinion, or with a mix- 
ture of more or less acrimonious and discordant feeling; 
variances arise from a collision of interests; disagree- 
ments from asperity of humour; dissensions from a 
clashing of opinions; differences may exist betwcen 
nations, and may be settled by cool discussions ; ‘ The 
ministers of the different potentates conferred and con- 
ferred; but the peace advanced so slowly, that speedier 
methods were found necessary, and Bolingbroke was 
sent to Paristo adjust diferences with less formality.’— 
Jounson. When variances arise between neighbours, 
their passions often interfere to prevent accommo- 
dations ; 


How many bleed 
By shameful variance betwixt map and man. 
THOMSON. 


When members of a family consult interest or humour 
rather than affections, there will be necessarily disa- 
greements ; ‘On his arrival at Geneva, Goldsmith wae 
recommended as a travelling tutor to a young gentlemar 
who had been unexpectedly left a sum of money bv € 
near relation. This connexion lasted but a short time: 
they disagreed in the south of France and parted.’— 
JoHnson. Whenmany members of acommunity have 
an equal liberty to express their opinions, there will 
necessarily be dissensions ; 


When Carthage shall contend tne world with Rome 

Then is your time for faction and debate, 

For partial favour and permitted hate: 

Let now your immature dissension cease. 

DRYDEN. 

In regard to things, differ is said of two things witk 
respect to each other ; vary of one thing in respect to 
itself: thus two tempers differ from each other, and a 
person’s temper varies from time totime. Things defer 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


in their essences, they vary in their accidents: thus the 
genera and species of things differ from each other, and 
theindividuals of each species vary ; ‘We do not know 
in what reason and instinct consist, and therefore 
cannot tell with exactness in what they dijfer..—Joun- 
son. ‘Trade and commerce might doubtless be still 
varied a thousand ways, out of which would arise such 
branches as have not been touched.’—Jounson. Differ 
is said of every thing promiscuously, but disagree is 
only said of such things as might agree; thus two trees 
differ from each other by the course of things, but two 
numbers disagree which are intended to agree ; ‘The 
several parts of the same animal differ in their quali- 
iss. —-ARBUTHNOT. 


That mind and body often sympathize 

Is plain; such is this union nature ties; 

But then as often too they disagree, 

Which proves the soul’s superiour progeny. 
JENYNS. 


DIFFERENCE, DISPUTE, ALTERCATION, 
QUARREL. 


The difference is that on which one differs, or the 
state of differing (v. To differ); the dispute that on 
which one disputes, or the act of disputing ; altercation, 
in Latin altercatio and alterco, from alterwm and cor 
another mind, signifies expressing another opinion; 
quarrel, in French querelle, from the Latin queror to 
complain, signifies having a complaint against another. 

All these terms are here taken in the general sense 
of a difference on some personal question ; the term dif- 
ference is here as general and indefinite as in the former 
case (v. To differ, vary): a difference, as distinguished 
from the others, is generally of a less serious and per- 
sonal kind ; a dispute consists not only of angry words, 
but much ill blood and unkind offices; an altercation 
isa wordy dispute, in which difference of opinion is 
drawn out into a multitude of words on all sides; 
quarrel is the most serious ofall differences, which leads 
to every species of violence: the difference may some- 
times arise from a misunderstanding, which may be 
easily rectified ; differences seldom grow to disputes 
but by the fault of both parties; altercations arise 
mostly from pertinacious adherence to, and obstinate 
defence of, one’s opinions ; guarrels mostly spring from 
injuries real or supposed: differences subsist between 
men in an individual or publick capacity: they may be 
carried on in a direct or indirect manner; ‘ Ought less 
differences altogether to divide and estrange those from 
one another, whom such ancient and sacred bands 
unite ?—Buatr. Disputes and altercations are mostly 
conducted in a direct manner between individuals; ‘I 
haveoften been pleased to hear disputes on the Exchange 
adjusted between an inhabitant of Japan and an alder- 
man of London.’—Anppison. ‘Ina the house of Peers 
the bill passes through the same forms as in the other 
house, and if rejected no more notice is taken, but it 
passes sub stlensio to prevent unbecoming altercation.’ 
—BLAcKSTONE. Quarrels may arise between nations 
or individuals, and be carried on by acts of offence 
directly or indirectly ; 


Unvex’d with quarrels, undisturb’d with noise, 
The country king his peaceful realm enjoys. 
DRYDEN. 


DISSENSION, CONTENTION, DISCORD, 
STRIFE. 


Dissension, contention, and strife, mark the act or 
state of dissenting, of contending and striving; discord 
‘lerives its signification from the harshness produced in 
musick by the clashing of two strings which do not suit 
with each other; whence, in the moral sense, the 
chords of the mind, which come into an unsuitable col- 
lision, produce a discord. 

A collision of opinions produces dissension ; a colli- 
sion of interests produces contention ; a collision of 
humours produces discord (v. Contention). A love of 
one’s own opinion, combined with a disregard for the 
opinions of others, gives rise to dissension ; selfishness 
is the main cause of contention ; and an ungoverned 
temper that of discord. 

Dissension is peculiar to bodies or communities of 
men; contention and discord to individuals. A Chris- 
tian temper of conformity to the general will of those 


133 


with whom one is in connexion would do away dis- 
sension ; ‘ At the time the poem we are now treating 
of was written, the dissensions of the barons, who were 
then so many petty princes, ran very high.’—Appison. 
A limitation of one’s desire to that which is attainable 
by legitimate means would put astop to contention ; 
‘ Because it is apprehended there may be great conten- 
tion about precedence, the proposer humbly desires the 
assistance of the learned..—Swirr. A correction of 
one’s impatient and irritable humour would check the 
progress of discord ; 


But shall celestial discord never cease ? 
’T is better ended in a lasting peace.—DRYDEN. 


Dissension tends not only to alienate the minds of men 
from each other, but to dissolve the bonds of society ; 


Now join your hands, and with your hands your hearts, 
That no dissension hinder government. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


Contention is accompanied by anger, ill-will, envy, and 
many evil passions ; ‘ The ancients made contention the 
principle that reigned in the chaos at first, and then 
love : the one to express the divisions, and the other the 
union of all parties in the middle and common bond.’— 
Burnet. Discord interrupts the progress of the kind 
affections, and bars all tender intercourse ; 


See what a scourge is laid upon your hate 

That heav’n finds means to kill your joys with love ‘ 
And I, for winking at your discords too, 

Have lost a brace of kinsmen.—SHaksPEARE. 


Where there is strife, there must be discord; but there 
may be discord without strife : discord consists most 
in the feeling ; strife consists most in the outward ac- 
tion. Discord evinces itself in various ways; by looks, 
words, or actions; 


Good Heav’n! what dire effects from civil discord 
flow.— DRYDEN. 


Strife displays itself in words or acs of violence 


Let men their days in senseless strife employ, 
We in eternal peace and constant joy.—Popr. 


Discord is fatal to the happiness of families ; strzfe is 
the greatest enemy to peace between neighbours: dis- 
cord arose between the goddesses on the apple being 
thrown into the assembly; Homer commences his 
poem with the strife that took place between Aga 
memnon and Achilles. 

Discord may arise from mere difference of opinion; 
strife is in general occasioned by some matter of per- 
sonal interest: discord in the councils of a nation is 
the almost certain forerunner of its ruin; the common 
principles of politeness forbid strife amoag persons of 
good breeding. 


QUARREL, BROIL, FEUD, AFFRAY OR 
FRAY. 


Quarrel (v. Difference) is the general and ordinary 
term ; broil, feud, and affray, are particular terms; 
broil, from brawl, is a noisy guarrel ; feud, from the 
German fehde, and the English fight, is an active 
quarrel; affray or fray, from the Latin frico to rub, 
signifying the collision of the passions, is a tumultuous 
quarrel, 

The idea of a variance between two parties 1s com: 
mon to these terms; but the former respects the com 
plaints and charges which are reciprocally made; 
broil respects the confusion and entanglement which 
arises from a contention and collision of interests ; 
feud respects the hostilities which arise out of the 
variance. ‘There are quarrels where there are no 
brotls, and there are both where there are no feuds ; 
but there are no brotls and feuds without quarrels : 
the quarrel is not always openly conducted between 
the parties; it may sometimes be secret, and sometimes 
manifest itself only in a coolness of behaviour: the 
broil is a noisy kind of quarrel, it always breaks out 
in loud, and mostly reproachful language: feud is a 
deadly kind of quarrel whichis heightened by mutual 
aggravations and insults. Quarrels are very lamenta- 
ble when they take place between members of the same 
family ; ‘The dirk or broad dagger, I am afraid, was 
of more use in private quarrels than in battles,’— 
Jounson. Broils are very frequent among profligate 
and restless people who live together ; 


134 


Ev’n haughty Juno, who with endless brot/s, 
Earth, seas, and heav’n, and Jove himself turmoils, 
At length aton’d, her friendly pow’r shall join 
To cherish and advance the Trojan line.-—DryYDEN. 


Feuds were very general in former times between dif- 
ferent families of the nobility; ‘The poet describes 
(in the poem of Chevy-Chase) a battle occasioned by 
the mutual feuds which reigned in the families of an 
English and Scotch nobleman.’—Appison. 

A quarrel is indefinite, both as to the cause and the 
manner in which itis conducted ; an affray is a sudden 
violent kind of quarrel: a quarrel may subsist be- 
tween two persons from a private difference ; an affray 
always takes place between many upon some publick 
occasion: a guarrel may be carried on merely by 
words; an affray is commonly conducted by acts of 
violence: many angry words pass in a quarrel be- 
tween two hasty people; ‘The quarrel between my 
friends did not run so high as I find your accounts 
have made it.—Sterite. Many are wounded, if not 
killed in affrays, when opposite parties meet; ‘The 
provost of Edinburgh, his son, and several citizens of 
distinction, were killed in the fray.’—RoBERTSON. 


TO JANGLE, JAR, WRANGLE. 


A verbal contention is expressed by all these terms, 
but with various modifications ; jangle seems to be an 
onomatopoeia, for it conveys by its own discordant 
sound an idea of the discordance which accompanies 
this kind of war of words; jar and war are in all pro- 
bability but variations of each other, as also jangle 
and wrangle. There is in jangling more of cross 
questions and perverse replies than direct differences 
of opinion; ‘ Where the judicatories of the church 
were near an equality of the men on both sides, there 
were perpetual janglings on both sides.’—BurRneT. 
Those jangle who are out of humour with each other ; 
there is more of discordant feeling and opposition of 
opinion in jarring : those who have no good will to 
each other will be sure to jar when they come in colli- 
sion; and those who indulge themselves in jarring 
will soon convert affection into ill will ; ‘ There is no 
‘ar or contest between the different gifts of the spirit.’ 
—Sourn. Married people may destroy the good hu- 
mour of the company by jangling, but they destroy 
their domestick peace and felicity by jarring. To 
wrangle is technically, what to jangle is morally: 
those who dispute by a verbal opposition only are said 
to wrangle ; and the disputers who engage in this scho- 
lastick exercise are termed wranglers ; most disputa- 
tions amount to little more than wrangles ; 


Peace, factious monster! born to vex the state, 
With wrangling talents form’d for foul debate. 
PorPE. 


— eee 


TO COMBAT, OPPOSE. 


Combat, from the French combattre to fight together, 
is used figuratively in the same sense with regard to 
matters of opinion; oppose, in French opposer, Latin 
opposui perfect of oppono, compounded of ob and pono 
to place one’s self in the way, signifies to set one’s self 
up against another. 

Combat is properly a species of opposing ; one al- 
Ways opposes in combotting, though not vice versd. 
To combat is used in regard to speculative matters ; 
oppose in regard to private and personal concerns as 
well as matters of opinion. A person’s positions are 
combatted, his interests or his measures are opposed. 
The Christian combats the erroneous doctrines of the 
infidel with no other weapon than that of argument; 


When fierce temptation, seconded within 

By traitor appetite, and armed with darts 

Tempered in hell, invades the throbbing breast, 

To combat may be glorious, and success 

Perhaps may crown us, but to fly is safe.—CowPrr. 
The sophist opposes Christianity with ridicule and 
misrepresentation ; 

Though various foes against the truth combine, 

Pride above all opposes her design.—CowPErR. 

The most laudable.use to which knowledge can be 
converted is to combat errour wherever it presents it- 
self; but there are too many, particularly in the present 
day, who employ the little pittance of knowledge 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


which they have collected, to no better purpose than ta 
oppose every thing that is good, and excite the same 
spirit of opposition in others. 


COMBATANT, CHAMPION. 


Combatant, from to combat, marks any one that 
engages in a combat; champion, in French champion, 
Saxon cempe, German kaempe, signifies originally a 
mass or fighter, from the Latin campus a field of 

attle. 

A combatant fights for himself and for victory; a 
champion fights either for another, or in another’s 
cause. The word combatant has always relation to 
some actual engagement ; champion may be employed 
for one ready to be engaged, or in the habits of being 
engaged. The combatants in the Olympic games used 
to contend for a prize; the Roman gladiators were 
combatants who fought for their lives: when knight- 
errantry was in fashion there were champions of all 
descriptions, champions in behalf of distressed females, 
champions in behalf of the injured and oppressed, or 
champions in behalf of aggrieved princes. 

The mere act of fighting constitutes a combatant ; 
the act of standing up in another’s defence at a per- 
sonal risk, constitutes the champion. Animals have 
their combats, and consequently are combatants; bur 
they are seldom champions. In the present day there 
are fewer combatants than champions among men. 
We have champions for liberty, who are the least 
honourable and the most questionable members of the 
community; they mostly contend for a shadow, and 
court persecution, in order to serve their own purpeses 
of ambition. Champions in the cause of Christianity 
are not less ennobled by the object for which they 
contend, than by the disinterestedness of their motives 
in contending ; they must expect in an infidel age, like 
the present, to be exposed to the derision and contempt 
of their self-sufficient opponents ; ‘ Conscious that I de 
not possess the strength, [shall not assume the impor- 
tance, of a champion, and as I am not of dignity 
enough to be angry, I shall keep my temper and my 
distance too, skirmishing like those insignificant gentry, 
who play the part of teasers in the Spanish bull-fights 
while bolder combatants engage him at the point of 
his horns.,—CuMBERLAND. 


ENEMY, FOE, ADVERSARY, OPPONENT, 
ANTAGONIST. 


Enemy, in Latin inimicus, compounded of in priva 
tive, and amicus a friend, signifies one that is un 
friendly; foe, in Saxon fah, most probably from the old 
Teutonic fian to hate, signifies one that bears a hatred; 
adversary, in Latin adversarius, from adversus against, 
signifies one that takes part against another; adversa- 
rius in Latin was particularly applied to one who con- 
tested a point in law with another ; opponent, in Latin 
opponens, participle of oppeno or obpono to place in the 
way, signifies one pitted against another; antagonist, 
in Greek dyraydévisos, compounded of dyri against, 
and dywviSovat to contend, signifies one struggling 
against another. 

An enemy is not so formidable as a foe ; the former 
may be reconciled, but the latter always retains a 
deadly hatred. An enemy may be so in spirit, in 
action, or in relation; a foe is always so in spirit, if 
not in action likewise: a man may be an enemy to 
himself, though not a foe. Those who are national or 
political enemies are often private friends, but a foe is 
never any thing buta foe. A single act may create an 
enemy, but continued warfare creates a foe. 

Enemies are either publick or private, collective or 
personal; in the latter sense the word enemy is most 
analogous in signification to that of adversary, oppo- 
nent, antagonist. * Enemies seek to injure each other 
commonly from a sentiment of hatred; the heart is 
always more or less implicated; ‘ Plutarch says very 
finely, that a man should not allow himself to hate 
even his enemies.—AppIson. Adversaries set up 
their-claims, and frequently urge their pretensions with 
angry strife; but interest or contrariety of opinion 
more than sentiment stimulates to action; ‘ Those dis- 
putants (the persecutors) convince their adversaries 


° Vide «Abbe Girard: ‘‘Ennemi adversaire, antago 
niste.’ j 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


with a sorites commonly called a pile of fagots.’— 
ADDISON. Opponents set up different parties, and 
we? leach other sometimes with acrimony ; but their 
differences do not necessarily include any thing per- 
sonal; ‘The name of Boyle is indeed revered, but his 
works are neglected; we are contented to know that 
he conquered his epponents, without inquiring what 
cavils were ato against him.’—JoHnson. Anta- 
gonists are a species of opponents who are in actual 
engagement: emulation and direct exertion, but not 
anger, is concerned in making the antagonist ; ‘Sir 
- Francis Bacon observes that a well written book, com- 
pared with its rivals and antagonists, is like Moses’s 
serpent that immediately swallowed up those of the 
Egyptians..—Appison. Enemies make war, aim at 
destruction, and commit acts of personal violence: 
adversaries are contented with appropriating to them- 
selves some object of desire, or depriving their rival of 
it; cupidity being the moving principle, and gain the 
object: opponents oppose each other systematically 
and perpetually ; each aims at being thought right in 
their disputes: tastes and opinions are commonly the 
subjects of debate, self-love oftener than a love of 
truth is the moving principle: antagonists engage in 
a trial of strength; victory is the end; the love of dis- 
tinction or superiority the moving principle ; the con- 
test may lie either in mental or physical exertion ; may 
aim at superiority in a verbal dispute or in a manual 
combat. Shere are nations whose subjects are born 
enemies to those of a neighbouring nation: nothing 
evinces the radical corruption of any country more 
than when the poor man dares not show himself as an 
adversary to his rich neighbour without fearing to lose 
morethan he might gain: the ambition of some men 
does not rise higher than that of being the opponent of 
ministers: Scaliger and Petavius among the French 
were great antagonists in their day, as were Boyle 
and Bentley among the English; the Horatii and Cu- 
riatii were equally famous antagonists in their way. 
Enemy and foe are likewise employed in a figurative 
sense for moral objects: our passions are our enemies, 
when indulged ; envy is a foe to happiness. 


ENMITY, ANIMOSITY, HOSTILITY. 


Enmity lies in the heart; it is deep and malignant: 
animosity, from animus, a spirit, lies in the passions; 
it is fierce and vindictive: hostility, from hostis a po- 
litical enemy, lies in the action; it is mischievous and 
destructive. 

Enmity is something permanent; animosity is par- 
tial and transitory: in the feudal ages, when the dark- 
ness and ignorance of the times prevented the mild in- 
fluence of Christianity, enmities between particular 
families were handed down as ap inheritance from 
father to son; in free states, party spirit engenders 
greater animosities than private disputes. 

Enmity is altogether personal: hostility mostly re- 
spects publick measures, animosity respects either one or 
many individuals. Enmity often lies concealed in the 
heart; anzmosity mostly betrays itself by some open 
act of hostility. He who cherishes enmity towards 
another is his own greatest enemy ; ‘Insome instances, 
indeed, the enmity of others cannot be avoided without 
i participation in their guilt; but then it is the enmity 
of those with whom neither wisdom nor virtue can 
desire to associate.’,—Jounson.. He who is guided by 
a spirit of animoszty is unfit tohave any command over 
others; ‘I will never let my heart reproach me with 
having done any thing towards increasing those anz- 
mosities that extinguish religion, deface government, 
and make a nation miserable.—Appison. He who 
proceeds to wanton hostility often provokes an enemy 
where he might have a friend ; ‘Erasmus himself had, 
it seems, the misfortune to fall into the hands of a party 
of Trojans who laid on him with so many blows and 
buffets, that he never forgot their Lostilities to his dying 
day.’— ADDISON. 


ADVERSE, CONTRARY, OPPOSITE. 


Adverse, in French adverse, Latin adversus, parti- 
ciple of adverto, compounded of ad and verto, signifies 
turning towards or against; contrary, in French con- 
traire, Latin contra~ius, comes from centra against; 
opwosite. in Latin oppositus, participle of apyono, is 


135 


compounded of 0b and pono, signifying placed in the 
way. ! \ 

Adverse respects the feelings and interests of per- 
sons; contrary regards their plans and purposes; op- 
posite relates to the situation of persons and nature of 
things ; 

And as Aigeon, when with heav’n he strove, 

Stood opposite in arms to mighty Jove.—DRyYDEN. 


Fortune is adverse ; an event turns out contrary to what 
was expected; sentiments are opposite to each other. 
An adverse wind comes across our wishes and pur 
suits ; ‘The periodical winds whieh were then set in 
were distinctly adverse to the course which Pizarro 
proposed tosteer.’—Rosertson.. A contrary wind lies 
in an opposite direction; contrary winds are mostly 
adverse tosome one who Is crossing the ocean ; adverse 
winds need not always be directly contrary. 

Circumstances are sometimes so adverse as to baffle 
the best concerted plans. Facts often prove directly 
contrary to the representations given of them; ‘ As [ 
should be loth to offer none but instances of the abuse 
of prosperity, I am happy in recollecting one very sin 
gular example of the contrary sort.’-—CUumMBERLAND. 
People with opposite characters cannot be expected to 
act together with pleasure to either party. Adverse 
events interrupt the peace of mind ; contrary accounts 
invalidate the testimony of a narration; opposite prin 
ciples interrupt the harmony of society. 


COMPARISON, CONTRAST. 


Comparison, from compare, and the Latin compare 
or com and par equal, signifies the putting together of 
things that are equal; contrast, in French contraster, 
Latin contrasto or contra and sto to stand, or sisto to 
place against, signifies the placing of one thing opposite 
to another. 

Likeness in the quality and difference in the degree 
are requisite for a comparison ; likeness in the degree 
and opposition in the quality are requisite for a con- 
trast; things of the same colour are compared ; those 
of an opposite colour are contrasted: a.comparison is 
made between two shades of red: a contrast between 
black and white. 

Comparison is of a practical utility, it serves to as- 
certain the true relation of objects ; contrast is of utility 
among poets, it serves to heighten the effect of opposite 
qualities: things are large or small by comparison; 
things are magnified or diminished by contrast: the 
value of a coin is best learned by comparing it with 
another of the same metal; ‘They who are apt to 
remind us of their ancestors only put us upon making 
comparisons to their own disadvantage.’—SrrctaTor. 

The generosity of one person is most strongly felt 
when contrasted with the meanness of another ; 


In lovely contrast to this glorious view, 

Calmly magnificent then will we turn 

To where the silver Thames first rural grows. 
THOMSON 


ADVERSE, INIMICAL, HOSTILE, REPUGNANT 


Adverse signifies the same as in the preceding arti- 
cle ; inimical, from the Latin inimicus an enemy, sig- 
hifies belonging to an enemy; which is also the mean- 
ing of hostile, from hostis an enemy ; repugnant, in 
Latin repugnans, from repugno, or re and pugno to 
fight against, signifies warring with. 

Adverse may be applied to either persons or things ; 
inimical and hostde to persons or things personal; re- 
puynant to things only: a person is adverse or a thing 
is adverse to an object; a person, or what is personal, 
is either inimical or hostile to an object; one thing is 
repugnant to another. We are adverse to a proposi- 
tion; or circumstances are .adverse to our advance- 
ment. Partizans are inimical to the proceedings of go- 
vernment, and hostile to the possessors of power. Sla 
very is repugnant to the mild temper of Christianity 

Adverse expresses simple dissent or opposition ; znz 
mical either an acrimonious spirit or a tendency to in- 
jure; hostile a determined resistance; repugnant a di- 
rect relation of variance. Those who are adverse to 
any undertaking will not be likely to use the endea- 
vours which are essential to ensure its success ; ‘ Only 
two soldiers were killed on the side of Cortes, and twe 
officers with fifteen privates of the adverse faction ’-- 


136 


Rovertson. Those who dissent from the establish- 
ment, are inimical to its forms, its discipline, or its doc- 
trine; ‘God hath shown himself to be favourable to 
virtue, and znimical to vice and guilt..—Buair. Many 
are so hostile to the religious establishment of their 
country as to aim at its subversion; 


Then with a purple veil involve your eyes, 
Lest hostile faces blast the sacrifice —DryprEn. 


The restraints which it imposes on the wandering and 
licentious imagination is repugnant to the temper of 
their minds; ‘The exorbitant jurisdiction of the 
(Scotch) ecclesiastical courts were founded on maxims 
repugnant to justice.’ ROBERTSON. 

Sickness is adverse to the improvement of youth. 
The dissensions in the Christi.n world are inimical to 
the interests of religion, and tend to produce many 
hostile measures. Democracy is inimical to good order, 
the fomenter of hostile parties, and repugnant to every 
sound principle of civil society. 


ADVERSE, AVERSE. 


Adverse (v. Adverse), signifying turned against or 
over against, denotes simply opposition of situation ; 
averse, from a and versus, signifying turned from or 
away from, denotes an active removal or separation 
from. Adverse is therefore as applicable to inanimate 
as to animate objects, averse only to animate objects. 
When applied to conscious agents adverse refers to 
matters of opinion and sentiment, averse to those af- 
fecting our feelings. Weare adverse to that which 
we think wrong; ‘ Before you were a tyrant I was 
your friend, and am now no otherwise your enemy 
than every Athenian must be who is adverse to your 
usurpation.,—CUMBERLAND. We are averse to that 
which opposes our inclinations, our habits, or our in- 
terests; ‘Men relinquish ancient habits slowly, and 
with reluctance. They are averse to new experiments, 
and venture upon them with timidity.,.—RoseErTson. 
Sectarians profess to be adverse to the doctrines and 
discipline of the establishment, but the greater part of 
them are still more averse to the wholesome restraints 
which it imposes on the imagination, 


AVERSE, UNWILLING, BACKWARD, LOATH, 
RELUCTANT. 


Averse signifies the same as in the preceding article; 
unwilling literally signifies not willing; backward, 
having the will in a backward direction; loath or loth, 
from to loath, denotes the quality of loathing; reluc- 
tant, from the Latin re and lucto to struggle, signifies 
struggling with the will against a thing. 

Averse is positive; it marks an actual sentiment of 
dislike ; wnwilling is negative, it marks the absence of 
the will; backward is a sentiment hetween the two, it 
marks the leaning of a will against a thing ; loath and 
reluctant mark strong feelings of aversion. Aversion 
is an habitual sentiment; wn2oillingness and backward- 
ness are mostly occasional ; loath and reluctant always 
occasional. : 

Aversion must be conquered; unwillingness must 
be removed; backwardness must be counteracted, or 
urged forward; loathing and reluctance must be over- 
powered. One who is averse to study will never have 
recourse to books; but a child may be unwilling or 
backward to attend to his lessons from partial motives, 
which the authority of the parent or master may cor- 
rect; he who is loath to receive instruction will always 
remain ignorant; he who is reluctant in doing his duty 
will always do it as a task. 

A miser is averse to nothing so much as to parting 
with his money ; 


Of all the race of animals, alone, 

The bees have common cities of theirown; 

But (what ’s more strange) their modest appetites, 
Averse from Venus, fly the nuptial rites—DrypEn. 


[he miser is even unwilling to provide himself with 
necessaries, but he is not backward in disposing of his 
money when he has the prospect of getting more ; 
I part with thee, 
As wretches that are doubtful of hereafter 
Part with their lives, unwilling, loath, and fearful, 
And trembling at futurity—Rower. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


or less to compunctions of conscience; but bacxware 
at the same time to resign the gains of dishonesty, Os 
the pleasures of vice.—Buair. Friends are loath te 
part who have had many years’ enjoyment in eack 
other’s society ; 


E’en thus two friends condemn’d 

Embrace, and kiss, and take ten thousand leaves, 

Loather a hundred times to part than die. 
SHAKSPEARK 


One is reluctant in giving unpleasant advice; 


From better habitations spurn’d, 
Reluctant dost thou rove, 

Or grieve for friendship unreturn’d, 
Or unregarded Jove 7—GoLpsM1TH. 


Lazy people are averse to labour: those who are ne 
paid are unwilling to work; and those who are paid 
less than others are backward in giving their services: 
every one is loath to give up a favourite pursuit, and 
when compelled to it by circumstances they do it witk 
reluctance. 


~ 


AVERSION, ANTIPATHY, DISLIKE, 
HATRED, REPUGNANCE. 


Aversion denotes the quality of being averse (vide 
Averse) ; antipathy, in French antipathie, Latin anti- 
pathia, Greek dyrixabeta, compounded of dyri against, 
and raGcia feeling, signifies a feeling against; dislike. 
compounded of the privative dis and like, signifies not 
to like or be attached to; hatred, in German hass, is 
supposed by Adelung to be connected with heiss hot, 
signifying heat of temper ; repugnance, in French repug- 
nance, Latin repugnantia and repugno, compounded of 
reand pugno, signifies the resistance of the feelings te 
an object. 

Aversion is in its most general sense the generick 
term to these and many other similar expressions, in 
which case it is opposed to attachment: the former 
denoting an alienation of the mind from an object ; the 
latter a knitting or binding of the mind to objects: it 
has, however, more commonly a partial acceptation, 
in which it is justly comparable with the above words. 
Aversion and antipathy apply more properly to things : 
dislike and hatred to persons; repugnance to actions, 
that is, such actions as one is called upon to perfurm. 

Aversion and antipathy seem to be less dependent 
on the will, and to have their origin in the temperament 
or natural taste, particularly the latter, which springs 
from causes that are not always visible ; and lies in the 
physical organization. Antipathy is in fact a natural 
aversion opposed to sympathy: dislike and hatred are 
on the contrary voluntary, and seem to have their root 
in the angry passions of the heart; the former is less 
deep-rooted than the latter, and is commonly awakened 
by slighter causes; repugnance is not an habitual and 
lasting sentiment, like the rest; it is a transitory but 
strong dislike to what one is obliged to do. 

An unfitness in the temper to harmonize with an 
object produces aversion: a contrariety in the nature 
of particular persons and things occasions antzpathies, 
although some pretend that there are no such myste- 
rious incongruities in nature, and that all antipathies 
are but aversions early engendered by the influence of 


fear and the workings of imagination; but under this 
supposition we are still at a loss to account for those 
singular effects of fear and imagination in some persons 
which do not discover taemselves in others: a difference 
in the character, habits, and manners, produces distike ; 
injuries, quarrels, or more commonly the influence of 
malignant passions, occasion hatred; a contrariety to 
one’s moral sense, or one’s humours, awakens repug 
nance. 

People of a quiet temper have an aversion to dis- 
puting or argumentation; those of a gloomy temper 
have an aversion to society ; ‘I cannot forbear men 
tioning a tribe of egotists, for whom I have always had 
a mortal aversion ; I mean the authors of memoirs whe 
are never mentioned in any works but their own.’— 
Appison. Antipathies mostly discover themselves in 
early life, and as soon as the object. comes within the 
view of the person affected; ‘There is one species of 
terrour which those who are unwilling to suffer the 
reproach of cowardice have wisely dignified with the 
name of antipathy. A man has 1udeed no dread of 


‘ AJl men, even the most depraved, are subject more | harm from an insect or a worm, but his antipathy turns 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


him pale whenever they approach him.’—Jounson. 
Men of different sentiments in religion or politicks, if 
not of amiable temper, are apt to contract dislikes to 
each other by frequent irritation in discourse; ‘ Every 
man whom business or curiosity has thrown at large 
into the world, will recollect many instances of fondness 
and dislike, which have forced themselves upon him 
without the intervention of his judgement.’—Jounson. 
When men of malignant tempers come in collision, 
nothing buf a deadly hatred can ensue from their 
repeated and complicated aggressions towards each 
other ; ‘One punishment that attends the lying and 
deceitful person is the hatred of all those whom he 
either has, or would have deceived. I do not say that 
a Christian can lawfully hate any one, and yet I affirm 
that some may very worthily deserve to be hated.’— 
Sourn. Any one who is under the influence of a mis- 
placed pride is apt to feel a repugnance to acknowledge 
himself in an errour ; ‘In this dilemma Aristophanes 
conquered his repugnance, and determined upon pre- 
senting himself on the stage for the first time in his 
life.’—CuMBERLAND. 

Aversions produce an anxious desire for the removal 
of the object disliked: antipathies produce the most 
violent physical revulsion of the frame, and vehement 
recoiling from the object; persons have not unfre- 
quently been known to faint away at the sight of insects 
for whom this antipathy has been conceived: dislikes 
too often betray themselves by distant and uncourteous 
behaviour: hatred assumes every form which is black 
and horrid: repugnance does not make its appearance 
until called forth by the necessity of the occasion. 

Aversions will never be so strong in a well-regulated 
mind, that they cannot be overcome when their cause 
is removed, or they are found to beill-grounded ; some- 
times they lie ina vicious temperament formed by 
nature or habit, in which case they will not easily he 
destroyed: a slothful man will find a difficulty in over- 
coming his averszon to labour, or an idle man his aver- 
sion to steady application. Antipathies may be indulged 
or resisted : people of irritable temperaments, particu- 
larly females, are liable to them ina most violent de- 
gree ; but those who are fully persuaded of thejy fallacy, 
may do much by the force of conviction to diminish 
their violence. Dislikes are often groundless, or have 
their origin in trifles, owing to the influence of caprice 
or humour: people of sense will be ashamed of them, 
and the true Christian will stifle them in their birth, 
lest they grow into the formidable passion of hatred, 
which strikes at the root of all peace; being a mental 
poison that infuses its venom into all the sinuosities of 
the heart, and pollutes the sources of human affection. 
Repugnance ought always to be resisted whenever it 
prevents us from doing what either reason, honour, or 
duty require. 

Aversions are applicable to animals as well as men: 
dogs have a particular aversion to beggars, most pro- 
bably from their suspicious appearance; in certain cases 
likewise we may speak of their antipathies, as in the in- 
stance of the dog and the cat: according to the schoolmen 
there existed a'so antipathies between certain plants 
and vegetables; but these are not borne out by facts 
sufficiently strong to warrant a belief of their existence. 
Dislike and hatred are sometimes applied to things, but 
in a sense less exceptionable than in the former case: 
dislike does not express so much as aversion, and aver- 
sion not so much ashatred: we ought to have a hatred 
for vice and sin, an aversion to gossipping and idle 
talking, and a dislike to the frivolities of fashionable life. 


TO HATE, DETEST. 


Hate has the same signification as in the preceding. 


article ; detest, from detestor or de and testor, signifies 
to call to witness against. The difference between 
these two words consists more insense than application. 
To hate is a personal feeling directed toward the object 
independently of its qualities ; to detest is a feeling 
independent of the person, and altogether dependent 
upon the nature of the thing. What one hates, one 
ates commonly on one’s own account ; what one de- 
tests, one detests on account of the object: hence it is 
that one hates, but not detests, the person who has done 
an injury to one’s self; and that one detests, rather than 
hates, the person who has done injuries to others. Jo- 
seph’s brethren hated him because he was more beloved 
than they; 


13” 


Spleen to mankind his envious heart possest, 
And much he hated all, but most the best.—Porr 


We detest a traitor to his country because of the enor 
mity of his offence ; 


Who dares think one thing, and another tell, 
My heart detests him as the gates of hell.—Popr. 


In this connexion, to hate is always a bad passion ; 
to detest always laudable: but when both are applied 
to inanimate objects, to hate is bad or good according 
to circumstances; to detest always retains its good 
meaning. When men hate thirgs because they inter- 
fere with their indulgences, as the wicked hate the 
light, it is a bad personal feeling, as in the former case , 
but when good men are said to hate that which is bad, 
it is a laudable feeling justified by the nature of the ob- 
ject. As this feeling is, however, so closely allied tc 
detestation, it is necessary farther to observe that hate, 
whether rightly or wrongly applied, seeks the injury or 
destruction of the object ; but detest is confined simply 
to the shunning of the object, or thinking of it with 
very great pain. God hates sin, and.on that account 
punishes sinners ; conscientious men deéest all fraud, 
and therefore cautiously avoid being concerned in it 


HATEFUL, ODIOUS. 


Hateful, signifies literally full of that which is apt to 
excite hatred ; odious, from the Latin odi to hate, has 
the same sense originally. 

These epithets are employed in regard to such objects 
as produce strong aversion in the mind; but when em- 
ployed as they commonly are upon familiar subjects, 
they indicate an unbecoming vehemence in the speaker. 
The hateful is that which we ourselves hate ; but the 
odious is that which makes us hateful to others, 
Hateful is properly applied to whatever violates general 
principles of morality : lying and swearing are hateful 
vices: odious applied to such things as affect the interests 
of others, and bring odiwm upon the individual ; a tax 
that bears -particularly hard and unequally is terme« 
odious ; Or a measure of government that is thought 
oppressive is denominated odious. There is something 
particularly hateful in the meanness of cringing syco- 
phants ; 

Let me be deemed the hateful cause of all, 
And suffer, rather than my people fall_—Porr. 


Nothing brought more odium on King James than his 
attempts to introduce popery; ‘ Projectors and inventors 
of new taxes being hateful to the people, seldom fail of 
bringing odiwm on their master.’—DavENANT. 


HATRED, ENMITY, ILL WILL, RANCOUR. 


These terms agree in this particular, that those who 
are under the influence of such feelings derive a plea- 
sure from the misfortune of others; but hatred, (v. 
Aversion) expresses more than enmity, (v. Enemy,) and 
this is more than 2/J will, which signifies merely willing 
ill or evil to another. Hatred is not contented witb 
merely wishing iJ to others, but derives its whole hap- 
piness from their misery or destruction ; enmity on the 
contrary is limited in its operations to particular cir- 
cumstances: haired, on the other hand, is frequently 
confined to the feeling of the individual ; but enmity 
consists as much in the action as the feeling. He who 
is possessed with hatred is happy when the object of 
his passion is miserable, and is miserable when he is 
happy; but the hater is not always instrumental in 
causing his misery or destroying his happiness: he who 
is inflamed with enmity, is more active in disturbing 
the peace of his enemy ; but oftener displays his temper 
in trifling than in important matters. J/J will, as the 
word denotes, lies only in the mind, and is so indefinite 
in its signification, that it admits of every conceivable 
degree. When the will is evilly directed towards 
another, in ever so small a degree, it constitutes 712 will. 
Rancour, in Latin rancor, from ranceo to grow stale, 
signifying staleness, mustiness, is a species of bitter, 
deep-rooted enmity, that has Jain so long in the mind 
as to become thoroughly corrupt. 

Hatred is opposed to Jove ; the object in both case# 
occupies the thoughts: the former torments the poe 
sessor , the latter delights him; 


138 


Phenician Dido rules the growing state, 
Who fled from Tyre to shun her brother’s hate. 
DRYDEN. 


£nmity is opposed to friendship; the object in both 
Cases interests the passions: the former the bad, and 
the fatter the good passions or the affections: the pos- 
sessor is in both cases busy either in injuring or for- 
warding the cause of him who is his enemy or friend ; 


That space the evil one abstracted stood 
From his own evil, and for the time remain’d 
Stupidly good, of enmity disarm’d.—Mi.Ton. 


Ml will is opposed to good will; it is either a general 
or a particular feeling; it embraces many or few, a 
single individual or the whole human race: he is least 
unhappy who bears least zi will to others; he is most 
happy who bears true good will to all; he is neither 
happy or unhappy who is not possessed of the one or 
the other; ‘For your servants neither use them so 
familiarly as to lose your reverence at their hands, nor 
so disdainfuily as to purchase yourself their il will.’— 
WENTWORTH. 

There is a farther distinction between these terms ; 
that hatred and ill will are oftener the fruit of a de- 
praved mind, than the consequence of any external 
provocation ; enmity and sancour, on the contrary, are 
mostly produced by particular circumstances of offence 
or commission; the best of men are sometimes the 
objects of hatred on account of their very virtues, 
which have been unwittingly to themselves the causes 
of producing this evil passion; good advice, however 
kindly given, may probably occasion ill 272i in the 
mind of him who is not disposed to receive it kindly ; 
an angry word or a party contest is frequently the 
causes of enmity between irritable people, and of ran- 
cour between resentful and imperious people ; 


Oh lasting vancour! oh insatiate hate, 
To Phrygia’s monarch, and the Phrygian state. 
Pops. 


TO ABHOR, DETEST, ABOMINATE, LOATH. 


These terms equally denote a sentiment of aversion; 
abhor, in Latin abhorreo, compounded of ab from and 
horreo to stiffen with horrour, signifies to start from, with 
a strong emotion of horrour; detest (v. To hate, detest); 
abominate,in Latin abominatus, participle of abominor, 
compounded of ab from or against, and omznor to wish 
ill luck, signifies to hold in religious abhorrence, to 
detest in the highest possible degree ; loath, in Saxon 
lathen, may possibly be a variation of load, in the 
sense of overload, because it expresses the nausea 
which commonly attends an overloaded stomach. In 
the moral acceptation, it is 2 strong figure of speech to 
mark the abhorrence and disgust which the sight of 
offensive objects produces. 

What we abhor is repugnant to our moral feelings ; 
what we detest contradicts our moral principle; what 
we abominate does equal violence to our religious and 
moral sentiments ; what we loath acts upon us physi- 
cally and mentally. 

Inhumanity and cruelty are objects of abhorrence ; 
crimes and injustice of detestation; impiety and 
profaneness of abomination; enormous offenders of 
loathing. 

_ The tender mind will abhor what is base and atro- 
cious; 
The lie that flatters I abhor the most.—CowPkErR. 


The rigid moralist will detest every violent infringe- 
ment on the rights of his fellow creatures; 


This thirst of kindred blood my sons detest. 
DRYDEN. 


The conscientious man will abominate every breach 
uf the Divine law; ‘The passion that is excited in the 
fable of the Sick Kite is terrour ; the object of which is 
the despair of him who perceives himself to be dying, 
and has reason to fear that his very prayer is an abomi- 
nation.—HawkESworRtH. ‘Theagonized mind loaths 
the sight of every object which recalls to its recollection 
the subject of its distress ; 

No costly lords the sumpt 1ous banquet deal, 


To make him loath his vegetable meal. 
GOLDSMITH 


ENGLISH SYNONY MES. 


Revolving in his mind the stern command, 
He longs to fly, and loaths the charming land. 
DryD&EN. 
The chaste Lucretia abhorred the pollution to which 
she had been expose* and would have loathed the 
sight of the atrocious perpetrator: Brutus detested the 
oppression and tHe oppressor. 


ABOMINABLE,* DETESTABLE, EXECRABLE 


The primitive idea of these terms, agreeable to thei 
derivation, is that of badness in the highest degree; 
conveying by themselves the strongest signification 
and excluding the necessity for every other modifying 
epithet. 

The abominable thing excites aversion; the detesta- 
ble thing, hatred and revulsion; the execrable thing 
indignation and horrdur. 

These sentiments are expressed against what is 
abominable by strong ejaculations, against what is de- 
testable by animadversion and reprobation, and against 
what is execrable by imprecatiorf$ and anathemas. 

In the ordinary acceptation of these terms, they 
serve to mark a degree of excess in a very bad thing; 
abominable expressing less than detestable, and that 
lessthan execrable. ‘This gradation is sufficiently illus- 
trated in the following example. Dionysius, the tyrant, 
having been informed that a very aged woman prayed 
to the gods every day for his preservation, and won- 
dering that any of his subjects should be so interested 
for his safety, inquired of this woman respecting the 
motives of her conduct, to which she replied, ‘In my 
infancy I lived under an abominable prince, whose 
death I desired; but when he perished, he was suc- 
ceeded by a detestable tyrant worse than himself. I 
offered up my vows for his-death also, which were in 
like manner answered; but we have since had a 
worse tyrant than he. This ezecrable monster is 
yourself, whose life I have prayed for, lest, if it be 
possible, you should be succeeded by one even more 
wicked.” 

The exaggeration conveyed by these expressions has 
given rise to their abuse in vulgar discourse, where 
they are often employed indifferently to serve the hu 
mour of the speaker ; ‘This abominable endeavour to 
suppress or lessen every thing that is praiseworthy is 
as frequent among the men as among the women.’— 
Sreete. ‘Nothing can atone for the want of mo- 
desty, without which beauty is ungraceful, and wit 
detestable.—STEELE. 


All vote to leave that execrable shore, 
Polluted with the blood of Pelydore.—Drypan. 


TO BRAVE, DEFY, DARE, CHALLENGE. 


Brave, from the epithet brave (v. Brave), signifies to 
act the brave; defy, in French defier, is probably 
changed from defaire to undo, signifying to make 
nothing or set at nought; dare, in Saxon dearran, 
dyrran, Franconian, &c. odurren, thorren, Greek 
Gaégpery, signifies to be bold, or have the confidence to 
do a thing; challenge is probably changed from the 
Greek xadéw to call. 

We brave things; we dare and challenge persons; 
we defy persons or their actions: the sailor braves the 
tempestuous ocean, and very often braves death itself 
in its most terrifick form; he dares the enemy whom he 
meets to the engagement; he defies all his boastings 
and vain threats. 

Brave is sometimes used ina bad sense; defy and 
dare commonly so. There is much idle contempt and 
affected indifference in braving; much insolent re- 
sistance to authority in defying ; much provocation 
and affront in daring: a bad man braves the scorn 
and reproach of all the world; he dejies the threats of 
his superiours to punish him; he dares them to exert 
their power over him. 

Brave and defy are dispositions of mind which dis 
play themselves in the conduct; dare and challenge 
are modes of action; we brave a storm by meeting its 
violence, and bearing it down with superiour force: we 
defy the malice of our enemies by pursuing that line of © 
conduct which is most calculated to increase its bitter 


* Vide Abbe Roubaud’s Synonymes;: “ Abominable 
detestable, execrable.”’ 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


ness. To bra.e, conveys the idea of a direct and per- 
sonal application of force to force; defying is carried 
on by a more indirect and circuitous mode of proce- 
dure: men brave the dangers which threaten them 
with evil, and in a figurative application things are 
said to brave resistance; ‘ Joining in proper union the 
amiable and the estimable qualities, in one part of our 
character we shall resemble the flower that smiles in 
spring; in another the firmly-rooted tree, that braves 
the winter storm.’—Buair. Men defy the angry will 
which opposes them ; 


The soul, secur’d in her existence, smiles 
At the drawn dagger, and defies its point.—ADDISON. 


To dare and challenge are both direct and personal ; 
but the former consists either of actions, words, or looks ; 
the latter of words only. We dare a number of per- 
sons indefinitely; we challenge an individual, and very 
frequently by name. 

Daring arises from our contempt of others; chal- 
lenging arises from a high opinion of ourselves: the 
former is mostly accompanied with unbecoming ex- 
pressions of disrespect as well as aggravation; the 
latter is mostly divested of all angry personality. Me- 
tius the Tuscan dared Titus Manlius Torquatus, the 
son of the Roman consul, to engage with him in con- 
tradiction to his father’s commands. Paris was per- 
suaded to challenge Menelaus in order to terminate the 
Grecian war. 

We dare only to acts of violence; we challenge to 
any kind of contest in which the skill or power of the 
parties are to be tried. It is folly to dare one of supe- 
riour strength if we are not prepared to meet with the 
*ust reward of our impertinence ; 


Troy sunk in flames I saw (nor could prevent), 

And Llium from its old foundations rent— 

Rent like a mountain ash, which dar’d the winds, 

And stood the sturdy strokes of lab’ring hinds. 
DRYDEN. 


Whoever has a confidence in the justice of his cause, 
needs not fear to challenge his opponent to a trial of 
their respective merits; ‘The Platos and Ciceros 
among the ancients ; the Bacons, Boyles, and Lockes, 
among our own countrymen, are all instances of what 
i have been saying, namely, that the greatest persons in 
all ages have conformed to the established religion of 
their country ; not to mention any of the divines, how- 
ever celebrated, since our adversaries challenge all 
those as men who have too much interest in this case 
to be impartial evidences.’"-BupG@ELL. 


BRAVERY, COURAGE, VALOUR, GAL- 
LANTRY. 


Bravery denotes the abstract quality of brave, 
which through the medium of the northern languages 
comes from the Greek BpaBetoy the reward of victory ; 
courage, in French courage, from ceur,in Latin cor 
the heart, which is the seat of courage; valour, in 
French valeur, Latin valor, from valeo to be strong, 
signifies by distinction strength of mind; gallantry, 
from the Greek éya\\w to adorn or make distinguished 
for splendid qualities. 

Bravery lies in the vlood ; courage lies in the mind : 
the latter depends on the reason; the former on the 
physical temperament: the first is a species of instinct : 
the second is a virtue: aman is brave in proportion as 
he is without thought ; he has courage in proportion 
as he reasons or reflects. 

Bravery seems to be something involuntary, a me- 
shanical movement that does not depend on one’s self; 
courage requires conviction, and gathers strength by 
delay ; it is a noble and lofty sentiment: the force of 
example, the charms of musick, the fury and tumult of 
battle, the desperation of the conflict, will make 
cowards brave ; the courageous man wants no other 
incentives than what his own mind suggests. 

Bravery is of utility only in the hour of attack or 
contest ; courage is of service at all times and under 
all circumstances: bravery is of avail in overcoming 
the obstacle of the moment; courage seeks to avert the 
distant evil that may possibly arrive. Bravery is a 
thing of the moment that is or is not, as circumstances 


139 


man who fearlessly rushes to the mouth ¢* .ne cannon 
may tremble at his own shadow as hw passes through a 
churchyard or turn pale at the sight of blocs: the 
courageous man smiles at imaginary dangers, and pre 
pares to meet those that are real. 

It is as possible for a man to have cowrage without 
bravery, as to have bravery without courage: Cicero 
betrayed his want of bravery when he sought to shelter 
himself against the attacks of Cataline; he displayed 
his courage when he laid open the treasonable purposes 
of this conspirator to the whole senate, and charged 
him to his face with the crimes of which he knew him 
to be guilty. 

Valour is a higher quality than either bravery or 
courage, and seems to partake of the grand character- 
isticks of both ; it combines the fire of bravery with the 
determination and firmness of courage: bravery is 
most fitted for the soldier and all who receive orders ; 
courage is most adapted for the general and all who 
give commands; valour for the leader and framer of 
enterprises, and all who carry great projects into exe 
cution: bravery requires to be guided; courage is 
equally fitted to command or obey; valour directs and 
executes. Bravery has most relation to danger; 
courage and valour include in them a particular re- 
ference to action: the brave man exposes himself; the 
courageous man advances to the scene of action which 
is before him; the valiant man seeks for occasions 
to act. 

Courage may be exercised in ordinary cases; valour 
displays itself most effectually in the achievement of 
heroic exploits. A consciousness of duty, a love of 
one’s country, a zeal for the cause in which one is en- 
gaged, an over-ruling sense of religion, the dictates of 
a pure conscience, always inspire courage: an ardent 
thirst for glory, and an insatiable ambition, render men 
valiant. 

The brave man, when he is wounded, is proud of 
being so, and boasts of his wounds; the courageous 
man collects the strength which his wounds have left 
him, to pursue the object which he has in view; the 
valiant man thinks Jess of the life he is about to lose, 
than of the glory which has escaped him. The brave 
man, in the hour of victory, exults and triumphs: he 
discovers his joy in boisterous war shouts. The cou- 
rageous man forgets his success in order to profit by its 
advantages. The valiant man{s stimulated by success 
to seek after new trophies. Bravery sinks after a 
defeat: courage may be damped for a moment, but is 
never destroyed; it is ever ready to seize the first op- 
portunity which offers to regain the lost advantage: 
valour, When defeated on any occasion, seeks another 
in which more glory is to be acquired. 

The three hundred Spartans who defended the 
Straits of Thermopyle were brave ; 


This brave man, with long resistance, 
Held the combat doubtful.—Rows. 


Socrates drinking the hemlock, Regulus returning to 
Carthage, Titus tearing himself from the arms of the 
weeping Berenice, Alfred the Great going into the 
camp of the Danes, were courageous ; 


“Oh! When I see him arming for his honour, 
His country, and his gods, that martial fire 
That mounts his courage, kindles even me. 

DRYDEN. 


Hercules destroying monsters, Perseus delivering An 
dromeda, Achilles running to the ramparts. of Troy, 
and the knights of more modern date who have gone 
in quest of extraordinary adventures, are all entitled to 
the peculiar appellation of valiant ; 


True valour, friends, on virtue founded strong, 
Meets all events alike.—Ma.uetTtT. 


Gallantry is extraordinary bravery, or bravery on 
extraordinary occasions. The brave man goes will- 
ingly where he is commanded; the gallant man leads 
on with vigour to the attack. Bravery is common to 
vast numbers and whole nations; gallantry is peculiar 
to individuals or particular bodies: the brave mar 
bravely defends the post assigned him; the gallant 
man volunteers his services in cases of peculiar dan- 
ger; a man may feel ashamed in not being considered 


may favour ; it varies with the time and season: cowrage | brave ; he feels a pride in being looked uponas gallant 


exists at all times and on all occasions. The drave 


To call a hero brave adds little or nothing to his cha 


140 ENGLISH 


racter; ‘The brave unfortunate are our best ac- 
quaintance.’—Francis. But to entitle him gallant 
adds a lustre to the glory he has acquired ; 


Death is the worst ; a fate which all must try, 

And fer our country ’t is a bliss to die. 

The gallant man, though slain in fight he be, 

Yet leaves his nation safe, his children nee. 
OPE. 


We cannot speak of a British tar without thinking 
of bravery; of his exploits without thinking of gal- 
lantry. 


a 


COURAGE, FORTITUDE, RESOLUTION. 


Courage signifies the same as in the preceding arti- 
cle; fortitude, in French fortitude, Latin fortitudo, is 
the abstract noun from fortis strong; resolution, from 
the verb resolve, marks the habit of resolving. __ 

Courage respects action, fortitude respects passion : 
a man has courage to meet danger, and fortitude to 
endure pain. : ; 

Courage is that power of the mind which bears up 
against the evil that is in prospect; fort¢tude is that 
power which endures the pain that is felt: the man of 
courage goes with the same coolness to the mouth of 
the cannon, as the man of fortitude undergoes the am- 
putation of a limb. Z ; 

Horatius Cocles displayed his courage in defending a 
bridge against the whole army of the Etruscans: 
Caius Mucius displayed no less fortitude when he 
thrust his hand into the fire in the presence of King 
Porsenna, and awed him as much by his language as 
his action. . 

Courage seems to be more of a manly virtue ; fort2- 
tude is more distinguishable as a feminine virtue: the 
former is at least most adapted to the male sex, who 
are called upon to act, and the latter to females, who 
are obliged to endure: a man without courage would 
be as ill prepared to discharge his duty in his inter- 
course with the world, as a woman without fortitude 
would be to support herself under the complicated 
trials of body and mind with which she is liable to be 
assailed. 

We can make no pretensions to courage unless we 
set aside every personal consideration in the conduct 
we should pursue; ‘What can be more honourable 
than to have cowrage enough to execute the commands 
of reason and conscience ?’—Co.uizr. We cannot 
boast of fortitude where the sense of pain provokes a 
murmur or any token of impatience: since life is a 
chequered scene, in which the prospect of one evil is 
most commonly succeeded by the actual existence of 
another, it is a happy endowment to be able to ascend 
the scaffold with fortitude, or to mount the breach 
with courage as occasion may require ; 


With wonted fortitude she bore the smart, 
And not a groan confess’d her burning heart.—Gay. 


Resolution is a minor species of courage; it is 
courage inthe minor concernsof life: courage compre- 
hends under it a spirit to advance; resolution simply 
marks the will not to. recede: we require cowrage to 
bear down all the obstacles which oppose themselves 
to us ; we require resolution not to yield to the first 
difficulties that offer: cowrage is an elevated feature in 
the human character which adorns the possessor ; 
resolution is that common quality of the mind which 
is in pernetual request ; the want of which degradesa 
man in the eyes of his fellow-creatures. Courage com- 
prehends the absence of all fear, the disregard of all 
personal convenience, the spirit to begin and the deter- 
mination to pursue what has been begun; resolution 
consists of no more than the last quality of courage, 
which respects the persistance in a conduct; ‘The 
unusual extension of my muscles on this occasion 
made my face ache to such a degree, that nothing but 
an invincible resolution and perseverance could have 
prevented me from falling back tomy monosyllables.’— 
Appison. Courage is displayed on the most trying 
occasions; resolution is never put to any severe test; 
courage always supposes some danger to be encoun- 
tered: resolution may be exerted in merely encounter- 
ing opposition and difficulty : we have need of courage 
in opposing a formidable enemy; we have need of 
resolution in the management of a stubborn wil}. 


SYNONYMES. 


AUDACITY, EFFRONTERY, HARDIHOOD OR 
HARDINESS, BOLDNESS. 


Audacity, from audacious, in French audacieur 
Latin audaz and audeo to dare, signifies literally the 
quality of daring ; effrontery, compounded of ef, en, or 
in, and frons a face, signifies the standing face to face 
hardihood or hardiness, from hardy or hard, signifies a 
capacity to'endure or stand the brunt of difficulties 
opposition, or shame; boldness, from bold, in Saxor 
bald, is in all probability changed from bald, that is 
uncovered, open-fronted, without disguise, which are 
the characteristicks of boldness. 

The idea of disregarding what others regard is com 
mon to all these terms. Audacity expresses more than 
effrontery : the first has something of vehemence or 
defiance in it; the latter that of cool unconcern: 
hardihood expresses Jess than boldness ; the first has 
more of determination, and the second more of spirit 
and enterprise. Audacity and effrontery are always 
taken in a bad sense: hardihood in an indifferent, if 
not a bad sense ; boldness in a good, bad, or indifferent 
sense. 

# Audacity marks haughtiness and temerity; ‘ As 
knowledge without justice ought to be called cunning 
rather than wisdom, so a mind prepared to meet danger, 
if excited by its own eagerness and not the publick 
good, deserves the name of audacity rather than of 
fortitude’—Sterte. LEffrontery is the want of all 
modesty, a total shamelessness ; ‘I could never forbear 
to wish that while vice is every day multiplying 
seducements, and stalking forth with more hardened 
effrontery, virtue would not withdraw the influence of 
her presence.’-—Jounson. Hardihood indicates a firm 
resolution to meet consequences; ‘I do not find any 
one so hardy at present as to deny that there are very 
great advantages in the enjoyment of a plentiful for- 
tune.—BupeeLu. Boldness denotes a spirit to com 
mence action, or in a less favourable sense to be heed- 
less and free in one’s speech; ‘A dbeld tongue and a 
feeble arm are the qualifications of Drances in Virgil.’ 
—Appison. An a¢dacious man speaks with a lofty 
tone, without respect and without reflection; h. 
haughty demeanour makes him forget what is due to 
his superiours. Eiffrontery discovers itself by an inso- 
lent air; a total unconcern for the opinions of those 
present, and a disregard of all the forms of civil so- 
ciety. A hardy man speaks with a resolute tone, 
which seems to brave the utmost evil that can result 
from what he says. A bold man speaks without re- 
serve, undaunted by the quality, rank, or haughtiness 
of those whom he addresses ; 


Bold in the council board, 
But cautious in the field, he shunn’d the sword. 
DrypDEn. 


It requires audacity to assert false claims, or vindi- 
cate a lawless conduct in the presence of accusers and 
judges; it requires effrontery to ask a favour of the 
man whom one has basely injured, or to assume a 
placid unconcerned air in the presence of those by 
whom one has been convicted of flagrant atrocities ; 
it requires hardihood to assert as a positive fact what 
is dubious or suspected to be false; it requires boldness 
to maintain the truth in spite of every danger with 
which one is threatened, or to assert one’s claims in 
the presence of one’s superiours. 

Audacity makes a man to be hated; but it is not 
always such a base metal in the estimation of the 
world as it ought to be; it frequently passes current 
for boldness when it is practised with success. Effron- 
tery makes a man despised ; it is of too mean and vul- 
gar a stamp to meet with general sanction: it is odious 
to all but those by whom it is practised, as it seems to 
run counter to every principle and feeling of common 
honesty. Hardihood is a die on which a man stakes 
his character for veracity; it serves the purpose of 
disputants, and frequently brings a man through diffi- 
culties which, with more deliberation and caution, 
might have proved his ruin. Boldness makes a man 
universally respected though not always beloved: a 
bold man is a particular favourite with the fair se 
with whom timidity passes for folly, and boldness o 
course for great talent or a fine spirit. 

Audacity is the characteristick of rebels; effrontery 


* Vide Girard: “ Hardiesse, eudace, effronterie 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


that of villains ; hardihood is serviceable to gentlemen 


of the bar; boldness is indispensable in every great 


undertaking. 


DARING, BOLD. , 

Daring signifies having the spirit to dare; bold 
has the same signification as given under the head of 
audacity. 

These terms may be both taken in a bad sense; but 
daring much oftener than bold. In either case daring 
expresses much more than bold; he who is daring 
provokes resistance, and courts danger; but the bold 
man is contented to overcome the resistance that is 
offered to him. A man may be Dold in the use of 
words only ; he must be daring in actions: a man is 
bold in the defence of truth: ‘ Boldness is the power 
to speak or to do what we intend without fear or dis- 
order.—Locxre. A man is daring in military enter- 
prise ; 


Too daring prince! ah! whither dost thou run, 
Ah! too forgetful of thy wife and son.—Pork. 


STRENUOUS, BOLD. 


Strenuous, in Latin strenuus, from the Greek 
spnvijs undaunted, untamed, from spnyviaw to be with- 
out all rein or control; bold, v. 4dudacity. 

Strenwous expresses much more than bold ; boldness 
is a prominent idea, but it is only one idea which 
enters into the signification of strenuousness ; it com- 
bines likewise fearlessness, activity, and ardour. An 
advocate in a cause may be strenuous, or merely bold; 
in the former case he cmits nothing that can be either 
said or done in favour of the cause, he is always on 
the alert, he heeds no difficulties or danger; but in the 
latter case he only displays his spirit in the undisguised 
declaration of his sentiments. Strenwous supporters 
of any opinion are always strongly convinced of the 
truth of that which they support, and warmly im- 
pressed with a sense of its importance; ‘While the 
good weather continued, I strolled about the country, 
and made many strenuous attempts to run away from 
this odious giddiness.—BraTtTiz. But the bold sup- 
porter of an opinion may be impelled rather with the 
desire of showing his boldness than maintaining his 
point ; 

Fortune befriends the dold.—DrypbEN. 


ARMS, WEAPONS. 


Arms, from the Latin arma, is now properly used 
for instruments of offence, and never otherwise except 
by a poetick license of arms for armour ; but weapons, 
from the German waffen, may be used either for an 
instrument of offence or defence. We say fire arms, 
but not fire weapons ; and weapons offensive or defen- 
sive, not arms offensive or defensive. Arms likewise, 
agreeably to its origin, is employed for whatever is in- 
tentionally made as an instrument of cflence; weapon, 
according to its extended and indefinite application, is 
employed for whatever may be accidentally used for 
this purpose: guns and swords are always arms ; 


Louder, and yet more loud, I hear th’ alarms 
Of human cries distinct and clashing arms. 
DRYDEN. 


Stones, and brickbats, and pitchforks, may be occa- 
sionally weapons ; : 


The cry of Talbot serves me for a sword ; 

For [have loadedme with many spoils, 

Vsing no other weapon than his name. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


——E 


ARMY, HOST. 


An army is an organized body of armed men; a 
host, from hostis an enemy, is properly a body of 
hostile men. : 

An army is a limited body ; a host may be unlimited, 
oe is therefore generally considered a very large 
body. 

The word army applies only to that which has been 
formed by the rules of art for purposes of war; 


: ——— Ee 
a es ne 


14! 


No more applause would on ambition wait 

And laying waste the world be counted great 

But one goodnatured act more praises gain, 

Than armies overthrown and thousands slain 
JENYNS. 


Host has been extended in its application not only to 
bodies, whether of men or angels, that were assemblea 
for purposes of offence, but also in the figurative sense 
to whatever rises up to assail; 


He it was whose guile, 
Stirr’d up with envy and revenge, deceiv’d 
The mother of mankind, what time his pride 
Had cast him out of heav’n with all his host 
Of rebel angels—Mi.Ton. 


Yet true it is, survey we life around, 
Whole hosts of ills on every side are found. 
JENYNS 


BATTLE, COMBAT, ENGAGEMENT. 


Battle, in French batazlle, comes from the Latin 


batuo, Hebrew J\y to twist, signifying a beating; 
combat, from the French combattre, i.e. com or cum 
together, and battre to beat or fight, signifies literally 
a battle one with the other; engagement signifies the 
act of being engaged or occupied in a contest. 

* Battle is a general action requiring some prepara 
tion: combat is only particular, and somctimes unex- 
pected. Thus the action which took place between 
the Carthaginians and the Romans, or Cesar and 
Pompey, were battles; but the action in which the 
Horatii and the Curiatii, decided the fate of Rome, 
as also many of the actiuns in which Hercules was 
engaged, were combats. The battle of Almanza was 
a decisive action between Philip of France and Charles 
of Austria, in their contest for the throne of Spain 
in the combat between Menelaus and Paris, Homer 
very artfully describes the seasonable interference of 
Venus to save her favourite from destruction ; ‘The ~ 
most curious reason of all (for the wager of battle) is 
given in the Mirror, that it is allowable upon warran 
of the combat between David for the people of Israe 
of the one party, aud Goliath tor the Philistines of the 
other party..—BLacKsTons. 

The word combat has more relation to the act of 
fighting than that of battle, which is used with more 
propriety simply to denominate the action. In the battle 
between the Romans and Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, 
the combat was obstinate and bloody; the Romans 
seven times repulsed the enemy, and were as often re- 
pulsed in their turn, In this latter sense engagement 
and combat are analogous, but the former has aspecific 
relation to the agents and parties engaged, which is 
not implied in the latter term. We speak of a person 
being present in an engagement ; wounded in an en- 
gagement; or having fought desperately in an engage- 
ment: on the other hand; to engage ina combat; to 
challenge to single combat: combats are sometimes 
begun by the accidental meeting of avowed oppo- 
nents; in such engagements nothing is thought of but 
the gratification of revenge. 

Battles are fought between armies only; they are 
gained or lost: combats are entered into between in- 
dividuals, whether of the brute or human species, in 
which they seek to destroy or excel: enzagements are 
confined to no particular member, only to such as are 
engaged: a general engagement is said of an army 
when the whole body is engaged ; partial engagements 
respect only such as are fought by small parties or 
companies of an army. History is mostly occupied 
with the details of battles ; 


A battle bloody fought, 
Where darkness and surprise made conquest cheap. 
Dryven. 

In the history of the Greeks and Romans, we have like- 
wise an account of the combats between men and wild 
beasts, which formed their principal amusement: 

This brave man with long resistance, 

Held the combat doubtful.—Rowre. 


It is reported of the German women, that whenever 
their husbands went to battle they used to go into the 
thickest of the combat to carry them provisions or dress 


* Girard =“ Bataille, combat.’’ 


142 


their wounds ; and that sometimes they would take 
part in the engagement; ‘The Emperor of Morocco 
commanded his principal officers, that if he died during 
the engagement, they should conceal his death from 
the army.’—Appison. The word combat is likewise 
sometimes taken in a moral application; ‘The rela- 
tion of events becomes a moral lecture, when the 
combat of honour is rewarded with virtue..—Hawkgs- 
WORTH. 


CONFLICT, COMBAT, CONTEST, 


Conflict, in Latin conflictus, participle of confligo 
compounded of con and fligo,in Greek gdiyw olic 
for d\(Bw to flip or strike, signifies to strike against 
each other. This term is allied to combat and conjlict 
in the sense of striving for the superiority ; but they 
difter both in the manner and spirit of the action. 

A conflict has more of violence in it than a combat, 
and a combat than a contest. ' 

A conflict and combat, in the proper sense, are always 
attended with a personal attack ; contest consists mostly 
of a striving for some common object. 

A conflict is mostly sanguinary and desperate, it 
arises from the undisciplined operations of the bad pas- 
sions, animosity, and brutal rage; it seldom ends in 
any thing but destruction: a combat is often a matter 
of art and a trial of skill; it may be obstinate and last- 
ing, though not arising from any personal resentment, 
and mostly terminates with the triumph of one party 
and the defeat of the other: a contest is interested and 
personal; it may often give rise to angry and even ma- 
lignant sentiments, but is not necessarily associated 
with any bad passion; it ends in the advancement of 
one to the injury of the other. 

The lion, the tiger, and other beasts of the forest, have 
dreadful conflicts whenever they meet; which seldom 
terminate but in the death of one if not both of the 
antagonists: it would be well if the use of the word 
were confined to the irrational pert of the creation ; but 
there have been wars and party-broils among men, 
which have occasioned conflicts the most horrible and 
destructive that can be conceived; 


It is my father’s face, 
Whom in this conflict, I unawares have kill’d. 
SHAKSPEARE: 


That combats have been mere trials of skill is evinced 
by the combats in the ancient games of the Greeks and 
Romans, as also in the justs and tournaments of later 
fate; but in all applications of the term, it implies a 
set engagement between two or more particular indi- 
viduals ; 


Elsewhere he saw, where Troilus defied 
Achilles, an unequal combat tried.—DrRyDEN. 


Contests are as various as the pursuits and wishes of 
men: whatever is an object of desire for two parties 
becomes the ground of a contest; ambition, interest, 
and party-zeal are always busy in furnishing men with 
objects for a contest ; on the same ground, the attain- 
ment of victory in a battle, or of any subordinate 
point during an engagement, become the object of con- 
test; ‘ When the ships grappled together, and the con- 
test became more steady and furious, the example of 
the King and so many gallant nobles, who accompa- 
nied him, animated tosuch a degree the seamen and 
soldiers, that they maintained every where a superi- 
ority ’"—Humeg. 

In a figurative sense these terms are applied to the 
movements of the mind, the elements or whatever 
seems to oppose itself to another thing, in which sense 
they preserve the same analogy: violent passions have 
their conflicts; ordinary desires their combats; mo- 
tives their contests ; it is the poet’s part to describe the 
conflicts between pride and passion, rage and despair, 
in the breast of the disappointed lover ; ‘Happy is the 
man who in the conflict of desire between God and the 
worid, can oppose not only argument to argument but 
pleasure to pleasure.’—Buair. Reason will seldom 
some off victorious in its combat with ambition, ava- 
tice, a love of pleasure, or any predominant desire, 
inless aided by religion ; ‘ The noble combat that, ’twixt 

oy and sorrow, was fought in Paulina! She had one 
eye declined for the loss of her husband, another ele- 
vated that the oracle was fulfilled..—SnaxsPeaRgE. 
Where there is a contest between the desire of fo'low- 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


ing one’s will and a sense of propriety, the voice of a 
prudent friend may be heard and heeded ; ‘ Soon after- 
ward the death of the king furnished a general subject 
for poetical contest.’—JoHNsoNn. 

mad 


TO CONFRONT, FACE. 


Confront, from the Latin frons a forehead, implies 
to set face to face; and face, from the noun face, signi- 
fies to set the face towards any object. The former of 
these terms is always employed for two or more persona 
with regard to each other ; the latter for a single indi- 
vidual with regard to objects in general. 

Witnesses are confronted ; a person faces danger, or 
faees an enemy. when people give contrary evidence 
it is sometimes necessary, in extra-judicial matters, to 
confront them, in order to arrive at the truth; 


Whereto serves mercy, 
But to confront the visage of offence ? 
SHAKSPEARE. 


The best test which a man can give of his courage, is 
to evince his readiness for facing his enemy whenever 
the occasion requires ; 


The rev’rend charioteer directs the course, 
And strains his aged arm to lash the horse: 
Hector they face ; unknowing how to fear, 
Fierce he drove on.—Pops. 


TO BEAT, STRIKE, HIT. 


Beat, in French battre, Latin battuo, comes from the 
Hebrew habat to beat; Strike, in Saxon strican, Da- 
nish stricker, &c. from the Latin strictum, participle 
of stringo to brush or sweep along, signifies literally to 
pass one thing along the surface of another; hit, in 
Latin ictus, participle of ico, comes from the Hebrew 
necat to strike. 

To beat isto redouble blows; to strzke is to give one 
single blow; but the bare touching in consequence of 
an effort constitutes hitting. Wenever beat but with 
design, nor hit without an aim, but we may strike by 
accident. It is the part of the strong to beat; of the 
most vehement to strike; of the most sure sighted to 
hit. 

Notwithstanding the declamations of philosophers as 
they are pleased to style themselves, the practice of 
beating cannot altogether be discarded from the mili- 
tary or scholastick discipline. ‘The master who strikes 
his pupil hastily is oftener impelled by the force of pas- 
sion than of conviction. Hitting is the object and de- 
light of the marksman; it is the utmost exertion of his 
skill to hit the exact point at which he aims. In an ex- 
tended application of these terms, beating is, for the 
most part, an act of passion, either from anger or sor- 
row; 

Young Sylvia beats her breast, and cries aloud 

For succour from the clownish neighbourhood, 

DRYDEN. 


Striking is an act of decision, as to strike a blow; 


Send thy arrows forth 
Strike, strike these tyrants and avenge my tears, 
CUMBERLAND, 


Hitting is an act of design, as to hit a mark; ‘Noman 
is thought to become vicious by sacrificing the life of 
an animal to the pleasure of hitting amark. Itis how- 
evercertain that by this act more happiness is destroyed 
than produced.,—-HawkEswortTH. 

Blow probably derives the meaning in which it is 
here taken from the action of the wind, which it re- 
sembles when it is violent; stroke, from the word 
strike, denotes the act of striking. 

Blow is used abstractedly to denote the effect of vio- 
lence; stroke is employed relatively to the person pro- 
ducing that effect A blow may be received by the 
carelessness of the receiver, or by a pure accident; 
‘The advance of the human mind towards any object 
of laudable pursuit may be compared to the pregress 
of a body driven by a blow”—Jounson. Strokes are 
dealt out according to the design of the giver; ‘ Pene- 
trated to the heart with the recollection of his beha- 
viour, and the unmerited pardon he had met with, 
Thrasyppus was proceeding to execute vengeance on 
himself, by rushing on his sword, when Pisistratus 
again interposed, and seizing his hand, stopped the 


Te 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


stroke..—CUMBERLAND. Children are always in the 
way of getting blows in the course of their play; and 
of reveiving strokes by way of chastisement. 

A blow may be given with the hand, or with any flat 
substance ; a strexe is rather a long drawn blow given 
with a long instrument, like a stick. Blows may be 
given with the flat part of a sword, and strokes witha 
stick. 

Blow is seldom used but in the proper sense; stroke 
sometimes figuratively, as a stroke of death, ora stroke 
vf fortune: ‘This declaration was a stroke which 
fvander had neither skill to elude, nor force to resist.’ 
—HAWKESWORTH. 


TO BEAT, DEFEAT, OVERPOWER, ROUT, 
OVERTHROW. 


Beas is here figuratively employed in the sense of the 
former section; defeat, from the French defaire, im- 
plies to undo; overpower, to have the power over any 
one; rout, from the French mettre en deroute isto turn 
from one’s route, and overthrow to throw over or up- 
side down. 

Beat respects personal contests between individuals 
or parties ; defeat, rout, overpower, and overthrow, are 
employed mostly for contests between numbers. A 
general is beaten in important engagements: he is- de- 
feated and may be routed in partial attacks; he is over- 
powered by numbers, and overthrown in set engage- 
ments. The English pride themselves on beating their 
enemies by land as well as by sea, whenever they come 
to fair engagements, but the English are sometimes de- 
feated when they make too desperate attempts, and 
sometimes they are in danger of being overpowered : 
they have scarcely ever been routed or overthrown. 

To deat is an indefinite term expressive of no parti- 
cular degree: the being beaten may be attended with 
greater or less damage. To be defeated is a specifick 
disadvantage, it is a failure in a particular object of 
more or lessimportance. ‘To be overpoweredis a posi- 
tive loss; it is a loss of the power of acting which may 
de of longer or sborter duration : to be routed is a tem- 
aorary disadvantage; a rout alters the rowte or course 
of proceeding, but does not disable: to be overthrown is 
he greatest of all mischiefs, and is applicable only to 
great armiesand great concerns, an overthrow com- 
monly decides the contest. 

Beat is a term which reflects more or less dishonour 
on the general or the army or on both; 


Turnus, [ know you think me not your friend, 

Nor will I much with your belief contend ; 

I beg your greatness not to give the law 

In other realms, but beaten to withdraw. 
DRYDEN. 


Defeat is an indifferent term; the best generals may 
sometimes be defeated by circumstances which are 
above human control; ‘Satan frequently confesses the 
omnipotence of the Supreme Being, that being the per- 
fection he was forced to allow him, and the only con- 
sideration whicn could support bis pride under the 
shame of his defeat.—Appison. Overpowering is 
coupled with no particular honour to the winner, nor 
disgrace to the loser; superiour power is oftener the 
result of good fortune than of skill. The bravest and 
finest troops may be overpowered in cases which exceed 
human power ; ‘ The veterans whodefended the walls, 
Were soon overpowered by numbers.’—ROBERTSON. 
A rout is always disgraceful, particularly to the army ; 
it always arises from want of firmness; ‘The rout (at 
the battle of Pavia) now became universal, and resist- 
ance ceased in almost every part but where the king 
was in person.’—-RoBEerTson. An overthrow is fatal 
rather than distonourable; it excites pity rather than 
contempt; ‘ Mil\on’s subject is rebellion against the Su- 
preme Being; raised by the highest order of created 
oeings; the over‘krow of their host is the punishment 
of their crime.’—-JoHnson. 


TO DEFEAT, FOIL, DISAPPCINT, 
FRUSTRATE. 


To defeat has the same meaning as given under the 
article To beat; in may probably come from fail, 
and the Latin fallo to deceive, signifying to make to 
fail; frustrate, in Latin frustratus, from frustra in 
vain, signifies to make vain; disappoint, from the pri- 


ae eee ET 


143 


vative dis and the verb appoint, signifies literally to do 
away what has been appointed. 

Defeat and foil are both applied to matters of enter- 
prise; but that may be defeated which is only planned 
and that is foiled which is in the act of being executed. 
What is rejected is defeated: what is aimed at or pur- 
posed is frustrated : what is calculated on is disap- 
pointed. The best concerted schemes may sometimes 
be easily defeated : where art is employed against sim- 
plicity the Jatter may be easily forled : when we aim 
at what is above our reach, we must be frustrated in 
our endeavours: when our expectations are extrava- 
gant, it seems to follow of course, that they will be 
disappointed. : 

Design or accident may tend to defeat, design only to 
foil, accident only to frustrate or disappoint. The su- 
periour force of the enemy, or a combination of unto- 
ward events which are above the control of the com- 
mander, will serve to defeat the best concerted plans of 
the best generals; ‘The very purposes of wantonness 
are defeated by a carriage wnich has so much boldness.’ 
—Srreue. Men of upright minds can seldom fozi the 
deep laid schemes of knaves; ‘ The devil haunts those 
most where he hath greatest hopes of success; and ‘3 
too eager and intent upon mischief to employ his time 
and temptations where he hath been so often fotled.’— 
Ti~totson. When we see that the perversity of men 
is liable to frustrate the kind intentions of others in 
their behalf, it is wiser to leave them to their folly; 


Let all the Tuscans, all th’ Arcadians join, 
Nor these nor those shall frustrate my design. 
DRYDEN, 


The cross accidents of human life are a fruitful source 
of disappointments to those who suffer themse ves te 
be affected by them; ‘It seems rational to hope that 
minds qualified for great attainments should first en 
deavour their own benefit. But this expectation, how 

ever plausible, has been very frequently disappointed 

—JOHNSON. 


TO BAFFLE, DEFEAT, DISCONCERT, 
CONFOUND. 


Baffe, in French bafier, from buffle an ox, signifies 
to lead by the nose as an ox, that is, to amuse or disap 
point; defeat, in French défazt, participle of défaire, is 
compounded of the privative de and faire to do, signi 
fying to undo ; disconcert is compounded of the priva- 
tive dis and concert, signifying to throw out of concert 
or harmony, to put into disorder; confound, in French 
confondre, is compounded of con and fondre to melt or 
mix together in general disorder. 

When applied to the derangement of the mind or ra- 
tional faculties, baffle and defeat respect the powers of 
argument, disconcert and confound the thoughts and 
feelings: baffle expresses less than defeat; disconcert 
less than confound; a person is baffled in argument 
who is for the time discomposed and silenced by the su- 
periour address of his opponent: he is defeated in argu- 
ment if his opponent has altogether the advantage of 
him in strength of reasoning and just.2ess of sentiment: 
a person is d¢sconcerted who loses his presence of mind 
for a moment, or has his feelings any way discom- 
posed; he is confownded when the powers of thought 
and consciousness become torpid or vanish. 

A superiour command of language or a particular 
degree of effrontery will frequently enable one person 
to baffle another who is advocating the cause of truth; 
‘When the mind has brought itself to close thinking, it 
may go on roundly. Every abstruse problem, every 
intricate question will not bafle, discourage, or break 
it.’—Locxe.- Ignorance of the subject, or a want of 
ability, may occasion a man to be defeated by his ad- 
versary, even when he is supporting a good cause; 
‘He that could withstand conscience is frighted at in- 
famy, and shame prevails when reason is defeated.’— 
Jounson. Assurance is requisite to prevent any one 
from being disconcerted whois suddenly detected 1n any 
disgraceful proceeding ; ‘She looked in the glass while 
she was speaking to me, and without any confusion 
adjusted her tucker: she seemed rather pleased than 
disconcerted at being regarded with earnestness.’— 
HawkeEswortTu. Hardened effrontery sometimes keeps 
the daring villain from being confounded by any events, 
however awful; ‘I could not help inquiring of the 
clerks if they knew this lady, and was greatlv 


144 


founded when they told me with an air of secrecy that 
she was my cousin’s mistress..—HawKESWORTH. 

When applied to the derangement of plans, baffle 
expresses less than defeat; defeat less than confound ; 
and disconcert less than all. Obstinacy, perseverance, 
skill, or art, baffles ; force or violence defeats ; awkward 
circumstances disconcert ; the visitation of God coz- 
founds. When wicked men strive to obtain their ends, 
it is a happy thing when their adversaries have suffi- 
cient skill and address to baffle all their arts, and suffi- 
cient power to defeat all their projects; 


Now shepherds! To your helpless charge be kind, 
Baffle the raging year, and fill their pens 
With food at will—Tuomson. 


‘ He finds himself naturally to dread a superiour Being, 
that can defeat all his designs and disappoint all his 
hopes.’—TinLLorson. Sometimes when our best endea- 
vours fail in our own behalf, the devices of men are 
confounded by the interposition of heaven; 


So spake the Son of God; and Satan stood 
A while as mute, confounded what to say, 
Mitron. 


It frequently happens even in the common transactions 
of life that the best schemes are disconcerted by the tri- 
vial casualties of wind and weather ; ‘The King (Wil- 
liam) informed of these dangerous discontents hastened 
over to England; and by his presence, and the vigorous 
measures which he pursued, disconcerted all the 
schemes of the conspirators.—Humr. The cbstinacy 
ofa disorder may baffle the skill of the physician; the 
imprudence of the patient may defeat the object of his 
prescriptions: the unexpected arrival of a superiour 
may disconcert the unauthorized plan of those who are 
subordinate: the miraculous destruction of his army 
confounded the project of the King of Assyria. 


TO CONQUER, VANQUISH, SUBDUE, 
OVERCOME, SURMOUNT. 


Conquer, in French conquerir, Latin conguiro, com- 
sounded of con and quero, signifies to seek or try to 
rain an object; vanquish, in French vaincre, Latin 
vinco, Greek (per metathesin) yxdéw, comes from the 


Hebrew FRY} to destroy; subdue, from the Latin 
subdo, signifies to give or put under; overcome, com- 
ounded of over and come, signifies to come over or get 
he mastery over one: surmount,in French surmonter, 
eompounded of sur over and monter to mount, signifies 
to rise above any one. 

Persons or things are conquered or subdued: persons 
only are vanquished. An enemy or a country is con- 
quered; a foe is vanquished ; people are subdued. 

We conquer an enemy or a country by whatever 
means we gain the mastery over him or it. The idea 
of something gained is most predominant: ‘ He (Ethel- 
wolf) began his reign with making a partition of his 
dominions, and delivering over to his eldest son Athel- 
stan, the new conquered provinces of Essex, Kent, and 
Sussex.—Humr. We vanguish him, when by force 
we make him yield; ‘ A few troops of the vanquished, 
had still the courage to turn upon their pursuers.’— 
Hume. We subdue him by whatever means we check 
in him the spirit of resistance; ‘ The Danes, surprised 
to see an army of English, whom they considered as 
totally subdued, and still more astonished to hear that 
Alfred was at their head, made but a faint resistance.’— 
Humex. A Christian tries to conquer his enemies by 
kindness and generosity ; a warriour tries to vanquish 
them in the field; a prudent monarch tries to subdue 
his rebellious subjects by a due mixture of clemency 
and rigour. 

One may be vanquished in a single battle; one is 
subdued only by the most violent and persevering mea- 
sures. William the First conquered England by van- 
quishing his rival Harold; after which he completely 
subdued the English. ; 

Alexander having vanquished all the enemies that 
opposed him, and subdued all the nations with whom 
he warred, fancied that he had conquered the whole 
world, and is said to have wept at the idea that there 
were no more worlds to conquer. 

In an extended and moral application these terms are 
nearly allied to overcome and surmount. That is con- 
quered and subdued which is in the mind; that is over- 
come and surmounted which is either internal or 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


external. We conquer and overcome what makes no 
great resistance ; we subdue and surmount what is vio 
lent and strong in its opposition; dislikes, attachments, 
and feelings in general, either for or against, are con- 
quered; unruly and tumultuous passions are to be 
subdued ; aman conquers himself ; 


Real glory 
Springs from the silent conquest of ourselves. 
THOMSON. 


He subdues his spirit or his passions; ‘Socrates and 


| Marcus Aurelius are instances of men, who, by the 


strength of philosophy having subdwed their passions, 
are celebrated for good husbands.’—SprcraTor. 

One conquers by ordinary means and efforts; one 
subdues by extraordinary means. Antipathies when 
cherished in early life are not easily conquered in riper 
years: nothing but a prevailing sense of religion, and a 
perpetual fear of God, can ever subdue the rebellious 
wills and propensities. 

It requires for the most part determination and force 
to overcome; patience and perseverance to surmount. 
Prejudices and prepossessions are overcome; obstacles 
and difficulties are surmounted; ‘Actuated by some 
high passion, a man conceives great designs, and sur- 
mounts all difficulties in the execution.’—Buair. Ittoo 
frequently happens that those who are eager to over- 
come their prejudices, in order to dispose themselves for 
the reception of new opinions, fall into greater errours 
than those they have abandoned. Nothing truly great 
has ever been effected where great difficulties have not 
been encountered : it is the characteristick of genius to 
surmount every difficulty : Alexander conceived that he 
could overcome nature herself, and Hannibal succeeded 
in this very point: there were scarcely any obstacles 
which she opposed to him that he did not suzmount by 
prowess and perseverance. 

Whoever aims at Christian perfection must strive 
with God’s assistance to conquer avarice, pride, and 
every inordinate propensity ; to swbdwe wrath, anger, 
lust, and every carnal appetite; to overcome tempta- 
tions, and to surmount trials and impediments which 
obstruct his course. . 

To conquer and overcome may sometimes be indif 
ferently applied to the same objects ; but the former 
has always a reference to the thing gained, the latter 
to the resistance which is opposed, hence we talk of 
conquering a prejudice as far as we bring it under the 
power of the understanding ; we overcome it as far as 
we successfully oppose its influence: this illustration 
will serve to show the propriety of using these words 
distinctly in other cases where they cannot be used in 
differently ; 


Equal success hath set these champions high, 
And both resolv’d to conquer or to die—W ALLER. 


The patient mind by yielding overcomes.—PutiuiPs. 


To vanquish in the moral application bears the 
same meaning as in the proper application, signifying 
to overcome in a struggle or combat; thus a person 
may be said to be vanquished by any ruling passion 
which gets the better of his conscience; ‘There are 
two parts in our nature. The inferiour part is gene 
rally much stronger, and has always the start of rea- 
son; which, if it were not aided by religion, would 
almost universally be vanquished.—BERKELEY. 


TO OVERBEAR, BEAR DOWN, OVERPOWER, 
OVERWHELM, SUBDUE. 


To overbear is to bear one’s self over another, that 
is, to make another bear one’s weight ; 


Crowding on the last the first impel; 
Till overborne with weight the Cyprians fell. 
DrRyDEN. 


To bear down is literally to bring down by bearing 
upon; ‘ The residue were so disordered as they could 
not conveniently fight or fly, and not only justled and 
bore down one another, but in their confused tumbling 
back, brake a part of the avant-guard.’-—Haywarp. 
To overpower is to get the power over an object ; 
‘ After the death of Crassus, Pompey found himself 
outwitted by Cesar; he broke with him, overpowered 
him in the senate, and caused many unjust decrees to 
pass against him.’—Dryprn. To overwhelm, from 
whelm or wheel, signifies to turn one quite round as 
well as over. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


What age is this, where honest men, 
Plac’d at the helm, 

A sea of some foul mouth or pen 
Shall overwhelm.— JONSON. 


fo subdue (v. To conquer) is literally to bring or put 
underneath ; 


‘Nothing could have subdued nature 
To such a lowness, but his unkind daughters. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


A man overbears by carrying himself higher®than 
others, and putting to silence those who might claim 
an equality with him; an overbearing demeanour is 
most conspicuous in narrow Circles where an in‘ivi- 
dual, from certain casual advantages, affects a superi- 
ority over the members of the same community. To 
bear down is an act of greater violence: one bears 
down opposition ; it is properly the opposing force to 
force, until one side yields: there may be occasions m 
which bearing down is fully justifiable and laudable. 
Mr. Pitt was often compelled to bear down a factious 
party which threatened to overturn the government. 
Overpower, as the term implies, belongs to the exercise 
of power which may be either physical or moral: one 
may be overpowered by another, who in a struggle gets 
him into his power ; or one may be overpowered in an 
argument, when the argument of‘one’s antagonist is 
such as to bring one to silence. One is overborne or 
borne down by the exertion of individuals; one is 
overpowered by the active efforts of individuals, or by 
the force of circumstances; one its overwhelmed by 
circumstances or things only: one *: 9verborne by ‘n- 
. Other of superiour influence; one is »rne down by ie 
force of :shis attack; one is overpowe ed by numbe.s, 
by entreaties, by looks, and the lie -; one is over- 
whelmed by the torrent of words, or ti. impetuosity of 
the attack. In the moral or extended application ove7- 
bear and bear down both imply force or violence, but 
the latter even more than the former. One passion 
may be said to overbear another, or to over bear reason ; 
‘The duty of fear, like that of other passions, is not to 
overbear reason, but to assist it’—JoHnson. What- 
ever bears down carries all before it; 


Contention like a horse 
Full of high feeding, madly hath broken loose, 
And bears down all before him.—SHAKSPEARE. 


Overpower and overwhelm denote a partial superi- 
ority ; subdue denotes that which is permanent and 
positive : we may overpower or overwhelm for a time, 
or to a certain degree; but to subdue is to get an entire 
and lasting superiority. Overpower and overwhelm 
are said of what passes between persons nearly on a 
level; but swbdue is said of those who are, or may be, 
reduced to a low state of inferiority: individuals or 
armies are overpowered or overwhelmed ; individuals 
or nations are subdued: we may be overpowered in 
one engagement, and overpower our opponent in an- 
other ; we may be overwhelmed by the suddenness and 
impetuosity of the attack, yet we may recover our- 
selves so as to renew the attack; but when we are 
subdued all power of resistance is gone. 

To overpower, overwhelm, and subdue, are applied 
either to the moral feelings or to the external relations 
of things; but the two former are the effects of exter- 
nal circumstances ; the latter follows from the exercise 
of the reasoning powers: the tender feelings are over- 
powered, or the senses may be overpowered; ‘ All 
colours that are more luminous (than green) over- 
power and dissipate the animal spirits which are em- 
ployedin sight’—Appison. The mind is overwhelmed 
with shame, horrour, and other painful feelings ; ‘How 
trifling an apprehension is the shame of being laughed 
at by fools, when compared with that everlasting 
shame and astonishinent which shall overwhelm the 
sinner when he shall appear before the tribunal of 
Christ..—Rogrrs. 


Such implements of mischief as shall dash 


To pieces, and overwhelm whatever stands 
Adverse.—MILTon. 


The unruly passions are subdued by the force of reli- 
gious contemplation, or the fortitude is subdued by 
pain; 
‘ For what avails 
Valour or strength, though matchless, quell’d with 
pain 
Which all subdues ?——-MiL Ton. 
10 


"45 


A person may be so overpowered, on seeing a dying 
friend, asto be unable to speak; he may be so over- 
whelmed with grief, upon the death of a near and dear 
relative, as to be unable to attend to his ordinary avo- 
cations; the angry passions have been so completely 
subdued by the influence of religion on the heart, that 
instances have been known of the most irascible 
tempers being converted into the most mild and for- 


- bearing. 


—— 


TO SUBJECT, SUBJUGATE, SUBDUE 


Subdue, v. To conquer. 

To subject, signifying to make subject, is here the 
generick term: to subjugate, from jugum a yoke, sig- 
nifying to bring under a yoke: and subdue, signifying 
as in the preceding article to bring under, are specifick 
terms. We may subject either individuals or nations; 
but we subjugate only nitions. We subject ourselves 
to reproof, to inconvenience, or to the influence of our 
passions ; 


Think not, young warriours, your diminish’d name 
Shall lose of lustre, by subjecting rage 
To the cool dictates of experienced age. —DrypEN 


Where there is no awe, there will be no subjection. 
Souru. 


One nation subjugates another: subjugate and subdue 
are both employed with regard to nations that are com- 
pelled to submit to the conqueror: but subjugate ex 
presses even more than subdue, for it implies to bring 
into a state of permanent submission; whereas ta 
subdue may be only a nominal and temporary subjec 
tion. Cesar subjugated the Gauls, for he made them 
subjects to the Roman empire ; 


O fav’rite virgin, that hast warm’d the breast 
Whose sov’reign dictates subjugate the east. 
PRIOR. 


Alexander subdued the Indian nations, who revolted 
after his departure; 


Thy son (nor is th’ appointed season far,) 
In Italy shall wage successful war, 
Till, after every foe subdu’d, the sun 
. Thrice through the signs his annual race shall run 
DRYDEN 


INVINCIBLE, UNCONQUERABLE, INSUPER 
ABLE, INSURMOUNTABLE. 


Invincible signifies not to be vananished (v. To con 
quer) ; unconquerable, not to be cuuiquered: insuper 
able, not to be overcome: insurmountable, not to be 
surmounted. Persons or things are in the strict sense 
invincible which can withstand all force, but as in 
this sense nothing created can be termed invincible, 
the term is employed to express strongly whatever can 
withstand human force in general: on this ground the 
Spaniards termed their Armada invincible ; ‘ The 
Americans believed at first, that while cherished by 
the parental beams of the sun, the Spaniards were 
invincible. ROBERTSON. The qualities of the mind 
are termed unconguerable when they are not to be 
gained over or brought under the control of one’s own 
reason, or the judgement of another: hence obstinacy 
is with propriety denominated uncenquerable which 
will yield to no foreign influence ; ‘The mind of an 
ungrateful person is unconguerable by that which con 
quers all things else, even by love itself’”—Sourn. The 
particular disposition of the mind or turn of thinking 
is termed insuperable, inasmuch as it baffles our reso 
lution or wishes to have it altered: an aversion is in 
superable which no reasoning or endeavour on our 
own part can overcome ; ‘ To this literary word (meta- 
physicks) I have an insuperable aversion.’—BratTTik. 
‘Things are denominated insurmountable, inasmuch as 
they baffle one’s skill or efforts to get over them, or put 
them out of one’s way: an obstacle is insurmountable 
which in the nature of things is irremoveable; ‘It isa 
melancholy reflection, that while one is plagued with 
acquaintance at the corner of every street, real friends 
should be separated from each other by insurmeuntadle 
bars. —Gispon. Some people have an insuperable 
antipathy to certain animals; some persons are of so 
modest and timid a character, that the necessity of 
addressing strangers is with them an insuperable ob 
jection to using any endeavours for their own advance 


146 


ment; the difficulties which Columbus had to encoun- 
ter in his discovery vf the New World, would have 
appeared insurmountedle to any mind less determined 
and persevering. 


ed 


SUBJECT, SUBORDINATE, INFERIOUR, 
SUBSERVIENT. 


Subject, in Latin subjectus, participle of subjicio or 
sub and jacio to throw under, signifies thrown and 
cast under; subordinate, compounded of swb and order, 
signifies to be in an order that is under others; inferiour, 
in Latin inferior, comparative of inferus low, which 
probably comes from infero to cast into, because we 
are cast into places that are low; subservient, com- 
pounded of sub and servio, signifies serving under 
something else. 

These terms may either express the relation of per- 
sons to persons, or of things to persons and tliings. 
Subject in the first case respects the exercise of power; 
subordinate is said of the station and office; inferiour, 
either of a man’s outward circumstances or of his 
merits and qualifications; subservient, of one’s relative 
services to another, but mostly in a bad sense. Ac- 
cording to the law of nature, a child should be subject 
to his parents; according to the law of God and man 
he must be subject to his prince; ‘Esau was never 
subject to Jacob, but founded a distinct people, and 
government, and was himself prince over them.’— 
Locke. The good order of society cannot be rightly 
maintained unless there be some to act in a subordinate 
capacity ; ‘Whether dark presages of the night pro- 
ceed from any latent power of the soul, during her ab- 
straction, or from any operation of subordinate spirits, 
has been a dispute..—Appison. Men of inferiour 
talent have a part to act which, in the aggregate, is of 
no less importance than that which is sustained by 
men of the highest endowments; ‘A great person gets 
more by obliging his inferiour than by disdaining him.’ 
—Sourn. Men of no principle or character will be 
most subservient to the base purposes of those who 
pay them best ; ‘ Wicked spirits may, by their cunning, 
carry farther in aseeming confederacy or subserviency 
to the designs of a good angel.’—Dryprn. It is the 
part of the prince to protect the subject, and of the 
subject to love and honour the prince; it is the part of 
the exalted to treat the subordinate with indulgence ; 
and of the latter to show respect to those under whom 
they are placed ; it is the part of the superiour to instruct, 
assist, and encourage the inferiour ; it isthe part of the 
latter to be willing to learn, ready to ubey, and prompt 
to execute. It is not necessary for any one to act the 
degrading part of being subservient to another. 

In the second instance subject preserves the same 
sense as before, particularly when it expresses the rela- 
tion of things to persons; subordinate designates the 
degree of relative importance between things: infe- 
riour designates every circumstance which can render 
things comparatively higher or lower; subservient 
designates the relative utility of things under certain 
circumstances, but seldom in the bad sense. All crea- 
tures are subject to man; ‘Contemplate the world as 
subject to the Divine dominion.’—Buiatr. Matters of 
subordinate consideration ought to be entirely set out 
of the question, when any grand object is to be ob- 
tained ; ‘ The idea of pain in its highest degree is much 
stronger than the highest degree of pleasure, and pre- 
serves the same superiority through all the subordinate 
gradations. —Burke. Thingsof inferiour value must 
necessarily sell for an inferiour price ; ‘I can myself 
remember the time when in respect of musick our reign- 
ing taste was in many degrees inferiour to the French.’ 
—Suartessury. There is nothing so insignificant 
but it may be made subservient to some purpose ; 
‘Though a writer may be wrong himself, he may 
chance to make his errours subservient to the cause of 
truth.’—Burke. The word subject when expressing 
the relation of things to things has the meaning of 
tiable, as in the following article. 


SUBJECT, LIABLE, EXPOSED, OBNOXIOUS. 


Subject is here considered as expressing the relation 
of things to things, in distinction from its signification 
in the preceding article; /iable, compounded of lie and 
able, signifies ready to lie near or lie under; ezposed, 
in Latin ezpositus, participle of erpono, compounded 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


of ex and pono, signifies set out, set within the view ot 
reach ; obnoxious, in Latin obnoaius, compounded of 
ob and noxia mischief, signifies in the way of mischief. 
All these terms are applied to those circumstances in 
human life by which we are affected independently of 
our own choice. Direct necessity is included in the 
term subject ; whatever we are obliged to suffer, that 
we are subject to; we may apply remedies to remove 
the evil, but often in vain; ‘‘'he devout man aspires 
after some principles of more perfect felicity, which 
shall not be subject to change or decay.’—Buiarr. Li- 
able conveys more the idea of casualties; we may 
suffer that which we are liable to, but we may also 
escape the evil if we are careful; ‘The sinner is not 
only liable to that disappointment of success which so 
often frustrates all the designs of men, but liable toa 
disappointment still more cruel, of being successful and 
miserable at once..—BuLair. Exposed conveys the 
idea of a passive state into which we may be brought, 
either through our own means or through the instru- 
mentality of others; we are exposed to that which we 
are not in a condition to keep off from ourselves; it is 
frequently not in our power to guard against the evil; 


On the bare earth expos’d he lies, 
With not a friend to close his eyes.—_DryDEN. 


Obnoxious conveys the idea of a state into which 
we have altogether brought ourselves; we may avoid 
bringing ourselves into the state, but we cannot avoid 
the consequences which will ensue from being thus 
involved ; 
And much he blames the softness of his mind, 
Obnoxious to the charms of womankind.—DrypDen. 


We are subject to disease, or subject to death; this is 
the irrevocable law of our nature: tender people are 
liable to catch cold; all persons are liable to make 
mistakes: a person is exposed to insults who provokes 
the anger of a low-bred man: a minister sometimes 
renders himself obnoxious to the people, that is, puts 
himself in the way of their animosity. 

To subject and expose, as verbs, are taken in the 
same sense: a person subjects himself to impertinent 
freedoms by descending to indecent familiarities with 
his inferiours; ‘If the vessels yield, it subjects the 
person to’ all the inconveniences of an erroneous circu- 
lation.—ARBUTHNOT. He exposes himself to the de- 
rision of his equals by an affectation of superiority ; 


. Who here 
Will envy whom the highest place exposes 
Foremost to stand against the Thunderer’s aim. 
MILTON 


OBNOXIOUS, OFFENSIVE. 


Obnoxious, from the intensive syllable ob and noz- 
ious, signifies exceedingly noxious and causing offence, 
or else liable to offence from others by reason of its 
noziousness ; offensive signifies simply liable to give 
offence. Obnoxious is, therefore,a much more com- 
prehensive term than offensive; for an obnoxious man 
both suffers from others and causes sufferings to others: 
an obnoxious man is one whom others seek to exclude ; 
an offensive man may possibly be endured; gross 
vices, or particularly odious qualities, make a man 9b- 
noxious ; ‘I must have leave to be grateful to any one 
who serves me, let him be ever so ebnozious to any 
party..—Pors. Rude manners and perverse tempers 
make men offensive; ‘The understanding is often 
drawn by the will and the affections from fixing its 
contemplation on an offensive truth.—Souts. A man 
is obnoxious to many, and offensive to individuals: a 
man of loose Jacobinical principles will be obnoxious 
to a society of loyalists; a child may make himself 
offensive to his friends. 


es 


TO HUMBLE, HUMILIATE, DEGRADE. 


Humble and humiliate signify to make humble or 
bring low; degrade has the same signification as given 
under base. 

Humble is commonly used as the act either of per- 
sons or things; a person may humble himself or he 
may be humbled: humiliate is employed to characterize 
things; a thing is humiliating or an humiliation. Na 
ig humbles himself by the acknowledgement of z 

ault; 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


Deep horrour seizes ev’ry human breast, 
Their pride is humbled, and their fear confess’d. 
DRYDEN. 


It is a great humiliation for a person to be dependent 
on another for a living when he has it in his power to 
obtain it for himself; ‘A long habit of humiliation 
does not seem a very good preparative to manly and 
vigorous sentiments.’—BurkE. ‘To humble is to bring 
down to the ground ; it supposes a certain eminence, 
either created by the mind, or really existing in the 
outward circumstances: to degrade is to let down 
lower; it supposes steps for ascending or descending. 
He who is most elevated in his own esteem may be 
most humbled; misfortunes may humble the proudest 
conqueror ; 


The mistress of the world, the seat of empire, 
The nurse of heroes, the delight of gods, 
That humbled the proud tyrants of the earth. 

' ADDISON. 


He who is most elevated in the esteem of others, may 
be the most degraded; envy is ever on the alert to 
degrade; ‘Who but a tyrant (a name expressive of 
every thing which can vitiate and degrade human 
nature,) could think of seizing on the property of men 
unaccused and unheard ?’—Burxkg. A lesson in the 
school of adversity ishumbling to one who has known 
nothing but prosperity: terms of peace are humili- 
ating : low vices are peculiarly degrading to a man 
of rank. 


HUMBLE, LOWLY, LOW. 


Humble (v. Humble, modest) is here compared with 
the other terms as it respects both persons and things. 
A person is said to be humble on account of the state of 
his mind; he is said to be lowly and low either on ac- 
count of his mind or his outward circumstances. An 
%umble person is soin his principles and in his conduct ; 
2 lowly person is so inthe tone of his feelings, or in 
nis station and walk of life; a low person is so either 
in his sentiments, in his actions, or in his rank and 
condition. 

Humility should form a part of the character, as it 
is opposed to arrogance and assumption; it is most 
sonsistent with the fallibility of our nature ; 


Sleep is a god too proud to wait in palaces, 
And yet so humble too as not to scorn 
The meanest country cottages.—CowLeEy. 


Lowhness should form a part of our temper, as it is 
opposed to an aspiring and lofty mind; it is most con- 
sistent with the temper of our Saviour, who was meek 
and lowly of mind ; 


Where purple violets lurk, 
With all the lowly children of the shade. 
THOMSON, 


The humble and lowly are always taken in a good 
sense ; but the low either in a bad or an indifferent 
sense. A lowly man, whether as it respects his mind 
or his condition, is so without any moral debasement ; 
but a man who is low in his condition is likewise con- 
ceived to be low in his habits and his sentiments, 
which is being near akin to the vicious. The same 
distinction is preserved in applying these terms to in- 
animate or spiritual objects. An humbleroof, an humble 
office, an humble station, are associated with the highest 
moral worth ; 


The example of the heavenly lark, 
Thy fellow poet, Cowley, mark! 
Above the skies let thy proud musick sound, 
Thy humble nest build upon the ground. 
Cow try. 
A low office, a low situation, alow birth seem to ex- 
clude the idea of worth; 
To be worst, * 
The lowest, most dejected thing of fortune 
Stands still in esperance.—SHaksPrARE. 


HUMBLE, MODEST, SUBMISSIVE. 


Humble, in Latin humilis low, comes from humus the 
ground, which is the lowest position; modest, in Latin 
modestus, from modus a measure, signifies keeping a 
measure ; submissive, in Latin submissus, participle 
of submitto, signifies put under, 

10* 


14? 


These terms designate a temper of mind, the reverss 
of self-conceit or pride. The humble is so with regard to 
ourselves or others: modesty is that which respects our- 
selves only: submissiveness that which respects others 
A man is humble from a sense of hiscomparative infe 
riority to others in point of station and outward cir 
cumstances; or he is humble from a sense of his im 
perfections, and a consciousness of not being what he 
ought to be; ‘In God’s holy house, I prostrate myself 
in the humblest and decentest way of genuflection I 
can imagine.’—Howr. A man is modest in as much 
as he sets but little value on his qualifications acquires 
ments, and endowments ; ‘ 


Of boasting more than of a tomb afraid 
A soldier should be modest as a maid. —Youne. 


Humility is a painful sentiment ; for when it respect» 
others it is coupled with fear, when it respects our own 
unworthiness it is coupled with sorrow: modesty is a 
peaceful sentiment ; it serves to keep the whole mind 
in due bounds. 

When humility and modesty show themselves in the 
outward conduct, the former bows itself down, the latter 
shrinks: an humble man gives freely to others from 
a sense of their desert: a modest man demands nothing 
for himself, from an unconsciousness of desert in 
himself; ‘ Sedition itself is modest in the dawn, and 
only toleration may be petitioned, where nothing less 
than empire is designed.’—Souru. 

Between humble and submissive there is this pro- 
minent feature of distigiction, that the former marks a 
temper of mind, the latter a mode of action: the former 
is therefore often the cause of the latter, but not so 
always: we may be submissive because we are humble : 
but we may likewise be submissive from fear, from 
interested motives, from necessity, from duty, and the 
like : 

And potent Rajahs, who themselves preside 

O’er realms of wide extent! But here submissive 

Their homage pay ; alternate kings and slaves ! 

SOMERVILLE. 


And on the other hand, we may be humble without 
being submissive, when we are not brought into con- 
nexion with others. A man is humble in his closet 
when he takes a review of hissinfulness: he is sub 
missive to a master whose displeasure he dreads. 

As humility may displav itself in the outward con 
duct, it approaches still nearer to submissive in appli- 
cation: hence we say an humble air, and a submissive 
air; the former to: denote a man’s sense of his own 
comparative littleness, the latter to indicate his readi 
ness to submit to the willof another: a man tlerefore 
carries his humble air about with him to all his supe- 
riours, nay, indeed, to the world at large; but he puts on 
his submissive air only to the individual who has the 
power of controlling him. Upon the same principle, if 
I humbly ask a person’s pardon, or humbly solicit any 
favour, [ mean to express asense of my own unworthi- 
ness, compared with the individual addressed: but 
when a counsellor submissively or with submission 
addresses a judge on the bench, it implies his willing- 
ness to submit to the dectsion of the bench: or if a 
person submissively yields to the wishes of another, it 
is done with an air that bespeaks his readiness to con 
form his actions to a prescribed rule ; 


She should be humble, who would please; 
And she must suffer, who can love.—Prior. 


LOW, MEAN ABJECT. 


Low (v. Humble) is a much stronger term than 
mean; for what is low stands more directly opposed to 
what is high, but what is mean is intermediate: mean, 
in German gemein, &c. comes from the Latin commu- 
nis common. The low is applied only to a certain 
number or description; but mean, like common, is ap- 
plicable to the great bulk of mankind. A man of loz 
extraction falls below the ordinary level ; he isopposed 
to a nobleman; 


Had I been born a servant, my [ov life 
Had steady stood from all these miseries. 
RanpDOLPH, ' 


A man of mean birth does not rise above the ordinary 
level; he is upon a level with the majority ; 


.48 , 


For tis the mind that makes the body rich ; 
And as the sun breaks through the darkest clouds, 


So honour ’peareth in the meanest habit. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


When employed to designate character, they preserve 
the same distinction ; the low is that which is posi- 
tively sunk in itself ; 

Yet sometimes nations will decline so low 

From virtue.—MILTON. 


But the mean is that which is comparatively low in 
regard to the outward circumstances and relative con- 
dition of the individual. Swearing and drunkenness 
are low vices; boxing, cudgelling, and wrestling, are 
low games; a misplaced economy in people of property 
is mean; a condescension to those who are beneath us, 
for our own petty advantages, is meanness ; ‘ We fast 
not to please men, nor to promote any mean, worldly 
interest.’.SmMALRipGE. A man is commonly low by 
birth, education, or habits; but meanness is a defect of 
nature which sinks a person in spite of every external 
advantage. 

The low and mean are qualities whether of the con- 
dition or the character: but abject is a peculiar state 
into whicha man is thrown; a man is in the course of 
things low ; he is voluntarily mean and involuntarily 
abject; the word abject, from the Latin abjicie to cast 
down, signifying literally brought very low. Jowness 
discovers itself in one’s actions and sentiments; the 
mean and abject in one’s spirit; the latter being much 
more powerful and oppressiv@ than the former: the 
mean man stoops in order to get: the abject man crawls 
in order tosubmit: the Zowest man will sometimes have 
a consciousness of what is due to himself; he willeven 
rise above his condition; the mean man sacrifices his 
dignity to his convenience ; he isalways below himself; 
the abject man altogether forgets that he has any dignity ; 
he is kept down by the pressure of adverse circum- 
stances. The condition of a servantislow; his man- 
ners, his words, and his habits, will be low; but by 
good conduct he may elevate himself in his sphere of 
life: a nobleman is in station the reverse of low: but 
if he will stoop to the artifices practised by the vulgar 
in order to carry a point, we denominate it mean, if it 
be but trifling ; otherwise it deserves a stronger epithet. 
The slave is, in every sense of the word abject ; as he 
is bereft of that quality which sets man above the 
brute, so, in his actions, he evinces no higher impulse 
than what guides brutes: whether aman be a slave to 
another’s will or to any passion, such as fear or super- 
stition, he is equally said to be abject ; ‘ There needs no 
more be said to extol the excellence and power of his 
(Waller’s) wit, than that it was of magnitude enough 
to cover a world of very great faults, that is, a narrow- 
ness in his nature to the lowest degree, an abjectness 
and want of courage, an insinuating and servile flatter- 
ing, &c,—CLARENDON. 


TO REDUCE, LOWER. 


Reduce is to bring down, and lower to make loz or 
lower, which proves the close connexion of these words 
in their original meaning ; it is, however, only in their 
improper application that they have any further con- 
nexion. Reduce is used in the sense of lessen, when 
applied to number, quantity, price, &c.: lower is used 
in the same sense when applied to price, demands, 
terms, &c.: the former, however, occurs in cases 
where circumstances as well as persons are concerned ; 
the latter only in cases where persons act: the price of 
corn is reduced by means of importation; a person 
lowers his price or his demand, when he finds them too 
high. Asa moral quality, the former is much stronger 
than the latter: a man is said to be reduced to an abject 
condition ; but to be lowered in the estimation of others, 
to be reduced to a state of slavery, to be lowered in his 
own eyes; ‘The regular metres then in use may be 
reduced, I think, to four..—Tyrwnitr. ‘It would bea 
matter of astonishment to me, that any critic should be 
found proof against the beauties of Agamemnon so as 
to lower its author to a comparison with Sophocles or 
Euripides.’—CuMBERLAND. 


BASE, VILE, MEAN. 


Base, in French bas low, from the Latin basis the 
foundation or lowest part, is the most directly opposed 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


to the elevated ; vile, in French vil, Latin vilts, Greek 
dairos, worthless, of no account, is literally opposed to 
the worthy; mean and middle, from the Latin medius, 
signify moderate, not elevated, of little value. 

Base is a stronger term than vile, and vile than 
mean. Base marks a high degree of moral turpitude ; 
vile and mean denote in different degrees the want of 
all valye or esteem. What is base excites our s.shor 
rence, what is vile provokes disgust, what is mean 
awakens contempt. Base is opposed to magnanimous’ 
vile to noble; mean to generous. Ingratitude is base, 
it does violence to the best affections of our nature - 
flattery is vile; it violates truth in the grossest manner 
for the lowest purposes of gain ; compliances are mean 
which are derogatory to the rank or dignity of the indi- 
vidual. 

The base character violates the strongest moral obli- 
gations; the vile character blends low and despicable 

rts with his vices ; the mean character acts incon- 
sistently with his honour or respectability. Depravity 
of mind dictates base conduct; lowness of sentiment 
or disposition leads to vileness ; a selfish temper en- 
genders meanness. ‘The schoolmaster of Falerii was 
guilty of the basest treachery in surrendering his help- 
less charge to the enemy ; the Roman general, there- 
fore, with true nobleness of mind treated him as a vile 
malefactor: sycophants are in the habits of practising 
every mean artifice to obtain favour, 

The more elevated a person’s rank, the greater is his 
baseness Who abuses his influence to the injury of 
those who repuse confidence in him ; 


Scorns the base earth and crowd below, 
And with a soaring wing still mounts on high 
CREECH. 


The lower the rank of the individual, and the more 
atrocious his conduct, the viler is his character ° 


That all the petty kings him envy’d, 

And worshipp’d be like him and deify’d, 

Of courtly sycophants and caitiffs vzle. 
GiLBERT Wesr 


The more respectable the station of the person, and the 
more extended his wealth, the greater is his meanness 
when he descends to practices fitted only for his infe 
riours; ‘ There is hardly a spirit upon earth so mean and 
contracted as.to centre all regards on its own interest 
exclusive of the rest of mankind.’—BERKELEY. 


MODEST, BASHFUL, DIFFIDENT. © 


Modest, in Latin modestus, from modus a measure, 
signifies setting a measure, and in this case setting a 
measure to one’s estimate of one’s self; bashful signi- 
fies ready to be abashed; difident, from the Latin dif- 
Jido or dis privative, and fido to trust, signifies literally 
not trusting, and in this case not trusting to one’s self. 

Modesty is a habitor principle of the mind ; bashful- 
ness is a state of feeling: modesty is at all times be- 
coming; bashfulness is only becoming in females, or 
very young persons, in the presence of their superiours : 
modesty discovers itself in the absence of every thing 
assuming, whether in look, word, or action ; 


Her face, as in anymph display’d 

A fair fierce boy, or in a boy betray’d 

The blushing beauties of a modest maid. 
DrypeEn. 


Bashfulness betrays itself hy a downcast look, and a 
timid air: a modest deportment is always commenda- 
ble; a bashful temper is not desirable; ‘ Mere bashful- 
ness, Without merit, isawkwardness.’—Appison. Mo- 
desty does not necessarily discover itself by any exter- 
nal mark ; but bashfulness always shows itself in the 
manner ; ‘A man truly modest is as much so when he 
is alone as in company.’—Bupe@E.Lu. 

Modesty is a proper distrust of ourselves ; difidence 
is a culpable distrust. Modesty, though opposed to as- 
surance, is not incompatible with a confidence in our- 
selves ; difidence altogether unmans a person, and dis- 
quatifies him for his duty ; a person is generally modest 
in the display of his talents to others; but a diffident 
man Cannot turn his talents to their proper use: * Défi- 
dence and presumption both arise from the want of 
knowing, or rather endeavouring to know. ourselves 
—STEELE. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


PASSIVE, SUBMISSIVE. 


Passive, in Latin passivus from patior, and the 
Sreek réoxw to suffer, signifying disposed to suffer, is 
mostly taken in the bad sense of suffering indignity 
from another; submisstve (v. Humble) is mostly taken 
in a good sense for submitting to another, or suffering 
one’s self to be directed by another; to be passive 
therefore is to be submissive to an improper degree. 

When men attempt unjustly 10 enforce obedience 
from a mere love of rule, it betrays a want of proper 
spirit to be passive, or to submit quietly to the imposi- 
tion; ‘I know that we are supposed (by the French 
revolutionists) a dull, sluggish race, rendered passive 
by finding our situation tolerable.—Burkre. When 
men lawfully enforce obedience, it is none but the un- 
ruly and self-willed who will not be submissive ; 

He in delight 


Both of her beauty and submissive charms, 
Smil’d with superiour love.—MiLTon. 


PATIENCE, RESIGNATION, ENDURANCE. 


Patience applies to any troubles or pains whatever, 
small or great; resignation is employed only for those 
of great moment, in which our dearest interests are 
concerned: patience when compared with resignation 
is somewhat negative; it consists in the abstaining 
irom all complaint or indication of what one suffers: 
but resignation consists in a positive sentiment of con- 
formity to the existing circumstances, be they what 
they may. There are perpetual occurrences which are 
apt to harass the temper, unless one regards them with 
patience ; ‘ Though the duty of patience and subjection, 
where men suffer wrongfully, might possibly be of some 
foree in those times of darkness; yet modern Chris- 
tianity teaches that then only men are bound to suffer 
when they are not abie to resist.—Soutu. The mis- 
fortunes of some men are of so calamitous a nature, 
that if they have not acquired the resignation of Chris- 
tians, they must inevitably sink under them; ‘My mo- 
ther is in that dispirited state of resignation which is 
the effect of a long life, and the loss of what is dear to 
us.’—Popn. 

Patience applies only to the evils that actually hang 
over us; but there is a resignation connected with a 
firm trust in Providence which extends its views to fu- 
turity, and prepares us for the worst that may happen. 

As patience lies in the manner and temper of suffer- 
ing, and endurance in the act: we may have endurance 
and not patience: for we may have much to endure 
and consequently endurance: but if we do not endure 
it with an easy mind and without the disturbance of 
our looks and words, we have not patience. on the 
other hand we may have patience but not endurance : 
for our patience may be exercised by momentary tri- 
fies, which are not sufficiently great or lasting to consti- 
tute eawdurance ; 


There was never yet philosopher 
That could endure the tooth-ache patiently. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


PATIENT, PASSIVE. 


Patient comes from patiens, the active participle of 
patior tosuffer; passive comes from the passive parti- 
ciple of the same verb; hence the difference between 
the words: patient signifies suffering from an active 
principle, a determination to suffer; passive signifies 
suffered or acted upon for want of power to prevent. 
The former, therefore, is always taken in an indif- 
ferent or good sense ; the latter in an indifferent or bad 
sense. When physically applied patient denotes the 
act of receiving impressions from external agents ; 
‘Wheat, which is the best sort of grain, of which the 

urest bread is made, is patient of heat and cold.’— 


ay. Passive implies the state of being acted upon by 
external agents; 


: High above the ground 
Their march was, and the passive air upbore 
Their nimble tread.—MixtTon. 


In the moral application the distinction is the same ; but 
patience is always a virtue, as it signifies the suffering 
quietly that which cannot be remedied ; as there are 
many such evils incident to our condition, it has been 
made one of the first Christian duties: passiveness is 


149 


considered as a weakness, if not a vice; it is the en 
during that from others which we ought not to endure 


TO SUFFER, BEAR, ENDURE, SUPPORT. 


Suffer, in Latin suffero, compounded of sub and 
fero, signifies bearing up or firm underneath; dear ia 
Saxon daran, old German beran, Latta pavic, ond He 


brew &%")33 to create ; endure, in Latin induro, signifies 
to harden or be hardened ; support, from the Latin sud 
and porto, signifies to carry up or to carry from under- 
neath ourselves, or to receive the weight. 

To suffer is a passive and involuntary act; it de 
notes simply the being a receiver of evil; it is therefore 
the condition of our being: to bear is positive and vo 
luntary; it denotes the manner in which wereceive the 
evil. ‘Man,’ says the Psalmist, ‘is born to suffering as 
the sparks fly upwards ;’ hence the necessity for us to 
learn to bear all the numerous and diversified evils to 
which we are obnoxious; ‘ Let a man be brought into 
some such severe and trying situation as fixes the at- 
tention of the publick on his behaviour. The first ques- 
tion which we put concerning him is not, what does he 
suffer 2 but how does he bear it? If we judge him to 
be composed and firm, resigned to providence, and 
supported by conscious integrity, his character rises, 
and his miseries lessen in our view.’—Buair. 

To bear is a single act of the resolution, and. relates 
only to common ills; we bear disappointments and 
crosses: 10 endure is a continued and powerful act of 
the mind; we endure severe and lasting pains both of 
body and mind; we endure hunger and cold; we en- 
dure provocations and aggravations; itis a making of 
ourselves, by our own act, insensible to external evils ; 
‘ How miserable his state who is condemned to endure 
at once the pangs of guilt and the vexations of calamity.’ 
--Biair. The first object of education should be to 
accustom children to bear contradictions and crosses, 
that they may afterward be enabled to endure every 
trial and misery. 

To bear and endure signify to receive becomingly 
the weight of what befalls ourselves: to support signi 
fies to bear either our own or another’s evils; for we 
may either support ourselves, or be supported by 
others: but in this latter case we bear from the capa- 
city which is within ourselves: but we support our- 
selves by foreign aid, that is, by the consolations of 
religion, the participation and condolence of friends, 
and the like. Asthe body may be early and gradually 
trained to bear cold, hunger, and pain, until it is enabled 
to endure even excruciating agonies: so may the mind 
be brought, from bearing the roughnesses of others’ 
tempers with equanimity, or the unpleasantnesses which 
daily occur with patience, to endure the utmost scorn 
and provocation which human malice can invent: but 
whatever a person may bear or endure of personal in- 
convenience, there are sufferings arising from the 
wounded affections of the heart which by no efforts of 
our own we shall be enabled to support : in such mo- 
ments we feel the unspeakable value of religion, which 
puts us in possession of the means of supporting every 
sublunary pain; > 


With inward consolations recompens’d 
And oft supported.—MIi.Ton. 


The words suffer and endure are said only of persons 
and personal matters; to bear and support are said’ 
also of things, signifying to receive a weight: in this 
case they differ principally in the degree of weight re- 
ceived. ‘Fo bear is said of any weight, large or small, 
and either of the whole or any part of the weight ; sup- 
port is said of a great weight and the whole weight. 
The beams or the foundation dear the weight of a 
house ; but the pillars upon which it is raised, or against 
which it leans, support the weight. 


OBEDIENT, SUBMISSIVE, OBSEQUIOUS. 


_ Obedient signifies ready to obey, and submissive the 
disposition to submit ; obsequious, in Latin obsequius, 
from obsequor, or the intensive ob and seguor to fol- 
low s Hepes following diligently, or with intensity of 
mind. 

One is obedient to the command, submissive to the 
power or the will, obsequious to the person. Obedz- 
ence ig always taken in a good sense: one ought always 
to be obedient where obedience is due: submission ig 
relatively good; it may, however, be indifferent or bad ; 


150 


one may be submissive from interested motives, or 
meanness of spirit, which is a base kind of swbmzssion ; 
but to be submissive for conscience sake is the bounden 
duty of a Christian: obseqguiousness is never good; it 
is an excessive concern about the will of another, 
which has always interest for its end. 

Obedience is a course of conduct conformable either 
to some specifick rule, or the express will of another ; 
submission is often a personal act, immediately directed 
to the individual. We show our obedience to the law 
by avoiding the breach of it; we show our obedience to 
the will of God, or of our parent, by making that will 
the rule of our life; ‘ The obedience of men is to imi- 
tate the obedience of angels, and rational beings on 
earth are to live unto God as rational beings in heaven 
live unto him.’—Law. On the other hand we show 
submission to the person of the magistrate ; we adopt 
a submissive deportment by a downcast look and a 
bent body ; 


Her at his feet, swbhmissive in distress, 
He thus with peaceful words uprais’d.—Miuron. 


Obedience is founded upon principle, and cannot be 
feigned ; 

In vain thou bidst me to forbear, 

Obedience were rebellion here.—CowLry. 


Submission is a partial bending to another, which is 
easily affected in our outward behaviour ; 


In all submission and humility, ‘ 
York doth present himself unto your highness. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


The understanding and the heart produce the obe- 
dience ; but force, or the necessity of circumstances, 
give rise to the submission. 

Obedience and submission suppose a restraint on one’s 
own will, in order to bring it into accordance with that 
of another; but obsequiousness is the consulting the 
will or pleasure of another: we are obedient from a 
sense of right; ; 


What gen’rous Greek, obedient to thy word, 
Shall form an ambush, or shall lift the sword. 
Pores. 


Weare submissive from a sense of necessity ; ‘ The 
natives (of Britain) disarmed, dispirited, and submis- 
sive, had Jost all desire, and even idea, of their former 
liberty.—Humr. We are obsequious from a desire of 
gaining favour; ‘ Adore not so the rising son, that you 
forget the father, who raised you to this height ; nor be 
you so obsequious to the father, that you give just cause 
to the son to suspect that you neglect him.’—Bacon. A 
love of God is followed by obedience to his will; they 
are coincident sentiments that reciprocally act on each 
other, so as to serve the cause of virtue: a submissive 
conduct is at the worst an involuntary sacrifice of our 
independence to our fears or necessities, the evil of 
which is confined principally to the individual who 
makes the sacrifice; but obseguiousness isa voluntary 
sacrifice of all that is noble in man to base gain, the 
evil of which extends far and wide: the submissive 
man, however mean he may be in himself, does not 
contribute to the vices of others: but the odsequious 
man has no scope for his paltry talent, but among the 
weak and wicked, whose weakness he profits by, and 
whose wickedness he encourages. 


DUTIFUL, OBEDIENT, RESPECTFUL. 


Dutiful signifies full of a sense of duty, or full of 
what belongs to duty; obedzent, ready to obey; re- 
spectful, full of respect, 

The obedient and respectful are but modes of the 
dutiful; we may be dutiful without being either obe- 
dient or respectful ; but we are so far duti,ul as we are 
either obedient or respectful. Duty denotes what is 
due from one being to another; it is independent of all 
circumstances: obedience and respect are relative duties 
depending upon the character and station of indivi- 
duals: as we owe to no one on earth so much as to our 
parents, we are said to be dutiful to no earthly being 
besides; and in order to deserve the name of dutiful, a 
child during the period of his childhood, ought to make 
a parent’s will to be his aw, and at no future period 
ought that will ever to be an object of indifference ; 
‘For one cruel parent we meet with a thousand undu- 
tiful children.’.—Appison. We may be obedient and 


ee 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


respectful to others besides our parents, although ta 
them obedience aud respect are in the highest degree and 
in the first case due; yet servants are enjoined to be 
obedient to their masters, wives to their husbands, anc 
subjects to their king; ‘The obedience of children to 
their parents is the basis of all government, and set forth 
as the measure of that obedience which we owe to those 
whom Providence has placed over us.’—ADDISON. 

Respectful is a term of still greater latitude than 
either, for as the characters of men as much as theh 
stations demand respect, there is a respectful deport 
ment due towards every superiour ; ‘ Let your behaviow 
towards your superiours in dignity, age, learning, or ans 
distinguished excellence, be full of respect and defe 
rence.’—CnHaTHAM. 


DUTY, OBLIGATION, 


Duty, as we see in the preceding section, consists 
altogether of what is right or due from one being to an- 
other ; obligation, from the Latin obligo to bind, sig- 
nifies the bond or necessity which lies in the thing. 

All duty depends upon moral obligation which sub- 
sists between man and man, or between man and his 
Maker; in this abstract sense, therefore, there can be 
no duty without a previous obligation, and where there 
is an obligation it involves a duty ; but in the vulgar 
acceptation, duty is applicable to the conduct of men in 
their various relations; obligation only to particular 
circumstances or modes of action: we have duties to 
perform as parents and children, as husbands and 
wives, as rulers and subjects, as neighbours and citi- 
Zens ; 


The ways of Heav’n, judg’d by a private breast, 

Is often what’s our private interest, 

And therefore those who would that will obey 

Without their interest must their dute weigh. 
DaxXDEN 


The debtor is under an obligation to discharge debt; 
and he who has promised is under an obligation to 
fulfil his promise: a conscientious man, therefore, 
never loses sight of the obligations which he has at dif 
ferent times to discharge; ‘No man can be under an 
obligation to believe any thing, who hath not sufficient 
means whereby he may be assured that such a thing is 
true.’—TILLOTSON. 

The duty is not so peremptory as the obligation ; the 
obligation is not so lasting as the duty. our affections 
impel us to the discharge of duty ; interest or necessity 
impels us to the discharge of an obligation: it may 
therefore osmetimes happen that the man whom a sense 
of duty cannot actuate to do that which is right, will 
not be able to withstand the obligation under which he 
has laid himself. 


TO COMPLY, CONFORM, YIELD, SUBMIT ~ 


The original meaning of comply and yield will he 
explained under the head of Accede; conform, com- 
pounded of con and form, signifies to put into the same 
form; submit, in Latin submitto, compounded of sub 
and mitto, signifies to put under, that is to say, to put 
one’s self under another person. 

Compliance and conformity are voluntary ; yielding 
and submission are involuntary. 

Compliance is an act of the inclination; conformity 
an act of the judgement: compliance is altogether op- 
tional; we comply witb a thing or not at pleasure: 
conformity is binding on the conscience ; it relates ta 
matters in which there is a right and a wrong. Com- 
pliance with the fashions and customs of those we live 
with is a natural propensity of the human mind that 
may be mostly indulged without impropriety; ‘I would 
not be thought in any part of this relation to reflect upon 
Signor Nicolini, who in acting this part only complies 
with the wretched taste of his audience.’—Appison. 
Conformity in religious matters, though not to be en- 
forced by human authority, is not on that account less 
binding on the consciences of every member in the 
community ; the neglect of this duty on trivial grounds 
involves in it the violation of more than one branch of 
the moral law; ‘ Being of a lay profession, I humbly 
conform to the constitutions of the church and my 
spiritual superiours, and I hold this obedience to be an 
acceptable sacrifice to God..—Howert. Compliances 
“* s4itetimes culpable, but conformity at ‘4st in the 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


(51 


exteriour, is always a duty, ‘The actions to which the ; manding; a submesszve disposition exposes a person 


tvorld solicits our compliance are sins which forfeit 
eternal expectations.’ 

Compliance and conformity are produced by no ex- 
ternal action on the mind: they flow spontaneously 
from the will and understanding ; yzelding is altogether 
the result of foreign agency. We comply with a wish 
as soon asit is known; it accords with our feelings so 
to do. we yield to the entreaties of others; it is the 
e&ect of persuasion, a constraint upon the inclination. 
We conform to the regulations of a community, it is a 
matter of discretion; we yield to the superiour judge- 
ment or power of another, we have no choice or alter- 
native. Wecomply cheerfully ; weconform willingly ; 
we yield reluctantly. 

To yield isto give way to another, either with one’s 
will, one’s judgement, or one’s outward conduct: sub- 
mission is the giving up of one’s self altogether; it isthe 
substitution of another's will for one’s own. Yielding 
is partial; we may yield in one case or in one action, 
though not in another: submission is general; it in- 
cludes a system of conduct. 

We yiedd when we do not resist ; this may sometimes 
be the act ofa superiour: we submit only by adopting 
the measures and conduct proposed to us; thisis always 
the act of aninferiour. Ytelding may be produced by 
means more or less gentle, by enticing or. insinuating 
arts, or by the force of argument; submission is made 
only to power or positive force: one yields after a 
struggle; one submzts without resistance: we yield to 
ourselves or others; we submit to others only: it isa 
weakness to yield either to the suggestions of others or 
our own inclinations to do that which our judgements 
condemn; it is a folly to submit to the caprice of any 
one where there is not a moral obligation: it is obstinacy 
not to yield when one’s adversary has the advantage ; 
it is sinful not to submit to constituted authorities ; 
‘There has been along dispute for precedency between 
the tragick and the heroick poets. Aristotle would have 
the latter yield the past to the former, but Mr. Dryden 
and many others would never submit to this decision.’ 
—ADDISON. 

A cheerful compliance with the request of a friend is 
the sincerest proof of friendship ; 


Let the king meet compliance in your looks, 
A free and ready yielding to his wishes.—RoweE. 


The wisest and most learned of men have ever been 
the readiest to conform to the general sense of the com- 
munity in which they live; 


Among mankind so few there are 
Who will conform to philosophick fare—Dryprn. 


The harmony of social life is frequently disturbed by 
the reluctance which men have to yield to each other ; 
‘That yieldingness, whatever foundations it might lay 
to the disadvantage of posterity, was a specifick to 
preserve us in peace for his own time.’—Lorp Hatirax. 
The order of eivil society is frequently destroyed by the 
want of proper submission to superiours ; ‘ Christian 
people submit themselves to conformable observances 
of the jawful and religious constitutions of their spi- 
ritual rulers.’—W HITE. 


COMPLAINT, YIELDING, SUBMISSIVE. 


As epithets from the preceding verbs, serve to desig- 
nate a propensity to the respective actions mostly in an 
excessive or improper degree. 

A compliant temper complies with every wish of 
another good or bad , 


Be silent and complying ; you'll soon find 
Sir John without a medicine will be kind. 
HARRISON. 


A yielding temper leans to every opinion right or 
wrong; ‘ A peaceable temper supposes yielding and 
condescending manners.’—Buarr. <A submissive tem- 
per submits to every demand, just or unjust; ‘ When 
force and violence and hard necessity have brought the 
yoke of servitude upon a people’s neck, religion will 
supply them with a patient and submissive spirit.’— 
FLEETWOOD. 

A compliant person wants command of feeling; a 
yielding person wants fixedness of principle; a sub- 
missive person wants resolution: a compliant disposi- 
tion will be imposed upon by the selfish and unrea- 
sonable: a yielding disposition 1s most unfit for com 


to the exactions of tyranny. 


TO ACCEDF, CONSENT, COMPLY, 
ACQUIESCE, AGREE. 


Accede, in Latin accedo, compounded of ac or aa 
and cedo to go or come, signifies to come or fall into a 
thing; consent, in French consentir, Latin consentio, 
compounded of con together and sentzo to feel, signifies 
to fee] in unison with another; cemply comes probably 
from the French complaire, Latin complaceo, signi- 
fying to be pleased in unison with another; acquiesce, 
in French acguiescer, Latin acguiesco, compounded 
of ac or ad and guiesco, signifies to be easy about or 
contented with a thing; agree, in French agréer, ig 
most probably derived from the Latin gruo, in the 
word congruo, signifying to accord or suit. 

We accede to what others propose to us by falling 
in with their ideas: we consent* to what others wish 
by authorizing it: we comply with whet is asked of us 
by allowing it, or not hindering %. we acquiesce in 
what is insisted by accepting it, and conforming to it. 
we agree to what is proposed by admitting and em 
bracing it. 

We object to those things to which we do not accede ¢ 
we refuse those things to which we do not consent, or 
with which we will not comply: we oppose those 


| things in which we will not acquiesce : we dispute that 


to which we will not agree. 

To accede is the unconstrained action of an equal; 
it is a matter of discretion: consent and comply sup- 
pose a degree of superiority, at least the power of pre- 
venting ; they are acts of good nature or civility ; ac- 
quiesce implies a degree of submission, it is a matter of 
prudence or necessity: agree indicates an aversion tc 
disputes ; itrespects the harmony of social intercourse. 

Members of any community ought to be willing to 
accede to what is the general will of their associates, 
‘At last persuasion, menaces, and the impending pres- 
sure of necessity, conquered her virtue, and she ac- 
ceded to the fraud.’—CumBERLAND. Parents should 
never be induced to consent to any thing which may 
prove injurious to their children; 


My poverty, but not my will consents.—_SHAKSPEARE 


People ought not to comply indiscriminately with what 
is requested of them; ‘Inclination will at length come 
over to reason, though we can never force reason to 
comply with inclination.—Appison. In all matters 
of difference it is a happy circumstance when the 
parties will acquiesce in the judgement of an umpire; 
‘This we ought to acquiesce in, that the Sovereign 
Being, the great Author of Nature, has in him all pos- 
sible perfection.—Appison. Differences will soon be 
terminated when there is a willingness to agree; ‘We 
agreed to adopt the infant as the orphan son of a dis- 
tant relation of our own name.’—CUMBERLAND. 


TO AGREE, COINCIDE, CONCUR. 


In the former section agree is compared with terms 
that are employed only for things; in the present case 
it is compared with words as they are applied to per- 
sons only. 

Agree implies a general sameness; coincide, from 
co together and the Latin incido to fall, implies a meet- 
ing in a certain point; concur, from con together, and 
curro to run, implies a running in the same course, an 
acting together on the same principles. 

Agree denotes a state of rest; coincide and concur a 
state of motion, either towards or with another. 

Agreement is either the voluntary or involuntary act 
of persons in general ; coincidence is the voluntary but 
casual act of individuals, the act of oné falling into 
the opinion of another; concurrence is the intentional 
positive act of individuals; it is the act of oneauthor 
izing the opinions and measures of another. 

Men of like education and temperament agree upon 
most subjects ; 


Since all agree, who both with judgement read, 
*T is the same sun, and does himself piccor. 
‘ATE 


People cannot expect. others to coincide with them 


*Vide Abbe Girard: ‘Consentir, acquiescer ad 
herer, tomber d’acord 


152 


when they advance extravagant positions; ‘There is 
not perhaps any couple whose dispositions and relish 
of Iffe are so perfectly similar as that their wills con- 
stantly coincide..—HawkeswortH. The wiser part 
of mankind are backward in concurring in any 
schemes which are not warranted by experience; 
‘The plan being thus concerted, and my cousin’s con- 
currence obtained, it was immediately put in execu- 
tion.’—HAWKESWORTH. 

When coincide and concur are considered in their 
application to things, the former implies simply meet- 
ing at a point, the latter running towards a point; the 
former seems to exclude the idea of design, the latter 
that of chance: two sides of different triangles coin- 
cide when they are applied to each other so as to fall 
on the same points; two powers concur when they 
both act so as to produce the same result. 

A coincidence of circumstances is sometimes so 
striking and singular that it can hardly be attributed 
to pure accident; ‘A coincidence of sentiment may 
easily happen without any communication, since there 
are many occasions in which all reasonable men will 
nearly think alike.—Jonnson. <A concurrence of 
cireumstances, which seemed all to be formed to com- 
bine, is sometimes notwithstanding purely casual; 
‘Eminence of station, greatness of effect, and all the 
favours of fortune, must concur to place excellence in 
publick view.’—Jounson. 


AGREEMENT, CONTRACT, COVENANT, 
COMPACT, BARGAIN. 


Agreement signifies what is agreed to (v. To agree) ; 
contract, in French contracte, from the Latin contrac- 
tus, participle of contraho to bring close together or 
bind, signifies the thing thus contracted. or bound; 
covenant, in French covenante, Latin conventus, parti- 
ciple of convenio to meet together at a point, signifies 
the point at which several meet, that is, the thing 
agreed upon by many; compact, in Latin compactus, 
participle of compingo to bind close, signifies the thing 
to which people bind themselves close; bargain, from 
the Welsh bargan to contract or deal for, signifies the 
act of dealing, or the thing dealt for. 

An agreement is general, and applies to transactions 
of every description, but particularly such as are made 
between single individuals; in cases where the other 
terms are not so applicable; a contract is a binding 
agreement between individuals; a simple agreement 
may be verbal, but a contract must be written and 
legally executed: covenant and compact are agree- 
ments among communities; the covenant is commonly 
a national and publick transaction; the compact re- 
spects individuals as members of a community, or 
communities with each other: the bargain, in its 
proper sense, is an agreement solely in matters of 
trade; but applies figuratively in the same sense to 
other objects. 

The simple consent of parties constitutes an agree- 
ment; a seal and signature are requisite for a con- 
tract; a solemn engagement on the one hand, and 
faith in that engagement on the other hand, enter into 
the nature of a covenant; a tacit sense of mutual 
obligation in all the parties gives virtue to a compact ; 
an assent to stipulated terms of sale may form a 
bargain. 

Friends make an agreement to meet at a certain 
time; ‘Frog had given his word that he would meet 
the above-mentioned company at the Salutation, to 
talk of this agreement.—ARBUTHNOT (History of 
John Bull}. Two tradesmen enter into a contract to 
carry on a joint trade ; ‘It is impossible to see the long 
scrolls in which every contract is included, with all 
their appendages of seals and attestations, without 
wondering at the depravity of those beings, who must 
be restrained from violation of promise, by such formal 
and publick evidences.—Jounson. The people of 
England made a covenant with King Charles I. entitled 
the solemn covenant ; 


These flashes of blue lightning gave the sign 
Of covenants broke; three peals of thunder join. 
DryDrEn. 
im the society of Freemasons, every individual is 
bound to secrecy by a solemn compact ; ‘In the begin- 
Nnings and first establishment of speech, there was an 
implicit compact among men, founded upon common 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


use and consent, that stch and such words or voices, 
actions or gestures, should be means or signs whereby 
they would express or convey their thoughts one to 
another.—Soutu. The trading part of the commu- 
nity are continually striking bargains ; ‘ We see men 
frequently dexterous and sharp enough in making a 
bargain, who, if you reason with thein about matters 
of religion, appear perfectly stupid. —Locgz. 


AGREEABLE, PLEASANT, PLEASING. 


The first two of these epithets approach so near in 
sense und application, that they can with propriety te 
used indifferently, the one for the other; yet there is 
an occasional difference which may be clearly defined; 
the agreeable is that which agrees with or suits the 
character, temper, and feelings of a person: the plea- 
sant that which pleases; the pleasing that which is 
adapted to please. 

Agreeable expresses a feeling less vivid than plea- 
sant: people of the soberest and gravest character 
may talk of passing agreeable hours, or enjoying 
agreeable society, if those hours were passed agzee- 
ably to their turn of mind, or that society which suited 
their taste; ‘To divert me, I took up a volume of 
Shakspeare, where I chanced to cast my eye upona 
part in the tragedy of Richard the Third, which filled 
my mind with an agreeable horrour..—StTrerte. The 
young and the gay will prefer pleasant society, where 
vivacity and mirth prevail, suitable to the tone of their 
spirits ; 

Pleasant the sun 

When first on this delightful land he spreads 

His onent beams.—MILTon. 


A man is agreeable who by a soft and easy address 
contributes to the amusement of others; a man is 
pleasant who to this softness adds affability and com- 
municativeness. 

Pleasing marks a sentiment less vivid and distinctive 
than either; 


Nor this alone t’ indulge a vain delight, 
And make a pleasing prospect for the sight. 
DrypEn 

A pleasing voice has something in it which we like; 
an agreeable voice strikes with positive pleasure upon 
theear. A pleasing countenance denotes tranquillity 
and contentment; it satisfies us when we view it. a 
pleasant countenance bespeaks happiness; it gratifies 
the beholder, and invites him to behold. 


ees 


TO AGREE, ACCORD, SUIT. 


Agree (v. To agree) is here used in application ta 
things in which it is allied; to accord, in French ac- 
corder, from the Latin chorda the string of a harp, 
signifies the same as to attune or join in tune; and 
suit, from the Latin secutus, participle of sequor ta 
ee signifies to be in a line, in the order as it ought 
to be. 

_An agreement between two things requires an en- 
tire sameness; an accordance supposes a considerable 
resemblance ; a suztableness implies ap aptitude tu 
coalesce. 

Opinions agree, feelings accord, and tempers suit. 

Two statements agree which are in all respects 
alike: that accords with our feelings, which produces 
pleasurable sensations ; that sats our taste, which we 
wish to adopt, or in adopting gives us pleasure. 

Where there is no agreement in the essentials of 
any two accounts, their authenticity may be greatly 
questioned; if a representation of any thing accords 
with what has been stated from other quarters, it 
serves to corroborate : it is advisable that the ages and 
stations as well as tempers of the parties should be 
suitable, who look forward for happiness in a matri- 
monial connexion. 

Where there is no agreement of opinion, there can 
be no assimilation of habit; where there is no ac 
cordance of sound, there can be no harmony; where 
there is no suitability of temper, there can be no co-ape- 
ration. 

_When opinions do not agree, men must agree to 
differ: the precepts of our Saviour accord with the 
tenderest as well as the noblest feelings of our nature: 
when the humours and dispositions of people do pet 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


suzt, they do wisely n¢t to have any intercourse with 
each other; 


‘The laurel and the myrtle sweets agree—DRYDEN. 


‘Metre aids and is adapted to the memory; it accords 
to musick, andis the vehicle of enthusiasm.’- CumBErR- 
LAND. ‘Rollo followed, in the partition of his states, 
the customs of the feudal law, which was then uni- 
versally established in the southern countries of Eu- 
rope, and which suited the peculiar circumstances of 
the age ’—Humg. 


CONSONANT, ACCORDANT, CONSISTENT. 


Consonant, from the Latin consonuns, participle of 
con and sono to sound together, signifies to sound, or 
be, in unison or harmony; accordant, from accord (v. 
To Agree), signifies the quality of according; con- 
sistent, from the Latin consistens, participle of con- 
gisto, or con and sisto to place together, signifies the 
quality of being able to stand in unison together. 

Consonant is employed in matters of representation ; 
accordant in matters of opinion or sentiment; con- 
séstent in matters of conduct. <A particular passage is 
consonant with the whole tenour of the Scriptures; a 
particular account is accordant with all one hears and 
sees on a subject; a person’s conduct is not always 
consistent with his station. 

The consonance of the whole Scriptures, in the Old 
and New Testaments, with regard to the character, 
dignity, and mission of our Blessed Saviour, has 
justly given birth to that form which constitutes the 
established religion of England; ‘ Our faith in the dis- 
coveries of the Gospel will receive confirmation from 
discerning their esnsonance with the natural senti- 
ments of the human heart.’—Buair. The accordance 
of the prophecies respecting our Saviour with the 
event of his birth, life, and sufferings, are incontestable 
evidences of his being the true Messiah; ‘The dif- 
ference of good and evil in actions is not founded on 
arbitrary opinions or institutions, but in the nature of 
things, and the nature of man; it accords with the 
universal sense of the human mind.’—Euarr. The 
consistency of a man’s practice with his profession is 
the only criterion of his sincerity; 


Keep one cons¢stent plan from end to end.—Appison. 


Consonant is opposed to dissonant; accordant to 
discordant ; consistent to inconsistent. Consonance is 
not so positive a thing as either accordance or con- 
sistency, which respect real events, circumstances, 
and actions. Consonance mostly serves to prove the 
truth of any thing, but dissenance docs not prove its 
falsehood until it amounts to direct discordance or in- 
consistency. ‘There is a dissonance in the accounts 
given by the four Evangelists of our Saviour, which 
serves to prove the absence of all collusion.and impos- 
ture, since there is neither discordance nor inconsistency 
in what they have related or omitted. 


TO CONCILIATE, RECONCILE. 


Conciliate, in Latin conciliatus, participle of con- 
cilio; and reconcile, in Latin reconcilio, both come 
from conciliuwm a council, denoting unity and harmony. 
Conciliate and reconcile are both employed in the 
sense of uniting men’s affections, but under different 
circumstances. 

The conciliator gets the good will and affections for 
himself; the reconciler unites the affections of two 
persons to each other. The conciliator may either 
gain new affections, or regain those which are lost; 
the veerciler always renews affections which have 
been once lost. The best means of conciliating esteem 
is by reconciling all that are at variance. 

Conciliate is mostly employed for men in publick 
stations; ‘The preacher may enforce his doctrines in 
the style of authority, for it is his profession to summon 
mankind to their duty; but an uncommissioned in- 
structer will study to conciliate while he attempts to 
correct.—CUMBERLAND. Reconcileis indifferently em- 
ployed for those in publick or private stations; ‘He 
(Hammond) not only attained his purpose of uniting 
distant parties to each other, but, contrary to the usual 
fate of reconcilers, gained them to himself.,—FErELL. 
Men in power have sometimes the happy opportunity 
of conciliating the good will of those who are most 


155 


averse to their authority, and thus reconciling them tc 
measures which would otherwise be odious. 

Kindness and condescension serve to conciliate; a 
triendly influence, or a well-timed exercise of authori- 
ty, is often successfully exerted in reconciling. Con- 
ciliate is employed only for persons, or that whicn is 
personal; but reconciling is also employed in the sense 
of bringing a person’s thoughts or feelings in unison 
with the things that he has not liked before, or might 
be expected not tolike ; ‘It must be confessed a happy 
attachment, which can reconcile the Laplander to his 
freezing snows, and the African to his scorching sun.’ 
—CUMBERLAND. 


COMPATIBLE, CONSISTENT. 


Compatible, compounded of com or cum with, and 
patior to suffer, signifies a fitness to be suffered together ; 
consistent, in Latin consistens, participle of consisto, 
compounded of con and sisto,to place, signifies the 
fitness to be placed together. 

Compatibility has a principal reference to plans and 
measures; consistency to character, conduct, and sta- 
tion. Every thing is compatible with a plan which 
does not interrupt its prosecution; every thing is con- 
sistent with a person’s station by which it is neither 
degraded nor elevated. It is not compatible with the 
good discipline of a school to allow of foreign interfer- 
ence; ‘ Whatever is ¢ncompatible with the highest dig- 
nity of our nature should indeed be excluded from our 
conversation. —HAWKESWoRTH. It is not consistent 
with the elevated and dignified character of a clergy- 
man to engage in the ordinary pursuits of other men ; 
‘Truth is always consistent with itself, and needs 
nothing to help it out.,-—TiLLoTson. 


os 


INCONSISTENT, INCONGRUOUS, 
INCOHERENT. 


Inconsistent, from sisto to plave, marks the unfitness 
of being placed together ; incongruous, from congruo 
to suit, marks the unsuitableness of one thing to an- 
other ; incoherent, from hereo to stick, marks the inca- 
pacity of two things to coalesce or be united to each 
other. 

Inconsistency attaches either to the actions or senti 
ments of men; incongruity attaches to the modes and 
qualities of things; zncokerency to words or thoughts: 
things are made inconsistent by an act of the will; a 
man acts or thinks znconsistently, according to his own 
pleasure ; ‘Every individual is so unequal to himself 
that man seems to be the most wavering and incon- 
sistent being in the universe. —Hue@urs. Incongruity 
depends upon the nature of the things; there is some 
thing very éncongruous in blending the solemn and 
decent service of the church with the extravagant rant 
of Methodism; ‘The solemn introduction of the Phe- 
nix, in the last scene of Sampson Agonistes, is incon- 
gruous to the personage to whom it is ascribed.’— 
Jounson. Incoherence marks the want of coherence 
in that which ought to follow in a train; extemporary 
effusions from the pulpit are often distinguished most 
by their incoherence; ‘Be but a person in credit with 
the multitude, he shall be able to make rambling inco- 
herent stuff pass for high rhetorick.’—Souru. 


CONFORMABLE, AGREEABLE, SUITABLE. 


Conformable signifies able to conform (v. To com- 
ply), that is, having a sameness of form; agreeable, 
the quality of being able to agree (v. To agree); suit- 
able, able to suit (v. To agree). 

Conformable is employed for matters of obligation ; 
agreeable for matters of choice; suitable for matters 
of propriety and discretion: what is conformable ac 
cords with some prescribed form or given rule ot 
others; ‘A man is glad to gain numbers on his side, 
as they serve to strengthen him in his opinions. It 
makes him believe that his principles carry conviction 
with them, and are the more likely to be true, when he 
finds they are conformable to the reason of others as 
well as to his own.,—Appison. What is agreeable 
accords with the feelings, tempers, or judgements of 
ourselves or others; ‘As you have formerly offered 
some arguments for the soul’s immortality, agree :ble 
both to reason and the Christian doctrine J believe 
your readers will not be displeased to_see how the same 


154 


great truth shines in the pomp of Roman eloquence.’— 
Hueurs. What is su7table accords with outward cir- 
cumstaices; ‘I think banging a cushion gives a man 
too warlike or perhaps too theatrical a figure to be 
suitable to a Christian congregation. —Swirr. It is 
the business of those who act for others to act conform- 
ably to their directions; it is the part of a friend to act 
agrecably to the wishes of a friend, it is the part of 
every man to act suitably to his station. 

The decisions of a judge must bestrictly conformable 
to the letter of the Jaw ; he is seldom at liberty to con- 
sult his views of equity: the decision of a partisan is 
always agreeable to the temper of his party: the style 
of a writer should be switable to his subject. 

Conformable is most commonly employed for mat- 
ters of temporary moment; agreeable and suitable are 
mostly said of things which are of constant value: we 
make things conformable by an act of discretion; they 
are agreeable or suitable by thelr own nature: a treaty 
of peace is made conformable to the preliminaries; a 
legislator must take care to frame laws agreeably to 
the Divine law; it isof no small importance for every 
man to act suitably to the character he has assumed. 


TO FIT, SUIT, ADAPT, ACCOMMODATE, 
ADJUST. 


Fit signifies to make or be fit; suzt to make or be 
suitable; adapt, from aptus fit, to make fit for a spe- 
cifick purpose; accommodate, to make commodious; 
adjust, to make a thing such as it is desired to be. 

To fit and suit are used in the literal sense of apply- 
ing things to each other as they are intended: but jit is 
employed mostly in regard to material and familiar 
objects. A tailor fits on a coat, or a coat fits when it 
is made right to the body; 


Then meditates the mark; and couching low, 
Fits the sharp arrow to the well-strung bow.—Poprs. 


Suit is employed for intellectual or moral objects; 
‘Suit the action to the word, the word to the action, 
With this special observance, that you o’erstep not the 
modesty of nature..—SuHaksPeaRg. So also intransi- 
tively ; 


Ill suzts it now the joys of love to know, 
Too deep my anguish, and too wild my wo.—Pork. 


In an extended application of the terms to fit is intransi- 
tively used for what is morally fit in the nature of things; 


Nor fits it to prolong the feast 
Timeless, indecent, but retire to rest.—Porr. 


Whence we speak of the fitness of things; swit is ap- 
plied either transitively or intransitively in the sense of 
agree, as a thing suits a person’s taste, or one thing 
suits with another; ‘The matter and manner of their 
tales, and of their telling, are so suzted to their different 
educations and humours, that each would be improper 
in any other.’—DryprEn. 


Her purple habit sits with such a grace 
On her smooth shoulders. and so suits her face. 
DRYDEN. 


The one intense, the other still remiss, 
Cannot well suit with either, but soon prove 
Tedious alike.—Mi1Ton. 


To adapt is a species of fitting; to accommodate is a 
species of suiting ; both applied tothe intellectual and 
moral actions of conscious beings. Adaptation is an 
act of the judgement; accommodation is an act of the 
will: we adapt by an exercise of discretion; we ac- 
commodate by a management of the humours: the 
adaptation does not interfere with our interests; but 
the accommodation always supposes a sacrifice: we 
adapt our language to the understandings of our 
hearers ; ‘It is not enough that nothing offends the ear, 
but a good poet will adapt the very sounds as well as 
words to the things he treats of..—Porr. We accom- 
modate ourselves to the humours of others; ‘He had 
altered many things, not that they were not natural 
before, but that he might accommodate himself to the 
age in which he fived’—Drypren. The mind of an 
infin’ ‘ely wise Creator is clearly evinced in the world, 
by the universal adaptation of means to their ends; 
‘It is in his power so to adapt one thing to another, as 
to fulfil his promise of making all things work together 
for good to those who love him.’—Buatr. A spirit of 
accommodation is not merely a characteristick of polite 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


ness; it isof sufficient importance to be ranked ameng 
the Christian duties; ‘It is an old observation which 
has been made of politicians, who would rather ingra 
tiate themselves with their sovereigns, than’ promote 
his real service, that they accommodate their counsels 
to his inclinations.’—Appison. The term adapt is 
sometimes applied to things of a less familiar nature ; 
‘Tt may not be a useless inqairy, in what respects the 
love of novelty is peculiarly adapted to the present 
state..—Grove. ‘Adhesion may be in part ascribed, 
either to some elastical motion in the pressed glass, or 
to the exquisite adaptation of the almost innumerable, 
though very small asperities of the one, and the nu- 
merous little cavities of the other, whereby the surfaces 
do lock in with one another, or are as it were clasped 
together.’—BoyLe. 

Accommodate and adjust are both applied to the 
affairs of men which require to be kept or put in right 
order; but the former implies the keeping as well as 
putting in order; the latter simply the putting in order. 
Men accommodate each other, that is, make things 
commodious for each other; but they adjust things 
either for themselves or for others. Thus they accom- 
modate each other in pecuniary matters ; or they adjust 
the ceremonial of a visit. On this ground we may say 
that a difference is either accommodated or adjusted : 
for it is accommodated, inasmuch as the parties yield to 
each other; itis adjusted, inasmuch as that which was 
wrong is set right; ‘ When things were thus far ad- 
justed, towards a peace, all other differences were 
soon accommodated.’—ADDISON. 


TO FIT, EQUIP, PREPARE, QUALIFY. 


To fit signifies to adopt means in order to make fit, 
and conveys the general sense of all the other terms, 
which differ principally in the means and circumstances 
of fitting : to equip, probably from the old barbarous 
Latin eschipare to furnish or adorn ships, is to fit out 
by furnishing the necessary materials; to prepare, from 
the Latin preparo, compounded of pre and pare to 
get before hand, is to take steps for the purpose of 
fitting in future: to qualify, from the Latin guatifico, 
or facio and qualis to make a thing as it should be, is 
to fit or furnish with the moral requisites. 

To fit is employed for ordinary cases ; to equip only 
for expeditions; they may be both employed in appli- 
cation to the same objects with this distinction, a vessel 
is equipped when it is furnished with every thing re. 
quisite for a voyage; it is fitted by simply putting those 
things to it which have been temporarily removed; 

With long resounding cries they urge the train, 

To fit the ships and launch into the main.—Popr 


The word equip is also applied figuratively in the same 
sense; ‘ The religious nan is equipped for the storm ag 
well as the calm in this dubious navigation of life.’-— 
Buair. To fit is for an immediate purpose; to prepare 
is for a reraote purpose. A person fits himself for 
taking orders when he is at the university: he prepares 
himself at school before he goes to the university. 
To fit is to adopt positive and decisive measures; to 
prepare is to use those which are only precarious: a 
scholar fits himself for reading Horace by reading 
Virgil with attention; he prepares for an examination 
by going over what he has already learned. 

To fit is said of every thing, both in a natural and a 
moral sense: to gualify is used only in a moral sense. 
Fit is employed mostly for acquirements which are 
gained by labour: qualify for those which are gained 
by intellectual exertion ; a youth jits himself for a me- 
chanical business by working at it; a youth qualifies 
himself for a profession by following a particular 
course of studies. 


COMPETENT, FITTED, QUALIFIED. 


Competent, in Latin competens, participle of com- 
peto to agree or suit, signifies suitable; fitted signifies 
made fit; qwalified, participle of qualify, from the 
Latin qualis and facio, signifies made as it ought to be. 

Competency mostly respects the mental endowments 
and attainments ; fitness the disposition and character; 
qualification the artificial acquirements. A person ig 
competent to undertake an office; fitted or qualified to 
fill a situation. 

Familiarity with any subject aided by strong mental 
endowments gives competency: suitable habits and 


ENGLISH 


temper constitute the fitness: acquaintance with the 
business to be done, and expertness in the mode of per- 
forming it, constitutes the qualification: none should 
pretend to give their opinions on serious subjects who 
are not competent judges; none but lawyers are com- 
petent to decide in cases of law; none but medical 
men are competent to prescribe medicines; none but 
divines of sound learning, as well as piety, to determine 
on doctrinal questions; ‘Man is not competent to decide 
upon the good or evil of many events which befall him 
in this life’—CumsBreritanp. Men of sedentary and 
studious habits, with a serious temper, are most fitted 
to be clergymen; ‘ What is more obvious and ordinary 
than a mole? and yet what more palpable argument of 
Providence than it? The members of her body are so 


exactly fitted to her nature and manner of life.’.—Appr- | 


son. ‘l'‘hose who have the most learning and ac- 
quaintance with the Holy Scriptures are the best qua- 
lified for the important and sacred office of instructing 
the people; ‘Such benefits only can be bestowed as 
others are capable to receive, and such pleasures im- 
parted as others are qualified to enjoy.’-—Jounson. 

Many are qualified for managing the concerns of 
others, who would not be competent to manage a con- 
cern for themselves. Many who are fitted from their 
turn of mind for any particular charge, may be unfor- 
tunately incompetent for want of the requisite qualifi- 
cations. 


__— 


FIT, APT, MEET. 


Fit, from the Latin fit it is made, signifying made for 
the purpose, is either an acquired or a natural pro- 
perty ; apt, in Latin aptus, from the Greek drrw to 
connect, is a natural property ; meet, from to meet or 
measure, signifying measured, is a moral quality. A 
house is fit for the accommodation of the family ac- 
cording to the plan of the builder; 


He lends him vain Goliah’s sacred word, 
The fittest help just fortune could afford—Cow ery , 


The young mind is apt to receive either good or bad 
impressions; ‘If you hear a wise sentence or an apt 
phrase commit it to your memory.’—Sir Henry Sip- 
NEY. Meet is a term of rare use, except in spiritual 
matters or in poetry; it is meet to offer our prayers to 
the Supreme Disposer of all things; 


My image not imparted to the brute 

Whose fellowship therefore not wnmeet for thee, 

Good reason was thou freely shouldst dislike. 
MILTON. 


CONCORD, HARMONY. 


The idea of union is common to both these terms, 
butunder different circumstances. Concord, in French 
concorde, Latin concordia, from con and cor, having 
the same heart and mind, is generally employed for the 
union of wills and afiections; harmony, in French 
harmonic, Latin harmonia, Greek dpyovia, from dow to 
fit or suit, signifying the state of fitting or suiting, 
respects the aptitude of minds to coalesce. 

There may be concord without harmony, and har- 
mony Without concord. Persons may live in concord 

_who are at a distance from each other ; 


Kind concord, heavenly born! whose blissful reign 
Holds this vast globe in one surrounding chain 
Soul of the world.—Ticxkez.. 


Harmony is mostly employed for those who are in 
close connexion, and obliged to co-operate ; 


In us both one soul 
Harmony to behold in wedded pair! 
More grateful than harmonious sounds to the ear. 
Mitton. 


Concord should never be broken by relations under any 
circumstances; harmony is indispensable in all mem- 
bers of a family that dwell together. Interest will 
sometimes stand in the way of brotherly concord; a 
love of rule, and a dogmatical temper, will sometimes 
disturb the harmony of a family. Concord is as essential 
to domestick happiness, as harmony is to the peace of 
society and the uninterrupted prosecution of business. 
What concord can there be between kindred who 
despise each other? what harmony between the rash 
and the discreet? These terms are both applied to 


SYNONYMES. 


155 


musick ; but concord solely respects the agreement of 
twor or more sounds ; 


The man that hath no musick in himself, 

Nor is not mov’d with concord of sweet sounds, 

Is fit for treasons, villanies, and spoils. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


But harmony respects the effect of an aggregate number 
of sounds; ‘ Harmony is a compound idea made up of 
different sounds united” —Watts. Harmony has also 
a farther application to objects in general t9 denote 
their adaptation to each other ; 


The harmony of things | 
As wellas that of sounds, from discord springs. 
DENuAM. 


‘If we consider the world in its subserviency to man, 
one would think it was made for our use; but if we 
consider it in its natural beauty and harmony, one 
would be apt to conclude it was made for our plea- 
sure.’—ADDISON. 


MELODY, HARMONY, ACCORDANCE 
Melody, in Latin melodia, from melos, in Greek pédos 


a verse, and the Hebrew abn a word or a verse; har- 
mony, in Latin harmonia, Greek dppovia concord, from 
apw apto to fit or suit, signifies the agreement of sounds; 
accordance denotes the actor state of according (v. To 
agree)e 

Melody signifies any measured or modulated sounds 
measured after the manner of verse into distinct mem- 
bers or parts; harmony signifies the suiting or adapting 
different modulated sounds to each other; melody is 
therefore to harmony as a part to the whole: we must 
first produce melody by the rules of art; the harmony 
which follows must be regulated by the ear: there 
may be melody without harmony, but there cannot be 
harmeny without melody : we speak of simple melody 
where the modes of musick are not very much diversi- 
fied; but we cannot speak of harmony unless there be 
a variety of notes to fall in with each other. 

A voice is melodious inasmuch as it is capable of pro- 
ducing a regularly modulated note; it is harmonious 
inasmuch as it strikes agreeably on the ear, and pro- 
duces no discordant sounds. The song of a bird is 
melodious or has melody in it, inasmuch as there is a 
concatenation of sounds in it which are admitted to be 
regular, and consequently agreeable to the musical 
ear; 

Lend me your song, ye nightingales! Oh pour 
The mazy-running soul of melody 
Into my varied verse.—THomson. 


There is harmony in a concert of voices and instru 
ments ; 


Now the distemper’d mind 
Has lost that concord of harmonious powers, 
Which forms the soul of happiness.—THomson. 


Accordance is strictly speaking the property on which 
both melody and harmony is founded: for the whole of 
musick depends on an accordance of sounds ; 


_, The musick 
Of man’s fair;composition_best accords 
When ’t is in concert.—SHAKSPEARE. 


The same distinction marks accordance and harmony in 
the moral application. ‘There may be occasional ac- 
cordance of opinion or feeling ; but harmony is an en- 
tire accordance in every point. 


CORRESPONDENT, ANSWERABLE, 
SUITABLE. 


Correspondent, in French correspondant, from the 
Latin cum and respondeo to answer, signifies to answer 
in unison or in uniformity ; answerable and suitable 
from answer and suit, mark the quality or capacity 
of answering or suiting. Correspondent supposes a 
greater agreement than answerable, and answerable 
requires a greater agreement than suitable. Things 
that correspond must be alike in size, shape, colour and 
every minute particular; those that answer must be 
fitted for the same purpose; those that suzé must have 
nothing disproportionate or discordant. In the artifi 
cial disposition of furniture, or all matters of art and 


156 


ornament, it is of considerable importance to have some 
things made to correspond, so that they may be placed 
in suitable directions to answer to each other. 

In the moral application, actions are said to corres- 
pond with professions ; the success of an undertaking 
to answer the expectation ; particular measures to sudt 
the purpose of individuals. It ill corresponds with a 
profession of friendship to refuse assistance to a friend 
in the time of need; ‘As the attractive power in bo- 
dies is the most universal principle which produceth 
innumerable effects, so the corresponding social appe- 
tite in human souls is the great spring and source of 
moral actions.--BERKELEY. Wild schemes under- 
taken without thought, will never answer the expecta- 
tions of the projectors; ‘ All the features of the face and 
tones of the voice answer like strings upon musical 
instruments to the impressions made on them by the 
mind.—Hueues. It never suits the purpose of the 
selfish and greedy to contribute to the relief of the ne- 
cessitous ; ‘When we consider the infinite power and 
wisdom of the Maker, we have reason to think that itis 
suitable to the magnificent harmony of the universe, 
that the species of creatures should also by gentle de- 
grees ascend upward from us.’—ADDISON. 


ASSENT, CONSENT, APPROBATION, 
CONCURRENCE. 


Assent, in Latin assentio, is compounded of as or ad 
and sentio to think, signifying to bring one’s mind or 
judgement to a thing ; approbation in Latin approba- 
tio, is compounded of ad and probdo to prove, signify- 
ing to makea thing out good: consent and concurrence 
are taken in the same sense as in the preceding articles, 

Assent respects the judgement ; consent respects the 
will. We assent to what we think true; we consent 
to the wish of another by agreeing to it and allowing it. 
Some men give their hasty assent to propositions 
which they do not fully understand; ‘ Precept gains 
only the cold approbation of reason, and compels an 
assent which judgement frequently yields with re- 
luctance, even when delay is impossible.’—Hawxuxs- 
wortu. Some men give their hasty consent to mea- 
sures which are very injudicious. 


What in sleep thou didst abhor to dream, 
Waking thou never wilt consent to do—MILToN. 


It is the part of the true believer not merely to assent 
to the Christian doctrines, but to make them the rule 
of his life: those who consent to a bad action are par- 
takers in the guiltof it. — 

Approbation is a species of assent ; concurrence of 
consent. 'To approve is not merely to assent to a thing 
that is right, but to feel it positively ; to have the will 
and judgement in accordance; concurrence is the con- 
sent of many. Approbation respects the practical con- 
duct of men in their intercourse with each other; assent 
is given to speculative truths, abstract propositions, or 
direct assertions. It is ahappy thing when our actions 
meet with the approbation of others ; but it is of little 
importance if we have not at the same time an approv- 
ing CONSCieNnce ; 

That not past me, but 
By learned approbation of my judges. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


We may often assent to the premises of a question or 
proposition, without admitting the deductions drawn 
from them; ‘ Faithis the assent to any proposition not 
thus made out by the deduction of reason, but upon the 
credit of the proposer.’—LockE. 

Concurrence respects matters of general concern, as 
consent respects those of individual interest. No bill 
in the house of parliament can pass for a second read- 
ing without the concurrence of a majority; ‘ Tarquin 
the Proud was expelled by a universal concurrence 
of nobles and people..—Swirr. No parent should be 
induced by persuasion to give his consent to what his 
judgement disapproves ; ‘ am far from excusing or de- 
nying that compliance: for plenary consent it was not.’ 
—Kuine CHaRLeEs. : : 

Assent is opposed to contradiction or denial ; consent 
to refusal; approbation to dislike or blame; concur- 
rence to opposition: but we may sometimes seem to 
give our assent to what we do not expressly contra- 
dict, or seem to approve what we do not blame; and 
we are supposed to corsent to a request when we do 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


not positively refuse fc. We may approve or disap 
prove of athing without giving an intimation either of 
our approbation or the contrary: but concurrence can 
not be altogether a negative action; it must be signified 
by some sign, although that need not necessarily be a 
word. 

The assent of some people to the most important 
truths is so tame, that it might with no great difficulty 
be converted into a contradiction; ‘The evidence o¢ 
God’s own testimony added unto the natural assent of 
reason, concerning the certainty of them, doth nota 
little comfort and confirm the same.’—Hooxer. He 
who is anxious to obtain universal approbation, or even 
to escape censure, will find his fate depictured in the 
story of the old man and his ass ; ‘There is as much 
difference between the approbation of the judgement 
and the actual volitions of the will with relation to the 
same object, as there is between a man's viewing a de- 
sirable thing with his eye and hisreaching after it with 
his hand’—Soutx. According to the old proverb, ‘Si 
lence gives consent -’ ‘Whatever be the reason, it ap- 
pears by the common consent of mankind that the want 
of virtue does not incur equal contempt with the want 
parts’ —HawkereswortH. It is not uncommon for 
ministerial men to give their concurrence in parliament 
to the measures of administration by a silent vote, 
while those of the opposite party spout forth their op- 
position to catch the applause of the multitude; ‘Sir 
Matthew Hale mentions one case wherein the Lords 
may alter a money bill (that is, froma greater to a less 
time)—here he says the bill need not be sent back to 
the Commons for their concurrence.’ BLACKSTONE. 


TO CONSENT, PERMIT, ALLOW 


Consent has the same meaning as given under the 
head of Accede; permit, in French permetire, Latin 
permitto, compounded of per and mitto, signifies to 
send or let go past; allow, in French allower, com 
pounded of ad and louer, in German loben, low Ger- 
man laven, &c. from the Latin laudare to praise, signi 
fies to give one’s assent to a thing. 

The idea of determining the conduct of others by 
some authorized act of one’s own is common to these 
terms, but under various circumstances. They express 
either the act of an equal or a superiour. 

As the act of an equal we consent to that in which 
we have an interest; we permit or allow what is for 
the accommodation of others: we allow by abstaining 
to oppose ; we permit by a direct expression of our 
will; contracts are formed by the consent of the parties 
who are interested ; 


When thou canst truly call these virtues thine, 
Be wise and free, by heaven’s consent and mine. 
Dryven. 


The proprietor of an estate permits his friends to sport 
on his ground: ' You have given me your permission 
for this address, and encouraged me by your perusal and 
approbation.’—Dryprn. A person allows of passage 
through his premises; ‘I was by the freedom allowa- 
ble among friends tempted to vent my thoughts with 
negligence.’—Boyir. It is sometimes prudent to con- 
sent; complaisant to permit ; good natured or weak to 
allow. 

When applied to superiours, consent is an act of pri 
vate authority ; permit and allow are acts of private 
or publick authority : in the first case, consent respects 
matters of serious importance; permié and allow re- 
gard those of an indifferent nature: a parent consents 
to the ‘establishment of his children ; he permits them 
to read certain books: he allows them to converse with 
him familiarly. 

We must pause before we give our consent; it is an 
express sanction to the conduct of others; it involves 
our own judgement, and the future interests of those 
who are under our control ; 


Though what thou tell’st some doubt within me move, 
But more desire to hear, if thou consent 
The full relation. Miron. 


This is not always so necessary in permitting and al- 
lowing ; they are partial actions, which require no 
more than the bare exercise of authority, and involve 
no other consequences than the temporary pleasure of 
the partiesconcerned. Publick measures are permitted 
and allowed, but never consented to. Thelaw permits 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


or allows ; or the person who is authorized permits or 
allows. Permit in this case retains its positive sense ; 
allow its negative sense, as hefore. Government per- 
mits individuals to fit out privateers in time of war; 
After men have acquired as much as the law permits 
them, they have nothing to do but to take care of the 
publick.—Swirr. When magistrates are not vigilant, 
many things will be done which are not allowed; 
‘ They referred all laws, that were to be passed in Ire- 
land, to be considered, corrected, and allowed by the 
state of England.’—Sprensrer. A judge is not permit- 
ted to pass any sentence, but what is strictly conform- 
able to law: every man who is accused is allowed to 
plead his own cause, or intrust it to another, as he 
thinks fit. 
All these termas may be used in a general sense with 
the same distinction ; 


O no! our reason was not vainly lent! 
Nor is a slave, but by its own consent.—DRYDEN. 


Shame, and his conscience, 
Will not permit him to deny it— RanpDoLPH. 


‘T think the ‘strictest moralists allow forms of address 
to be used, without much regard to their literal accep- 
tation.’ —JoHNSON. 


TO ADMIT, ALLOW, PERMIT, SUFFER, 


TOLERATE. 


Admit, in French admettre, Latin admitto, com- 
pounded of ad and mitto, signifies to send or to suffer 
to pass into; to allow, in French allower, compounded 
of the intensive syllable al or ad and louer, inGerman 
loben, old German laubzan, low German laven, Swe- 
dish lofwa, Danish lover, &c. Latin laus praise, lau- 
dare to praise, signifies to give praise or‘approbation to 
a thing; permit, in French permettre, Latin permitto, 
is compounded of per through or away, and mztto to 
send or let go, signifying to let it go its way; suffer, in 
French souffrir, Latin suffero, is compounded of sub 
and fero, signifying to bear with; tolerate, in Latin 
toleratus, participle of tolero, from the Greek rdw to 
sustain, signifies also to bear or bear with. 

The actions denoted by the first three terms are 
more or less voluntary ; those of the iast two are invo- 
luntary; admit is less voluntary than allow ; and that 
than permit. We admit what we profess not to know, 
or seek not to prevent; we allow what we know, and 
tacitly consent to; we permit what we authorize by a 
formal consent; we suffer and tolerate what we object 
to, but do not think proper to prevent. We admit of 
things from inadvertence, or the want of inclination to 
prevent them; we allow of things from easiness of 
temper, or the want of resolution to oppose them ; we 
permit things from a desire to oblige or a dislike to re- 
fuse; we suffer things for want of ability to remove 
them ; we tolerate things from motives of discretion. 

What is admitted, allowed, suffered, or tolerated, 
has already been done; what is permitted is desired 
tobe done. To admit, suffer, and tolerate, are said of 
what ought to be avoided; allow and permit of things 
good, bad, or indifferent. Suffer is employed mostly 
With regard to private individuals; tolerate with re- 
spect to the civil power. It is dangerous to admit of 
familiarities from persons in a subordinate station, as 
they are apt to degenerate into impertinent freedoms, 
which though not allowable cannot be so conveniently 
resented: in this case we are often led to permit what 
we might otherwise prohibit: it is a great mark of 
weakness and blindness in parents to suffer that in 
their children which they condemn in others: opi- 
nions, however absurd, in matters of religion, must be 
tolerated by the civil authority when they have ac- 
quired such an ascendancy that they cannot be pre- 
vented without great violence. 

A well-regulated society will be careful not to admit 
of any deviation from good order, which may after- 
ward become injurious as a practice; ‘ Both Houses 
declared that they could admit of no treaty with the 
king, till he took down his standard and recalled his 
proclamations, in which the parliament supposed 
themselves to be declared traitors. —Humr. It fre- 
quently happens that what has been allowed from in- 
discretion is afterward claimed as a right; ‘Plutarch 
says very finely, that a man should not allow himself 
10 hate even his enemies..—Appison. No earthly 


ge 


157 


power can permit that which is prohibited by the 
Divine law ; 


Permit our ships a shelter on your shores, 
Refitted from your woods with planks and oars, 
That if our prince be safe, we may renew 

Our destin’d course, and Italy pursue.—Drypen. 


When abuses are suffered to creep in, and to take deep 
root in any established institution, it is difficult to brin 

about a reform without endangering the existence o 

the whole; ‘ No man can be said to enjoy health, whe 
is only not sick, without he feel within himself a light 
some and invigorating principle, which will not suffer 
him to remain idle-—Srrcraror. When abuses are 
not very grievous, it is wiser to tolerate them than run 
the risk of producing a greater evil; ‘No man ought to 
be tolerated in an habitual humour, whim, or particu 
larity of behaviour, by any who do not wait upon him 
for bread.’—STre.x. 


TO ADMIT, ALLOW, GRANT. 


Admit and allow are here taken mostly in applica 
tion to things that the mind assents to, and in this sense 
they are closely allied to the word grant, which, like 
the words guarantee, warrant, and guard, come from 
the German zwdhren to see or look to, &c. signifying 
here to take consideration of. 

We admit the truthof a position; allow the pro- 
priety of a remark; grant what is desired. Some men 
will not readily admit the possibility of overcoming 
bad habits; ‘Though the fallibility of man’s reason, 
and the narrowness of his knowledge, are very libe- 
rally confessed, yet the conduct of those who so will- 
ingly admit the weakness of human nature, seems to 
discover that this acknowledgment is not sincere.’— 
Jounson. It is ungenerous not to allow that some 
credit is due to those who effect any reformation in 
themselves; ‘The zealots in atheism are perpetually 
teasing their friends to come over to them, although 
they allow that neither of them shall get any thing 
by the bargain.’—Appison. It is necessary, before 
any argument can be commenced, that something 
should be taken for granted on both sides; ‘ I take ft 
at the same time for granted that the immortality of 
the soul is sufficiently established by other arguments 
—STEELE. 


TO ASK, BEG, REQUEST. 


Ask (v. To ask, inquire) is here taken to denote an 
expression of our wishes generally for what we want 
from another; beg is contracted from the word beggar, 
and the German begehren to desire vehemently ; re- 
quest in Latin requisitus, participle of reguiro, is com 
pounded of re and quero to seek or look after with 
indications of desire to possess. 

The expression of a wish to some one to have some- 
thing is the common idea comprehended in these terms. 
As this is the simple signification of ask, it is the 
generick tecm; the other two are specifick: we ask in 
begging and requesting, but not vice versd. 

Asking is peculiar to no rank or station ; in conse- 
quence of our mutual dependence on each other, it is 
requisite for every man to ask somethir, of another: 
the master asks of the servant, the servant asks of 
the master; the parent asks of the child, the child 
asks of the parent. Begging marks a degree of de- 
pendence which is peculiar to inferiours in station: we 
ask for matters of indifference; we beg that which we 
think is of importance: a child asks a favour of his 
parent ; a poor man deg's the assistance of one who is 
able to afford it: that is asked for which is easily 
granted ; that is begged which is with difficulty ob- 
tained. To ask therefore requires no effort; but to 
beg is to ask with importunity ; those who by merely 
asking find themselves unable to obtain what they 
wish will have recourse to begging. 

As ask sometimes implies a demand, and beg a 
vehemence of desire, or strong degree of necessity , 
politeness has adopted another phrase, which conveys 
neither the imperiousness of the one, nor the urgency 
of the other; thisisthe word request. Asking carries 
with it an air of superiority ; begging that of submis 
sion; requesting has the air of independence an¢é 
equality. Asking borders too nearly on an infringe 
ment of personal libertv: begving imposes a vonstraly 


158 


ty making an appeal to the feelings: requests leave 
the liberty of granting or refusing unencumbered. It 
is the character of impertinent people to ask without 
considering the circumstances and situation of the 
person asked ; they seem ready to take without per- 
mission that which is asked if it be not granted ; 


Let him pursue the promis’d Latian shore, 
A short delay is ali L ask him now, 
A pause of grief, an interval from wo.—DRyYDEN. 


Selfish and greedy people Jeg with importunity, and 
in a tone that adinits of no refusal ; 


But we must beg our bread in climes unknown, 
Beneath the scorching or the frozen zone.—DRyDEN. 


Men of good breeding tender their requests with 
moderation and discretion; they request nothing but 
what they are certain can be conveniently complied 
with; 
But do not you my last request deny, 
With yon perfidious man your int’ rest try. 
DRYDEN. 


Ask is altogether exploded from polite life, although 
beg isnot. We may beg a person’s acceptance of any 
thing; we may Jeg him to favour or honour us with 
his company ; but we can never talk of asking a per- 
son’s acceptance, or askeng him to do us an honour. 
Beg in such cases indicates a condescension which is 
sometimes not unbecoming, but on ordinary occasion 
request is with more propriety substituted in its place. 


TO BEG, DESIRE. 


Beg in its original sense as before given (v. To ask, 
beg) signifies to desire; desire, in French destr, 
Latin desidero, comes from desido to fix the mind on 
an object. 

To beg, marks the wish; to desire, the will and de- 
ermination. 

Beg is the act of an inferiour, or one in subordinate 


sondition; deszre is the act of a superiour: we beg a 


‘hing as a favour; we des?re it as a right ; children beg 
sheir parents to grant them an indulgence; 


She ’ll hang upon his lips, and beg him tell 
The story of my passion o’er again.—_SouTHERN. 


Parents desire their children to attend to their busi- 


ness; ‘Once, when he was without lodging, meat, or 


slothes, one of his friends left a message, that he de- 


stred to see him about nine in the morning. Savage 
knew that it was his intention to assist him; but was 
very much disgusted that he should presume to pre- 
scribe the hour of his attendance, and I believe refused 
to see him.’—JoHNnson. 


wes 


TO BEG, BESEECH, SOLICIT, ENTREAT, 
SUPPLICATE, IMPLORE, CRAVE. 


Beg is here taken as before (v. To ask, beg) ; be- 
seech, compounded of be and seech, or seek, is an in- 
tensive verb, signifying to seek strongly; solicit, in 
French soliciter, Latin solictto, is probably compound- 
ed of solum or totum, and cito to cite, summon, appeal 
to, signifying to rouse altogether; entreat, compounded 
of en or in and treat, in French trazter, Latin tracto 
to manage, S:cuifies to act upon; supplicate, in Latin 
supplicatus, participle of supplico, compounded of sup 
or sub and plico to fold, signifies to bend the body down 
in token of submission or distress in order to awaken 
notice; implore, in French implorer, Latin imploro, 
compounded of im or in and ploro to weep or lament, 
signifies to act upon by weeping; crave, in Saxon 
cravian, signifies to long for earnestly. 

Allthese terms denote a species of asking, varied as 
to the person, the object, and the manner; the first four 
do not mark such a state of dependence in the agent as 
the last three: to beg denotes a state of want; to beseech, 
entreat, and solicit, a state of urgent necessity; sup- 

licate and implore, a state of abject distress ; crave, the 
iospest state of physical want: one begs with impor- 
tunity ; beseeches with earnestness; entreats by the 
force of reasoning and strong representation; one soli- 
cits by virtue of one’s interest; supplicates by an hum- 
ble address; implores by every mark of dejection and 
aumiliation. 

Begging is the act of the poor when they need as- 
sistance: beseeching and entreating are resorted to by 


friends and equals, when they want to influence or 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


persuade, but besceching is more urgent; entreateng 


more argumentative: solicitations are employed to ob- 
tain favours, which have more respect to the circum- 
stances than the rank of the solicitor: supplicating and 
imploring are resorted to by sufferers for the relief of 
their misery, and are addressed to those who have the 
power of averting or increasing the calamity: craving 
is the consequence of longing; it marks an earnestness 
of supplication: an abject state of suffering dependence. 

Those who have any object to obtain commonly have 
recourse to begging ; 


What more advance can mortals make in sin, 
So near perfection, who with blood begin ? 
Deaf to the calf that lies beneath the knife, 
Looks up, and from the butcher begs her life. 
DRYDEN. 


A kind parent will sometimes rather beseech an undu 
tiful child to lay aside his wicked courses, than plunge 
him deeper into guilt by an ill-timed exercise of au- 
thority; ‘ Modesty never rages, never murmurs, never . 
pouts when it is ill-treated; it pines, it beseeches, it 
languishes.’—StrxLte. When we are entreated to do 
an act of civility, it is a mark of unkindness to he heed- 
less to the wishes of our friends; 


I have a wife, whom I protest I love; 

I would she were in heav’n, so she could 

Entreat some pow’r to change this currish Jew. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


Gentlemen in office are perpetually exposed to the soli 
citations of their friends, to procure for themselves o1 
their connexions places of trust.and emolument ; ‘ As 
money collected by subscription is necessarily received 
in smail sums, Savage was never able to send his poems 
to the press, but for many years continued his solicita- 
tion, and squandered whatever he obtained.’—Joun- 
son. Aslave supplicates his master for pardon, whom 
he has offended; ‘Savage wrote to Lord Tyrconnel, 
not in a style of supplication and respect; but of re- 
proach, menace, and contempt.’—Jounson. An of- 
fender implores mercy for the mitigation, if not the 
remission, of his punishment ; 
Is ’t then so hard, Monimia, to forgive 
A fault, where humble love, like mine, implores thee ? 
Otway. 


A poor wretch, suffering with hunger, craves a morsel 
of bread; 


For my past crimes, my forfeit life receive. 

No pity for my sufferings here I crave, 

And only hope forgiveness in the grave. 
Rowe’s JANE SHORE. 


SOLICITATION, IMPORTUNITY. 


Solicitation (v. To beg) is general; importunity, from 
the Latin ¢mportunus, or in and portus, signifies a run- 
ning into harbour after the manner of distressed mari- 
ners, is a vehement and troublesome form of solictta- 
tion. Solicitation is itself indeed that which gives 
trouble to a certain extent, but it is not always unrea- 
sonable: there may be cases in which we may yield to, 
the solicitations of friends, to do that which we have 
no objection to be obliged to do: but importunity is that 
solicitation which never ceases to apply for that which 
itis not agreeable to give. Wemay sometimes be 
urgent in our solicitations of a friend to accept some 
proffered honour; the solicitation however, in this 
case, although it may even be troublesome, yet it is 
sweetened by the motive of the action: the importunity 
of beggars is often a politick means of extorting money 
from the passenger ; ‘ Although the devil cannot compel 
a man to sin, yet he can follow a man with continual 
solicitations.,—Sovutu. 'The torment of expectation 
is not easily to be borne, when the heart has no rival 
engagements to withdraw it from the importunities of 
desire.’— JOHNSON. 


PRESSING, URGENT, IMPORTUNATE 


Pressing and urgent, from to press and urge, are ap- 
plied as qualifying terms, either to persons or things ; 
importunate, from the verb to importune, which pro- 
bably signifies to wish to get into port, to land at some 
port, is applied only to persons. In regard to pressing, 
it is said either of one’s demands, one’s requests or 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


one’s exhortations; urgent is said of one’s solicitations 
or entreaties ; ¢mportunate is said of one’s begging or 
applying for. The pressing has more of violence in it; 
itis supported by force and authority ; it is employed 
in matters of right, and appeals to the understanding ; 
‘Mr. Gay, whose zeal in your concern is worthy a 
friend, writes to me in the most pressing terms about 
it—Porr. The urgent makes an appeal to one’s 
feelings; it is more persuasive, and is employed in 
matters of favour; ‘ Neither would he have done it at 
all but atmy urgency.,—Swirr. Thezmportunate has 
some of the force, but none of the authority or obligation 
of the pressing ; itis employed in matters of personal 
gratification: ‘Sleep may be put off from time to time, 
yet the demand is of so tmportunate a nature as not to 
remain long unsatisfied..—JoHnson. When applied to 
things, pressing is as much more forcible than urgent, 
asin the former case ; we speak of a pressing necessity, 
an urgent case. A creditor will be pressing for his 
money when he fears to lose it; one friend is urgent 
with another to intercede in his behalf; beggars are 
commonly tmportunate with the hope of teasing persons 
out of their money. 


TO DESIRE, WISH, LONG FOR, HANKER 
AFTER, COVET. 


Desire, in Latin desidero, comes from desido to-rest 
or fix upon with the mind ; wish, in German winschen, 
comes from wonne pleasure, signifying to take pleasure 
in a thing ; long, from the German langen to reach 
after, signifies to seek after with the mind; hanker, 
hanger, or hang, signifies to hang on an object with 
one’s mind ; covet is changed from the Latin cupio to 
desire. 

The desire is imperious, it demands gratification; 
‘When inen have discovered a passionate desire of 
fame in the ambitious man (as no temper of mind is 
more apt to show itself,) they become sparing and re- 
served in theircommendations.’—Appison. The wish 
is less vehement, it consists cf a strong inclination; ‘It 
is as absurd in an old man to wish for the strength of 
youth, as it would be in a young man to wish for the 
strength of a bull or a horse.’—Strexie. Longing is 
an impatient and continued species of desire; 


Extended on the fun’ral couch he lies, 
And soon as morning paints the eastern skies, 
The sight is granted to thy longing eyes.—Porr. 


Hankering is a desire for that which is set out of one’s 
reach; ‘The wife is an old coquette that is always 
hankering after the diversions of the town.’--App1- 
son. Coveting is a desire for that which belongs to an- 
other, or what it is in his power to grant; ‘ You know 
Chaucer has a tale, where a knight saves his head by 
discovering it was the thing which all women most 
coveted.’--Gay. We desire or long for that which is 
near at hand, or within view; we wish for and covet 
that which is more remote, or less distinctly seen; we 
hanker after that which has been once enjoyed: a dis- 
contented person wishes for more than he has; he who 
is in a strange land longs to see his native country; 
vicious men hanker after the pleasures which are de- 
nied them; ambitious meu covet honours, avaricious 
Inen covet riches. 

Desires ought to be moderated ; wishes to be limited ; 
longings, hankerings, and covetings to be suppressed : 
uncontrolled desires become the greatest torments; un- 
bounded wishes are the bane of all happiness; ardent 
longings are mostly irrational, and not entitled to in- 
one lc ; coveting is expressly prohibited by the Divine 

aw. 

Desire, as it regards others, is not less imperative 
than when it respects ourselves; it lays an obligation 
on the person to whom it is expressed : a wish is gentle 
and unassuming; it appeals to the good nature of an- 
other: we act by the desireofa superiour, and according 
to the wishes of an equal: the desire of a parent will 

. amount to a command in the mind of a dutiful child: 


a wishes will be anticipated by the warmth of affec- 
_ tion. 


TO WILL, WISH. 


The will is that faculty of the soul which is the most 
prompt and decisive ; it immediately impels to action: 
he wish is but a gentle motion of the soul towards a 


159 


thing. Wecan will nothing but what we can effect ; 
Wwe may wish for many things which lic above our 
reach. The will must be under the entire control of 
reason, or it will lead a person into every miscnief; ‘A 
good inclination is but the first rude draught of virtue ; 
but the finishing strokes are from the will.’—Sours. 
Wishes ought to be under the direction of reason; or 
otherwise they may greatly disturb our happiness ; 
‘The wishing of a thing is not properly the welling of 
it; it imports no more than an idle, unoperative, com 
placency in, and desire of, the object.’--Soutu. 


WILLINGLY, VOLUNTARILY, SPONTA- 
NEOUSLY. 


To do a thing willingly is to do it with a good-will; 
to do athing voluntarily is to do it of one’s own accord: 
the forme) respects one’s willingness to comply with 
the wishes of another :}we do what is asked of us, it is 
a mark of good nature’: the latter respects our freedom 
from foreign influence ; we do that which we like te 
do; itis a mark of our sincerity. It is pleasant to see 
a child do his task willingly ; 


Food not of angels, yet accepted so, 
As that more willingly thou couldst not seem, 
At heav’n’s high feasts ’ have fed.—MILTon. 


It is pleasant to see a man voluntarily engage in any 
service of publick good; ‘ Thoughts are only criminal 
when they are first chosen, and then voluntarily 
continued.’—JoHNson. Spontaneously is but a mode 
of the voluntary, applied, however, more commonly to 
inanimate objects than to the will of persons: the 
ground produces spontaneously, when it produces 
without culture; and words flow spontaneously, which 
require no effort on the part of the speaker to produce 
them ; 


Of these none uncontroll’d and lawless rove, 
But to some destin’d end spontaneous move. 
JENYNS 


If, however, applied to the will, it bespeaks in a 
stronger degree the totally unbiassed state of the agent’s 
mind: the spontaneous effusions of the heart are more 
than the voluntary services of benevolence. The willing 
is opposed to the unwilling, the voluntary to the me- 
chanical or involuntary, the spontaneous to the reluc- 
tant or the artificial. 


TO LEAN, INCLINE, BEND. 


Lean and incline both come from the Latin clino, and 
Greek kXivw to bow or bend; bend isconn ected with 
the German wenden to turn, and the English wind, &c. 

In the proper sense lean and incline are both said of 
the position of bodies; bend is said of the shape of 
bodies: that which leans rests on one side, or in a side- 
ward direction; that which inclines, leans or turns 
only in a slight degree: that which bends forms a -cur- 


| vature; it does not all lean the same way: a house 


leans when the foundation gives way; a tree may 
grow so as incline to the right or the left, or aroad may 
incline this or that way; a tree or a road bends when it 
turns out of the straight course. 

In the improper sense the judgement Jeans, the will 
inclines, the will or conduct bends, in consequence of 
some outward action. A person leans to this or that 
side of a question which he favours ; he inclines or is 
inclined to this or that mode of conduct; he dends to the 
will of another. It is the duty of a judge to lean to 
the side of mercy as far as is consistent with justice ; 


Like you a courtier born and bred, 
Kings lean’d their ear to what I said.—Gay. 


Whoever inclines too readily to listen to the tales of 
distress which are continually told to excite compas- 
sion, will find himself in general deceived ; 


Say what you want: the Latins you shall find, 
Not fore’d to goodness, but by will inclin’d.—DRrypEN. 


An unbending temper is the bane of domestick felicity ; 


And as on corn when western gusts descend, 
Before the blast the lofty harvest bend.—Porr. 


BENT, BIAS, INCLINATION, PREPOSSESSION, 


Bias,in French Biais, signifies a weight fixed on 
one side of a bow] in order to turn its co4se that wav 


160 ENGLISH 


towards which the dias leans, from the Greek Bia 
force; inclination, in French inclination, Latin incli- 
natio, from inclino, Greek «xXivw, signifies a leaning 
towards ; prepossession, compounded of pre and pos- 
session, signifies the taking possession of the mind pre- 
viously, or beforehand. 

All these terms denote a preponderating influence on 
the mind. Bent is applied to the will, affection, and 
power in general; bias solely to the judgement; zncii- 
nation and prepossession to the state of the feelings. 
The bent includes the general state of the mind, and 
the object on which it fixes a regard; 


Servile inclinations, and gross love, 
The guilty bent of vicious appetite.—Havarp. 


Bias, the particular influential power which sways the 
judging faculty ; ‘The choice of man’s will is indeed 
uncertain, because in many things free; but yet there 
are certain habits and principles in the soul that have 
some kind of sway upon it, apt to béas it more one way 
than another.’—Sourn. The one is absolutely con- 
sidered with regard to itself; the other relatively to its 
results and the object it acts upon. 

Bent is sometimes with regard to dzas, as cause is to 
effect; we may frequently trace in the particular dent 
of a person’s likes and dislikes the principal dias which 
determines his opinions. Jnclination is a faint kind of 
bent ; prepossession is a weak species of bias; an 
inclination is a state of something, namely, a state of 
the feelings: prepossession is an actual something, 
namely, the thing that prepossesses. 

We may discover the bent of a person’s mind in his 
gay orserious moments; in his occupations, and in his 
pleasures ; in some persons it is so strong, that scarcely 
an action passes which is not more or less influenced by 
it, and even the exteriour of a man will be under its 
control: in all disputed matters the support of a party 
will operate more or less to bias the minds of men for 
or against particular men, or particular measures: 
when we are attached to the party that espouses the 
cause of religion and good order, this dias is in some 
measure commendable and salutary : a. mind without 
inclination would be a blank, and where inclination is, 
there is the groundwork for prepossession. Strong 
minds will be strongly bent, and labour under a strong 
bias ; but there is no mind so weak and powerless as 
not to have its inclinations, and none so perfect as to 
be without its prepossessions : the mind that has vir- 
tuous inclinations will be prepossessed in favour of 
every thing that leans to virtue’s side; it were well for 
mankind that this were the only prepossession; but in 
the present mixture of truth and errour, it is necessary 
to guard against prepossessions as dangerous anticipa- 
tions of the ‘judgement; if their object be not perfectly 
pure, or their force be not qualified by the restrictive 
powers of the judgement, much evil springs from their 
abvse ; 

”T is not indulging private inclination, 
The selfish passions, that sustains the world, 
And lends its Ruler grace.—THomson. 


I take it for a rule, that in marriage the chief busi- 
ness is to acquire a prepossession in favour of each 
other.’—STEELE. 


INCLINATION, TENDENCY, PROPENSITY, 
PRONENESS. 


All these terms are employed to designate the state of 
the will towards an object: inclination (v. Bent) 
denotes its first movement towards an object: tendency, 
from to tend, is a continued inclination: propensity, 
from the Latin propensus and propendeo to hang for- 
ward, denotes a still stronger leaning of the will; and 
prone, from the Latin pronus downward, characterizes 
an habitual and fixed state of the will towards an 
object. The inelination expresses the leaning but not 
the direction of that leaning ; it may be to the right or 
to the left, upwards or downwards; consequently we 
may have an inclination to that which is good or bad, 
high or low; tendency does not specify any particular 
direction; but from the idea of pressing, which it con- 
veys, it is appropriately applied to those things which 
degenerate or lead to what is bad; excessive strictness 
in the treatment of children has a tendency to damp 
the spirit: propensity and proneness both designate a 
downward direction, and consequently refer only to 
that which is bad and low ; a person has a propensity 
to diinking, and a proneness to lying 


SYNONYMES. 


Inclination is always at the command of the under 
standing ; it is our duty therefore to suppress the first 
risings of any inclination to extravagance, intem- 
perance, or any irregularity ; ‘ Partiality is properly the 
understanding’s judging according to the inclination of 
the will..—Soutu. As tendency refers to the thing 
rather than the person, it is our business to avoid that 
which has a tendency to evil; ‘Every immoral act, in 
the direct tendency of it, is certainly a step down 
wards.’—Soutn. The propensity will soon get the 
mastery of the best principles, and the firmest resolu- 
tion; it is our duty therefore to seek all the aids which 
religion affords to subdue every propensity; ‘Such is 
the propensity of our nature to vice, that stronger 
restraints than those of mere reason are necessary to 
be imposed on man.’—Buair. Proneness to. evil is 
inherent in our nature which we derive from our first 
parents ; it is the grace of God which alone can lift us 
up above this grovelling part of ourselves; .‘ Every 
commission of sin imprints upon the soul a further dis 
position and proneness to sin.’--SouTu. 


BIAS, PREPOSSESSION, PREJUDICE. 


Bias (v. Bent, Bias) marks the state of the mind ; 
prepossession applies either to the general or particular 
state of the feelings ; prejudice is employed only for 
opinions.. Prejudice, in French prejudice, Latin pre- 
judicium, compounded of pre before, and judicium 
judgement, signifies a judgement before hand, that is, 
before examination. Children may receive an early 
bias that influences their future character and destiny : 
prepossessions spring from casualties; they do not 
exist in young minds: prejudices are the fruits of a 
contracted education. Physical infirmities often give 
a strong bias to serious pursuits; ‘It should be tie 
principal labour of moral writers to remove the bias 
which inclines the mind rather to prefer natural than 
moral endowments.'.—HawkKESWORTH. Preposses- 
sions created by outward appearances are not always 
fallacious: ‘A man in power, who can, without the 
ordinary prepossessions which stop the way to the 
true knowledge and service of mankind, overlook the 
little distinctions of fortune, raise obscure merit, and 
discountenance successful indesert, has, inthe minds of 
knowing men, the figure of an angel rather than a 
man.’—STEELE. It is at present the fashion to brand 
every thing with the name of prejudice, which does not 
coincide with the lax notions of the age ‘It is the 
work of a philosopher to be every day subduing his 
passions, and laying aside his prejudices. Tendeavour 
at least to look upon men and their actions only as an 
impartial spectator.’—SpecTator. A bias may be 
overpowered, a prepossession Overcome, and a pre 
judice corrected or removed. : 

We may be diassed for or against, we are always 
prepossessed in favour, and mostly prejudiced against. 


COVETOUSNESS, CUPIDITY, AVARICE 


Covetousness, from covet, and cupido to desire, 
signifies having a desire ; cupidity isa more immediate 
derivative from the Latin cupzditas, and signifies the 
same thing; avarice, from aveo to long for, signifies 
by distinction a longing for money. 

All these terms are employed to express an illicit 
desire after objects of gratification ; but covetousness 
is applied to property in general ; cupidity and avarice 
only to money or possessions. A child may display its 
covetousness in regard to the playthings which fall in 
its way ; aman shows his cup7dity in regard to the gains 
that fall in his way ; we should therefore be careful to 
check a covetous disposition in early life, lest it show 
itself in the more hateful character of cupidity in ad- 
vanced years. Covetousness is the natural disposition for 
having or getting ; cupidity is the acquired disposition. 
As the love of appropriation is an innate characteristick 
in man, that of accumulating or wanting to accumulate, 
which constitutes covetousness, will show itself, in 
some persons, among the first indications of character ; 
‘Nothing lies on our hands with such uneasiness as 
time. Wretched and thoughtless creatures! In the 
only place where covetousness were ¢ virtue, we turn 
prodigals.—Appison. Where the prospect of amassing 
great wealth is set before a man, as in the case of a 
governour of a distant province, it will evince great 
virtue in him, if his cupidity be not excited; ‘If pre 
scription be once shaken, no species of property is 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


recure, when it orice becomes an object large enough to 
tempt the cupidity of indigent power. —BurRkKg. 

The covetous man seeks to add to what he has: the 
avaricious man ouly strives to retain what he has; the 
covetous man sacrifices others to indulge himself ; 
the avariczows man will sometimes sacrifice himself to 
indulge others: for generosity, which is opposed to 
covetousness, is sometimes associated with avarice ; 
‘At last Swift’s avarice grew too powerful for his 


kindness ; he would refuse (his friends) a bottle of 


wine.’—JOHNSON. 


AVARICIOUS, MISERLY, PARSIMONIOUS, 
NIGGARDLY.: 


Alvaricious, from the Latin aveo to desire, signifies 
in general longing for, but by distinction longing for 
money; miserly signifies like a miser or miserable man, 
for none are so miserable as the lovers of money; par- 
simonious, from the Latin parco to spare or save, sig- 
nifies literally saving; niggardly is a frequentative of 
nigh or close, signifies very nigh. 

The avaricious man and the miser are one and the 
same character, with this exception, that the miser 
carries his passion for money to a still greater excess. 
An avaricious man shows his love of money in his 
ordinary dealings; but the miser lives upon it, and 
suffers every privation rather than part with it. An 
avaricious man may sometimes be indulgent to him- 
self, and generous to others; ‘Though the apprehen- 
sions of the aged may justify a cautious frugality, 
they can by no means ercuse a sordid avarice.’—BLair. 
The miser is dead to every thing but the treasure which 
he has amassed ; 


As some lone miser visiting his store, 

Bends at his treasure, counts, recounts it o’er; 

Hoards after hoards his rising raptures fill, 

Yet still he sighs, for hoards are wanting still; 

Thus to my breast alternate passions rise, 

Pleas’d with each bliss that Heav’n to man supplies. 

Yet oft a sigh prevails and sorrows fall, 

To see the hoard of human bliss so small. 
GOLDSMITH. 


Parsimonious and niggardly are the subordinate 
characteristicks of avarice. The avaricious man in- 
dulges his passion for money by parsimony, that is, by 
saving out of himself, or by niggardly ways in his 
dealings with others. He who spends a farthing on 
himself, where others with the same means spend a 
shilling, does it from parsimony ; ‘Armstrong died in 
September, 1779, and to the surprise of his friends left 
a considerable sum of money, saved by great parsi- 
mony out of a very moderate income.’—Jounson. He 
who looks to every farthing in the bargains he makes, 
gets the name of a nigegard ; ‘T have heard Dodsley, 
by whom Akenside’s "Pleasures of the Imagination” 
was published, relate, that when the copy was offered 
him, he carried the work to Pope, who, having looked 
into it, advised him not to make a niggardly offer, for 
this was no every day writer.—JoOHNSON. varice 
sometimes cloaks itself under the name of prudence: 
it is, as Goldsmith says, often the only virtue which is 
lefta man at the ageof seventy-two. The miser is his 
own greatest enemy, and no man’s friend; his ill-got- 
ten wealth is generally a curse to him by whom it is 
inherited. A man is sometimes rendered parsimoni- 
ous by circumstances; he who first saves from neces- 
sity but too often ends with saving from inclination. 
The niggard is an object of contempt, and sometimes 
hatred; every one fears to lose by a man who strives 
to gain from all. 


CCONOMICAL, SAVING, SPARING, THRIFTY, 
PENURIOUS, NIGGARDLY. 


The idea of not spending is common to all these 
terms; but economical signifies not spending unneces- 
sarily or unwisely; saving is keeping and laying by 
with care; sparing is keeping out of that which ought 
to be spent; thrifty or thriving is accumulating by 
means of saving: penurious is suffering as from penu- 
ry by means of saving; niggardly, after the manner 
of a niggard, nigh or close person, is not spending or 
letting go, but in the smallest possible quantities. 

To be economical is a virtue in those who have but 
narrow means; ‘Ieannot fancy that a shopkeeper’s 

; 11 


161 


wife in Cheapside has a greater tenderness for the for- 
tune of her husband than a citizen’s wife in Paris; or 
that Miss in a boarding-school is more an economist in 
dress than Mademoiselle in a nunnery.’-—GoLpsM1TH 
All the other epithets however are employed in a sense 
more or less unfavourable; he who is saving when 
young, will be covetous when old; he who is sparing 
will generally be sparing out of the comforts of others ; 
he who is thrifty commonly adds the desire of getting 
with that of saving; he who is penurious wants no 
thing to make him a complete miser; he who is nig- 
gardly in his dealings will be mostly avaricious in his 
character; ‘I may say of fame as Falstaff did of 
honour, ‘if it comes it comes unlook’d for, and there 
is an end on’t.” I am content with a bare saving 
game.’—PopPE. 


Youth is not rich, in time it may be poor, 
Part with it, as with money, sparing.—Youna. 


‘Nothing is penuriously imparted, of which a more 
liberal distribution would increase real felicity.’— 
JOHNSON. 

Who by resolves and vows engag’d does stand, 

For days that yet belong to fate, 

Does like-an unthrift mortgage his estate 

Before it falls into his hands.--Cow try. 


No niggard nature; men are prodigals.— Youna. 


QECONOMY, FRUGALITY, PARSIMONY 


Giconomy, from the Greek dixovopia, implies ma- 
nagement; frugality, from the Latin fruges fruits, 
implies temperance; parsimony (v. Avaricious) im- 
plies simply forbearing to spend, which is in fact the 
common idea included in these terms; but the econs- 
mical man spares expense according to circumstances; 
he adapts his expenditure to his means, and renders it 
by contrivance as effectual to his purpose as possible; 
‘War and economy are things not easily reconciled, 
and the attempt of leaning towards parsimony in such 
a state may be the worst economy in the world.’— 
Burxe. The frugal man spares expense.on himself 
or on his indulgences; he may however be liberal to 
others while he is frugal towards himself; ‘I accept 
of your invitation to supper, but I must make this 
agreement beforehand, that you dismiss me soon, and 
treat me frugally.—Mertmotn (Letters of Pliny). 
The parsimonious man saves from himself as well as 
others; he has no other object than saving. By econo- 
my, a man may make a limited income turn to the 
best account for himself and his family; by frugality 
he may with a limited income be enabled to do much 
good to others; by parsimony he may be enabled to 
accumulate great suins outof anarrow income: hence 
it is that we recommend a plan for being economical ; 
we recommend a diet for being frugal; we condemn 
a habit or a character for being parsimonious. 


GECONOMY, MANAGEMENT. 


Economy (v. Gconomy) has a more comprehensive 
meaning than management ; for it includes the system 
of science and of legislation as weil as that of domes- 
tick arrangements; asthe economy of agriculture; the 
internal @conomy of a government; political, civil, or 
religious economy; or the economy of one’s house 
hold; ‘ Your economy I suppose begins now to be set- 
tled; your expenses are adjusted to your revenue.’—. 
JoHunson. Management, on the contrary, is an action 
that is very seldom abstracted from its agent, and is 
always taken in a partial sense, namely, asa part of 
economy. The internal economy of a family depends 
principally on the prudent management of the female: 
the economy of every well-regulated community re- 
quires that all the members should keep their station, 
and preserve a strict subordination ; 


Oh spare this waste of being half divine, 
And vindicate th’ economy of heav’n.—Youne. 


The management of particular branches of civi: @co- 
nomy should belong to particular individuals; ‘ What 
incident can show more management and address in 
the poet (Milton), than this of Sampson’s refusing the 
summons of the idolaters, and obeying the visitation 
of God’s spirit..—CUMBERLAND. 


162 


AVIDITY, GREEDINESS, EAGERNESS, 


Are epithets expressive of a strong desire; avidity, 
in Latin aviditas, from aveo to desire, expresses very 
strong desire ; greediness, from the German gierig, and 
begehren to desire, signifies the same; eagerness, from 
eager, and the Latin acer sharp, signifies acuteness of 
feeling. 

‘Avidity is in mental desires what greediness is in 
animal appetites: eagerness is not so vehement, but 
more impatient than avidity or greediness. Avidity 
and greediness respect simply the desire of possessing ; 
eagerness the general desire of attaining an object. 
An opportunity is seized with avidity; or a person 
gratifies his avidity; ‘1 have heard that Addison’s 
avidity did not satisfy itself with the air of renown, 
but that with great eagerness he laid hold on his pro- 
portion of the profits.—Jounson. The miser grasps 
at money with greediness, or the glutton devours with 
greediness. A person runs with eagerness in order to 
get to the place of destination: a soldier fights with 
eagerness in order to conquer: a lover looks with 
eager impatience for a letter from the object of his 
affection ; 

Bid the sea listen, when the greedy merchant, 
To gorge its ravenous jaws, hurls all his wealth, 
And stands himself upon the splitting deck 

For the last plunge.—LEs. 


Avidity is employed in an adverbial form to qualify 
an action: we seize with avidity. Greediness marks 
the abstract quality or habit of the mind; it is the cha- 
racteristick of low and brutal minds: eagerness de- 
notes the transitory state of a feeling; a person dis- 
covers his eagerness in his looks. 


TO GIVE, GRANT, BESTOW, ALLOW. 


Give, in Saxon gifan, German geben, &c. is derived 
by Adelung from the old word gaff the hollow of the 
hand, because the hand was commonly used in pledging 
or giving, whence this word is allied to the Greek 
eyyudw to pledge or promise, and yudy a limb; grant 
is probably contracted from guarantee, and the French 
garantir, signifying to assure any thing to a person by 
one’s word or deed; bestow is compounded of be and 
stow, which in English and the northern languages sig- 
nifies to place, whence to bestow signifies to dispose ac- 
cording to one’s wishes and convenience ; allow is here 
taken in the same general sense as in the article To 
admit, allow. 

The idea of communicating to another what is our 
own, or in our power, is common to these terms; this 
is the whole signification of give; but grant, bestow, 
and allow include accessory ideas in their meaning. 
To grant is to give at one’s pleasure; to bestow is to 
give with a certain degree of necessity. Giving is 
confined to no object; whatever property we transfer 
into the hands of another, that we give; we give 
money, clothes, food, or whatever is transferable: 
granting is confined to such objects as afford plea- 

_ sure or convenience; they may consist of transferable 
property or not; bestowing is applied to such objects 
only as are necessary to supply wants, which always 
consist of that which is transferable. We give what 
is liked or not liked, asked for or unasked for; we 
grant that only which is wished for and requested. 
One may give poison or medicine; one may give to a 
beggar, or to a friend; one grants a sum of money by 
way of loan; we give what is wanted or not wanted ; 
we bestow that only which is expressly wanted: we 
give with an idea of areturn or otherwise; we grant 
voluntarily, without any prospect of a return; we 

ive for a permanency or otherwise ; we bestow only 
in particular cases which require immediate notice. 
Many give things to the rich only to increase the num- 
ber of their superfluities, and they give to the poor to 
relieve their necessities; they bestow their alms on 
an indigent sufferer. 

To give has no respect to the circumstances of the 
action or the agent; it is applicable to persons of all 
conditions: to grant bespeaks not only the will but 
the power and influence of the grantor; to bestow 
bespeaks the necessitous condition of the receiver. 
Children may give to their parents and parents to their 
children, kings to their subjects or subjects to their 
kings; but monarchs only grant to their subjects, or 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


parents to their children; and superiours in general 
bestow upon their dependants that which they cannot 
provide for themselves. 

In an extended application of the terms to moral ob- 
jects or circumstances, they strictly adhere to the same 
line of distinction. We give our consent; we gzve 
our promise; we give our word; we give credit; we 
give in all cases that which may be simply transferred 
from one to another; 


Happy when both to the same centre move, 
When kings give liberty, and subjects love. 
DenuamM. 


Liberties, rights, privileges, favours, indulgences, per- 
missions, and all things are granted, which are in the 
hands only of a few, but are acceptable to many ; 


The gods will grant 
What their unerring wisdom sees they want 
DRYDEN. 


Blessings, care, concern, and the like, are bestewed 
upon those who are dependent upon others for what 
ever they have. 

Give and bestow are likewise said of things as well 
as of persons; grant is said only of persons. Give 
is here equally general and indefinite ; bestow conveys 
the idea of giving under circumstances of necessity 
and urgency. One gives a preference to a particular 
situation; one gives a thought (92 subject that is pro- 
posed; one gives time and la jour to any matter that 
engages one’s attention; ‘Milton afterward give us a 
description of the morning, which is wonderfully suita 
ble to a divine poem.’—Appison. But one bestows 
pains on that which demands particular attention , 
one bestows a moment’s thought on one particular 
subject, out of the number which engage attention: 
‘ After having thus treated at large of Paradise Lost, t 
could not think it sufficient to have celebrated this 
poem, in the whole, without déscending to particulars: 
I have therefore bestowed a paper on each book,’— 
ADDISON. 

That is granted which is desired, if not directly 
asked for; that is bestowed which is wanted as a 
matter of necessity; that is allowed which may be ex 
pected, if not directly required. 

What is granted is perfectly gratuitous on the pars 
of the giver, it isa pure favour, and lays the receiver 
under an obligation; what is bestowed is occasiona. 
altogether depending on the circumstances and dispo- 
sition of both giver and receiver; what is allowed isa 
gift stipulated as to time and quantity, which as ie 
continuance depends upon the will of the giver. 

It is as improper to grant a person more than he 
asks, as it is to ask a person for more than he caa 
grant. Alms are very ill bestowed which only serve 
to encourage beggary and idleness; many of the pout 
are allowed a smal) sum weekly from the parish. 

A grant comprehends in it something more in. 
portant than an allowance, and passes between persons 
in a higher station; what is bestowed is of less value 
than either. A father allows his son a yearly sum for 
his casual expenses, or a master allows his servant a 
maintenance; ‘ Martial’s description of a species of 
lawyers is full of humour; ‘Men that hire out their 
words and anger, that are more or less passionate as 
they are paid for it, and alloz their client a quantity 
of wrath proportionable to the fee which they receive 
from him.”’’—Appison. Kings grant pensions to their 
officers; governments grant subsidies to one another 


If you in pity grant this one request, 
My death shall glut the hatred of his breast. 
Dryven. 


Relief is bestowed on the indigent: Our Saviour doth 
plainly witness that there should not be as much as a 
cup of cold water bestowed for his sake without re 
ward.’—HookeEr. 

Ina figurative acceptation that is granted which is 
given by way of favour or indulgence; that is de- 
stowed which is done in justice, or by way of reward 
or necessity ; that is allowed which is done by way of 
courtesy or compliance. 

In former times the kings of England granted cer 
tain privileges to some towns, which they retain to 
this day; ‘All the land is the queen’s, unles; taeze be 
some grant of any part thereof to be showed from hez 
majesty..—Srensger. Those who are hagcy iv of 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


plauding frequently bestow their commendations on 
very undeserving objects ; 

So much the more thy diligence bestow, 

In depth of winter to defend the snow.—DRYDEN. 


A candid man allows merit even in his rivals ; ‘T shall 
be ready to allow the pope as little power here as you 
please.’—Swirt. 

, 7. 


TO GIVE, AFFORD, SPARE. 


Give is here the generick term, as in the preceding 
article; afford, probably changed from afferred, from 
the Latin affero, or ad and fero, signifies literally to 
bring to a person; spare, in German sparen, Latin 


parca, and Hebrew pr to preserve, signifies here to 


lay up for a particular purpose. These words are 
allied to each other in the sense of sending forth: but 
the former denotes an unqualified and unconditional 
action ; the latter bears a relation to the circumstances 
of the agent. A person is said to give money without 
any regard to the state of his finances: he is said to 
afford what he gives, when one wishes to define his 
pecuniary condition ; ‘ Nothing can give that to another 
which it hath not itself’”—BramHaLL. ‘The same 
errours run through all families, where there is wealth 
enough to afford that their sons may be good for no- 
thing. —Swirr. The same idea runs through the ap- 
plication of these terms to all other cases, in which 
inanimate things are made the agents; 


Are these our great pursuits ? Is this to live, 
These all the hopes this much-lov’d world can give? 
JENYNS. 


‘Our paper manufacture takes into use several mean 
materials, which could be put to no other use, and 
affords work for several hands in the collection of 
them, which are incapable of any other employment.’ 
—Appison. When we say a thing gives satisfaction, 
we simply designate the action; when we say it affords 
pleasure, we refer to the nature and properties of the 
thing thus specified; the former is employed only to 
declare the fact, the latter to characterize the object. 
Hence, in certain cases, we should say, this or that 
posture of the body gives ease to a sick person; but, 
as a moral sentiment, we should say, nething affords 
such ease to the mind as a clear conscience; ‘This is 
the consolation of all good men, unto whom the ubi- 
quity affordeth continual comfort and security.’— 
Brown. (Vulg. Err.) Upon the same grounds the 
use of these terms is justified in the following cases; 
to give rise; or give birth; to give occasion: to afford 
an opportunity; to afford a plea or a pretext ; to afford 
ground, and the like. 

To afford and spare both imply the deducting from 
one’s property with convenience, but afford respects 
solely expenses which are no more than commensurate 
with our income; spare is said of things in general, 
which we may part with without any sensible dimi- 
nution of our comfort. There are few so destitute 
that they cannot afford something for the relief of 
others, who are more destitute ; 


Accept whate’er Aineas can afford, 
Untouch’d thy arms, untaken by thy sword. 
DRYDEN. 


He who has two things of a kind may easily spare 
one ; ‘How many men, in the common concerns of 
life, lend sums of money which they are not able to 
spare.’— ADDISON. 


TO GIVE, PRESENT, OFFER, EXHIBIT. 


These terms have acommon signification, inasmuch 
as they designate the manual act of transferring some- 
thing from one’s self to another. ‘The first is here as 
elsewhere (v. To give, grant) the: most indefinite and 
extensive in its meaning ; it denotes the complete act :* 
the latter two refer rather to the preliminaries of giv- 
ang, than to the act itself. What is given is actually 
transferred: what is presented, that is made a present 
to any one; what is offered is brought in the way of a 
person, or put in the way of being transferred: we 
present in giving, and offer in order to give ; but it 
may be that we may give without presenting or offer- 


* Vide Girard : “ Donner, presenter, i 


163 


ing; and, on the other hand, we may present or offer 
without giving. . , 

To give is the familiar term which designates the 
ordinary transfer of property: to present is a term of 
respect; it includes in it the formality and ceremony 
of setting before another that which we wish to give: 
to offer is an act of humility or solemnity : it bespeaks 
the movement of the heart, which impels to the mak- 
ing a transfer or gift. We give to our domesticks ; we 
present to princes; we offer to God* we give to a 
person what we wish to be received; we present toa 
person what we think agreeable; we offer what we 
think acceptable: what is given is supposed to be 
ours ; 


Of seven smooth joints a mellow pipe I have, 
Which with his dying breath Dametas gave. 
DRYDEN. 


What we offer is supposed to be at our command; 


Alexis will thy homely gifts disdain ; 
Nor, shouldst thou offer all thy little store, 
Will rich Jolas yield, but offer more.—Dryprn. 


What we present need not be either our own or at our 
command; ‘It felt out at the same time, that a very 
fine colt, which promised great strength and speed, 
was presented to Octavius: Virgil assured them that 
he would prove a jade: upon trial, it was found as he 
had said..—WatsH. We give a person not only our 
external property, but our esteem, our confidence, our 
company, and the like; an ambassador. presents his 
credentials at court ; a Subject offers his services to his 
king. 

They bear the same relation to each other when ap- 
plied to words or actions, instead of property; we 
speak of giving a person an assurance, or a contradic- 
tion: of presenting an address, and offering an apo- 
logy: of giving a reception, presenting a figure, or 
offering an insult. They may likewise be extended in 
their application, not only to personal and individual 
actions, but also to such as respect the publick at large: 
‘we give a description in writing, as well as by word of 
mouth ; one presents the publick with the fruit of one’s 
labours ; we offer remarks on such things as attract 
notice, and call for animadversion. 

These terms may also be employed to designate the 
actions of unconscious agents, by which they are cha- 
racterized: in this sense they come very near to the 
word exhibit, which, from exhibeo, signifies to hold or 
put forth. Here the word give is equally indefinite 
and general, denoting simply to send from itself, and 
applies mostly to what proceeds from another thing, by 
a natural cause: thus, a thing is said to give pain, on 
to give pleasure ; 


The apprehension of the good 
Gives but the greater feeling to the worse. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


Things are said to present or offer, that is, in the sense 
of. setting them to view; others only by the figure of 
personification: thus, a town is said to present a fine 
view, or an idea presents itself to the mind; 


Its pearl the rock presents, its gold the mine. 
JENYNS. 


An opportunity offers, that is, offers itself to our notice ; 


True. genuine dulness mov’d his pity, 
Unless it offer’d to be witty. —_Swirr 


To exhibit is properly applied in this sense of setting 
forth to view; but expresses likewise the idea of at- 
tracting notice also: that which is exhibited is more 
striking than what is presented or offered ; thus a poem 
is said to exhibit marks of genius; ‘ The recollection 
of the past becomes dreadful to a guilty man. It exhibits 
Z him a life thrown away on vanities and follies’ 
LAIR. 


TO INTRODUCE, PRESENT. 


To introduce, from the Latin introduco, signifies 
literally to bring within or into any place ; to present 
(v. To give) signifies to bring into the presence of. As 
they respect persons, the former passes between equals, 
the latter only among persons of rank and power :: one 
literary man is introduced to another by means of a 
common friend; heis presented at court by a nobleman. 

As these terms respect things, we say chat subjects 


164 


are introduced ia the course of conversation; ‘ The 
endeavours of freethinkers tend only to introduce 
slavery and errour arnong men.’--BERKELEY. Men’s 
particular views upon certain subjects are presented to 
the notice of others through the medium of publication, 
or objects are presented to the view; 


Now every leaf, and every moving breath, 
Presents a foe, and every foe a death. 
DENHAM. 


ALLOWANCE, STIPEND, SALARY, WAGES, 
HIRE, PAY. 


All these terms denote a stated sum paid according 
to certain stipulations. Allowance, from allow (v. To 
admit, allow), signifies the thing allowed; stipend, in 
Latin stipendium, from stipes a piece of money, signi- 
fies money paid; salary, in French salaire, Latin sa- 
larium, comes from sal salt, which was originally the 
principal pay for soldiers ; wages, in French gage, La- 
tin vadiwm, from the Hebrew 3939, labour, signifies that 
which is paid for labour; hire expresses the sum for 
which one is hired, and pay the sum that is to be paid. 

An allowance is gratuitous ; it ceases at the pleasure 
ofthe donor; ‘Sir Richard Steele was officiously in- 
formed, that Mr. Savage had ridiculed him: by which 
he was so much exasperated that he withdrew the al- 
lowance which he had paid him.’—JoHnson. All the 
rest are the requital for some supposed service; they 
cease with the engagement made between the parties. 
A stipend is more fixed and permanent than a salary; 
and that than wages, kire, or pay: a stipend depends 
upon the fulfilling of an engagement, rather than on 
the will of an individual; a salary is a matter of con- 
tract between the giver and receiver, and may be in- 
creased or diminished at will. 

An allowance may be given in any form, or at any 
stated times; a stipend and salary are paid yearly, or 
ateven portions of a year; wages, hire, and pay, are 
estimated by days, weeks, or months, as well as years. 

An allowance may be made by, with, and to persons 
of all ranks, a stipend and salary are assignable only 
{5 persons of respectability ; 


Is not the care of souls a load sufficient 2 
Are not your holy stipends paid for this? 
DRYDEN. 


-Several persons, out of a salary of five hundred 
pounds, have always lived at the rate of twothousand.’ 
—Swirt. Wages are given to labourers; ‘The pea- 
sant and the mechanick, when they have received the 
wages of the day, and procured their strong beer and 
supper, have scarce a wish unsatisfied.—Hawkurs- 
wWorTH. Hire is given to servants; 


T have five hundred crowns, 
The thrifty hire Isav’d under your father. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


Pay is given to soldiers or such as are employed under 
government ; 


Come on, brave soldiers, doubt not of the day ; 
And that once gotten, doubt no: of large pay. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


GIFT, PRESENT, DONATION, BENEFAC- 
TION. 


Gift is derived from to give, in tne sense of what is 
communicated to another gratuitously of one’s pro- 
perty ; present is derived from to present, signifying the 
thing presented to another ; donation, from the French 
donation, and the Latin dono to present or give, is a 
species of gift. 

The gift is an act of generosity or condescension; it 
contributes to the benefit of the receiver: the present is 
an act of kindness, courtesy, or respect ; it contributes 
to the pleasure of the receiver. The gift passes from 
the rich to the poor, from the high to the low, and creates 
an obligation : the present passes either between equals, 
or from the inferiour to the superiour. Whatever we 
receive from God, through the bounty of his Providence, 
we entitle a gift ; 


The gifts of heav’n my following song pursues, 
Aerial honey and ambrosial dews.—Drypsn. 


Whatever we receive from our friends, or whatever 


ENGLISH SYNONY MES. 


princes reccive from their subjects, are entitled pre 
sents ; 


Have what you ask, your presents I receive ; 
Land, where and when you please, with ample leave. 
Drypen 


We are told by all travellers that it is a custom in the 
east, never to approach a great man without a present ; 
the value of a gift is often heightened by being given 
opportunely. The value of a present often depends 
upon the value we have for the giver; the smallest 
present from an esteemed friend is of more Worth in our 
eyes, than the costliest presents that monarchs receive 
The gift is private, and benefits the individual; the 
donation is publick, and serves some general purpose* 
what is given to relieve the necessities of any poor 
person, is a gift; what is given to support an institu- 
tion is a donation. The clergy are indebted to their 
patrons for the livings which are in their gift; 


And she shall have them, if again she sues, 
Since you the giver and the gift refuse.—DrypxEN. 


It has been the custom of the pious and charitable, in all 
ages, to make donations for thesupport of alms-houses, 
hospitals, infirmaries, and such institutions as serve to 
diminish the sum of human misery; ‘The ecclesias- 
ticks were not content with the donations made them 
by the Saxon princes and nobles.’—Humeg. 

Benefaction and donation both denote an act of cha- 
rity, but the former comprehends more than the latter ; 
a benefaction comprehends acts of personal service in 
general towards the indigent: donation respects simply 
the act of giving and the thing given. Benefactions are 
for private use; donations are for publick service) A 
benefactor to the poor does not confine himself to the 
distribution of money; he enters into all their neces- 
sities, consults their individual cases, and suits his bene- 
factions to their exigencies ; his influence, his counsel, 
his purse, and his property, are employed for their good : 
his donations form the smallest part of the good which 
he does; ‘The light and influence that the heavens 
bestow upon this lower world, though the lower world 
cannot equal their benefaction, yet with a kind of 
grateful return, it reflects those rays that it cannot re- 
compense.’—Souru. ‘Titles and lands given to God 
are never, and plates, vestments, and other sacred uten- 
sils, are seldom consecrated ; yet certain it is that after 
the donation of them to the church, it is as really a sa- 
crilege to steal them as it is to pull down a church’— 
Sours. 


TO DEVISE, BEQUEATH. 


Devise, compounded of de and vise or visus, parti- 
ciple of vzdeo to see or show, signifies to point out spe- 
cifically; bequeath, compounded of be and queath, in 
Saxon cuesan, from the Latin gueso to say, signifies te 
give over to a person by saying or by word of mouth. 

To devise is a formal, to bequeath is an informal 
assignment of our property to another on our death. 
We devise only by a legal testament; ‘The right ot : 
inheritance or descent to his children and relations 
seems to have been allowed much earlier than the 
right of devising by testament.’.—Biackstonz. We 
may bequeath simply by word of mouth, or by any ex- 
pression of our will: we can devise only that which is 
property in the eye of thelaw; wemay bequeath in the 
moral sense any thing which we cause to pass over to 
another: a man devises his lands; he bequeaths his 
name or his glory to his children ; 


With this, the Medes to lab’ring age bequeath 
New lungs.—DrypDEn. 


WILL, TESTAMENT. 


A will is any written document which contains the 
last wll of a man in regard to the disposal of his pro- 
perty ; this may be either a formal or an informal in- 
strument in the eye of the law; ‘Do men make their 
last wills by word of mouth only?—SrmpHens A 
testament, on the other hand, is a formal instrument 
regularly drawn up, and duly attested, according to the 
forms of law; ‘He bringeth arguments from the love 
which the testator always bore him, imagining that 
these, or the like proofs, will convict a testament te 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


nave that in it which other mencan nowhere by reading 
find.’--HooKErR. 


BENEFI{CENT, BOUNTIFUL OR BOUNTEOUS, 
MUNIFICENT, GENEROUS, LIBERAL. 


Beneficent, from, benefacio, signifies doing well or 
good, that is, by distinction for others: bountiful sig- 
nifies full of bownty or goodness, trom the French bonté, 
Latin bonitas; munificent, in Latin munificus, from 
munus and facto, signifies the quality of making pre- 
sents; generous, in French genereux, Latin generosus, 
of high blood, noble extraction, and consequently of a 
noble character; liberal, in French liberal, Latin libe- 
ralis, from liber free, signifies the quality of being like 
a free man in distinction from a bondman, and by a 
natural association being of a free disposition, ready to 
communicate. 

Beneficent respects every thing done for the good of 
others: bounty, munificencé, and generosity, are species 
of beneficence: liberality is a qualification of all. The 
first two denote modes of action: the latter three either 
modes of action or modes of sentiment. The sincere 
well-wisher to his fellow-creatures is beneficent ac- 
cording to his means; he is bownt¢ful in providing for 
the comfort.and happiness of others; he is mundjicent 
in dispensing favours; he is generous in imparting his 
property ; he is liberal in all he does. / 

Beneficence and bounty are characteristicks of the 
Deity as well as of his creatures: munzficence, gener o- 
sity, and liberality, are mere human qualities. Benefi- 
cence and bounty are the peculiar characteristicks of 
the Deity: with him the will and the act of doing good 
are commensurate only with the power: he was bene- 
ficent to us as our Creator, and continues his beneficence 
to us by his daily preservation and protection; to some, 
however, he has been more bowntzful than to others, by 
providing them with an unequal share of the good 
things of this life. 

The beneficence of a man is regulated by the bounty 
of Providence: to whom much is given, from him 
much will be required. Instructed by his word, and 
illumined by that spark of benevolence which was 
infused into their souls with the breath of life, good 
men are ready to believe that they are but stewards of 
all God’s gifts, holden for the use of such as are less 
bountifully provided for; ‘The most beneficent of all 
heings is He who hath an absolute fulness of perfec- 
tion in himself, who gave existence to the universe, 
andso cannot be supposed to want that which he com- 
municated.,—Grove. Good men will desire, as far 
as their powers extend, to imitate this feature of the 
Deity by bettering with their beneficent counsel and 
assistance the condition of all who require it, and by 
gladdening the hearts of many with their bountiful 
provisions ; 

Hail! Universal Lord, be bounteous still 
To give us only good.—_Mi.Ton. 


Princes are munificent, friends are generous, patrons 
_ liberal. Munificence is measured by the quality and 
quantity of the thing bestowed: generosity by the 
extent of the sacrifice made ; liberality by the warmth 
of the spirit discovered. A monarch displays his 
munificence in the presents which he sends by his 
ambassadors to another monarch. A generous man 
will waive his claims, however powerful they may be, 
when the accommodation or relief of another is in 
question. A liberal spirit does not stop to inquire 
the reason for giving, but gives when the occasion 
offers. 

Munificence may spring either from ostentation or 
a becoming sense of dignity; ‘I esteem a habit of 
benignity greatly preferable to munificence.’—STEELE 
after Crczro. Generosity may spring either from a 
generous temper, or an easy unconcern about pro- 
perty; ‘We may with great confidence and equal 
truth affirm, that since there was such a thing as man- 
kind in the world, there never was any heart truly 
great and generous, that was not also tender and com- 
passionate.’—Soutu. Liberality of conduct is dic- 
tated by nothing but a warm heart and an expanded 
mind: ‘The citizen, above all other men, has opportu- 
nities of arriving at the highest fruit of wealth, to be 
iberal without the least expense of a man’s own for- 
tune.’—STEELE. Munificence is confined simply to 
giving, but we may be generous in assisting, and liveral 
in rewarding. 


165 


BENEVOLENCE, BENEFICENCE. 


Benevolence is literally, well-willing; beneficence is 
literally well doing. The former consists of intention, 
the latter of action: the former is the cause, the latter 
the result. Benevolence may exist without beneficence - 
hut beneficence always supposes benevolence: a man is 
not. said to be beneficent who does good from sinister 
views. The benevolent man enjoys but half his hap- 
piness if he cannot be beneficent; yet there will still 
remain to him an ample store of enjoyment in the 
contemplation of others’ happiness: the man who is 
gratified only with that happiness which he himself is 
the instrument of producing, is not entitled to the name 
of benevolent; ‘The pity which arises on sight of 
persons in distress, and the satisfaction of mind which 
is the consequence of having removed them into a 
happier state, are instead of a thousand arguments to 
prove such a thing as a disinterested benevolence.’— 
GROVE. 

As benevolence is an affair of the heart, and bene- 
Jicence of the outward conduct, the former is confined 
to no station, no rank, no degree of education or 
power: the poor may be benevolent as well as the rich, 
the unlearned as well as the learned, the weak as well 
as the strong: the latter on the contrary is controlled 
by outward circumstances, and is therefore principally 
confined to the rich, the powerful, the wise, and the 
learned; ‘He that banishes gratitude from among 
men, by so doing stops up the stream of beneficence : 
for though, in conferring kindness, a truly generous 
man doth not aim ata return, yet he looks to the quali- 
ties of the person obliged.,—Grove. 


BENEVOLENCE, BENIGNITY, HUMANITY 
KINDNESS, TENDERNESS. 


Benevolence is well-willing; benignity, in Lat. 
benignitas, from bene and gigno, signifies the quality 
or disposition for producing good; humanity, in French 
humanité, Latin humanitas, from humanus and homo, 
signifies the quality of belonging to man, or having 
what is common to man; kindness, the disposition to 
be kind, or the act which marks that disposition; 
tenderness, a tender feeling. 

Benevolence and benignity lie in the will; humanity 
lies in the heart; kindness and tenderness in the affec- 
tions; benevolence indicates a general good will to all 
mankind ; benignity a particular good will, flowing out 
of certain relations; humanity is a’ general tone of 
feeling; kindness and tenderness are particular modes 
of feeling. 

Benevolence consists in the wish or intention to do 
good: it is confined to no station or object: the dene- 
volent man may be rich or poor, and his benevolence 
will be exerted wherever there is an opportunity of 
doing good: benignity is always associated with power, 
and accompanied with condescension. 

Benevolence in its fullest sense is the sum of moral 
excellence, and comprehends every other virtue; wher 
taken in this acceptation, benignity, humanity, kind- 
ness,and tenderness, are but modes of benevolence. 

Benevolence and benignity tend to the communi. 
cating of happiness; humanity is concerned in the re- 
moval of evil. Benevolence is common to the Creator 
and his creatures; it differs only in degree; the former 
has the knowledge and power as well as the will to do 
good; man often has the will to do good without 
having the power to carry it into effect; ‘I have heard 
say, that Pope Clement XI. never passes through the 
people, who always kneel in crowds and ask his bene- 
diction, but the tears are seen to flow from his ey-s. 
This must proceed from an imagination that he is the 
father of all these people, and that he is touched with 
so extensive a benevolence, that it breaks out into a 
passion of tears.’—STEELE. Benignity is ascribed to 
the stars, to heaven, or to princes; ignorant and super- 
stitious people are apt to ascribe their good fortune to 
the benign influence of the stars rather than to the 
gracious dispensations of Providence; ‘A constant 
benignity in commerce with the rest of the world, 
which ought to run through all a man’s actions, has 
effects more useful to those whom you oblige, and is 
less ostentatious in yourself’—StTerLe. Humanity 
belongs to man only; it is his peculiar characteristick, 
and ought at all times to be his boast; when he throwa 
off this, his distinguishing badge, he loses every thing 
valuable in him; it is a virtue that is indispensable in 


166 


his present suffering condition humanity is as uni- 
versal in its application as benevolence ; wherever there 
is distress, humanity ‘lies to its relicf; humanity is, 
however, not merely an attribute of man; it is also 
the peculiar feeling for one’s fellow-creatures which 
exists in some men in a greater degree than in others; 
‘The greatest wits I have conversed with are men 
eminent for their humanity.—Appison. Kindness 
and tenderness are partial modes of affection, confined 
to those who know or are related to each other: we are 
kind to friends and acquaintances, tender towards those 
who are near and dear: kindness is a mode of atlec- 
tion most fitted for social beings; it is what every one 
can show, and every one is pleased to receive; ‘ Bene- 
ficence, would the followers of Epicurus say, is all 
founded in weakness; and whatever be pretended, 
the kindness that passeth between men and men is by 
every man directed to himself. This it must be con- 
fessed is of a piece with that hopeful philosophy 
which, having patched man up out of the four ele- 
ments, attributes his being to chance.—Grove. Ten- 
derness is a state of feeling that is sometimes praise- 
worthy: the young and the weak demand tenderness 
from those who stand in the closest connexion with 
them, but this feeling may be carried to an excess so 
as to injure the object on which it is fixed; ‘ Depend- 
ence is a perpetual call upon humanity, and a greater 
incitement to tenderness and pity than any other 
motive whatsoever.’—ADDISON. 

There are no circumstances or situation in life which 
preclude the exercise of benevolence ; next to the plea- 
sure of making others happy, the benevolent man 
rejoices in seeing them so: the benign influence of a 
benevolent monarch extends to the remotest corner of 
his dominions: benignity is a becoming attribute for 
a prince, when it does noi lead him to sanction vice by 
its impunity ; it is highly to be applauded in him as far 
as it renders him forgiving of minor offences, gracious 
to all who are deserving of his’favours, and ready to 
afford a gratification to all whom it is in his power to 
serve: the multiplied misfortunes to which all men are 
exposed afford ample scope for the exercise of Au- 
manity, which, in consequence of the unequal distri- 
bution of wealth, power, and talent, is peculiar to no 
situation of life; even the profession of arms does not 
exclude humanity from the breasts of its followers; and 
when we observe men’s habits of thinking in various 
situations, we may remark that the soldier, with arms 
by his side, iscommonly more humane than the partisan 
with arms in his hands. Kindness is always an 
amiable feeling, and in a grateful mind always begets 
kindness ; but it is sometimes ill bestowed upon selfish 
people, who requite it by making fresh exactions: 
tenderness is frequently little better than an amiable 
weakness, when directed to a wrong end, and fixed on 
an improper object; the false tenderness of parents 
has often been the ruin of children. 


BENEFIT, FAVOUR, KINDNESS, CIVILITY. 


Benefit signifies here that which benefits; favour, in 
French faveur, Latin favor and faveo to bear good 
will, signifies the act flowing from good will; kind- 
ness signifies an action that is kind; civility, that 
which is civil (wv. Crvii). 

The idea of an action gratuitously performed for the 
advantage of another is common to these terms. 

Benefits and favours are granted by superiours; 
kindnesses and civilities pass between equals. 

Benefits serve to relieve actual wants: the power of 
conferring and the necessity of receiving them, consti- 
tute the relative difference in station between the giver 
and the receiver: favours tend to promote the interest 
or convenience ; the power of giving and the advantage 
of receiving are dependent on local circumstances, 
more than on difference of station. Kindnesses and 
civilities serve to afford mutual accommodation by a 
reciprocity of kind offices on the many and various 
occasions which offer in human life; they are not so 
important as either benefits or favours, but they carry 
a charm with them which is not possessed by the 
former. Kindnesses are more endearing than civilities, 
and pass mostly between those who are known to each 
other: civilities may pass between strangers. 

Dependence affords an opportunity for conferring 
benefits ; partiality gives rise to favours: kindnesses 
are the result of personal regard + civilities of general 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


benevolence. A master confers his benefits on such of 
his domesticks as are entitled to encouragement for 
their fidelity. Men in power distribute their favours 
so as to increase their influence. Friends, in their 
intercourse with each other, are perpetually called upon 
to perform kindnesses for each other. There is no man 
so mean that he may not have it in his power to show 
civilities to those who are above him. 

Benefits tend to draw those closer to each other who 
by station in life are set at the greatest distance from 
each other: affection is engendered in him who bene 
fits ; and devoted attachment in him who is benefited ; 
‘[ think I have a right to conclude that there is such a 
thing as generosity in the world. Though if I were 
under a mistake in this, I should say as Cicero in rela- 
tion to the immortality of the soul, [ willingly err ; for 
the contrary notion naturally teaches people to be un- 
grateful by possessing them with a persuasion concern- 
ing their benefactors, that they have no regard to them 
in the benefits they bestow.’—Grovr. Favours in- 
crease obligation beyond its due limits; if they are 
not asked and granted with discretion, they may pro- 
duce servility on the one hand, and haughtiness on the 
other; ‘A favour well bestowed is almost as great an 
honour to him who confers it, as to him who receives 
it. What, indeed, makes for the superiour reputation 
of the patron in this case is, that he is always sur- 
rounded with specious pretences of unworthy candi- 
dates.,—STrEELE. Kindnesses are the offspring and 
parent of affection; they convert our multiplied wants 
into so many enjoyments; ‘Ingratitude is too base to 
return a kindness, and too proud to regard it.’—Souru. 
Civilities are the sweets which we gather in the way 
as we pass along the journey of life: ‘A common 
civility to an impertinent fellow often draws upon ons 
a great many unforeseen troubles.’—STEELE. 


BENEFIT, SERVICE, GOOD OFFICE. 


These terms, like the former (v. Benefit, favour), 
agree in denoting some action performed for the good 
of another, but they differ in the principle on which 
the action is performed. 

A benefit (v. Benefit, favour) is perfectly gratuitous, 
it produces an obligation: a service (v. Advantage) is 
not altogether gratuitous; itis that at least which may 
be expected, though it cannot be demanded: a gooa 
office is between the two; it is in part gratuitous, and 
in part such as one may reasonably expect. 

Benefits flow from superiours, and services from in- 
feriours or equals; but good offices are performed by 
equals only. Princes. confer benejits on their subjects ; 
subjects perform services for their princes; neighbours 
do good offices for each other. Benefits are sometimes 
the reward of services: good offices produce a return 
from the receiver. 

Benefits consist of such things as serve to relieve 
the difficulties, or advance the interests, of the re- 
ceiver: services consist in those acts which tend to 
lessen the trouble, or increase the ease and conveni 
ence of the person served: good offices consist in the 
employ of one’s credit, influence, and mediation for 
the advantage of another: it is a species of voluntary 
service. 

Humanity leads to benefits ; the zeal of devotion or 
friendship renders services ; general good-will dictates 
good offices. 

It is a great benefit to assist an embarrassed trades 
man out of his difficulty; ‘I have often pleased my 
self with considering the two kinds of benefits which 
accrue to the publick from these my speculations, and 
which, were I to speak after the manner of logicians, 
I should distinguish into the material and formal.’— 
Appison. It is a great service for asoldier to save the 
life of his commander, or for a friend to open the eyes 
of another to see his danger ; ‘ Cicero, whose learning 
and services to his country are so well known, wag 
inflamed by a passion for glory to an extravagant de- 
gree.’ Huenes. Itis a good office for any one to in 
terpose his mediation to settle disputes, and heal divi 
sions; ‘There are several persons who have many 
pleasures and entertainments in their possession whic 
they do not enjoy It is therefore a kind and goo¢ 
office to acquaint them with their own happiness.’— 
STEELE. 

Tt is possible to be loaded with benefits so as to affect 
one's independence of character. Services are some 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


ftmes a source of dissatisfaction and disappointment 
when they do not meet with the remuneration or re- 
turn which they are supposed to deserve. Good 
affices tend to nothing but the increase of good will. 

‘hose who perform them are too independent to ex- 
pect.a return, and those who receive them are too sen- 
sible of their value not to seek an opportunity of mak- 
ing a return. 


£0 OFFER, BID, TENDER, PROPOSE. 


Offer signifies the same as before (v. To Offer, exhi- 
bit) ; bid, in Saxon besdan, bidden to offer, old German 
buden, low German dbedan, high German dbieten, &c. 
comes in all probability from the Latin vito and znvito, 
from in and wiam, signifying to call into the way or 
measure of another; tender, like the word tend, from 
tendo to stretch, signifies to stretch forth by way of 
offering ; propose, in Latin proposui, perfect of pro- 
pono to place or set before, likewise characterizes a 
mode of offering. 

Offer is employed for that which is literally trans- 
ferable, or for that which is indirectly communicable: 
bid and tender belong to offer in the first sense ; pro- 
pose belongs to offer in the lattersense. To offer is a 
voluntary and discretionary act; the offer may be ac- 
cepted or rejected at pleasure; to bid and tender are 
specifick modes of offering which depend on circum- 
stances: one bids with the hope of its being accepted ; 
one tenders from a prudential motive, and in order to 
serve specifick purposes. We offer money to a poor 
person, it is an act of charity or good nature; or we 
offer a reward by way of inducing another to do a 
thing, which is an act of discretion ; 


Nor should thou offer all thy little store, 
Will rich Iolas yield but offer more.—DryDEN. 


Should all these offers for my friendship call, 
?T is he that effers, and_I scorn them all.—Pork. 


We bid a price for the purchase of a house, it isa 
commercial dealing subject to the rules of commerce ; 
‘To give interest a share in friendship, is to sell it by 
inch of candle; he that bids most shall have it; and 
when it is mercenary, there is no depending upon it.’ 
—Co.uier. We tender asum of money by way of 
payment, it is a matter of prudence in order to fulfil 
an obligation; ‘Aulus Gellius tells a story of one 
Lucius Neratius who made it his diversion to give a 
blow to whomsoever he pleased, and then tender them 
the legal forfeiture. —BLackstronz. By thesame rule 
one effers a person the use of one’s horse; one dids a 
sum at an auction; one tenders one’s services to the 
government. 

To offer andpropose are both employed in matters 
of practice or speculation; but the former is a less de- 
finite and decisive act than the latter; we offer an opi- 
nion by way of promoting a discussion ; we propose a 
plan for the deliberation of others. Sentiments which 
differ widely from those of the major part of the pre- 
sent company ought to be offered with modesty and 
caution ; ‘ Our author offers no reason.’—Lockr. We 
should not propose to another what we should be un- 
willing to do ourselves;'*We propose. measures for 
securing to the young the possession of pleasure (by 
connecting with it religion). —Buair. Wecommonly 
affer by way of obliging; we commonly propose by 
way of arranging or accommodating. It is an act of 
3uerility to offer to do more than one is enabled to per- 
‘orm; it does not evince a sincere disposition for peace 
.0 propose such terms as we know cannot be accepted; 

pon the proposal of an agreeable object, a man’s 
choice will rather ineline him to accept than refuse it.’ 

SoutTH. 


TO INVEST, ENDUE OR ENDOW. 


To invest, from vestio, signifies to clothe with any 
thing; endue or endow, from the Latin znduo, signifies 
to put on any thing. One is znvested with that which 
is external: one is endued with that which is internal. 
We invest a person with an office or a dignity: one 
endues & person with good qualities. The investment 
is a real external action; but endwe may be merely fic- 
titious or mental. The king is tnvested with supreme 
authority ; ‘A strict and efficacious constitution, indeed, 
which imvests the church with no power at all, but 
where men will be so civil as to obey it. —Soutn. A 


167 


lover endues his mistress with every earthly perfec- 
tion; ‘ As in the natural body, the eye does. not speak, 
nor the tongue see; so neither in the spiritual, is every 
one endued also with the gift and spirit of government. 
—Souru. Endow is but a variation of endue, and yet 
it seems to have acquired a distinct office: we may 
say that a person is endued or endowed with a good un 
derstanding ; but as an act of the imagination endow 
is not to be substituted for enduwe: for we do not say 
that it endows but endues things with properties. 


TO CONFER, BESTOW. 


Confer, in French conferer, Latin confero, com 
pounded of con and fero, siguifies to bring something 
towards a person, or place it upon him, in which sense 
it is allied to bestow (v. To give, grant). 

Conferring is an act of authority ; bestowing that 
of charity or generosity. Princes and men in power 
confer ; people in a private station bestow. Honours, 


j dignities, privileges, and rank, are the things conferred ; 


‘The conferring this honour upon him, would increase 
the credit he had.—CnLarenpon. Favours, kind- 
nesses, and pecuniary relief, are the things bestowed ; 
‘You always exceed expectations as if yours was 
not your own, but to bestow on wanting merit.’— 
DRYDEN. 

Merit, favour, interest, caprice, and intrigue, give rise 
to conferring ; necessity, solicitation, and private affec 
tion, lead to bestowing. England affords more than 
one instance in which the highest honours of the state 
have been conferred on persons of distinguished merit, 
though not of elevated birth: it is the characteristick 
of Christianity, that it inspires its followers with a 
desire of bestowing their goods on the poor and neces- 
sitous. 

Ii is not easy to confer a favour on the unthankful . 
the value of a kindness is greatly enhanced by the 
manner in which it is bestowed ; 


On him confer the poet’s sacred name, 
Whose lofty voice declares the heavenly flame. 
ADDISON. 


‘Tt sometimes happens, that even enemies and envious 
persons bestow the sincerest marks of esteem when they 
least design it.’—STErELE. 


TO MINISTER, ADMINISTER, CONTRIBUTE. 


To minister, from the noun minister, in the sense of 
a servant, signifies to act in subservience to another, 
either ina good, bad, or indifferent sense: we m2nister 
to the caprices or indulgences of another when we en- 
courage them unnecessarily ; or, we mintster to one 
who is entitled to our services; administer is taken in 
the good sense of serving another to his advantage: 
thus the good Samaritan administered to the comfort 
of the man who had fallen among thieves ; contribute, 
from the Latin contribwo, or con and tribuo to bestow, 
signifying to bestow for the same end, or for some 
particular: purpose, is taken in either a good or bad 
sense; we may contribute to the relief of the indi- 
ike or we may contribute to the follies and vices of 
others.’ 

It is the part of the Christian ‘ninister to minister to 
the spiritual wants of the flock intrusted to hischarge ; 
‘Those good men who take such pleasure in relieving 
the miserable: for Christ’s sake, would not have been 
less forward to minister unto Christ himself.’—ATTER- 
BuRY. It is the partof every Christian to administer, 
as far as lies in his power, comfort to thase who are in 
want, consolation to the afflicted, advice to those who 
ask for it, and require it ; help to those who are feeble, 
and support to those who cannot uphold themselves. 
On the same ground we speak of grace or spiritual 
gifts being administered ; ‘ By the universal adminis- 
tration of grace, begun by our blessed Saviour, en- 
larged by his Apostles, carried on by their immediate 
successors, and to be completed by the rest to the 
world’s end; all types that darkened this faith are en- 
lightened.’—Sprarr. It isthe part of all who are in 
high stations to contribute to the dissemination of reli- 
gion and morality among their dependants ; but there 
are, on the contrary, many who contribute to the 
spread of immorality, and a contempt of all sacred 
things, by the most pernicious example of irreligion in 
themselves; ‘Parents owe their children not on!y 


168 


material sebsistence for their body, but much more spi- 
ritual contributions for their mind.’—Dieny. As ex- 
pressing the act of unconscious agents, they beara 
similar distinction ; 

He flings the pregnant ashes through the air, 

And speaks a mighty prayer, 

Both which the minist’ring winds around all Egypt 

bear.—CowLeEy. 


Thus do our eyes, as do all common murrors, 

Successively reflect succeeding images; 

Not what they would, but must! a star or toad, 

Just as the hand of chance administers. 
CoNnGREVE. 


May from my bones anew Achilles rise, 

That shall infest the Trojan colonies 

With fire, and sword, and famine, when, at length, 

Time to our great attempts contributes strength. 
DENHAM. 


TO CONDUCE, CONTRIBUTE. 


To conduce, from the Latin conduco, or con and duco, 
signifying to bring together for the same end, is applied 
to that which serves the full purpose ; to contribute, as 
in the preceding article, is applied to that only which 
serves as a subordinate instrument: the former is al- 
ways taken in a good sense, the latter in a bad or good 
sense. Exercise conduces to the health; it contributes 
to give vigour to the frame. 

Nothing conduces more to the well-being of any 
community than a spirit of subordination among all 
ranks and classes: ‘It is to be allowed. that doing all 
honuur to the superiority of heroes above the rest of 
mankind, must needs conduce to the glory and advan- 
tage of a nation.’—Sreseie. A want of firmnessand 
vigilance in the government or magistrates contributes 
greatly to the spread of disaffection and rebellion; 
‘The true choice of our diet, and our companions at 
it, seems to consist in that which contributes most to 
cheerfulness and refreshment.’—FULLER. 

Schemes of ambition never conduce to tranquillity 
of mind. A single failure may contribute sometimes 
to involve a person in perpetual trouble. 


TAX, CUSTOM, DUTY, TOLL, IMPOST, 
TRIBUTE, CONTRIBUTION. 


Taz, in French taze, Latin tazo, from the Greek 
rdoow, Td&w, to dispose or put in order, signifies what 
is disposed in order for each to pay; custom signifies 
that which is given under certain circumstances, ac- 
cording to custom; duty, that which is given as a due 
or debt; toll, in Saxon toll, &c. Latin telonium, from 
the Greek réAos a custom, signifies a particular kind of 
custom or due. 

Tax is the most general of these terms, and applies 
to or implies whatever is paid by the people to the 
government, according to a certain estimate: the cus- 
toms are a species of tax which are less specifick than 
other taxes, being regulated by custom rather than any 
definite law ; the customs apply particularly to what 
was customarily given by merchants for the goods 
which they imported from abroad: the duty is a spe- 
cies of tax more positive and binding than the custom, 
being a specifick estimate of what is due upon goods, 
according to their value; hence it is not only applied 
to goods that are imported, but also to many other arti- 
cles of inland produce; toll isthat species of faz which 
serves for the repair of roads and havens. 

The preceding terms refer to that which is levied by 
authority on the people; but they do not directly ex- 
press the idea of levying or paying; impost, on the 
contrary, signifies literally that which is imposed; and 
tribute that which is paid or yielded: the former, 
therefore exclude that idea of coercion which is in- 
cluded in the latter. The taz is levied by the consent 
of many; the impost is imposed by the will of one; 
and the tribute is paid at the demand of one or a few; 
the tax serves for the support of thenation; the impost 
and the tribute serve to enrich a government. Con- 
querors lay heavy zmposts upon the conquered coun- 
tries; distant provinces pay a trzbute to the princes to 
whom they owe allegiance. Contribution signifies 
ihe tribute of many in unison, or for the same end; in 
this general sense it includes all the other terms; for 
taxes and imposts are alike paid by many for the same 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


purpose; but as the predominant idea in contribution 
is that of common consent, it supposes a degree of 
freedom in the agent which is incompatible with the 
exercise of authovity expressed by the other terms 
hence the term is with more propriety applied to those 
cases in which men voluntarily unite in giving towards 
any particular object; as charitable contributions, or 
contributions in support of a war; but it may be taken 
in the general sense of a forced payment, as in speak 
ing of military contribution. 


TAX, RATE, ASSESSMENT. 


Taz, agreeably to the above explanation (v. Taz), 
and rate, from the Latin ratus and reor to think or 
estimate, both derive their principal meaning from the 
valuation or proportion according to which any sum is 
demanded from the people; but the taz is imposed 
directly by the government for publick purposes, as 
the land taz, the window taz, and the like; and the 
rate is imposed indirectly for the local purposes of 
each parish, as the church rates, the poor rates, and 
the like. The taz or rate is a general rule or ratio, by 
which a certain sum is raised upon a given number of 
persons; the assessment is the application of that rule 
to the individual. 

The house-duty is a taz upon houses, according to 
their real or supposed value; the poor’s rate is a rate 
laid on the individual likewise, according to the value 
of his house, or the supposed rent which he pays; the 
assessment in both these, is the valuation of the house, 
which determines the sum to be paid by each indivi- 
dual: it is the business of the minister to make the 
tax; of the parish officers to make the rate; of the 
commissioners or assessors to make the assessment ; 
the former has the publick to consider; the latter the 
individual. An equitable tax must not bear harder 
upon one class of the community than another: an 
equitable assessment must not bear harder upon one 
inhabitant than another. 


TO ALLOT, ASSIGN, APPORTION, 
DISTRIBUTE. 


Allot is compounded of the Latin al or ad and the 
word lot, which owes its origin to the Saxon and othez 
northern langnages. It signifies literally to set apart 
as a particular lot; assign, in French assigner, Latin 
assigno, is compounded of as or ad and signo to sign, 
or mark to, or for, signifying to mark out for any one 
apportion is compounded of ap or ad and portion, sig- 
nifying to portion out for acertain purpose ; distribute, 
in Latin distributus, participle of dis and tribuo, sig 
nifies to bestow or portion out to several. 

To allot is to dispose on the ground of utility for the 
sake of good order; to assign is to communicate ac: 
cording to the merit of the object; to apportion is te 
regulate according to the due proportion; to distribute ° 
is to give in several distinct portions. 

A portion of one’s property is allotted to charitable 
purposes, or a portion of one’s time to religious medi- 
tation; ‘ Every one that has been long dead, has a due 
proportion of praise allotted him, in which, while he 
lived, his friends were too profuse, and his enemies too 
sparing.’—Appison. A prize is assigned to the most 
meritorious, or an honourable post to those whose 
abilities entitle them to distinction; I find by several 
hints in ancient authors, that when the Romans were 
in the height of power and luxury they assigned out 
of their vast dominions an island called Anticyra, as 
a habitation for madmen.—Srreiz. A person’s 
business is apportiored to the time and abilities he has 
for performing it; ‘Of the happiness and misery of 
our present condition, part is distributed by nature. 
and part is in a great measure apportioned by ourselves. 
—Jounson. A person’s alms ought to be distributed 
among those who are most indigent; 


From thence the cup of mortal man he fills, 
Blessings to these, to those distributes ills.—Porr 


When any complicated undertaking is to be per 
formed by a number of individuals, it is necessary to 
allot to each his distinct task. It is the part of a wise 
prince to assign the highest offices to the most worthy 
and to apportion to every one of his ministers an em- 
ployment suited to his peculiar character and qualifi 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


eations; te business of the state thus distributed will 
proceed with regularity and exactitude. 


TO ALLOT, APPOINT, DESTINE. 


To allot is taken in a similar sense as in the pre- 
ceding article; appoint, in French appointer, Latin 
appono, that is, ap or ad and pono to place, signifies to 
put in a particular place, or in a particular manner ; 
destine, in Latin destino, compounded of de and stino, 
sto or siste, signifies to place apart. 

illot is used only for things, appoint and destine for 
persons or things. A space of ground is allotted for 
cultivation; a person is appointed »s steward or go- 
vernour; a youth is destined for a particular profes- 
sion. Allotments are mostly made in the time past or 
present; they are made for a special purpose, and ac- 
cording to a given design, whence we may speak of 
the allotments of Providence; ‘It is unworthy a rea- 
sonable being to spend any of the little time allotéed 
us without some tendency, direct or oblique, to the 
end of our existence.’—JoHNSON. dppointments re- 
spect either the present or the future; they mostly re- 
gard matters of human prudence; ‘ Having notified to 
my good friend, Sir Roger, that I should set out for 
London the next day, his horses were ready at the 
appointed hour.’—StTEELE. Destinations always re- 
spect some distant purposes, and include preparatory 
measures; they may be either the work of God or 
man; ‘Look round and survey the various beauties of 
the globe, which Heaven has destined for man, and 
consider whether a world thus exquisitely framed 
could be meant for the abode of misery and pain.’— 
Jounson. A conscientious man allots a portion of 
his annual income to the relief of the poor; when 
publick meetings are held it is necessary to appoint a 
particular day for the purpose: our plans in ‘life are 
defeated by a thousand contingencies: the man who 
builds a house is not certain he will live to use it for 
the purpose for which it was destined. 


DESTINY, FATE, LOT, DOOM. 


Destiny, from destine (v. To appoint) signifies either 
ehe power that destines, or the thing destined; fate, in 
Latin fatwm, participle of for to speak or decree, sig- 
nifies that which is decreed, or the power that decrees ; 
lot, in German loos, signifies a ticket, die, or any other 
thing by which the casual distribution of things is de- 
termined; and in an extended sense, it expresses the 
portion thus assigned by chance; doom, in Saxon dome, 
Danish dém, most probably like the word deem, comes 
from the Hebrew f°} to judge, signifying the thing 
judged, spoken, or decreed. 

All these terms are employed with regard to human 
events which are not under one’s control: among the 
heathens destiny and fate were considered as deities, 
who each in his way could direct human affairs, and 
were both superiour even to Jupiter himself; the Des- 
tinies, or Parce as they were termed, presided only over 
life and death; but fate was employed in ruling the 
general affairs of men. Since revelation has instructed 
mankind in the nature and attribwtes of the true God, 
these blind powers are now not acknowledged to exist 
in the overruling providence of an all-wise and an 
all-good Being; the terms destiny and fate therefore 
have now only a relative sense, as to what happens 
without the will or control of the individual who is the 
subject of it. 

_ Destiny is used in regard to one’s station and walk 
in life; fate in regard to what one suffers ; Jot in regard 
to what one gets or possesses ; and doom is that portion 
of one’s destiny or fate which depends upon the will 
of another: destiny is marked out; fate is fixed; a lot 
is assigned; a doom is passed. 

_ It was the destiny of Julius Cesar to act a great part 
in the world, and to establish a new form of govern- 
ment at Rome; it was his fate at last to die by the 
hands of assassins, the chief of whom had been his 
avowed friends; had he been contented with an hun: 
bler lot than that of an empire, he might have enjoyed 
honours, riches, and a long life; his doom was sealed 
by the last step which he took in making himself em- 
peror: it is not permitted for us to inquire into our 
future destiny ; it is our duty to submit to our fate 
to be contented with our lot, and prepared for our 


169 


doom; a parent may have great influence over the 
destiny of his child, by the education he gives to him 
or the principles he instils into his mind ; 


If death be your design—at least, said she, 
Take us along toshare your destiny.— DRYDEN. 


There are many who owe their unhappy fate entirely 
to the want of early habits of piety ; 


The gods these armies and this force employ, 
The hostile gods conspire the fate of Troy.—Porr 


Riches and poverty may be assigned to us as our lot, 
but the former will not ensure us happiness, nor the 
latter prevent us from being happy if we have a con 
tented temper ; 


To labour is the lot of man below, 
And when Jove gave us life, he gave us wo. 
Popx 


Criminals must await the doom of an earthly judge; 
but all men, as sinners, must meet the doom which is 
prepared for them atthe awful day of judgement; 


Oh! grant me, gods! ere Hector meets his doom, 
All Ican ask of Heav’n, anearly tomb.—Porr. 


It is the destiny of some men to be always changing 
their plan of life; it is but too frequently the fate of 
authors to labour for the benefit of mankind, and to 
reap nothing for themselves but poverty and neglect; 


it is the lot but of very few, to enjoy what they them 
selves consider a competency. 


DESTINY, DESTINATION. 


Both destiny and destination are used for the thing 
destined; but the former is said in relation to a man’s 
important concerns, the latter only of particular cir- 
cumstances; in which sense it may likewise be em- 
ployed for the act of destining. 

Destiny is the point or line marked out in the walk 
of life ; destination is the place fixed upon in particular: 
as every man has his peculiar destiny, so every tra- 
veller has his particular destination. Destiny is alto- 
gether set above human control; no man can deter- 
mine, though he may influence the destiny of another: 
destination is, however, the specifick act of an indivi- 
dual, either for himself or another: we leave the des- 
tény of a man to develope itself; but we may inquire 
about his own destination, or that of his children: itis 
a consoling reflection that the destinies of short-sighted 
mortals, like ourselves, are in the hands of One who 
both can and will overrule them to our advantage if we 
place full reliance in Him: 


At the pit of Acheron 
Meet one?’ th’ morning; thither he 
Wiil come to know his destiny —SHAKSPEARE. 


In the destination of children for their several profes- 
sions or callings, it is of importance to consult their par- 
ticular turn of mind, as well as inclination; ‘ Moore’s 
original destination appears to have been for trade’ -- 
JOHNSON. 


TO SENTENCE, DOOM, CONDEMN. 


To sentence, or pass sentence, is to give a final opi- 
nion or decision which is to influence the fate of an 
object ; condemn, from damnum a loss, is to pass such a 
sentence as shall be to the hurt of an object: doom, 
which is a variation from damnum, has the same mean- 
ing. 

Sentence is the generick, the two others specifick terms. 
Sentence and condenin are used in the juridical as well 
as the moral sense; doom is employed in the moral 
sense only. In the juridical sense, sentence is indefi- 
nite; condemm is definite: acriminal may be sentenced 
to a mild or severe punishment; he is always con- 
demned to that which is severe; he is sentenced to im 
prisonment, or transportation, or death: he is con 
pe to the galleys, to transportation for life, or to 

eath. 

In the moral application they are in like manner dis- 
tinguished. ‘To sentence is a softer term than to con 
demn, and this is less than to doom, Sentence applies 
to inanimate objects; condemn and doom only to per- 
sons or that which is personal. An author is sentenced 
by the decision of the publick to suffer neglect ; a thing 
is sentenced #9 be thrown away which is esteemed as 
worthless ; we may be condemned to hear the prating ot 


170 


a loquacious person; we may be doomed to spend our 
lives in penury and wretchedness. Sentence, particu- 
larly when employed as a noun, may even be favour- 
able to the interests of a person; condemn is always 
prejudicial, either to his interest, his comfort, or his re- 
putation ; doom is always destructive of his happiness, 
itis that which always runs most counter tothe wishes 
of an individual It is of importance for an author, 
that a critick should pronounce a favourable sentence on 
his works; ‘Let him set out some of Luther’s works ; 
that by them we may pass sentence upon his doctrines.’ 
—ATTrERBURY. But, in the signification of a sentence 
passed by a judge, it is, when absolutely taken, always 
in a bad sense; ‘ At the end of the tenth book the poet 
ieins this beautiful circumstance, that they offered up 
their penitential prayers on the very place where their 
judge appeared to them when he pronounced their sen- 
tence.—Apvpison. Immoral writers are justly con- 
demned to oblivion or perpetual infamy ; ‘ Liberty 
(Thomson’s Liberty) called in vain upon her votaries 
to read her praises, her praises were condemned to har- 
bour spiders and gather dust..—Jounson. Some of 
the best writers have been doomed to experience ne- 
glect in their life time; ‘Even the abridger, compiler, 
and translator, though their labours cannot be ranked 
with those of the diurnal biographer, yet must not be 
tashly doomed to annihilation. JoHNson. 

A sentence and condemnation is always the act of 
some person or conscious agent : doom is sometimes the 
fruit of circumstances. Tarquin the Proud was sen- 
tenced by the Roman people to be banished from Rome: 
Regalus was condemned to the most cruel death by the 
Carthaginians; many writers have been doomed to 
pass their lives in obscurity and want, whose works 
have acquired for them lasting honours after their 
death. 


CHANCE, FORTUNE, FATE. 
Chance, probably contracted from the Latin cadens 
falling, is here considered as the cause of what falls out; 
fortunc, in French fortune, Latin fortuna, from fors 


chance, in Hebrew Sa > fate signifies the same as in 
the preceding article. ‘These terms have served at all 


times as cloaks for human ignorance, and before man- | 


kind were favoured by the light of Divine Revelation, 
they had an imaginary importance which has now hap- 
pily vanished. 

Believers in Divine Providence no longer conceive 
the events of the world as left to themselves, or as 
under the control of any unintelligent or unconscious 
agent, but ascribe the whole to an overruling mind, 
which, though invisible to the bodily eye, is clearly to 
be traced by the intellectual eye, wherever we turn our- 
selves. In conformity however to the preconceived 
notions attached to these words, we now employ them 
in regard to the agency of secondary causes. Buthow 
far a Christian may use them without disparagement to 
the majesty of the Divine Being, it is notso much my 
business to inquire, as to define their ordinary accep- 
tation; ‘Some there are who utterly proscribe the 
name of chance as a word of impious and profane sig- 
nification : and indeed if it be taken by us in that sense 
in which it was used by the heathens, so as to make 
any thing casual in respect of God himself, their excep- 
tion ought to be admitted. Butto saya thing is achance 
or casualty as it relates to second causes, is not profane- 
ness, but a great truth.’ —SouTtu. 

In this ordinary sense, chance is the generick, fortune 
and fate are specifick terms: chance applies to all things 
personal or otherwise: fortune and fate are mostly said 
ef that which is personal. 

Chance neither forms orders nor designs: neither 
knowledge nor intention is attributed to it; its events 
are uncertain and variable; 


Chance aids their daring with unhop’d success. 
DRYDEN. 


Fortune forms plans and designs, but without choice; 
we attribute to it an intention without discernment; it 
is said to be blind; ‘ We should learn that none but in- 
tellectual possessions are what we can properly call our 
own. All things from without are but borrowed. 
What fortune gives us is not ours, and whatever she 
gives she cantake away.’—STEELE. Fate forms plans 
and chains of causes; intention, knowledge, and power 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


are attributed to it: its views are fixed, its results de- 
cisive ; ‘ 
Since fate divides then, since I must lose thee, 
For pity’s sake, for love’s, oh! suffer me, 
Thus languishing, thus dying, to approach thee; 
And sigh my last adieu upon thy bosom.—Trape 


A person goes as chance directs him when he has no 
express object to determine his choice one way or 
other; his fortune favours him, if without any expec- 
tation he gets the thing he wishes; his fate wills it, if 
he reaches the desired point contrary to what he in- 
tended. ; 

Men’s success in their undertakings depends oftener 
on chance than on their ability: we are ever ready to 
ascribe to ourselves what we owe to our good fortune ; 
It 1s the fate of some men to fail in every thing they 
undertake. 

_ When speaking of trivial matters, this language is 
unquestionably innocent, and any objection to their use 
must spring from an over scrupulous conscience. 

If I suffer my horse to direct me in the road I take 
to London, I may fairly attribute it to chance if I take 
the right instead of the left; if I meet with an agree- 
able companion by the way I shall not hesitate to call it 
my good fortune that led me to take one road in prefer- 
ence to another ; if in spite of any previous intention 
to the contrary, I should be led to take the same road 
repeatedly, and as often to meet with an agreeable 
companion, I shall immediately say that is my fate to 
meet with an agreeable companion whenever | go to 
London. 


—— + 


CHANCE, PROBABILITY. 


Chance signifies the same as in the preceding article; 
probability, in French probabilité, Latin probabititas, 
from probabilis and probo to prove, signifies the quality 
of being able to be proved or made good. 

These terms are both employed in forming an esti- 
mate of future events; but the chance is either for or 
against, the probability is always for a thing. Chance 
is but a degree of probability; there may in this latter 
case be a chance where there is no probability. A 
chance affords a possibility ; many chances are requisite 
to constitute a probability. 

What has been once may, under similar circum 
stances, be again; for that thereis a chance; what has 
fallen to one man may fall to another; so far he has a 
chance in his favour; but in all the chances of life there 
will be no probability of success, where a man does not 
unite industry with integrity ; 

Thus equal deaths are dealt with equal chance, 
By turns they quit their ground, by turns advance. 
DRyDEN. 


Chance cannot be calculated upon; it is apt to produce 
disappointment: probability justifies hope; it is sanc- 
tioned by experience; ‘‘‘ There never appear,” says 
Swift, ‘‘ more than five or six men of genius in an age, 
but if they were united the world could not stand before 
them.’’ It is happy therefore for mankind that of this 
union there is no probability.’ JoHNsON. 


f CHANCE, HAZARD, . 


Chance signifies the same as in the preceding article , 
hazard comes from the oriental zar and ¢zar, signifying 
any thing bearing an impression, particularly the dice 
used in chance games, which is called by the Italians 
zara, and by the Spaniards azar. 

Both these terms are employed to mark the course ot 
future events, which is not discernible by the human 
eye. With the Deity there is neither chance nor hazard; 
his plans are the result of omniscience: but the designs 
and actions of men are all dependent on: chance or 
hazard. Chance may be favourable or unfavourable, 
more commonly the former; hazard is always unfa 
vourable: itis properly a species of chance. There isa 
chance either of gaining or losing: there is a hazard of 
losing. _In:most speculations the chance of succeeding 
scarcely outweighs the hazard of losing; 

Against ill chances men are ever merry, 
But heaviness foreruns the good event. 
SHAKSPEARE 
‘Though wit and learning are certain and habitual 
perfections of the mind, yet the declaration of them 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


which alone brings the repute, is subject to a thousand 
kazards.’—SouTH 


TO HAZARD, RISK, VENTURE. 


Hazard signifies the same as in the preceding article; 
risk may be traced to the French risque, the Italian 
rischio, and the Spanish riesgo, and has been further 
traced by Meursius to the barbarous Greek word piQnKoy 
fortune or chance, but its more remote derivation is 
uncertiin ; venture is the same as adventure. 

All ‘hese terms denote actions performed under an 
uncertainty of the event; but hazard bespeaks a want 
of design and choice on the part of the agent; to risk 
implies a choice of alternatives; to venture, a calcula- 
tion and balance of probabilities: one hazards and 
risks under the fear of an evil; one ventures with the 
hope of agood. He who hazards an opinion or an as- 
sertion does it from presumptuous feelings and upon 
slight grounds; chances are rather against him than for 
him that it may prove erroneous; 


e 
They list with women each degenerate name 
Who dares not hazard life for future fame. 
DryDEN. 


He who risks a battle does it often from necessity ; he 
who chooses the least of two evils, although the event 
is dubious, yet he fears less from a failure than from 
inaction ; ‘If the adventurer risques honour, he risques 
more than the knight.—HawkrswortH. He who 
ventures on a mercantilespeculation does it from a love 
of gain; he flatters himself with a favourable event, 
and acquires beldness from the prospect ; ‘Socrates, in 
his discourse before his death, says, he did not know 
whether his body shall (would) remain after death, but 
hethought so, and had such hopes of it that he was 
very willing to venture his life upon these hopes,’—T1.- 
LOTSON, 

There are but very few circumstances to justify us 
in hazarding ; there may be several occasions which 
render it necessary to risk, and very many cases in 
which it may be advantageous to venture. 


DANGER, PERIL, HAZARD. 


Danger, in French danger, comes from the Latin 
damnum a loss or damage, signifying the chance of a 
loss; peril, in French peril, comes from pereo, which 
signifies either to go over, or to perish, and periculum, 
which signifies literally that which is undergone; de- 
signating a critical situation, a rude trial, which may 
terminate in one’s ruin; Aazard signifies the same as 
in the preceding article 

The idea of chance or uncertainty is common to all 
these terms; but the two former may sometimes be 
roreseen and calculated upon ; the latter is purely con- 
tingent. Danger and peril are applied to a positive 
evil; hazard may simply respect the loss of a good; 
risks are voluntarily run from the hope of good: there 
may be many dangers included ix ahazard; and there 
cannot be a hazard without some danger. 

A general hazards a battle, in order to disengage 
himself from a difficulty ; he may by this step involve 
himself in imminent danger of losing his honour or his 
life; but it is likewise possible that by his superiour 
skill he may set both out of all danger: we are hourly 
exposed to dangers which no human foresight can 
guard against, and are frequently induced to engage in 
enterprises at the hazard of our lives, and of all that 
we hold dear; 


One was their care, and their delight was one; 
One common hazard in the war they shared. 
DRYDEN. 


Dangers are far and near, ordinary and extraordi- 
nary ; they meet us if we do not go in search of them; 


Proud of the favours mighty Jove has shown, 
On certain dangers we too rashly run.—Popr. 


Perils are always distant and extraordinary ; we must 
go out of our course to expose ourselves tothem: inthe 
quiet walk of life as in the most busy and tumultuous, 
it is the lot of man to be surrounded by danger ; he has 
nothing which heis notin danger of losing; and knows 
of nothing which he is not in danger of suffering: the 
mariner and the traveller who go in search of unknown 


171 


countries put themsélves in the way of undergoing 
perils both by sea and land ; 


From that dire deluge through the watery waste, 
Such length of years, such various perils past, 
At last escaped, to Latium we repair.—DrypeEn. 


The same distinction exists between the epithets that 
are derived from these terms. 

It is dangerous for a youth to act without the advice 
of his friends; itis perdlous for a traveller to explore 
the wilds of Africa: it is hazardous for a merchant to 
speculate in time of war: experiments in matters of 
policy or government are always dangerous ; 


Hear this and tremble! all who would be great, 
Yet know not what attends that dang’rous, wretched 
state.—JENYNS. 


A journey through deserts that are infested with beasts 
of prey is perilous ; 

The grisly boar issingled from his herd, 

A match for Hercules; round him they fly 

In circles wide, and each in passing send: 

His feather’d death into his brawny sides; 

But perilous th’ attempt.—SomMERVILLE. 


A military expedition conducted with inadequate 
means is hazardous ; ‘The previous steps being taken, 
and the time fixed for this hazardous attempt, Admiral 
Holmes moved with his squadron farther up the river, 
about three leagues above the place appointed for the 
disembarkation, that he might deceive the enemy’ ~— 
SMOLLET. 


TO HAPPEN, CHANCE. 


To happen, that is, to fall out by a hap, is to chance 
(v. Chance, fortune) as the genus to the species ; what- 
ever chances happens, but not vice versd. Happen re- 
spects all events without including any collateral idea; 
chance comprehends, likewise, the idea of the cause 
and order of events: whatever comes to pass happens, 
whether regularly in the course of things, or particu- 
larly, and out of the order; whatever chances happens 
altogether without concert, intention, and often without 
relation to any other thing. Accidents happen daily 
which no human foresight could prevent; the newspa- 
pers contain an account of all that happens in the 
course of the day or week ; 


With equal mind what Aappens let us bear, 
Nor joy, nor grieve too much forthings beyond our care. 
DrypDen. 


Listeners and busy bodies are ready to catch every 
word that chances to fall in their hearing; ‘ An idiot 
chancing to live within the sound of a clock, always 
amused himself with counting the hour of the day 
whenever the clock struck; but the clock being spoiled 
by accident, the idiot continued to count the hour 
without the help of it..— Apptson. 


ACCIDENT, CHANCE. 


Accident, in French accident, Latin accidens, parti. 
ciple of acctdo to happen, compounded of ac or ad and 
cado to fall, signifies the thing fal4ing out; chance (v. 
Chance, fortune.) 

Accident is said of things that have been; chance of 
things that are to be. That is an accident which is 
done without intention: that is a chance which cannot 
be brought about by the use of means. Itis an accident 
when a house falls: it is a chance when and _ how it 
may fall; * That little accident of Alexander’s taking a 
fancy to bathe himself caused the interruption of his 
march ; and that interruption gave occasion to that 
great victory that founded the third monarchy of the 
world.’—Soutu. ‘Surely there could not be a greater 
chance than that which brought to light the Powder- 
Treason.’—Souru. 

Accidents cannot be prevented : chances cannot be 
calculated upon. Accidents may sometimes be reme- 
died; chances can never be controlled: accidents give 
rise to sorrow, they mostly occasion mischief; chances 
give rise to hope; they often produce disappointment: 
it is wise to dwell upon neither. 


172 


ACCIDENT, CONTINGENCY, CASUALTY. 


Accident signifies the same as in the preceding arti- 
cle; contingency, in French contingence, Latin contin- 
gens, participle of contingo, compounded of con and 
tango to touch one another, signifies the falling out or 
happening together ; or the thing that happens in con- 
junction with another; casualty, in French casualté, 
from the Latin casualis and cado to fall or happen, sig- 
nifies what happens in the course of events. 

These words imply whatever takes :Jace independ- 
ently of our intentions. Accidents express more than 
contingencies ; the former comprehend events with 
their causes and consequences; the latter respect colla- 
teral actions, or circumstances appended to events; 
casualties have regard simply to circumstances. cc7- 
dents are frequently occasioned by carelessness, and 
contingencies by trivial mistakes; but casualties are 
altogether independent of ourselves. 

The overturning a carriage is an accident; our 
situation in a carriage, at the time, is a contingency, 
which may occasion us to be more or Jess hurt; the 
passing of any one at the time is a casualty. Weare 
all exposed to the most calamitous accidents ; ‘ This 
natural impatience to look into futurity, and to know 
what accidents may happen to us hereafter, has given 
birth to many ridiculous arts and inventions.’-—App1- 
son. The happiness or misery of every man depends 
upon a thousand contingencies ; ‘ Nothing less than 
infinite wisdom can have an absolute command over 
fortune ; the highest degree of it which man can pos- 
sess is by no means equal to fortuitous events, and to 
such contingencies as may rise in the prosecution of 
our affairs.—Appison. The best concerted scheme 
may be thwarted by casualties, which no human fore- 
sight can prevent ; ‘Men are exposed to more casualties 
than women, as battles, sea-voyages, with several dan- 
gerous trades and professions ADDISON. 


ACCIDENTAL, INCIDENTAL, CASUAL, CON- 
TINGENT. 


Accidental belonging to or after the manner of an 
accident (v. Accident) : incidental, from incident, in 
Latin incidens and incido or in and cado to fall upon, 
signifies belonging to a thing by chance; casual after 
the manner of a chance or casualty; and contingent, 
after the manner of a contingency. 

Accidental is opposed to what is designed or planned, 
‘neidental to what is premeditated, caswal to what is 
tonstant and regular, contingent to what is definite and 
‘iixed. A meeting may be accidental, an expression 
incidental, alook, expression, &c. caswal, an expense or 
circumstance contingent. We do not expect what is 
accidental ; we do not suspect or guard against what 
is incidental ; we do not heed what is casual ; we are 
not prepared for what is contingent. Many of the 
most fortunate and important occurrences in our lives 
are accidental; many remarks, seemingly incidental, 
do in reality conceal a settled intent, ‘This book fell 
accidentally into the handsof one who had never seen 
ut before.—Anpison. ‘The distempers of the mind 
may be figuratively classed under the several charac- 
ters of those maladies which are incidental to the 
body.—CumMBERLAND. A caswal remark in the course 
of conversation will sometimes make a stronger im- 
pression on the minds of children than the most elo- 
quent and impressive discourse or repeated counsel ; 
‘Savage lodged as much hy accident and passed the 
night sometimes in mean houses, which are set open at 
night to any casual wanderers.’—Jounson. In the 
prosecution of any plan we ought to be prepared for the 
numerous contingencies which we may meet with to 
interfere with our arrangements; ‘We see how a con- 


tingent event baffles man’s knowledge and evades his 
power.’—Sout 


EVENT, INCIDENT, ADVENTURE, OCCUR- 
RENCE. 


Event, in Latin eventus, participle of envenio to 
come out, signifies thate which falls out or turns up; 
incident, in Latin incidens, from incido, signifies that 
which falls in or forms a collateral part of any thing 
(v. Accidental) ; adventure, from the Latin advenio to 
come to, signifies what comes to or befalls one; occur- 
rence, from the Latin occurro, signifies that which 
runs or comes in the way. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


These terms are expressive of what passes in the 
world, which is the sole signification of the term 
event ; while to that of the other terms are annexed 
some accessary ideas: an incident is a personal event: 
an accident an unpleasant event; an adventure an 
extraordinary event ; an occurrence an ordinary or do 
mestick event: event in its ordinary and unlimited ae 
ceptation excludes the idea of chance; accident ex 
cludes that of design ; incident, adventure, and occur 
rence, are applicable in both cases. 

Events affect nations and communities as well as 
individuals; cnczdents and adventures affect particular 
individuals; accidents and occurrences affect persons 
or things particularly or generally, individually or col- 
lectively: the making of peace, the loss of a battle, or 
the death of a prince, are national events ; a marriage 
or a death are domestick events ; ‘ These events, the 
permission of which seems to accuse his goodness 
now, may, in the consummation of things, both mag- 
nify his goodness and exalt his wisdom.’—ADDISON 
The forming a new acquaintance and the revival of 
an old one are éncidents that have an interest for the 
parties concerned ; ‘I have laid before you only small 
incidents seemingly frivolous, but they are principally 
evils of this nature which nake marriages unhappy.’— 
Sreete. An escape from shipwreck, an encounter 
with wild beasts or savages, are adventures which indi- 
viduals are pleased to relate, and cthers to hear; 


For I must love, and am resolv’d to try : 
My fate, or failing in the adventure, die—DryDEN 


A fire, the fall of a house, the breaking of a limb are 
accidents or occurrences ; a robbery or the death of indi- 
viduals are properly occurrences which afford subjects 
for a newspaper, and excite an interest in the reader; 
‘1 think there is somewhere in Montaigne mention 
made of a family book, wherein all the occurrences 
that happened from one generation of that house to an 
other were recorded.’—STEELE. 

Event, when used for individuals, is always of 
greater importance than an zacident. The settlement 
of a young person, in life, the adoption of an employ 
ment, or the taking a wife, are events, but not incidents ; 
while on the other hand the setting out on a journey or 
the return, the purchase of a house or the despatch of 
a vesse’, are characterized asincidents and not events. 

It is farther to be observed that incident, event, and 
occur ence are said only of that which is supposed 
really to happen: incidents and adventures are often 
fictitious ; in this case the zmcident cannot be too im 
portant, nor the adventure too marvellous. History 
records the events of nations; plays require to be full of 
incident in order to render them interesting; ‘No 
person, no zncident in the play, but must be of use to 
carry on the main design..-Dryprn. Romances and 
novels derive most of their charms from the extra 
vagance of the adventures which they describe; ‘'To 
make an episode, “take any remaining adventure of 
your former collection,” in which you could no way 
involve your hero, or any unfortunate accident that was 
too good to be thrown away.’—-Pors. Periodical 
works supply the publick with information respecting 
daily occurrences. 


———= 


CIRCUMSTANCE, INCIDENT, FACT. 


Circumstance, in Latin circumstantia, from circum 
and sto, signifies what stands about a thing or belongs 
to it as its accident; incident signifies the same as 
before ; fact, in Latin factum, participle of facio to do, 
signifies the thingdone. 

Circumstance is a general term; incident and fact 
are species of circumstances. Incident is what hap- 
pens ; fact is what is done; circumstance is not only 
what happens and is done, but whatever is or belongs 
to athing. To every thing are annexed circumstances 
either of time, place, age, colour, or other collateral ap- 
pendages which change its nature. Every thing that 
moves and operates is exposed to incidents, effects are 
produced, results follow, and changes are brought 
about; these are incidents : whatever moves and ope- 
rates does, and what it produces is done or is the fact: 
when the artificer performs any work of art, it depends 
not only on his skill, but on the excellence of his tools, 
the time he employs, the particular frame of his mind, 
the place where he works, witha variety of other cir 
cumstances whether he will succeed in producing any 
thing masterly. Newspapers abound with the various 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


sncedenis whiah occur in the animal or the vegetable 
world, some of which are surprising and singular; they 
likewise contain a number of facts which serve to 
present a melancholy picture of human depravity. 
Circumstance isas often employed with regard to the 
operations of things, in which case it is most ana- 
logous to incident and fact; it may then be employed 
for the whole affair, or any part of it whatever, that 
can be distinctly considered. Incidents and facts either 
are circumstances, or have circumstances belonging to 
them. A remarkably abundant crop in any particular 
part of a field is for the agriculturist a singular circum- 
stance or incident ; this may be rendered more surpris- 
ing if associated with unusual sterility in other parts 
of the same field. A robbery may either be a fact ora 
circumstance ; its atrocity may be aggravated by the 
murder of the injured parties; the savageness of the 
perpetrators, and a variety of circwmstances. 
Circumstance comprehends in its signification what- 
ever may be said or thought of any thing: ‘ You very 
often hear people after a story has been told with some 
entertaining circumstances, tell it again with parti- 
culars that destroy the jest.’ —STEga.ie. Incident carries 
with it the idea of whatever may befall or be said to 
befall any thing; ‘It is to be considered that Provi- 
dence in its economy regards the whole system of time 
and things together, so that we cannot discover the 
beautiful connexion between incidents which lie widely 
separate in time.—Appison. Facé includes ia it 
nothing but what really is or is done ; ‘In describing 
the achievements and institutions of the Spaniards in 
the New World, I have departed in many instances 
from the accounts of preceding historians, and have 
often related facts which seem to have been unknown 
to thein.—Rosertson. A narrative therefore may 
contain many circumstances and incidents without any 
fact, when what is related is either fictitious or not 
positively known to have happened: it is necessary for 
a novel or play to contain much incident, but no facts, 
in order to render it interesting; history should contain 
nothing but facts, as authenticity is its chief merit. 


CIRCUMSTANCE, SITUATION. 


Circumstance signifies the same as in the preceding 
article; sitwation, in French situation, comes from the 


Latin situs, and the Hebrew f\jy to place, signifying 
what is placed in a certain manner. 

Circumstance is to situation as a part to a whole; 
many circumstances constitute a situation; a situation 
isan aggregate of circumstances. A personis said to be 
in circumstances of affluence who has an abundance of 
every thing essential for his comfort ; he is in an easy 
situation When nothing exists to create uneasiness. 

Circumstance respects that which externally affects 
US; situation is employed both for the outward circum- 
stances and the inward feelings. The success of any 
undertaking depends greatly on the circumstances under 
which it is begun; ‘ As for the ass’s behaviour in such 
nice circumstances, whether he would starve sooner 
than violate his neutrality to the two bundles of hay, I 
shall not presume to determine.’—Appison. The par- 
ticular situation of a person’s mind will give a cast to 
his words or actions; ‘We are not at present in a 
proper sztwatzon to judge of the councils by which Provi- 
dence acts..—Appison. Circumstances are critical, a 
situation is dangerous. 


CIRCUMSTANTIAL, PARTICULAR, MINUTE. 


Circumstantial, from circumstance, signifies con- 
sisting of circumstances ; particular, in French parti- 
culier, from the word particle, signifies consisting of 
particles; minute, in French minute, Latin minutus, 
participle of minuo to diminish, signifies diminished or 
reduced to a very small point. 

Circumstantial expresses less than particular, and 
that less than minute. A circumstantial account con- 
tains all leading events; a particular account includes 
every event and movement however trivial; a minute 
account omits nothing as to person, time, place, figure, 
form, and every other trivial circumstance connected 
with the events. A narrative may be circumstantial, 
particular, ot minute ; an inquiry, investigation, or de- 
scription may be particular or minute, a detail may be 
minute. An event or occurrence may be particular, a 
strcumstance OY particular may be minute. We may 


173 


be generally satisfied with a circumstantial account of 
ordinary events; but whatever interests the feelings 
cannot be detailed with too much particularity or mi- 
nuteness; ‘Thomson’s wide expansion of general 
views and his enumeration of circumstantial varieties, 
would have been obstructed and embarrassed by the 
frequent intersections of the sense which are the neces 

sary effects of the rhyme.’—Jounson. ‘Iam extremely 
troubled at the return of your deafness ; you cannot be 
too particular in the accounts of your health to me.’— 
Porrz. When Pope’s Jetters were published and 
avowed, as they had relation to recent facts, and per 

sons either then living or not yet forgotten, they may be 
supposed to have found readers, but as the facts were 
minute, and the characters little known, or little re- 
garded, they awakened no popular kindness or resent- 
ment.’—JOHNSON. 


CONJUNCTURE, CRISIS. 


Conjuncture, in Latin conjunctura, from conjungo 
to join together, signifies the joining together of circum- 
stances ; crisis, in Latin crisis, Greek xpicts a judge- 
ment, signifies in an extended sense whatever decides 
or turns the scale. 

Both these terms are employed to express a period of 
time marked by the state of affairs. A conjuncture is a 
joining or combination of corresponding circumstances 
tending towards the same end; ‘ Every virtue requires 
time and place, a proper object, and a fit conjuncture of 
circumstances for the due exercise of it..—AppIson. 
A crisis is the high-wrought state of any affair which 
immediately precedes a change ; 


Thought he, this is the lucky hour, 

Wines work, when vines are in the flower ; 
This cvzszs then I will set my rest on, 

And put her boldly to the question.- -BUTLER. 


A conjuncture may be favourable, a crisis alarming 

An able statesman seizes the conjuncture which pre 
miss to suit his purpose, for the introduction of a fa 
vourite measure: the abilities, firmness, and perseve 
rance of Alfred the Great, at one important crisis of his 
reign, saved England from destruction. 


EXIGENCY, EMERGENCY. 


Necessity is the idea which is common to the signiti- 
cation of these terms: the former, from the Latin ezige 
to demand, expresses what the case demands; and the 
latter, from emer go, to arise out of, denotes what rises 
out of the case. 

The exigency is more common, but Jess pressing; the 
emergency is imperious when it comes, but comes less 
frequently : a prudent traveller will never carry more 
money with him than what will supply the exigencies 
of his journey; and incase of an emergency will rather 
borrow of his friends than risk his property; ‘Savage 
was again confined to Bristol, where he was every day 
hunted by bailiffs. In this erigence he once more found 
a friend who sheltered him in his house.’-—Jounson. 
When it was formerly the fashion to husband a lie 
and to trump it up in some extraordinary emergency, it 
generally did execution; but at present every man ig 
on his guard.’,—Appison. 


ENTERPRISING, ADVENTUROUS. 


These terms mark a disposition to engage in that 
which is extraordinary and hazardous: but enterpris- 
ing, from enterprise (v. Attempt), is connected with 
the understanding; and adventurous, from adventure 
venture or trial, is a characteristick of the passions. 
The enterprising character conceives great projects, 
and pursues objects that are difficult to be obtained ; 
the adventurous character is contented with seeking 
that which is new, and placing himself in dangerous 
and unusual situations. An enterprising spirit belongs 
to the commander of an army, or the ruler ofa nation; 
an adventurous disposition is sometimes to be found in 
men of low degree, but was formerly attributed for the 
most partto knights; Robinson Crusoe was a man of 
an adventurous turn; 


At land and sea, in many a doubtful fight 

Was never known a more adventurous knight, 

Who oftener drew his sword, and always for the right 
DRYDEN. 


174 


Peter the Great possessed, iu a pecufiar manner, an 
enterprising genius; ‘Sir Walter Raleigh, who had 
anew forfeited the king’s friendship, by an intrigue 
with a maid of honour, and who had been thrown into 
prison for this misdemeanour, no sooner recovered his 
liberty than he was pushed by his active and enter- 
prising genius to attempt some great action.’—Humx. 
Enterprising charecterizes persons only: but adven- 
turous is also applied to things, to signify containing 
adventures ; aS a journey, or a voyage, or a history, 
may be denominated adventurous: also in the sense 
of hazardous; 
But ’tis enough 

In this late age, advent’rous to have touch’d 

Light on the numbers of the Samian sage ; 

High heaven forbids the bold presumptuous strain. 

THOMSON. 


os 


TO HOLD, CONTAIN. 


These terms agree in sense, but differ in application. 
To hold (v. To hold, keep) is the familiar term employed 
only for material objects; contain,in French contenir, 
Latin contineo, compounded of con and teneo, signifying 
to keep together in one place, is a term of more noble 
use, being applied to moral or spiritual objects. 

To hold is to occupy a space, whether enclosed or 
open: to contain is to fill anenclosed space; hence itis 
that these words may both be applied to the same ob- 
jects A cask is said to hold, or in more polished lan- 
guage it is said to contain a certain number of gallons. 
A coach holds or contains a given number of persons ; 
a room holds a given quantity of furniture; a house or 
city contains its inhabitants. Holdis applied figura- 
tively and in poetry in a similar sense ; 


Death only this mysterious truth unfolds, 
The mighty soul how small a body holds. 
DRYDEN. 


Contain is applied in its proper sense to spiritual as 
material objects ; 


But man, the abstract 
Of all perfection, which the workmanship 
Of heav’n hath modell’d, in himself contains 
Passions of several qualities.—Forp. 


CAPACITY, CAPACIOUSNESS. 


Capacity is the abstract of capaz, receiving or apt to 
hold, and is therefore applied to the contents of hollow 
bodies: capaciousness is the abstract of capacious, and 
is therefore applied to the plane surface comprehended 
within agiven space. Hence we speak of the capacity 
of a vessel, and the capaciousness of a room. 

Capacity is an indefinite term simply designating fit- 
ness to hold or receive; but capaciousness denotes 
something specifically large. Measuring the capacity 
of vessels belongs to the science of mensuration: the 
capaciousness of rooms is to be observed by the eye. 
They are marked by the same distinction in their moral 
application: men are born with various capacities ; 
ee are remarkable for the capaciousness of their 
minds. 


TO COMPRISE, COMPREHEND, EMBRACE, 
CONTAIN, INCLUDE. 


Comprise, through the French compris, participle of 
comprendre, comes from the same source as comprehend 
(vw. Comprehensive) ; embrace, in French embrasser, 
from em or in and bras the arm, signifies literally to 
enclose inthe arms; contain has the same signification 
as in the preceding article; include, in Latin includo, 
compounded of zn and cludo or claudo, signifies to shut 
in or within a given space. 

Persons or things comprise or include; things only 
comprehend, embrace, and contain: a person comprises 
a certain quantity of matter within a given space; he 
includes one thing within another: an author comprises 
his work within a certain number of volumes, and in- 
cludes in it a variety of interesting particulars. 

When things are spoken of, comprise, comprehend, 
and embrace, have regard to the aggregate value, quan- 
tity, or extent: include, to the individual things which 
form the whole: contain, either to the aggregate or to 
the individual, being in fact a term of more ordinary 
application than any of the others. Comprise and 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


contain are used either in the proper or the figurative 
sense ; comprehend, embrace, and include, in the figura- 
tive sense only: a stock comprises a variety of articles; 
a library comprises a variety of books; the whole is 
comprised within a small compass: 


What, Egypt, dothy pyramids comprise? 
What greatness in the high-raised folly lies! 
SEWELL. 


Rules comprehend a number of particulars; laws com- 
prehend a number of cases; countries comprehend a 
certain number of districts or divisions ; terms compre- 
hend & certain meaning; ‘That particular scheme 
which comprehends the social virtues may give employ- 
ment to the most industrious temper, and find a manin 
business more than the most active station of life.’— 
Appison. A discourse embraces a variety of topicks; 
a plan, project, scheme, or system, embraces a variety 
of objects; 


The virtues of the several soils I sing, 
Mecenas, now the needful succour bring; 

Not that my song in such a scanty space 

So large a subject fully can embrace.—DRYDEN. 


A house contains one, two, or more persons; a city 
contains a number of houses; a book contains much 
useful matter; a society contains very many individu- 
als; ‘ All a woman has to do in this world is contained 
within the duties of a daughter, a sister, a wife, and a 
mother.’—STrEELE. A society zncludes none but per 
sons of a certain class; or it includes some of every 
class; ‘ The universal axiom in which all complaisance 
is included is, that no man should give any preference 
to himself. —JOHNSON. : 

Their arms and fishing tackle comprise the personal 
effectsof most savages; all the moral law of a Christian 
is comprised under the word charity: Sweden compre- 
hends Finland and Lapland: London is said to contain 
above a million of inhabitants: bills of mortality are 
made out in most large parishes, but they include only 
such persons as die of diseases; a calculator of ex- 
penses will always fall short of his estimate who does 
not include the minor contingencies which usually 
attach to every undertaking. 

It is here worthy of observation, that in the last two 
examples from Steele and Johnson the words compre- 
hend and comprise would, according to established 
usage, have been more appropriate than contain and 
include. 


COMPREHENSIVE, EXTENSIVE. 


Comprehensive respects quantity, extensive regards 
space ; that is comprehensive that comprehends much, 
that is extensive that extends into a wide field: a com- 
prehensive view of a subject includes ‘all branches of 
it; an extensive view of a subject enters into minute 
details: the comprehensive is associated with the con- 
cise ; the extensive with the diffuse: it requires a capa- 
cious mind to take a comprehensive survey of any 
subject; it is possible for a superficial thinker to enter 
very extensively into some parts, while he passes 
over others. 

Comprehensive is employed) only with regard to in- 
tellectual objects; ‘It is natural to hope that a compre- 
hensive is likewise an elevated soul, and that whoever 
is wise is also honest.—Jounson. Extensive is used 
both in the properandtheimproper sense : the significa- 
tion of a word is comprehensive, or the powers of the 
mind are comprehensive: a plain is extensive, or a 
field of inquiry is extensive ; ‘The trade carried on by 
the Pheenicians of Sidon and Tyre was more eztensive 
and enterprising than that of any state in the ancient 
world.’—RoBERTSON. 


os 


TO ENCLOSE, INCLUDE, 


From the Latin includo and its participle inclusus 
are derived enclose and include ; the former to express 
the proper, and the latter the improper signification: a 
yard is enclosed by a wall; particular goods are in- 
cluded in a reckoning: the kernel of a nut is enclosed 
in a shell, or a body of men are enclosed within walls; 


With whom she marched straight against her foes, 
And them unawares besides tle Severne did enclose 
PFENSER 


uNGLISH SYNONYMES. 


Morality as well as faith is included in Christian per- 
fection; ‘ The idea of being once present is zxcluded in 
the idea of its being past.’.—Grove, 


TO CIRCUMSCRIBE, ENCLOSE. 


Cercumscribe, from the Latin circum about, and 
seribo to write, marks simply the surrounding with a 
line ; enclose, from the Latin inclusus, participle of 
tncludo, compounded of zm and claudo to shut, marks 
a species of confinement. 

The extent of any place is drawn out to the eye by 
a circumscription ;: ‘Who can imagine that the exist- 
ence of a creature is to be circumscribed by time, 
whose thoughts are not?”’—Appison. The extent of 
a place is limited to a given point by an enclosure ; 


Remember on that happy coast to build, 
And with atrench enclose the fruitful field. 
DRYDEN. 


A garden is circumscribed by any ditch, line, or posts, 
that serve as its boundaries ; it is enclosed by a wall or 
fence. An enclosure may serve to circumscribe, but 
that which barely circumscribes will seldom serve to 
enclose. 


TO SURROUND, ENCOMPASS, ENVIRON, 
ENCIRCLE. 


Surround, in old French surronder, signifies, by 
means of the intensive syllable sur over, to go all 
round; ercompass, compounded of en or in and com- 
pass, signifies to bring within a certain compass formed 
bya circle; so likewise environ, from the Latin gyrus, 
and the Greek yupds a curve, and also encircle, signify 
to bring within a circle. 

Surround is the most literal and general of all these 
terms, which signify to enclose any object either directly 
dr indirectly. We may surround an object by standing 
at certain distances all round it; in this manner a 
town, a house, or a person, may be surrounded by 
ather persons, or an object may be surrounded by en- 
closing it in every direction, and at every point; in this 

“manner 2 garden is surrounded by a wall ; 

But not to me returns 
Day, or the sweet approach of ev’n or morn, 
But cloud instead, and ever-during dark 
Surrvunds me.—Mi.Ton. 


['o encompass is to surround in the latter sense, and 
‘applies to objects of a great or indefinite extent: the 
earth is encompassed by the air, which we term the 
atmosphere; towns are encompassed by walls; 


Where Orpheus on his lyre laments his love, 
With beasts encompass’d, and a dancing grove. 
DRYDEN, 


To surround is to go round an object of ‘any form, 
whether square or circular, long or short; but to en- 
viron and to encircle.carry with them the idea of form- 
ing a circle round an object; thus a town or a valley 
may be environed by hills, a basin of water may be 
encircled by trees, or the head may be encircled. by a 
wreath of flowers; 


Of fighting elements, on all sides round 
Environ’ d.—MILTon. 


As in the hollow breast of Apennine, 
Beneath the shelter of encircling hills, 

A myrtle rises, far from human eye, 

So flourish’d, blooming, and unseen by all, 
The sweet Lavinia.—THomson. 


Tn an extended or moral sense we are said to be sur- 
rounded by objects which are in great numbers, and in 
different directions about us: thus a person living ina 
particular spot where he has many friends may say he 
is surrounded by his friends; so likewise a particular 
person may say that he is surrounded by dangers and 
difficulties; but in speaking of man in a general sense, 
we should rather say he is encompassed by dangers, 
which expresses in a much stronger manner our pecu- 
Varly exposed condition. 


CIRCLE, SPHERE, ORB, GLOBE. 
Circle, in Latin circulus, Greek xvx)os, in all proba- 


Sility comes from the Hebrew }}f} acircle; sphere, in 
Latin sphera, Greek ogaipa, from oneipa a line, signi- 


nr rr 


175 


fies that which is contained within a prescribed line ; 
orb, in Latin orbis, from orbo to circumscribe with a 
circle, signifies the thing that is circumscribed; globe, 
in Latin globus, in all probability comes from the 


Hebrew by a rolled heap. 

Rotundity of figure is the common idea expressed 
by these terms; but the circle is that figure which is 
represented on a plane superficies; the others are 
figures represented by solids. We draw a circle by 
means of compasses; the sphere is a round body, con- 
ceived to be formed according to the rules of geometry 
by the circumvolution of a ezrcle round about its 
diameter; hence the whole frame of the world is 
denominated a sphere. An orb is any body which 
describes a circle; hence the heavenly bodies are 
termed orbs ; 


Thousands of suns beyond each other blaze, 
Orbs roll o’er arbs, and glow with mutual rays 
JENYNS. 


A globe is any solid body, the surface of which is in 
every part equidistant from the centre; of this de 
scription is the terrestrial globe. 

The term circle may be applied in the improper sense 
to any round figure, which is formed or supposed to be 
formed by circumscribing a space; simple rotundity 
constituting a circle: in this manner a circle may be 
formed by real objects, as persons, or by moral objects, 
as pleasures; 


Might I from fortune’s bounteous hand receive 
Each boon, each blessing in her power to give; 
E’en at this mighty price 1’d not be bound 

To tread the same dull circle round and round. 
The soul requires enjoyments more sublime, 

By space unbounded, undestroy’d by time. 
JENYNS. 


To the idea of circle is annexed that of extent arounds 
in the signification of a sphere, as a sphere of activity, 
whether applied in the philosophical sense to natural 
bodies, or in the moral sense to men; 


Or if some stripes from Providence we feel, 

He strikes with pity, and but wounds to heal ; 
Kindly, perhaps, sometimes afflicts us here, 

To guide our views to a sublimer sphere.—JENYNS 


Hollowness, as well as rotundity, belongs to an orb; 
hence we speak of the orb of a wheel. Of a glode 
solidity is the peculiar characteristick ; hence any ball, 
like the ball of the earth, may be represented as a 
globe; 

Thus roaming with advent’rous wing the globe, 

From scene to scene excursive, I behold 

In all her workings, beauteous, great, or new 

Fair nature.—MAa.Let. 


- 


CIRCUIT, TOUR, ROUND. 


Circuit, in French circuzt, Latin circuctus, participle 
of circumeo, signifies either the act of going round, or 
the extent gone; tour is but a variation of turn, signi- 
fying a mere turn of the body in travelling; round: 
marks the track rownd, or the space gone round. 

A circuit is made for a specifick end of a serious 
kind; a tour is always made for pleasure; a round, 
like a circuit, is employed in matters of business; but 
of a more familiar and ordinary kind. A judge goes 
his ctrcuit at particular periods of time: gentlemen, in 
times of peace, consider it as an essential part of their 
education to make what is termed the grand tour: 
tradesmen have certain rounds which they take on 
certain days; 


’T is night! the season when the happy take 

Repose, and only wretches are awake ; 

Now discontented ghosts begin their rounds, 

Haunt ruin’d buildings and unwholesome grounds. 
OTWay. 


We speak of making the circuit of a place; of 
taking a tour in a given county; or going a particular 
round. A circuit is wide or narrow; a tour and a 
round is great or little. A circuit is prescribed as to 
extent: a tour is optional; a round is prescribed or 
otherwise. Circuit is seldom used but in a specifick 
sense ; 


Th’ unfledg’d commanders and the martial train, 
First make the circuit of the sandy plain.--DRypEN 


176 


Tour is seldom employed but in regard to travelling ; 
Goldsmith’s tour through Europe we are told was 
made for the most part on foot.’—Jounson. Round 
may be taken figuratively, as when we speak of going 
one’s round of pleasure; ‘Savage had projected a per- 
eigen round of innocent pleasure in Wales, of which 
e suspected no interruption from pride, or ignorance, 
or brutality. JoHNson. ‘ 


TO BOUND, LIMIT, CONFINE, CIRCUM- 
SCRIBE, RESTRICT. 


Bound comes from the verb bind, signifying that 
which binds fast or close to an object; limzt, from the 
Latin /imes a Jandmark, signifies to draw a line which 
is to be the exteriour line or limit; confine signifies to 
bring within confines (v. Border); circwmscribe has 
the same signification as given under the head of Cir- 
cumscribe; restrict, in Latin restrictum, participle of 
restringo, compounded of re and stringo, signifies to 
Keep tast back. 

The first four of these terms are employed in the 
proper sense of parting off certain spaces. 

Bound applies to the natural or political divisions of 
the earth: countries are bounded by mountains and 
seas; kingdoms are often bounded by each other; 
Spain is bounded on one side by Portugal, on another 
side by the Mediterranean, and on the third by the 
, Pyrenees. Limit applies to any artificial boundary: 

as landmarks 1n fields serve to show the limits of one 
man’s ground from another; so may walls, palings, 
hedges, or any other visible sign, be converted into a 
limit, to distinguish one spot from another, and in this 
manner a field is said to be limited, because it has limits 
assigned to it. To confine is to bring the limiis close 
together ; to part off one space absolutely from another: 
in this manner we confine a garden by means of walls. 
To circumscribe is literally to surround: in this manner 
a circle may circumscribe a square: there is this differ- 
ence however between confine and circumscribe, that 
the former denotes not only visible limits, but such as 
may also prevent egress and ingress; whereas the 
latter, which is only a line, is but a simple mark that 
limits. 

From the proper acceptation of these terms we may 

easily perceive the ground on which their improper 
acceptation rests: to bound is an action suited to the 
nature of things or to some given rule; in this manner 
our views are bounded by the objects which intercept 
oursight: we bound our desires according to principles 
of propriety. To limit, confine, and circumscribe, all 
convey the idea of control which is more or less ex- 
ercised. To L:mztt, whether it be said of persons limit- 
ing things, or persons being limited by things, is an 
affair of discretion or necessity ; we limit our expenses 
because we are limited by circumstances. Confine 
zonveys thesame idea to a still stronger degree: what 
1s confined is not only brought within a limzt but is 
kept to that limzt which it cannot pass: in this man- 
ner a person confines himself to a diet which he finds 
absolutely necessary for his health, or he is confined in 
the size of his house, in the choice of his situation, or 
n other circumstances equally uncontrollable: hence 
the term confined expresses also the idea of the limits 
being made narrow as well as impassable or unchange- 
able. To circumscribe is figuratively to draw a line 
round; in this manner we are circumscribed in our 
pecuniary circumstances when our sphere of action is 
brought within a line by the want of riches. Inas 
much as all these terms convey the idea of being acted 
upon involuntarily, they become allied to the term re- 
strict, which simply expresses the exercise of contro] 
on the will: weuse restriction when we limit and con- 
fine, but we may restrict without limiting or confin- 
ing : to limit and confine are the acts of things upon 
persons, or persons upon persons; but restrict is only 
the act of persons upon persons: we are limited or 
confined only to a certain degree, but we may be re- 
stricted to an indefinite degree: the limiting and con- 
fining depend often on ourselves; the restriction de- 
pends upon the will of others: a person limits himself 
to so many hours’ work ina day; an author confines 
himself to a particular branch of a subject; a person 
ia restricted by his physician to a certain portion of 
food in the day : to be confined to a certain spot is irk- 
some to one who has always had his liberty ; but to 
he restricted in all his actions would be i.tolerable. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


Our greatest happiness consists in bounding our de 
sires to our condition ; 


My passion is too strong 
In reason’s narrow bounds to be confin’d. 
WanbEsForp. 


It is prudent to lémit our exertions, when we find 
them prejudicial to our health; ‘ The operations of the 
mind are not, like those of the hands, limited to one 
individual object, but at once extended to a whele 
species. —BARTLET. It is necessary to confine our 
attention to one object ata time; ‘ Mechanical motions 
or operations are confined to a narrow circle of low and 
little things.’ —BartLer. It is unfortunate to be ci 
cumscribed in our means of doing good ; 


Therefore must his choice be czrcumscrib’d 
Unto the voice and yielding of that body, 
Whereof he ’s head.—SuHaksPEaRE. 


It is painful to be restricted in the enjoyment of mno- 
cent pleasure; ‘It is not necessary to teach men to’ 
thirst after power; but it is very expedient that by 
moral instructions they should be taught, and by their 
civil institutions they should be compelled, to put many 
restrictions upon the immoderate exercise of it.’— 
BLACKSTONE. 

Bounded is opposed to unbounded, limited to extend- 
ed, conjined to expanded, circumscribed to ample, re- 
stricted to unshackled. 


os 


BORDER, EDGE, RIM OR BRIM, BRINK, 
MARGIN, VERGE. 


Border, in French bord or bordure,Teutonickbord, 
is probably connected with bret, and the English board 
from brytan, in Greek lig, od to split; edge, in Saxon 
ege, low German egge, high German ecke a point, 
Latin acies, Greek dxf sharpness, signifies a sharp 
point; rim, in Saxon rima, high German rahmen a 
frame, remen a thong, Greek pia a tract, from fiw to 
draw, signifies a line drawn round; brim, brink, are 
but variations of rim; margin, in French margin, 
Latin margo, probably comes from mare the sea, as it 
is mostly connected with water ; verge, from the Latin 
virga, signifies a rod, but is here used in the improper 
sense for the extremity of an object. 

Of these terms border is the least definite point, edge 
the most so; rim and brink are species of edge; mar- 
gin and verge are species of border. A border is a 
stripe, an edge isa line. The border lies at a certain 
distance from the edge, the edge is the exteriour termi- 
nation of the surface of any substance; ‘ Methought 
the shilling that lay upon the table reared itself upon 
its edge, and turning its face towards me opened its 
mouth.’—Appison. Whatever is wide enough to ad- 
mit of any space rowmd its circumference may have a 
border ; 


So the pure limpid stream, when with foul staine 

Of rushing torrents and descending rains, 

Works itself clear, and as it runs refines, 

Till by degrees the crystal mirror shines, 

Reflects each flower that on its border grows. 
ADDISON. 


Whatever comes to a narrow extended surface has an . 
edge. Many things may have both a.border and an 
edge; of this description are caps, gowns, carpets, and 
the like; others have a border but no edge, as lands; 
and others have an edge but no border, as a knife or a 
table. 
A rim is the edge of any vessel ; 
But Merion’s spear o’ertook hiin as he flew, 
Deep in the belly’s rim an entrance found 
Where sharp the pang, and mortal is the wcand. 
Porn. 
The brim is the exteriour edge of a cup; a brink is the 
edge of any precipice or deep place ; 
As I approach the precipice’s brink, 
So steep, so terrible, appears the depth. 
LANSDOWNE. 


A margin is the berder of a book ora piece of water 


By the sea’s margin on the watery strand - 
Thy monument, Themistocles, shall stand. 
CUMBERLAND, 


A verge is the extreme border of a place; 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


+o the earth’s utmost verge 1 will pursue him ; 
No place, though e’er so holy, shall protect him. 
Rowe. 


—_——_- 


BOUNDLESS, UNBOUNDED, UNLIMITED, 
INFINITE. 


Boundless, or without bounds, is applied to infinite 
objects which admit of no bounds to be made or con- 
ceived by us; unbounded, or not bounded, is applied to 
that which might be bounded ; unlimited, or not limit- 
ed, applies to that which might be limited ; infinite, or 


not finite, applies to that which in its nature admits of | 


no bounds. 

The ocean is a boundless object so long as no bounds 
to it have been discovercd, 0: no bounds are set to it in 
our imagination ; 


And see the country far diffus’d around 
One boundless blush, one white empurpled shower 
Of mingled blossoms.—THOMsON. 


Desires are often unxdounded, which ought always to 
be bounded ; 


The sou! requires enjoyments more sublime, 
By space unbounded, undestroy’d by time. 
JENYNS. 


Power is sometimes unlimited when it would be better 
limited; *Gray’s curiosity was unlimited, and his 
judgement cultivated.’—Jounson. Nothing is infinite 

ut that Being from whom all finite beings proceed ; 
‘In the wide fields of nature the sight wanders up and 
down without confinement, and is fed with an infinite 
variety of images.’-—ADDISON. 


BOUNDS, BOUNDARY. 


Bounds and boundary, from the verb bound (v. To 
bound), signify the line which sets a bound, or marks 
the extent to which any spot of ground reaches. The 
term bounds is employed to designate the whole space 
including the outer line that confines: boundary com- 
prehends only this outer line. Bounds are made for 
a local purpose; bowndary for'a political purpose: the 
master of a school prescribes the bounds beyond which 
the scholar is not to go; 


So when the swelling Nile contemns her douwnds, 

And with extended waste the valleys drowns, 

At length her ebbing streams resign the field, 

And to the pregnant soil a tenfold harvest yield. 

CIBBER. 
she parishes throughout England have their bownda- 
ries, which are distinguished by marks; fields have 
likewise their boundaries, which are commonly marked 
out by a hedge or a ditch; ‘ Alexander did not in his 
progress towards the East advance beyond the banks 
of the rivers that fall into the Indus, which is now the 
Western boundary of the vast continent of India.’— 
RoBERTSON. 

Bounds are temporary and changeable; boundaries 
permanent and fixed: whoever has the authority of 
prescribing bounds for others, may in like manner con- 
tract or extend them at pleasure; the boundaries of 
places are seldom altered, but in consequence of great 
political changes. 

In the figurative sense bound or bounds is even more 
frequently used than boundary: we speak of setting 
bounds or keeping within bounds ; but of knowing a 
boundary : it is necessary occasionally to set bounds to 
the inordinate appetites of the best disposed children ; 
‘There are bounds within which our concern for 
worldly success must be confined.’—Buair. Children 
cannot be expected to know the exact boundary for in- 
dulgence ; ‘itis the proper ambition of heroes in lite- 
rature to enlarge the boundaries of knowledge by dis- 
covering and conquering new regions of the intellec- 
tual world..—JouHNson. 


LIMIT, EXTENT. 


Limit is a more specifick and definite term than ez- 
tent ; by the former we are directed to the point where 
any thing ends; by the latter we are led to no particu- 
Jar point, but to the whole space included; the limits 
are in their nature something finite ; the extent is either 
finite or infinite: we therefore speak of that which 
exceeds the limits, or comes within the limits ; and of 

12 


17” 


that which comprehends the extent, or is according to 
the extent: a plenipotentiary or minister must not ex- 
ceed the limits of his instruction; when we think of 
the immense extent of this globe, and that it is among 
the smallest of an infinite number of worlds, the mind 
is lost in admiration and amazement: it does not fall 
within the limits of a periodical work to enter inte 
historical details; ‘ Whatsoever a man accounts his 
treasure answers all his capacities of pleasure. It is 
the utmost limit of enjoyment.—Sourn. A complete 
history of any country is a work of great extent ; ‘Tt is 
observable that, either by mature or habit, our facul 
ties are fitted to images of a certain extent.’—JOHNSON 


TERM, LIMIT, BOUNDARY. 


* Term, in Latin terminus, from the Greek répya an 
end, is the point that ends, and that to which we dizect 
our steps: Limit, from the Latin limes a landmark, is 
the line which we must not pass: boundary, from to 
bound, is the obstacle which interrupts our progress, and 
prevents us from passing. 

We are either carried towards or away from the 
term; we either keep within limits, or we overstep 
them ; we contract or extend a boundary. 

The term and the limit belong to the thing; by them 
it is ended; they include it in the space which it occu 
pies, or contain it within its sphere; the boundary is 
extraneous of it. The Straits of Gibraltar was the 
term of Liercules’ voyages: it was said with more elo- 
quence than truth, that the limits of the Roman empire 
were those of the world: the sea, the Alps, and the Py- 
renees, are the natural boundaries of France. We 
mostly reach the term of our prosperity when we at- 
tempt to pass the limits which Providence has assigned 
to human efforts: human ambition often finds a bown 
dary set to its gratification by circumstances which 
were the most unlooked for, and apparently the least 
adapted to bring about such important results. 

We see the term of our evils only in the term of our 
life ; 

No term of time this union shall divide—Dryprn. 


Our desires have no limits; their gratification only 
serves to extend our prospects indefinitely; ‘The wall 
of Antoninus was fixed as the limit of the Roman em 
pire. —Gisson. Those only are happy whose fortune 
is the boundary of their desires; ‘ Providence has fixed 
the limits of human enjoyment by immoveable boun 
daries. —JOHNSON. 


CONTRACTED, CONFINED, NARROW 


Contracted, from the verb contract, in Latin con 
tractus, participle of contraho to draw or come close 
together, signifies either the state or quality of being 
shrunk up, lessened in size, or brought within a smaller 
compass; confined marks the state of being confined ; 
narrow is a variation of near, signifying the quality 
of being near, close, or not extended. 

Contraction arises from the inherent state of the ob- 
ject; confined is produced by some external agent: a 
limb is contracted from disease; it is confined by a 
chain: we speak morally of the contracted span of a 
man’s life, and the confined view which he takes of a 
subject. 

Contracted and confined respect the operation of 
things; narrow, their qualities or accidents: whatever 
is contracted or conjined is more or less narrow ; but 
many things are narrow which have never been con- 
tracted or confined ; what is narrow is therefore more 
positively so than either contracted or confined: a con 
tracted mind has but few objects on which it dwells to 
the exclusion of others; ‘Notwithstanding a narrow, 
contracted temper be that which obtains most in the 
world, we must not therefore conclude this to be the 
genuine characteristick of mankind.”—Grover. A con- 
Jjined education is confined to few points of knowledge or 
information; ‘In its present habitation, the soul is plainly 
confined in its operations.’—Buair. ‘The presence of 
every created being is confined to a certain measure 01 
space, and consequently his observation is stinted to a 
certain. number of objects.—Appison. A narrow soul 
is hemmed in by a single selfish passion ‘ Resentments 
are not easily dislodged from narrow minds.’-—CUMBER 
LAND 


* Vide Girard; ‘Termes, limites, bornes.” 


178 


TO ABRIDGE, CURTAIL, CONTRACT. 


Abridge, in French abréger, Latin abbreviare, is 
compounded of the intensive syllable ab and breviare, 
from brevis short, signifying to make short; curtazl, in 
French courte short, and tatller to cut, signifies to di- 
minish in length by cutting; contract, in Latin con- 
tractus, participle of contraho, is compounded of con 
and travo, signifying to draw close together. : 

By abridging, in the figurative as well as the literal 
sense, the quality is diminished; by curtailing, the 
magnitude or number is reduced; by contracting, a 
thing is brought within smaller compass. Privileges 
are abridged, pleasures curtailed, and powers con- 
tracted. ; 

When the liberty of a person is too much abridged, 
the enjoyments of life become curtazled, as the powers 
of acting and thinking, according to the genuine im- 
pulse of the mind, are thereby considerably contracted ; 
‘This would very much abridge the lover’s pains in 
this way of writing a letter, as it would enable him to 
express the most useful and significant words with a 
single touch of the needle.—Appison. ‘I remember 
several ladies who were once vcry near seven feet high, 
that at present want some inciies of five: how they 
came to be thus curtailed I carnot learn.’—Appison. 
‘ He that rises up early and goes to bed late only to re- 
ceive addresses is really as much tied and abridged in 
his freedom as he that waits all that time to present one.’ 
—Soutrn. ‘God has given no min a body as strong as 
his appetites; but has corrected the boundlessness of 
his voluptuous desires, by stinting his strength and con- 
tracting his capacities.’--SouTa 


CONFINEMENT, IMPRISONMENT, CAPTIVITY. 


Confinement signifies the act of confining, or the state 
of being confined ; imprisonment, compounded of im 
and prison, French prison, from pris, participle of 
prendre, Latin prehendo to take, signifies the act or 
state of being taken or laid hold of; captivity, in 
French captivité, Latin captivitas from capio to take, 
signifies likewise the state of being, or being kept in 
possession by another. ‘ 

Confinement is the generick, the other two specifick 
terms. Confinement and imprisonment both imply the 
abridgement of one’s personal freedom, but the former 
specifies no cause which the latter does. We may be 
confined in aroom by ill health, or confined in any place 
by way of punishment: but we are never imprisoned 
but in some specifick place appointed for the conjine- 
ment of offenders, and always on some supposed of- 
fence. We are captives by the rights of war, when we 
fall into the hands of the enemy. 

Confinement does not specify the degree or manner 
as the other terms do; it may even extend to the re- 
stricting of the body of. its free movements. Imprison- 
ment simply confines the person within a certain extent 
of ground, or the walls of a prison ; ‘ Confinement of 
any kind is dreadful: let your imagination acquaint 
you with what I have not words to express, and con- 
ceive, if possible, the horrours of imprisonment, attended 
with reproach and ignominy.’—JoHNSON. Captivity 
leaves a person at liberty to range within a whole 
country or district ; 


There in captivity he lets them dwell 
The space of seventy years; then brings them back, 
Rememb’ring mercy.—MI.LTon. 


For life, being weary of these worldly bars, 

Never lacks power to dismiss itself; 

In that each bondman, in his own hand, bears 
The power to cancel his captivity: 

But I do think it cowardly and vile—SHAKSPEARE. 


Confinement is so general a term, as to be applied to 
animals and even to inanimate objects; imprisonment 
and captivity are applied in the proper sense to persons 
only, but they admit of a figurative application. Poor 
stray anima's, who are found trespassing on unlawful 
ground, are doomed to a wretched confinement, ren- 
dered still more hard and intolerable by the want of 
food: the confinement of plants within too narrow a 
space willstop their growth for want of air; 


But now my sorrows, long with pain supprest, 
Burst their confinement with impetuous sway. 
Youne 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


There is many a poor captive in a cage who, lik 
Sterne’s starling, would say, if it could, “I want to get 
out.” 


FINITE, LIMITED. 


Finite, from finis an end, is the natural property of 
things ; and limited, from limes a boundary, is the arti- 
ficial property ; the former is opposite only to the inf- 
nite ; but the latter, which lies within the finite, is op- 
posed to the unlimzted or the infinite. This wor d ia 
finite, and space znfinite ; ‘ Methinks this single consi- 
deration of the progress of a finite spirit to perfection 
will be sufficient to extinguish all envy in inferiour na- 
tures, and all contempt in superiour..— Appison. The 
power of a prince is sometimes limited ; ‘ Those com 
plaints which we are apt to make of our limited capa- 
city and narrow view, are just'as unreasonable as the 
childish complaints of our not being formed with a mi- 
croscopick eye.’—Buair. It is not in our power to ex- 
tend the bounds of the finite, but the limzted is mostly 
under our control. We are jintte beings, and our ca- 
pacities are variously limited either by nature or cir- 
cumstances. 


TO RESERVE, RETAIN. 


Reserve, from the Latin servo to keep, signifies tc 
keep back; and retain, from teneo to hold, signifies tc 
hold back; they in some measure, therefore, have the 
same distinction as hold and keep, mentioned in a for 
mer article. 

To reserve is an act of more specifick design; we re- 
serve that which is the particular object of our choice: 
to retain is a simple exertion of our power; we retain 
that which is once come into our possession. ‘To re- 
serve is employed only for that which is allowable; we 
reserve a thing, that is, keep it back with care for some 
future purpose; ‘Augustus caused most of the prophetick 
books to be burnt, as spurious, reserving only those 
which bore the name of some of the sybils for their 
authors.’—Pripraux. To retain is often an unlawful 
act, as when a debtor retains in his hands the money 
which he has borrowed; sometimes it is simply an un 
reasonable act; ‘ They who have restored painting in 
Germany, not having seen any of those fair relicks of 
antiquity, have retained much of that barbarous me 
thod.’—DRypDEN. 

Reserve, whether in the proper or improper applira 
tion, is employed only as the act of a conscious agent; 
retain is often the act of an unconscious agent: we re 
serve what we have to say on a subject until a more 
suitable opportunity offers; ‘Conceal your esteem and 
love in your own breast, and reserve your kind looks 
and language for private hours..—Swirt. The mind 
retains the impressions of external objects, by its pecu- 
liar faculty, the memory ; certain substances are said to 
retain the colour with which they have been dyed; 
‘ Whatever ideas the mind can receive and contemplate 
without the help of the body, it is reasonable to con 
clude it can vetain without the help of the body too."— 
Locker. ‘The beauties of Homer are difficult to be lost, 
and those of Virgil to be retained.’—Jounson. 


RESERVE, RESERVATION. 


Reserve and reservation, from servo to keep, both 
signify a keeping back, but differ as to the object and 
the circumstance of the action. Reserve is applied in 
a good sense to any thing natural or moral which is 
kept back to be employed for a better purpose on a 
future occasion: reservation is an artful keeping back 
for selfish purposes: there is a prudent reserve which 
every man ought to maintain in his discourse with a 
stranger; equivocators deal altogether in mental re 
servation ; ‘ There is no maxim in politicks more indis- 
putable than that a nation should have many honours 
in reserve for those who do national services.’-—Appt- 
son. ‘There be three degrees of this hiding and 
veiling of a man’s self: first reservation and secrecy , 
second dissimulation in the negative; and the third 
simulation.’-—Bacon. 


TO KEEP, PRESERVE, SAVE. 


To keep has the same original meaning here as ex 
plained under the article To hold, keep; to preserve 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES 


compounded of pre and the Latin servo to keep, sig- 
nifies to keep away from all mischief; save signifies to 
keep safe. 

The idea of having 1n one’s possession is common to 
all these terms: which is, however, the simple meaning 
of keep; to preserve is to keep with care and free from 
all injury, to save isto keep laid up in a safe place, 
and free from destruction. Things are kept at all 
times, ani under all circumstances; they are preserved 
in circumstances of peculiar difficulty and danger; 
they are saved in the moment in which they are threat- 
ened with destruction; things are kept at pleasure; 
‘We are resolved to keep an established church, an 
established monarchy, an established aristocracy, and 
an established democracy, each in the degree it exists 
and no greater. —BurKE. Things are preserved by an 
exertion of power; ‘A war to preserve national inde- 
pendence, property, and liberty, from certain universal 
havock, is a war just and _ necessary '—BuRKE. 
Things are saved by the use of extraordinary means ; 
‘Tf any thing defensive can possibly save us from the 
disasters of a regicide peace, Mr. Pitt is the man to 
save us. —Bourke. The shepherd keeps his flock by 
simply watching over them; children are sometimes 
wonderfully preserved in the midst of the greatest 
dangers; things are frequently saved in the midst of 
fire, by the exertions of those present. 


KEEPING, CUSTODY. 


Keeping is as before the most general term; custody, 
in Latin custodia and custos, comes in all probability 
from cura care, because care is particularly required in 
keeping. The keeping amounts to little more than 
having purposely ip one’s possession ; but custody is a 

articular kind of keeping, for the purpose of prevent- 

ie an escape: inanimate objects may be in one’s 
teeping ; but prisoners or that which is in danger of 
getting away, is placed in custody : a person hasin his 
beeping that which he values as the property of an 
absent friend; ‘I.ife and all its enjoyments would be 
scarce worth the keeping, if we were under a per- 
retual dread of losing them.’—Srecraror. The offi- 
ters of justice get into their custody those who have 
offended against the laws, or such property as has been 
ttclen; ‘Prior was suffered to live in his own house 
inder the custody of a messenger, until he was ex- 
amined before a committee of the Privy Council.’— 
JOHNSON. 


— 


TO SAVE, SPARE, PRESERVE, PROTECT. 


To save signifies the same as in the preceding article ; 
spare, in German sparen, comes from the Latin pareo, 


and the Hebrew D5) tofree; to preserve signifies the 


same as in the preceding article; and protect, the same 
as under the article To defend, protect. 

‘he idea of keeping free from evil is common to all 
these terms, and the peculiar signification of the term 
gave ; they differ either in the nature of the evil kept 
off, or the circumstances of the agent: we may be 
saved from every kind of evil; but we are spared only 
from those which it is in the power of another to 
inflict: we may be saved from falling, or saved from 
an illness; a criminalis spared from the punishment, 
or we may be spared by Divine Providence in the 
midst of some calamity: we may be saved and spared 
from any evils, large or small; we are preserved and 
protected mostly from evils of magnitude ; we may be 
saved either from the inclemency of the weather, or 
the fatal vicissitudes of life, or from destruction here 
and hereafter ; 


A wondrous ark 
To save himself and household from amidst 
A world devote to universal wreck.—MILTon. 
We may be spared the painof a disagreeable meeting, 
yr we may be spared our lives; 
Let Cesar spread his conquests far, 
Less pleased to triumph than to spare.—JouHNSON. 


We are preserved from ruin, or protected from op- 
pression ; ‘ Cortes was extremely solicitous to preserve 
the city of Mexico as much as possible from being de- 
stroyed.’—-RoBERTSON. 


How poor a thing is man, whom death itself 
Cannot protect from injuries —RAnDoLPH. 


17h 


179 


To save and spare apply to evils that are actual and 
teuiporary ; preserve and protect to those which are 
possible or permanent: we may be saved from drown- 
ing, or we may save a thing instead of throwing it 
away ; 


Attilius sacrifie’d himself to save 
That faith which to his barb’rous foes he gave. 
DENHAM. 


A person may ve spared from the sentence of the law, 
or spared a pain ; 
Spare my sight the pain 
Of seeing what a world of tears it costs you. 
DRYDEN 


We preserve with care that which is liable to injury, 
or protect ourselves against the attacks of robbers. 

To save may be the effect of accident or design ; to 
spare is always the effect of some design or connexion; 
to preserve and protect are the effect of a special ex- 
ertion of power; the latter in a still higher degree than 
the former: we may be preserved, by ordinary means, 
from the evils of human life; but we are protected by 
the government, or by Divine Providence, from the 
active assaults of those who aim at doing us mischief 


TO DEFEND, PROTECT, VINDICATE. 


To defend, which signifies literally to keep off any 
evil (v. To guard), is closely allied to protect, which 
comes from the Latin protectum, participle of protego, 
compounded of pro and tego, signifies to put any thing 
before a person as a covering, and also to vindicate, 
which comes from the Latin vindico and the Greek 
évotkéw to avenge by bringing an offender to justice. 

Defend is a general term; it defines nothing with 
regard to the degree and manner of the action: protect 
is a particular and positive term, expressing an action of 
some consiaerable importance. Persons may defend 
others without distinction of rank or station: none but 
superiours protect their inferiours. Defenceis an occa- 
sional action; protection is a permanent action. A 
person may be defended in any particular case of actual 
danger or difficulty ; he is protected from what may 
happen as well as what does happen. Defence 
respects the evil that threatens; ‘ A master may justify 
an assault in defence of his servant, and a servant in 
defence of his master.—BLacksToNE. Protection 
involves the supply of necessities and the affording of 
comforts ; ‘They who protected the weakness of our 
infancy are entitled to our protection in their old age.’— 
BLACKSTONE. 

Defence requires some active exertion either of body 
or mind; protection may consist only of the extension 
of power in behalf of any, particular. A defence is 
successful or unsuccessful ; a protection weak or strong 
A soldier defends his country ; a counsellor defends his 
client : ‘ Savage (on his trial for the murder of Sinclair) 
did not deny the fact, but endeavoured to justify it by 
the necessity of self-defence, and the hazard of his own 
life if he had lost the opportunity of giving the thrust ’ - 
Jounson. A prince protects his subjects ; 

First give thy faith and plight, a prince’s word, 

Of sure protection by thy power and sword; 

For I must speak what wisdom would conceal, 

And truth invidious to the great reveal.—Popx. 


Henry the Eighth styled himself defender of the faith 
(thatis of the Romish faith) at the time that he was 
subverting the whole religious system of the Catholicks: 
Oliver Cromwell styled himself protector at the time 
that he was overturning the government. 

In a figurative and extended sense, things may either 
defend or protect with a similar distinction: a coat 
defends us from the inclemencies of the weather ; 


How shall the vine with tender leaves defend 
Her teeming clusters when the rains descend 1? 
DryDeEn. 


Houses are a protection not only against the changes of 
the seasons, but also against the violence of men ; 


Some to the holly hedge 
Nestling repair, and to the thicket some: 
Some tothe rude protection of the thorn 
Commit their feeble offspring.—THomson. 


To vindicate is a species of defence only in the moral 
sense of the word. Acts of importance are defended ; 
those of trifling import are commonly vindicated 


130 


Cicero defended Muo against the charge of murder, in 
which he was implicated by the death of Olodius; a 
ehild or a servant vindicates himself when any blame 
is attached to him. Defence is employed either in 
matters of opinion or conduct; vindicate only in matters 
of conduct. No absurdities are too great to want occa- 
sional defenders among the various advocates to free 
inquiry ; ‘ While we can easily defend our character, 
we are no more disturbed at an accusation, than we are 
alarmed by an enemy whom we are sure to conquer.’— 
Jounson. He who vindicates the conduct of another 
should be fully satisfied of the innocence of the person 
whom he defends; ‘In this poem (the Epistle to Dr. 
Arbuthnot), Pope seems to reckon with the publick. 
He vindicates himself from censures, and with dignity 
rather than arrogance, enforces his claims to kindness 
and respect.’—Poprr. 


DEFENDANT, DEFENDER. 


The defendant defends himself (v. To defend ;) the 
defender defends another. We are defendants when 
any charge is brought against us which we wish to 
refute ; ‘Of what consequence could it be to the cause 
whether the counsellor did or did not know the de- 
fendant?’—SmouuetT. We are defenders when we 
undertake to rebut or refute the charge brought against 
another ; ‘The abbot of Paisley was a warm partizan 
of France, and a zealous defender of the established 
religion." ROBERTSON. 


DEFENDER, ADVOCATE, PLEADER. 


A defender exerts himself in favour of one that 
wants support: an advocate, in Latin advocatus, from 
advoco to call to one’s aid, signified originally one who 
was called into court to speak in behalf of his friend, 
and who if he pleaded his cause was styled patronus ; 
‘ Qixi defendit alterum in judicio, aut patronus dicitur, 
si orator est; aut advocatus si aut jus suggerit, aut 
presentiam suam commodat amico.’—ASsconiuUs IN 
Cic. A pleader, from plea or excuse, signifies one who 
brings forward pleas in favour of him that is accused. 
These terms are now employed more in a general than 
a technical sense, which brings them into still closer 
alliance with each other. Adefender attempts to keep 
off the threatened injury by rebutting the attack of 
another : an advocate states that whichis to the advan- 
cage of the person or thing advocated: a pleader throws 
in pleas and extenuations: he blends entreaty with 
argument. Oppressed or accused persons and disputed 
opinions require defenders; ‘* But the time was now 
come when Warburton was to change his opinion, and 
Pope was to find a defender in him who had contributed 
so much to the exaltation of his rival.—Jounson. That 
which falls in with the humours of men will always 
have advocates ; ‘It is said that some endeavours were 
used to incense the queen against Savage, but he 
found advocates to obviate at least part of their effect.’ 
—Jounson. The unfortunate and the guilty require 
pleaders ; 


Next call the pleader from his learned strife, 
To the calm blessings of a learned life. 
HorNeECK. 


St. Paul was a bold defender of the faith which is in 
Christ Jesus. Epicurus has been charged with being 
tae advocate for pleasure in its gross and sensual sense, 
whence the advocates for sensual indulgences have 
been termed Epicureans. Vetruvia and Volumnia, the 
wife and mother of Coriolanus, were pleaders in be- 
half of the Roman republick, too powerful for him to 
he able to refuse their request. 


DEFENSIBLE, DEFENSIVE, 


Jefensible is employed for the thing that is defended: 
defensive for the fiting that defends. An opinion or a 
line of conduct is defensible; a weapon or a military 
operation is defensive. The defensible is opposed to 
the indefensible ; and the defensive to the offensive. 

It is the height of folly to attempt to defend that 
which is indefensible ; ‘impressing is only defensible 
from publick necessity, to which all private considera- 
tions must give way.’—BLacksTone. It is sometimes 
prudent to act on the defensive, when we are not in a 
condition to commence the offensive ; ‘A king circum- 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


stanced as the present king (of France) has no generout 
interest that can excite him to action. At best his con 
duct will be passive and defensive. —Burxz. 


TO GUARD, DEFEND, WATCH. 


Guard is but a variation of ward and guarantee, 
&c., which comes from the Teutonick wahren to look 
to; watch and wake, through the medium of the 
northern languages, are derived from the Latin vigil 
watchful, vigeo to flourish, and the Greek dydé\Aw to 
exult or be in spifits. 

Guard seems to include in it the idea of both defend 
and watch, inasmuch as one aims to keep off danger, 
by personal efforts; guard comprehends the significa- 
tion of defend, inasmuch as one employs one’s powers 
to keep off the danger. Guard comprehends the idea ~ 
of watch, inasmuch as one employs one’s eyes to detect 
the danger; one defends and watches, therefore, when 
one guards ; but one does not always guard when one 
defends or watches. 

To defend is employed in a case of actual attack; 
to guard is to defend by preventing the attack: the 
soldier guards the palace of the king in time of peace; 


Fix’d on defence, the Trojans are not slow 
To guard their shore from an expected foe. 
DRYDEN. 


He defends the power and kingdom of his prince in 
time of war, or the person of the king in the field of 
battle ; 


Forthwith on all sides to his aid was run, 
By angels many and strong, who interpos’d 
Defence.—MILTON. 


One guards in cases where resistance is requisite, and 
attack is threatened; one watches in cases where an 
unresisting enemy is apprehended: soldiers or armed 
men are employed to guard those who are in custody: 
children are set to watch the corn which is threatenea 
by the birds: hence it is that those are termed guards 
who surround the person of the monarch, and those 
are termed watchmen who are employed by night, te 
watch for thieves and give the alarm, rather than make 
any attack. 

In the improper application they have a similar 
sense: modesty guards female honour; it enables her 
to present a bold front to the daring violator ; ‘ Modesty 
is not only an ornament, but also a guard to virtue.’ — 
Appison. Clothing defends against the inclemenc? 
of the weather ; 


And here th’ access a gloomy grove defends, 
And here th’ unnavigable lake extends.—DryprEn 


Watching is frequently employed not merely to preverg 
an external evil, but also for the attainment of some 
object of desire; thus a person watches an opportunity 
to escape, or watches the countenance of another; 


But see the well-plum’d hearse comes nodding on 

Stately and slow, and properly attended 

By the whole sable tribe, that painful zatch 

The sick man’s door, and live upon the dead. 
Bair. 


The love of his subjects is the king’s greatest safe 

, guard; walls are no defence against an enraged multi 
tude; it is necessaryfor every man to set a watch upon 
his lips, lest he suffer that to escape from him of which 
he may afterward repent. 


GUARD, SENTINEL. 


These terms are employed to designate those who 
are employed for the protection of either persons or 
things ; but the sentinel, in French sentinelle, is pro- 
perly a species of guard, namely, a military guard in 
the time of a campaign: any one may be set as guard 
over property, who is empowered to keep off every 
intruder by force; but the sentinel acts in the army as 
the watch in the police, rather to observe the motions 
of the enemy, than to repel any force; 

Fast as he could, he sighing quits the walls, 
And thus descending on the guards he calls. 
Porg. 
‘One of the sentinels who stood on the stage to pre 
vent disorder, burst into tears.—Srerur. In the 
moral acceptation of the terms, the guard acts ir 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


ordinary cases, where there is no immediate danger, 
put the sentinel where one is surrounded with danger ; 
Conscience is the sentinel of virtue.,—JoHNSON. 


GUARD, GUARDIAN. 


These words are derived from the verb to guard 
(yw. To guard); but they have acquired a distinct 
office. 

Guard is used either in the literal or figurative sense ; 
guardian only in the improper sense. Guard is ap- 
plied either to persons or things; guardian only to 
persons. In application to persons, the guard is tem- 
porary; the guardian is fixed and permanent: the 
guard only guards against external evils; the guardian 
takes upon him the office of parent, counsellor, and 
director; when a house isin danger of being attacked, 
a person may sit up as a guard; when the parent is 
dead, the guardian supplies his place: we expect from 
a guard nothing but human assistance ; but from our 
guardian angel we may expect supernatural assist- 
ance ; 


Him Hermes to Achilles shall convey, 
Guard of his life, and partner of his ae 
OPE. 


Ye guides and guardians of our Argive race! 

Come all! let gen’rous rage your arms employ, 

And save Patroclus from the dogs of tore 
OPE. 


in an extended application they preserve a similar 
distinction; ‘He must be trusted to his own conduct, 
since there cannot always be a guard upon him, ex- 
cept what you put into his own mind by good prin- 
ciples..—Locks. ‘It then becomes the common con- 
cern of all that have truth at heart, and more espe- 
cially of those who are the appointed guardians of the 
Christian faith, to be upon the watch against seducers.’ 

WaATERLAND. 


TO GUARD AGAINST, TAKE HEED. 


Both these terms simply express care on the part of 
che agent; but the former is used with regard to ex- 
ternal or internal evils, the latter only with regard to 
internal or mental evils: in an enemy’s country it is 
essential to be particularly on one’s guard, for fear of 
a surprise; in difficult matters, where we are liable to 
err, it is of importance to take heed lest we run from 
one extreme to another: young men, on their entrance 
into life, cannot be too much on their guard against 
associating with those who would lead them into ex- 
pensive pleasures; ‘One would take more than ordi- 
nary care to guard one’s self against this particular im- 
perfection (changeableness), because it is that which 
our nature very strongly inclines us to.,—AppIson. 
In slippery paths, whether physically or morally under- 
stood, it is necessary to take heed how we go; ‘ Take 
heed of that dreadful tribunal where it will not be 
enough to say that I thought this or I heard that’— 
Sours. 


4 


TO APOLOGIZE, DEFEND, JUSTIFY, EXCUL- 
PATE, EXCUSE, PLEAD. 

Apologize, from the French apologie, Greek dmo- 
Aoyéa, and drodoyéopar, compounded of axd from or 
away, and Aéyw to speak, signifies to do away by 
speaking; defend, in French defendre, Latin defendo, 
compounded of de and fendo, signifies to keep or ward 
off; justify, in French justifier, Latin justifico, com- 
pounded of justus and facio, signifies to make or set 
right, that is, to set one’s self right with others; excul- 
pate, in Latin exeulpatus, participle of exculpo, com- 
pounded of ez and culpa, signifies to get out of a fault; 
excuse, in French excuser, Latin excuso, compounded 
of ex and causa, signifies to get out of any cause or 
affair; plead, in French plaider, may either come from 
eres or placendum, or be contracted from appel- 
atum. 

There is always some imperfection supposed or real 
which gives rise to an apology ;* with regard to per- 


* According to the vulgar acceptation of the term 
this imperfection is always presumed to be real in the 
thing for which we apologize ; but the bishop of Lan- 
daff did not use the term in this sense when he wrote his 


18] 


sons it presupposes a consciousness of impropriety, if 
not of guilt; we apologize for an errour by acknow- 
ledging ourselves guilty of it: a defence presupposes a 
consciousness of innocence more or less; we defend 
ourselves against a charge by proving its fallacy: a 
justification is founded on the conviction not only of 
entire innocence, but of strict propriety; we justify 
our conduct against any imputation by proving that it 
was blameless: exculpation rests on the conviction of 
innocence with regard to the fact; we eaculpate our 
selves from all blame by proving that we took no part 
in the transaction; excuse and plea are not grounded on 
any idea of innocence; they are. rather appeals for 
favour resting on some collateral circumstance which 
serves to extenuate; a plea is frequently an idle or 
unfounded eacuse, a frivolous attempt to lessen dis- 
pleasure ; we excuse ourselves for a neglect by alleging 
indisposition ; we plead for forgiveness by solicitation 
and entreaty. 

An apology mostly respects the conduct of individu 
als with regard to each other as equals: it is avoluntary 
act springing out of a regard to decorum, or the good 
opinion of others. To avoid misunderstandings it is 
necessary to apologize for any omission that wears the 
appearance of neglect. <A defence respects matters of 
higher importance ; the violation of laws or publick 
morals ; judicial questions decided in a court, or mat- 
ters of opinion which are offered to the decision of the 
publick: no one defends himself, but he whose conduct 
or opinions are called in question. A justification is 
applicable to all moral cases in common life, whether 
of a serious nature or otherwise: it is the act of indivi- 
duals towards each other according to their different 
stations: no one can demand a justification from an- 
other without a sufficient authority, and no one will at- 
tempt to justifiy himself to another whose authority he 
does not acknowledge: men justify themselves either 
on principles of honour, or from the less creditable mo 
tive of concealing their imperfections from the obser 
vation and censure of others. An exculpation is the act 
of an inferiour, it respects the violations of duty to- 
wards a superiour; it is dictated by necessity, and sel 
dom the offspring of any higher motive than the desire 
to screen one’s self from punishment: exculpation re- 
gards offences only of commission ; excuse is employed 
for those of omission as well as commission: we excuse 
ourselves oftener for what we have not done, than for 
what we have done; itis the act of persons in all sta 
tions, and arises from various motives dishonourable on 
otherwise: a person may often have: substantial rea- 
sons to excuse himself from doing a thing, or for not 
having done it; an excuse may likewise sometimes be 
the refuge of idleness and selfishness. To plead is pro- 
perly a judicial act, and extended in its sense to the or- 
dinary concerns of life; it is mostly employed for the 
benefit of others, rather than ourselves. 

Excuse and plea, which are mostly employed in an 
unfavourable sense, are to apology, defence, and ex- 
culpation, as the means to an end: an apology is lame 
when, instead of an honest confession of an uninten- 
tional errour, an idle attempt is made at justification : 
a defence is poor when it does not contain sufficient to 
invalidate the charge: a justification is nugatory when 
it applies to conduct altogether wrong: an excuse or a 
plea is frivolous or idle, which turns upon some false- 
hood, misrepresentation, or irrelevant point. 

There are some men who are contented to be the 
apologists for the vices of others; ‘ But for this practice 
(detraction), however vile, some have dared to apolo- 
gize by contending that the report by which they injured 
an absent character was true.—HawkrswortuH. No 
man should hold precepts secretly which he is not pre- 
pared to defend openly; ‘ Attacked by great injuries, 
the man of mild and gentle spirit will feel what human 
nature feels, and will defend and resent as his duty 
allows him.’—Buarr. It is a habit with some people 
contracted in early life to justify themselves on every 


“* Apology for the Bible ;” by which, bearing in mind 
the original meaning of the word, he wished to imply 
an attempt to do away the alleged imperfections of 
the Bible, or to do away the objections made to it. 
Whether the learned prelate might not have used a lesg 
classical, but more intelligible expression for such a 
work, is a question which, happily for mankind it ¥ 
not necessary now to decide. 


182 


occasion, from a reluctance which they feel to acknow- 
ledge themselves in an errour; 


Whatever private views and passions plead, 
No cause can justify so black a deed. 
THOMSON. 


When several are involved in a general charge each 
seeks to exculpate himself ‘A good child will not 
seek to exculpate herself at the expense of the most re- 
vered characters.’—Ricnarpson. A plea of incapacity 
is often set up to excuse remissness, which is in fact but 
the refuge of idleness and indolence ; ‘ The strength of 

he passions will never be accepted as an excuse for 
omplying with them.’—Sprectaror. It is the boast. 
ef Englishmen that, in their courts of judicature, the 
poor man’s plea will be heard with as much attention as 
that of his rich neighbour ; ‘ Poverty on this occasion 
pleads her cause very notably, and represents to her 
old \andlord that should she be driven out of the country, 
all their trades, arts, and sciences would be driven out 
with her.’—AppIson. 


TO EXCUSE, PARDON. 


We excuse (v. To apologize) a person or thing by 
exempting him from blame ; we pardon (from the pre- 
positive par or per and dono to give) by giving up or 
not insisting on the punishment of another for his of- 
fence. 

We excuse a small fault, we pardon a great fault: 
we excuse that which personally affects ourselves ; we 
pardon that which offends against morals: we may 
excuse as equals; we can pardon only as superiours. 
We exercise good nature in excusing: we exercise 
generosity or mercy in pardoning. Friends excuse each 
other for the unintentional omission of formalities : 

I will not quarrel with a slight mistake 
Such as our nature’s frailty may excuse. 
Roscommon. 


It is the privilege of the prince to pardon criminals 
whose offences will admit of pardon ; 

But infinite in pardon is my judge.—Mi.Ton. 
The violation of good manners is inexcusable in those 
who are cultivated ; falsehood is unpardonable even 
in a child. 


VENIAL, PARDONABLE. 


Venial, from the Latin venia pardon or indulgence, 
is applied to what may be tolerated without express 
disparagement to the individual, or direct censure ; but 
the pardonable is that which may only escape severe 
censure, but cannot be allowed; garrulity is a venial 
offence in old age; ‘ While the clergy are employed in 
extirpating mortal sins, I should be glad to rally the 
world out of indecencies and venial transgressions.’— 
CumBERLAND. Levity in youthis pardonable in single 
instances; ‘The weaknesses of Elizabeth were not 
confined to that period of life when they are more paz- 
donable.’—ROBERTSON. 


ee 


TO EXONERATE, EXCULPATE. 


Exonerate, from onus a burthen, signifies literally to 
take off a burthen, either physically, as in the sense of 
relieving the body from a burthen ; 


This tyramt God, the belly! Take that from us 
With all its bestia! appetites, and man, 
Ezonerated man, shall be all soul.’—CumBERLAND. 


Or in the moral application of relieving from the bur- 
then of a charge or of guilt; to exculpate, from culpa a 
fault or blame, is to throw off the blame: the first is the 
act of another; the second is one’sown act: we exone- 
rate him upon whom acharge has lain, or who has the 
load of guilt ; we exculpate ourselves when there is any 
danger of being blamed : circuinstances may sometimes 
tend to exonerate; the explanation of some person is 
requisite to erculpate ; ina ease of dishonesty the ab- 
sence of an individual at the moment when the act was 
committed will altogether exonerate him from suspi- 
cion; it is fruitless for any one to attempt to exculpate 
himself from the charge of faithlessness who is detected 
in conniving at the dishonesty of others; ‘ By this fond 
and easy acceptance of exculpatory comment, Pope 
testified that he had not intentionally attacked religion.’ 
— JOHNSON. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


TO EXTENUATE, PALLIATE. 


Extenuate, from the Latin tenuis thin, small, signifies 
literally to make small; palliate, m Latin palliatus, 
participle of pallio, from pallium a cloak, signifies to 
throw acloak over a thing so that it may not be seen. 

These terms are both applicable to the moral conduct, 
and expressthe act of lessening the guilt of any impro 
priety. To extenuate is simply to lessen suilt without 
reference to the means: to palliate is to lessen it by 
means of art. To extenuate is rather the effect of 
circumstances: to palliate is the direct effort of ay 
individual. Ignorance in the offender may serve as 
an extenuation of his guilt, although not of his of 
fence: ‘Savage endeavoured to extenuate the fact (of 
having killed Sinclair), by urging the suddenness of the 
whole action.,—Jounson. [tis but a poor palliation of 
a man’s guilt, to say that his crimes have not been at 
tended with the mischief which they were calculated 
to produce; ‘ Mons. St. Evremond has endeavoured to 
palliate the superstitions of the Roman Catholick reli 
gion.’ A ppISON. 


TO ABSOLVE, ACQUIT, CLEAR. 


Absolve, in Latin absolvo, is compounded of ab from 
and solvo to loose, signifying to loose from that with 
which one is bound; acguzt, m French acquitier, is 
compounded of the intensive syllable ac or ad, and quit, 
quitter, in Latin quietus quiet, signifying to make easy 
by the removal of a charge ; to clear is to make clear 

These three words convey an importgat distinetioxz 
between the act of the Creator and the creature. 

To atsolve is the free act of an omnipotenrand mer 
ciful being towards sinners; to acquit is the act of an 
earthly tribunal towards supposed offenders; by abso- 
lution we are released from the bondage of sin, and 
placed in a state of favour with God; by an acquittal 
we are released from the charge of guilt, and reinstated 
in the good estimation of our fellow-creatures. 

Absolutien is obtained not from our own merits, but 
the atoning merits of a Redeemer ; acquittal is an aci 
of justice due to the innocence of the individual. 4d- 
solution is the work of God only ; by him alone it can 
be made known to the penitent offender ; 


Yet to be secret makes not sin the less; 

’T is only hidden from the vulgar view, 

Maintains indeed the reverence due to princes, 

But not absolves the conscience from the crime. 
DrypDEN 


Acquittal is the work of man only; by him alone it is 
pronounced; ‘The fault of Mr. Savage was rather neg- 
ligence than ingratitude; but Sir Richard Steele must 
likewise be acquitted of severity ; for who is there that 
can patiently bear contempt from one whom he has 
relieved and supported ?’—JoHnson 

Although but few individuals may have oceasion fop 
acquittal ; yet we all stand in daily and hourly need of 
absolution at the hands of our Creator and Redeemer 

One is absolved (v. To absolve) from an oath, acquit 
ted of a charge, and cleared from actual guilt, that is, 
made clearly free. 

No one can absolve {:om an oath but he to whom the 
oath is made; no one can acquit another of a charge 
but he who has the right of substantiating the charge; 
yet any one may clear himself or another from guilt, or 
the suspicion of guilt, who has adequate proofs of inno- 
cence to allege. 

The Pope has assumed to himself the right of absol- 
ving subjects at pleasure from their oath of allegiance 
to their sovereign; but asan oath is made to God only, 
it must be his immediate act to cancel the obligation 
which binds men's consciences ; 


Compell’d by threats to take that bloody oath, 
And the act ill, I am adsolv’d by both..—Waturr. 


It is but justice to acguit a man of blame, who is 
enabled to clear himself from the appearance of guilt ; 
‘Those who are truly learned will acquit me in this 
point, in which I have been so far from offending, that 
Ihave been scrupulous perhaps to a fault in quoting 
the authors of several passages which I have made my 
own.’—Appison. ‘In vain we attempt to clear ouy 
conscience by affecting to compensate for fraud or cru; 
a by acts of strict religians homage towards Gad?~ 

LAIR. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES | 


TO GUARANTEE, BE SECURITY, BE RE- 
SPONSIBLE, WARKANT. 


Guarantee and warrant are both derived from the 
Teutonick wahren to look to; to be security is to be 
that which makes secure; and to be responsible, from 
the Latin respondce to answer, is to take upon one’s 
self to auswer for another, 

Guarantee is a term of higher import than the 
others: ene guarantees for others in matters of con- 
tract and stipulation: security is employed in matters 
of right and justice; one may be security for another, 
or give security for one’s self: responsibility is em- 
ployed in moral concerns; we take the responsibility 
upon ourselves: warrant is employed in civil and 
commercial concerns; we warrart for that which 
concerns ourselves. 

We guarantee by virtue of our power and the con- 
fidence of those who accept the guarantee ; it is given 
by means of a word, which is accepted as a pledge fer 
the future performance of a contract; governments, 
in order to make peace, frequently guarantee for the 
performance of certain stipulations by powers of minor 
unportance; ‘The people of England, then, are will- 
ing to trust to thesympathy of regicides, the guarantee 
of the British monarehy.’-—-BurRKE. We are security 
by virtue of our wealth and credit; the securitz is not 
confined to a simple word, it is always accompanied 
with some legitimate act that binds, it regards the pay- 
ment of money for another; tradesmen are frequently 
security for others who are not supposed sufficiently 
wealthy to answer for themselves ; ‘ Richard Cromwell 
desired only security for the debts he had contracted.’ 

-Burgner. We are responsible by virtue of one’s 
office and relation; the responsibility binds for the 
reparation of injuries; teachers are responsible for the 
good conduct of the children intrusted to their care: 
one warrants by virtue of one’s knowledge and situa- 
tion: ‘ Whata dreadful thing is a standing army, for 
the eorduct of the whole or of any part of which no 
one is responsible.—Bourke. The warrant binds to 
make restitution; the seller warrants his articles on 
sale te be such as are worth the purchase, or in case 
of defectiveness to be returned; and in a moral appli- 
cation things are said to warrant or justify a person in 
forming conclusions or pursuing a line of conduct; 
* Ne man’s mistake will be able to warrant an unjust 
surmise, much less justify a false censure.’—Souru. 
A king guarantees for the transfer of the lands of one 
prince, on his decease, into the possession of another ; 
when men have neither honour nor money, they must 
get others to be security for them, if any can be found 
sufficiently credulous ; in England masters are respon- 
sible for all che mischiefs done by their servants; a 
tradesman who stands upon his reputation wiil be care- 
ful not to warrant any thing which he is not assured 
will stand the trial. 


ANSWERABLE, RESPONSIBLE, ACCOUNT- 
ABLE, AMENABLE. 


Answerable signifies ready or able to answer for; 
responsible, from respondeo to answer, has a similar 
meaning in its original sense; accountable, from ac- 
count, signifies able or ready to give an account ; 
amenable, from the French amener to lead, signifies 
tiable to be led. 

We are answerable for a demand ; responsible for a 
trust; accountable for our proceedings; and amenable 
to the laws. When aman’s credit is firmly established 
he will have occasions to be answerable for those in 
less flourishing circumstances: every one becomes re- 
sponsibie more or jess in proportion to the confidence 
which is reposed in his judgement and integrity: we 
are all accountable beings, either to one another, or at 
feast to the great Judge of all; when a man sincerely 
vishes to do right, he will have no objection to be 
amenable to the laws of his country. 

An honest man will not make himself answerable 
for any thing which it is above his ability to fulfil; 
‘That he might render the execution of justice strict 
and regular, Atfred divided all Engiand into counties, 
these counties he subdivided into hundreds, and the 
hundreds into tithings. Every householder was an- 
swerable for the behaviour of his family and his slaves, 

ad even of his guests if they lived above three days 
in his house..—Hume. A prudent man will avoid a 
oo heavy responsibility; ‘As a person’s responsibility 


183 


bears respect to his reason, so do human punishments 
bear respect to his responsibility ; infants and boys are 
chastised by the hand of the parent or the master; 
rational adults are amenable to the laws.’—CumBER 
LAND. An upright man never refuses to be account 
able to any who are invested with proper authority, 
‘We know that we are the subjects of a Supreme 
Righteous Governour, to whom we are accountable for 
our conduct.’.—Brair. A conscientious man makes 
himself amenable to the wise regulations of society. 


FENCE, GUARD, SECURITY 


Fence, from the Latin fendo to fend or keep o#, 
serves to prevent the attack of an external enemy ; 
guard, which is but a variety of ward, from the old 
German wahkren to look to, and wachen to watch, sig 
nifies that which keeps from any danger ; security im- 
plies that which secures or prevents injury, mischief, 
and loss. — Th 

The fence in the proper sense is an inanimate object ; 


the guard is a living agent; the former is of perma> 


nent utility, the latter acts to a partial extent: in the 
figurative sense they retain the same distinction. Mo- 
desty is a fence to a woman’s virtue; the love of the 
subject is the monarch’s greatest safeguard. There 
are prejudices which favour religion and subordina- 
tion, that act as fences against the introduction of 
licentious principles into the juvenile or enlightened 
mind; ‘ Whatever disregard certain modern refiners 
of morality may attempt to throw on all the instituted 
means of public religion, they must in their lowest 
view be considered as the out-guards and fences of 
virtuous conduct.’—Buarir. A proper sense of an 
overruling providence will serve as a guard to pre 


aN 


vent the admission of improper thoughts; ‘Let the | 


heart be either wounded by sore distress, or agitated by 
violent emotions: and you shall presently see that vir- 
tue without religion is inadequate to the government 
of life. Itis destitute of its proper guard, of its firm- 
est support, of its chief encouragement.’—Buatr. The 
guard only stands at the entrance, to prevent the in- 
gress of evil: the security stops up all the avenues, it 
locks up with firmness. A guard serves to prevent 
the ingressof every thing that may have an evil inten- 
tion or tendency: the security rather secures the pos- 
session of what one has, and prevents a loss. A king 
has a guard about his person to keep off all violence. 
The security may either secure against the loss of pro- 
perty or against the loss of any external advantage or 
moral benefit; ‘The Romans do not seem to have 
known the secret of paper money or securities upon 
mortgages.’—ARBUTHNOT. 


DEPOSITE, PLEDGE, SECURITY. 


Deposite is a general term fromthe Latin depositus, 
participle of depono to lay down, or put into the hands 
of another, signifying that which is laid down or given 
in charge, asa guarantee for the performance of an 
engagement ; pledge, comes probably trom plico, signi- 
fying what engages by a tie or envelope; security sig- 
nifies that which makes secure. 

The deposite has most regard to the confidence we 
place in another; the pledge has most regard to the 
security We give for ourselves; security is a species of 
pledge. A deposite isalways voluntarily placed in the 
hands of an indifferent person; a pledge and security 
are required from the parties who are interested. A 
person may make a deposite for purposes of charity or 
convenience ; he gives a pledge or security for a tem- 
porary accommodation, or the relief of a necessity. 

| Money is deposited in the hands of a friend in order to 
execute a commission: a pledge is given as an equi- 
valent for that which has been received: a security is 
given by way of security for the performance. 

A deposite may often serve the purpose of a security ; 
but it need not contain any thing so binding as either a 
pledge or a security; both of which involve a loss on 
the non-fulfilment of a certain contract. A pledge is 
given for matters purely personal; a security is given 
in behalf of another. 

Deposites are always transportable articles, consist 
ing either of money, papers, jewels, or other valuables: 
a pledge isseldom pecuniary, butit is always some 
article of positive value, as estates, furniture, and tne 
like, given at the moment of forming the contra 


184 


security is always pecuniary, but it often consists of a 
promise, and not of any immediate resignation of one’s 
property. Deposites are made and securities given by 
the wealthy; pledges are commonly given by those 
who are in distress. : 

These words bear a similar distinction in the figura- 
tive application ; ‘It is without reason we praise the 
wisdom of. our constitution, in putting under the dis- 
cretion of the crown the awful trust of war and peace, 
if the ministers of the crown virtually return it again 
into our hands. The trust was placed there as asacred 
deposite, to secure us against popular rashness in plung- 
ing into wars.’—BuRKE. 


These garments once were his, and left to me, 
The pledges of his promised loyalty.—DrypEn. 


‘It is possible for a man, who hath the appearance of 
religion, to be wicked and a hypocrite; but it is im- 
possible for a man who openly declares against reli- 
gion, to give any reasonable security that he will not 
be false and cruel.’—Swirt. 


EARNEST, PLEDGE. 


In the proper sense, the earnest (v. Eager) is given 
as a token of our being in earnest in the promise we 
have made; the pledge, in all probability from plico to 
fold or implicate, signifies a security by which we are 
engaged to indemnify for a loss. 

The earnest has regard to the confidence inspired ; 
the pledge has regard to the bond or tie produced: 
when a contract is only verbally formed, it is usual to 
give earnest ; whenever money is advanced, it is com- 
mon to give a pledge. 

In the figurative application the terms bear the same 
analogy: a man of genius sometimes, though not 
always, gives an earnest in youth of his future great- 
ness ; 


Nature has wove into the human mind 

This anxious care for names we leave behind, 
T’ extend our narrow views beyond the tomb, 
And give an earnest of a life to come.—JENYNS. 


Children are the dearest pledges of affection between 
parents ; 
Fairest of stars, last in the train of night, 
If better thou belong not to the dawn, 
Sure pledge of day that crown’st the smiling morn, 
With thy bright circlet praise him in thy sphere. 
MILTON. 


TO APPOINT, ORDER, PRESCRIBE, ORDAIN. 


To appoint (v. Allot) is either the act of an equal or 
superiour: we appoint a meeting with any one at a 
given time and place; a king appoints his ministers. 
To order, in French ordre, Latin ordino to arrange, 
dispose, ordo order, Greek épxo¢ a row of trees, which 
is the symbol of order, is the act of one invested with 
a partial authority: a customer orders a commodity 
from his tradesman: a master gives his orders to his 
servant. To prescribe, in Latin preseribo, compound- 
ed of pre before, and scribo to write, signifying to draw 
a line for a person, is the act of one who is superiour 
by virtve of his knowledge: a physician prescribes to 
his patient. To ordain, which is a variation of order, 
is an act emanating from the highest authority: 
kings and councils ordain ; but their ordinances must 
iy conformable to what is ordained by the Divine 

eing. 

Appointments are made for the convenience of indi- 
viduals or communities; but they may be altered or 
annulled at the pleasure of the contracting parties ; 


: Majestic months 
Sev out with him to their appointed race.~-DRYDEN. 


Orders are dictated by the superiour only, but they pre- 
suppose a discretionary obligation on the part of the 
individual to whom they are given; ‘Upon this new 
fright an order was made by both Houses for disarm- 
ing ali papists.—CuarEnDon. Prescriptions are bind- 
ing on none but such as voluntarily admit their autho- 
rity; ‘It will be found a work of no small difficulty, to 
dispossesg a vice from that heart, where long possession 
begins to plead prescription.—Soutu. Ordinances 
leave no choice to those on whom they are imposed to 
accept or reject them: the ordinances of man are not 
less binding than those of God, so long as they do not 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


expressly contradict the Divine law ; ‘It seemeth nard 
to plant any sound ordinance, or reduce them (the 
Irish) to a civil government; since all their ill custome 
are permitted unto them.’—SPensER. 

Appointments are kept, orders executed or obeyed, 
prescriptions followed, ordinances submitted to. It is 
a point of politeness or honour, if not of direct moral 
obligation, to Keep the appointments which we have 
made. Interest will lead men to execute the orders 
which they receive in the course of business: duty ob 
liges them to obey the orders of their superiours. Itisa 
nice matter to prescribe to another without hurting his 
pride: this principle leads men often to regard the 
counsels of their best friends as prescriptions: with 
children it is an unquestionable duty to follow the pre- 
scriptions of those whose age, station, or experience, 
authorize them to prescribe; ‘Sir Francis Bacon, in 
his Essay upon Health, has not thought it improper to 
prescribe to his reader a poem or a prospect, where he 
particularly dissuades him from knotty or subtle disqui- 
sitions.—Appison. God has ordained all things for 
our good; it rests with ourselves to submit to his ordz- 
nances and be happy; ‘It was perhaps ordained by 
Providence to hinder us from tyrannizing over one an- 
other, that no individual should be of such importance 
as to cause by his retirement or death any chasm in 
the world.—Jounson. Sometimes the word order is 
taken in the sense of direct and regulate, which brings 
it still nearer to the word ordain. God is said to or- 
dain, as an act of power ; he is said to order, as an act 
of wisdom; ‘ The whole course of things is so ordered, 
that we neither by an irregular and precipitate educa- 
tion become men too soon; nor by a fond and trifling 
indulgence be suffered to continue children for ever ’ - 
Bair. 


TO DICTATE, PRESCRIBE. 


Dictate,from the Latin dictatus and dictum,a word, 
signifies to make a word for another; and prescribe 
literally signifies to write down for another (v. To ap- 
point), in which sense the former of these terms is 
used technically for a principal who gets his secretary 
to write down his words as he utters them; and the 
latter for a physician who writes down for his patient 
what he wishes him to take asa remedy. ‘T'hey are 
used figuratively for a species of counsel given by a su- 
periour: to dictate ishowever a greater exercise of au- 
thority than to prescribe. 

To dictate amounts even to more than to command, 
it signifies commanding with a tone of unwarrantable 
authority, or still oftener a species of commanding by 
those who have no right to command; ‘t is therefore 
mostly taken ina bad sense. To prescribe partakes 
altogether of the nature of counsel, and nothing of 
command; it serves as arule to the person prescribed, 
and is justified by the superiour wisdom and knowledge 
of the person prescribing ; it ‘s therefore always taken 
in an indifferent or a good sense. He who dictates 
speaks with an adventitious authority ; he who pre 
scribes has the sauction of reason. 

To dictate imp:‘es an entire subserviency in the per 
son dictated to: to prescribe carries its own weight 
with it in the nature of the thing prescribed. Upstarts 
are ready to dictate even to their superiours on every 
occasion that offers. ‘The physician and divine are 
often heard to dictate in private company with the 
same authority which they exercise over their patients 
and disciples. —Bup@rtit. Modest people are often 
fearful of giving advice lest they should be suspected 
of prescribing ; ‘In the form which is prescribed to us 
(the Lord’s Prayer), we only pray for that happiness 
which is our chief good, and the great end of our ex- 
istence, when we petition the Supreme for the coming 
of his kingdom.’—AppIson. 


DICTATE, SUGGESTION. 


Dictate signifies the thing dictated, and has an im 
perative sense as in the former case (v. To dictate) 
suggestion signifies the thing suggested, and conveys 
the e of being secretly or ina gentle manner pro 
posed. 

The dictate comes from the conscience, the reason, 
or the passion; suggestions spring from the mind, the 
will, or the desire. Dictate is taken either in a good 
or bad sense; suggestion mostly in a bad sense. It 
is the part of a Christian at all times to listen to the 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


dictcees of conscience; it is the characteristick of a 
weak mind to follow the suggestions of envy. A man 
renounces the character of a rational being who yields 
to the dictates of passion ; ‘ When the dictates of ho- 
nour are contrary to those of religion and equity, they 
are the greatest depravations of human nature.’—Ap- 
pDIsoN. Whoever does not resist the suggestions of 
his own evil mind is very far gone in corruption, and 
will never be able to bear up long against temptation ; 
‘Did not conscience suggest this natural relation be- 
tween guilt and punishment; the mere’principle of ap- 
probation or disapprobation, with respect to moral con- 
duct, would prove of small efficacy.”—Buair. 

Dictate is employed only for what passes inwardly ; 
suggestion may be used for any action on the mind by 
external objects. No man will err essentially in the 
ordinary affairs of life who is guided by the dictates 
of plain sense. It is the lot of sinful mortals to be 
drawn to evil by the suggestions of Satan as well as 
their own evil inclinations. 


COMMAND, ORDER, INJUNCTION, PRECEPT, 
MANDATE. 


Command, compounded of com and mando, manudo, 
or dare in manus to give into the hand, signifies giving 
or appointing as a task; a command is imperative; it 
is the strongest exercise of authority; order, which in 
the extended sense of regularity, implies what is done 
in the way of order, or for the sake of regularity; an 
order is instructive ; it is an expression of the wishes: 
injunction, in French injunction, from in and jungo, 
signifies literally to join or bring close to; figuratively 
to impress on the mind; an injunction is decisive ; it 
is a greater exercise of authority than order, and less 
than command: precept, in French précepte, Latin 
preceptum, participle of precipio, compounded of 
pre and capio to put or lay before, signifies the thing 
preposed to the mind; a precept is a moral law; it is 
binding on the conscience. The three former of these 
are personal in their application; the latter is general: 
a command, an order, and an injunction, must be ad- 
dressed to some particular individual; a precept is 
addressed to all. 

Command and order exclusively flow from the will 
of the speaker in the ordinary concerns of life; in- 
junction has more regard to the conduct of the person 
addressed ; precept is altogether founded on the moral 
obligations of men to each other. A command is just 
or unjust; an order is prudent or imprudent; an in- 
junction is mild or severe; a precept is general or par- 
ticular. 

Command and order are affirmative ; injunction or 
precept are either affirmative or negative: the command 
and the order oblige us to do a thing; the znjunction 
and precept oblige us to do it, or leave it undone. A 
sovereign issues his commands, which the well-being 
of society requires to be instantly obeyed ; 


Tis Heav’n commands me, and you urge in vain: 

Had any mortal voice the injunction laid, 

Nor augur, seer, or priest, had been obey’d.—Porr. 

A master gives his orders, which it is the duty of 
the servant to execute ; 


A stepdame too I have, a cursed she, 
Who rules my henpeck’d sire, and orders me. 
DRYDEN. 


This done, Auneas orders for the close, 
The strife of archers with contending bows. 
DRYDEN. 


A father lays an injunctien on his children, which 
they with filial regard ought to endeavour to follow; 
‘The duties which religion enjoins us to perform 
towards God are those which have oftenest furnished 
matter to the scoffs of the licentious..—Buarr. The 
moralist lays down his precepts, which every rational 
creature is called upon to practise ; 


We say not that these ills from virtue flow; 
Did her wise precepts rule the world, we know 
‘The golden ages would again begin.—Jznyns. 


Mandate, in Latin mandatum, participle of mando, 
ras the same original meaning as command, but is em- 
ployed to denote a command given by publick authority; 
whence the conmands of princes, or the commands 
ef the church, are properly denominated mandates ; 


185 


‘The necessities of the times cast the power of the 
three estates upon himself, that his mandates should 


pass for laws, whereby he laid what taxes he pleased ' 


—Howe.u. 


—_ 


COMMANDING, IMPERATIVE, IMPERIOUS, 
AUTHORITATIVE. 
Commanding, which signifies having the force ofa 
command (v. To command), is either good or bad ac- 


cording to circumstancés; a commanding voice is 
necessary for one who has to command; but a com 
manding air is offensive when it is affected ; 


Oh! that my tongue had every grace of speech, 
Great and commanding as the breath of kings. 
Rowe. 
Imperative from impero, to command, signifying sim 
ply in the imperative mood, is applied to things, and 
used in an indifferent sense; «imperious, which sig- 
nifies literally in the tone or way of command, is 
used for persons or things in the bad sense: any 
direction is imperative which comesin the shape of a 
command, and circumstances are likewise imperative, 
which act with the force of a command; ‘ Quitting 


the dry imperative style of an act of Parliament he 


(Lord Somers) makes the Lords and Commons fall to a 
pious legislative ejaculation. —Burker. Persons are 
imperious Who exercise their power oppressively ; 

Fear not, that I shall watch, with servile shame, 

Th’ imperious looks of some proud Grecian dame. 

DRYDEN. 

In this manner underlings in office are imperious : 
necessity is ¢mperious when it leaves us no choice in 
our conduct. Authoritative, which signifies having au- 


thority, or in the way of authority, is mostly applied to 


persons or things personal in the good sense cnly ; ma- 
gistrates are called upon to assume an authoritative 
air when they meet with any resistance; ‘ Authorita- 
tive instructions, mandates issued, which the member 
(of Parliament) is bound blindly and implicitly to vote 
and argue for, though contrary to the clearest con 
viction of his judgement and conscience; these are 
things utterly unknown to the laws of this land.’— 
BuRKE. 


—— 


IMPERIOUS, LORDLY, DOMINEERING, 
OVERBEARING. 


All these epithets imply an unseemly exercise or af 
fectation of power or superiority. Imperious, fron 
impero to command, characterizes either the disposition 
to command without adequate authority, or to convey 
one’s commandsin an offensive manner: lordly, signi- 
fying like a Jord, characterizes the manner of acting the 
lord; and domineering, from dominus a lord, denotes 
the manner of ruling like a lord, or rather of attempting 
to rule: hence a person’s temper or his tone is deno- 
minated imperious ; his air er deportment is lordly ; 
his tone is domineering. A woman of an imperious 
temper commands in order to be obeyed: she commands 
with an imperious tone in order to enforce obedience ; 
‘He is an imperious dictator of the principles of vice, 
and impatient of all contradiction”—Morr. A person 
assumes a lordly air in order to display his own import- 
ance: he gives orders in a domineering tone in order to 
make others feel their inferiority. There is always 
something offensive in imzeriousness ; there is fre- 
quently something ludicrous in that which is lordly; 
and a mixture of the ludicrous and offensive in that 
which is domineering: the lordly is an affectation of 
grandeur where there are the fewest pretensions; 


Lords are lordiiest in their wine.—Mt1LTon. 


The domineering is an affectation of authority where 
it least exists; ‘ He who has sunk so far below himself 
as to have given up his assent to a domineering errour 
is fit for nothing but to be trampled on.’—SovrTu 
Lordly is applied even to the brutes who set themselves 
up above those of their kind ; domineering is applied to 
servants and ignorant people, who have the opportu- 
nity of commanding without knowing how to com 
mand. A turkey-cock struts about the yard in a lordly 
style; an upper servant domineers over all that are 
under him. 

The first three of these terms are employed for such 
as are invested with snme sort of power, or endowed 


186 


with some sort of superiority, however trifling; but 
overbecring is employed for men in the general 1ela- 
tions of society, whether superiours or equals. A man 
of an imperious temper and some talent will frequently 
be so overbearing in the assemblies of his equals as to 
awe the rest into silence, and carry every measure of 
his own without contradiction ; ‘ I reflected within my- 
self how much society would suffer if such insolent 
overbearing characters as Leontine were not held in 
restraini.—CuMBERLAND. As the petty airs of supe- 
riority here described are most common among the un- 
cultivated part of mankind, we may say that the zmpe- 
rious temper shows itself peculiarly in the domestick 
circle; that the lordly air shows itself in publick; that 
the domineering tone is most remarkable in the kitchen ; 
and the overbearing behaviour in villages. 


TO COMMISSION, AUTHORIZE, EMPOWER. 


Commission, from commit, signifies the act of com- 
malting, or putting into the hands of another; to au- 
thorize signifies to give authority ; to empower, to put 
in possession of the power to do any thing. 

‘The idea of transferring some business to another is 
common to these terms; the circumstances under 
which this is performed constitute the difference. We 
commission in ordinary cases; we authorize and em- 
power in extraordinary cases. Wecommission in mat- 
ters where our own will and convenience are concerned ; 
Wwe authorize in matters where our personal authority 
is requisite; and we empower in matters where the au- 
thority of the law is required. A commission is given 
by the bare communication of one’s wishes; we au- 
thorize by a positive and formal declaration to that 
intent ; we empower by the transfer of some legal docu- 
ment. <A person is commissioned to make a purchase; 


Commission’ d in alternate watch they stand, 
The sun’s bright portals and the skies command. 
Pope. 


One is authorized to communicate what has been in- 
trusted to him as a secret, or people are autiorized to 
act any given part; ‘A more decisive proof, cannot be 
given of the full conviction of the British nation that 
the principles of the Revolution did not authorize them 
to elect kings at pleasure, than their continuing to adopt 
a plan of hereditary Protestant succession in the old 
line.,—Burke. One is empowered to receive money ; 


Empower’d the wrath of gods and men to tame, 
E’en Jove rever’d the venerable dame.—Porkr. 


When commissions pass between equals, the perform- 
ance of them is an act of civility; but they are fre- 
quently given by sovereigns to their subjects; author- 
izing and empowering are as often directed to inferiours, 
they are frequently acts of justice and necessity. Judges 
and ambassadors receive commissions from their 
prince; ‘Princes do not use to send their viceroys un- 
furnished with patents clearly signifying their commis- 
sion.’—Soutu. Servants and subordinate persons are 
sometimes authorized to act in the name of their em- 
ployers; magistrates empower the officers of justice to 
apprehend individuals or enter houses. We are com- 
missioned by persons only ; we are authorized some- 
times by circumstances; we are empowered by law. 


INFLUENCE, AUTHORITY, ASCENDANCY 
OR ASCENDANT, SWAY. 


Influence, from the Latin injluo to flow in upon or 
cause to flow in upon, signifies the power of acting on 
an object so as to direct or move it; authority, in Latin 
auctoritas, from auctor the author or prime mover ofa 
thing, signifies that power which is vested in the prime 
mover; ascendancy or ascendant, from ascend, signifies 
having the upper hand; sway, like our word swing and 
the German schweben, comes in all probability from the 


Hebrew fy} to move, signifying also the power to 
move an object. 

These terms imply power, under different circum- 
stauces: influence is altogether unconnected with any 
right to direct; authority includes the idea of right ne- 
cessarily : superiority of rank, talent, or property, per- 
sonal attachment, and a variety of circumstances give 
influence ; itcommonly acts by persuasion, and employs 
engaging manners, so as to determine in favour of 
what is proposed: superiour wisdom, age, office, and 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


relation, give authority; it determines of itself, and 
requires no collateral aid: ascendancy and sway are 
modes of influence, differing only in degree ; they both 
imply an excessive and improper degree of influence 
over the mind, independent of reason; the former is, 
however, more gradual in its process, and consequently 
more confirmed in its nature; the latter may be only 
temporary, but may be more violent. A person employs 
many arts, and for a length of time, to gain the ascend- 
ancy; but he exerts a sway by a violent stretch of 
power. Itis of great importance for those who have 
influence, to conduct themselves consistently with their 
rank and station; * The influence of France as a repub- 
lick is equaito awar.’—Burxks Men are apt to regard 
the warnings and admonitions of a true friend as an 
odious assumption of authority ; ‘ Without the force of 
authority the power of soldiers grows pernicious to 
their master.—Trmpuire. Some men voluntarily give 
themselves up to the ascendancy which a valet ora 
mistress has gained over them, while the latter exert 
the most unwarrantable sway to serve their own inter 
ested and vicious purposes; ‘ By the ascendant he had 
in his understanding, and the dexterity of his nature, 
he could persuade him vei, much.’—CLARENDON 
‘ France, since her revolution, is under the sway of a 
sect whose leaders, at one stroke, have demolished the 
whole body of jurisprudence.’—Burkg. 

Influence and ascendancy are said likewise of things 
as well ag persons: true religion will have an influence 
not only on the outward conduct of a man, but the 
inward affections of his heart ; ‘ Religion hath so great 
an influence upon the felicity of man, that it ought to be 
upheld, not only out of a dread of divine vengeance in 
another world, but out of regard to temporal prosperity.” 
—TiLLotson. That man is truly happy in whose 
mind religion has the ascendancy over every other prin- 
ciple; ‘If you allow any passion, even though it be 
esteemed innocent, to acquire an absolute ascendant, 
your inward peace will be impaired.’-—Btatr. 


POWER, STRENGTH, FORCE, AUTHORITY, 
DOMINION. 


Power, in French pouvoir, comes from the Latin 
possum to beable; strength denotes the abstract quality 
of strong ; authority signifies the same as in the pre- 
ceding article; dominion, from dominus a lord, signifies’ 
the power of a lord or the exercise of that power ; force, 
from the Latin fortis strong, signifies the abstract 
quality of strength. ; 

Power is the generick and universal term, compre 
hending in it that simple principle of nature which exists 
inallsubjects. Strength and force are modes of power. 
These terms are all used either in a physical or moral 
application. Power in the physical sense respects 
whatever causes motion; ‘ Observing in ourselves that 
we can at pleasure move several parts of our bodies 
which were at rest; the effects also that natural bodies 
are able to produce in one another, occurring every 
moment to our senses, we both these ways get the idea 
of power.—Locks. Strength respects that species of 
power that lies in the vital and muscular parts of the 
body ; 

Not founded on the brittle strength of bones. 
Mitton 


Strength, therefore, is internal, and depends upon the 
internal organization of the frame; power, on the ex- 
ternal circumstances. A man may have strength to 
move, but not the power if he be bound with cords. 
Our strength is proportioned to the health of the body, 
and the firmness of its make; our power may be in- 
creased by the help of instruments. 

Power may be’exerted or otherwise; force is power 
exerted, or active; bodies have a power of resistance 
while in a state of rest, but they are moved by a certain 
force from other bodies ; 


A ship which hath struck sail, doth run, 
By force of that force which before it won. 
Donne 


The word power is used technically for the moving 
force; ‘By understanding the true difference between 
the weight and the power, a man may add such a fitting 
supplement to the strength of the power, that it shal} 
move any conceivable weight, though it should never 
so much exceed that force which the power is naturally 
endowed with.’—WILKINs. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


Ya a moral acreptation power, strength, and force, 
fay be applied to the same objects with a similar dis- 
tinction, thus we may speak of the power of language 
generally, the strength of a person’s expressions to con- 
vey the state of his own mind; and the force of terms 
as to their extent of meaning and fitness to convey the 
ideas of those who use them. In this case it is evident 
that strength and force are here employed as particular 
properties, but strength is the power actually exerted, 
and force the power which may be exerted. 

Power is either publick or private, which brings it in 
alliance with authority. Civil power includes in it all 
that which enables us to have any influence or control 
over the actions, persons, property, &c. of others; 


Hence thou shalt prove my might, and curse the hour, 
Thou stoodst a rival of imperial pow’r.—Porr. 


Authority is confined to that species of power which is 
derived from some legitimate source ; ‘ Power arising 
from strength is always in those who are governed, 
who are many; but authority arising from opinion is 
in those who govern, who are few..—TEMmMPLE. Power 
exists independently of all right; authority is founded 
only on right. A king has often the power to be cruel, 
but he has never the authority to be so. Subjects 
have sometimes the power of overturning the govern- 
ment, but they can in no case have the authority. 
Power may be abused; authority may be exceeded. 
A sovereign abuses his power, who exercises it for the 
misery of his subjects; he exceeds his authority, if 
he deprive them of any right from mere caprice or 
humour. 

Power may be seized either by fraud or force; 
authority is derived from some present law, or dele- 
gated by a higher power. Despotism is an assumed 
power, it acknowledges no law but the will of the 
individual; it is, therefore, exercised by no authority: 
the sovereign holds his power by the law of God; for 
God is the source of all authority, which is commen- 
surate with his goodness, his power, and his wisdom : 
man, therefore, exercises the supreme authority over 
man, as the minister of God’s authority; he exceeds 
ehat authority if he do any thing contrary to God’s 
will. Subjects have a delegated authority which they 
receive from a superiour; if they act for themselves, 
without respect to the will of that superiour, they 
exert a power Without authority. In this manner a 
prime minister acts by the authorily of the king, to 
whom he is responsible. A minister of the gospel 
performs his functions by the authority of the gospel, 
as it is interpreted and administered by the church ; 
but when he acts by an individual or particular inter- 
pretation, it is a self-assumed power, but not authority. 
Social beings, in order to act in concert, must act by 
laws and the subordination of ranks, whether in reli- 
gion or politicks; and he who acts solely by his own 
will, in opposition to the general consent of compe- 
tent judges, exerts a power, but is without authority. 
Hence those who officiate in England as ministers of 
the gospel, otherwise than according to the form and 
discipline of the Established Church, act by an as- 
sumed power, which, though not punishable by the 
laws of man, must, like other sins, be answered for at 
the bar of God. 

It lies properly with the supreme power to grant 
privileges, or take them away; but the same may be 
lone by one in whom the authority is invested. Au- 
thority in this sense is applied to the ordinary concerns 
of life, where the line of distinction is always drawn, 
between what we can and what we ought to do. 
There is power where we can or may act; there is 
authority only where we ought to act. In all our 
dealings with others, it is necessary to consider in 
every thing, not what we have the power of doing, but 
what we have the authority todo. In matters of in- 
difference, and in what concerns ourselves only, it is 
sufficient to have the power to act, but in all important 
matters we must have the authority of the divine law: 
aman may have the power to read or leave it alone; but 
he cannot dispose of his person in all respects, without 
authority. In what concerns others, we must act by 
their authority, if we wish to act conscientiously ; 
when the secrets of another are confided to us, we 
have the power to divulge them, but not the authoritr ; 
unless it be given by him who intrusted them. 

Instructers are invested by parents with authority 
9ver their children ; and parents receive their authority 


187 


from natuie, that *s, the law of Gad; this peterna’ 
authority, according to the Christian system, extends 
to the education, but not to the destruction, of thei: 
offspring. ‘The heathens, however, claimed and ex 
erted a power over the lives of their children. By my 
superiour strength I may be enabled to exert a power 
over a man, so as to control his action; of his own 
accord he gives me authority to dispose of his pro 
perty ; so in literature, men of established rejmtation, 
of classical merit, and Known veracity, are quoted as 
authorities in support of any position. 

Power is indefinite as to degree; one may have 
little or much power : dominion is a positive degree of 
power. A monarch’s power may be limited by various 
circumstances; a despot exercises dominion over all 
his subjects, high and low. One is not said to get a 
power over any object, but to get an object into one’s 
power: on the other hand, we get a dominion over an 
object ; thus some men have a dominion over the con 
sciences of others ; 


And each of these must will, perceive, design, 

And draw confus’dly in a diffrent line, 

Which then can claim dominion o’er the rest, 

Or stamp the ruling passion in the breast. 
JENYNS 


POWERFUL, POTENT, MIGHTY. 


Powerful, or full of power, is also the original mean 
ing of potent ; but mighty signifies having might. 
Powerful is applicable to strength as well as power: 
a powerful man is one who by his size and make can 
easily overpower another: and a powerful person is 
one who has much in his power; ‘ It is certain that the 
senses are more powerful as the reason is weaker.’— 
Jounson. Potent is used only in this latter sense, in 
which it expresses a larger extent of power ; 


Now, flaming up the heavens, the potent sun 
Melts into limpid air the high-raised clouds. 
THOMSON. 


A potent monarch is much more than a powerful 
prince; mighty expresses a still higher degree of 
power; might is power unlimited by any considera- 
tion or circumstance; ‘ He who lives by a mighty prin- 
ciple within, which the world about him neither sees 
nor understands, he only ought to pass for godly.’— 
Sourn. A giant is called mighty in the physical 
sense, and that genius is said to be mighty which takes 
every thing within its grasp; the Supreme Being is 
entitled either Omnipotent or Almighty ; but the latter 
term seems to convey the idea of boundless extent 
more forcibly than the former. 


EMPIRE, REIGN, DOMINION. 


Empire in this case conveys the idea of power,® or 
an exercise of sovereignty; in this sense it is allied to 
the word reign, which, from the verb to reign, signifies 
the act of reigning ; and to the word dominion, which 
signifies the same as in the preceding article. 

Empire is used more properly for people or nations; 
reign for the individuals who hold the power: hence 
we say the empzre of the Assyrians, or of the Turks; 
the reign of the Cesars or the Paleologi. The most 
glorious epoch of the empire of the Babylonians is 
the reign of Nebuchadnezzar; that of the empire of 
the Persians is the reign of Cyrus; that of the empire 
of the Greeks is the reign of Alexander; that of the 
Romans is the reign of Augustus; these are the four 
great empires foretold by the prophet Daniel. 

All the epithets applied to the word empire, in this 
sense, belong equally to reign; but all which are ap- 
plied to reign are not suitable in application to empzre. 
We may speak of a reign as long and glorious; but 
not of an empire as long and glorious, unless the idea 
be expressed paraphrastically. The empire of the 
Romans was of longer duration than that of the 
Greeks; but the glory of the latter was more brilliant, 
from the rapidity of its conquests: the reign of King 
George III. was one of the longest and most eventful 
recorded in history. ° ‘ 

Empire and reign are both applied in the proper 
sense to the exercise of publick authority ; 


* Vide Abbe Girard: ‘“ Empire, régne.”’ 


‘86 


The sage historick muse 
Should next conduct us through the deeps of time, 
Show us how empire grew, declin’d, and fell. 
THOMSON, 


Dominion applies to the personal act, whether of a 
sovereign or a private individual: a sovereign may 
have dominion over many nations by the force of 
arms, but he holds his re¢gn over one nation by the 
force of law; 


He who, like a father, held his reign, 
So soon forgot, was wise and just in vain.—Popr. 


Hence the word dominion may, in the proper sense, 
be applied to the power which man exercises over the 
brutes, over inanimate objects, or over himself: but if 
empire and reign be applied to any thing but civil 
government, or to nations, it is only in the improper 
sense: thus a female may be said to hold her empire 
among her admirers; or fashions may be said to have 
their reign. In this application of the terms, empire 
is something wide and all-commanding ; 


Let great Achilles, to the gods resign’d, 
To reason yield the empire of his mind.—Porr. 


Reign is that which is steady and settled ; 


The frigid zone, 
Where for relentless months continual night 
Holds o'er the glittering waste her starry reign. 
THOMSON. 


Dominion is full of control and force; ‘ By timely cau- 


tion those desires may be repressed to which indulgence 
would give absolute dominion.’—JoHNSON. 


PRINCE, MONARCH, SOVEREIGN, 
POTENTATE. 


Prince, in French prince, Latin princeps, from 
primus, signifies the chief or the first person in the 
nation; monarch, from the Greek pdévos alone, and 
oxy government, signifies one having sole authority ; 
sovereign is probably changed from superregnum; 
potentate, from potens powerful, signifies one having 
supreme power. 

Prince is the generick term, the rest are specifick 
terms; every monarch, sovereign, and potentate, is a 
prince, but not vice versa. The term prince is inde- 
finite as to the degree of power: a prince may have a 
limited or despotick power ; but in its restricted sense 
this title denotes a smaller degree of power than any 
of the other terms: the term monarch does not define 
the extent of the power, but simply that it is undivided 
as opposed to that species of power which is lodged in 
the hands of many: sovereign and potentate indicate 
the highest degree of power; but the former is em- 
ployed only as respects the nation that is governed, 
the latter respects other nations: a sovereign is su- 
preme over his subjects; a potentate is powerful by 
means of his subjects. Every man having inde- 
pendent power isa prince, let his territory be ever so 
inconsiderable; Germany is divided into a number of 
small states, which are governed by petty princes ; 

Of all the princes who had swayed the Mexican 
sceptre, Montezuma was the most haughty.’—Roserr- 
sON. Every one reigning by himself in a state of some 
considerable magnitude, and having an independent 
authority over his subjects is a monarch; kings and 
emperours therefore are all monarchs ; ‘ The Mexican 
people were warlike and enterprising, the authority 
af the monarch unbounded.’—Roxpertson. Every 
monarch is a sovereign, whose extent of dominion 
and number of subjects rises above the ordinary level; 
‘The Peruvians yielded a blind submission to their 
sovereigns.’—ROBERTSON. He is a potentate if his 
influence either in the cabinet or the field extends 
very considerably over the affairs of other nations; 
‘How mean must the most exalted potentate upon 
earth appear to that eye which takes in innumerable 
orders of spirits. —Appison. Although we know that 
princes are but men, yet in estimating their characters 
we are apt to expect more of them than what is human. 
It is the great concern of every monarch who wishes 
for the welfare of his subjects to choose good coun- 
sellors* whoever has approved himself a faithful sub- 
ject may approach his sovereign with a steady confi- 
dence in having done his duty: the potentates of the 
earth may sometimes be intoxicated with their power 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


and their triumphs but in general they have too many 
mementoes of their common infirmity, to forget that 
they are but mortal men. 


ABSOLUTE, DESPOTICK, ARBITRARY, 
TYRANNICAL. 


Absolute in Latin absolutus, participle of absolvo, 
signifies absolved or set at liberty from all restraint ag 
it regards persons; unconditional, unlimited, as it re- 
gards things; despotick, from despot, in Greek deonérns 
a master or lord, implies being like a lord, uncon- 
trolled; arbitrary, in French arbitraire, from the Latin 
arbitrium will, implies belonging to the will of one in- 
dependent of that of others; tyrannical signifies being 
like a tyrant. 

Absolute power is independent of and superiour to 
all other power: an absolute monarch is uncontrolled 
not only by men but things; he is above all law except 
what emanates from himself; 


Unerring power ! 
Supreme and absolute, of these your ways 
You render no account.—LyLLo. 


When absolute power is assigned to any one according 
to the constitution of a government, it is despotick, 
Despotick power is therefore something less than abso- 
lute power: a prince is absolute of himself; he is 
despotick by the consent of others. 

In the early ages of society monarchs were absolute, 
and among the Eastern nations they still retain the ad 
solute form of government, though much limited by es- 
tablished usage. In the more civilized stages of society 
the power of despots has been considerably restricted by 
prescribed laws, in so much that despotism is now 
classed among the regular forms of government; ‘Such 
a history as that of Suetonius is to me an unanswer- 
able argument against despotick power.’—Appison. 
This term may also be applied figuratively ; ‘ Whatever 
the will commands, the whole man must do; the em- 
pire of the will over all the faculties being absolutely 
overruling and despotick.’—SouTu. 

Arbitrary and tyrannical do not respect the power 
itself, so much as the exercise of power: the latter ig 
always taken in a bad sense, the former sometimes in 
an indifferent sense. With arbitrariness is associated 
the idea of caprice and selfishness; for where is the in- 
dividual whose uncontrolled will may not oftener be 
capricious than etherwise? With tyranny is associ- 
ated the idea of oppression and injustice. Among the 
Greeks the word rvpavvos a tyrant, implied no more 
than what we now understand by despot, namely, a 
possessor of unlimited power: but from the natural 
abuse of such power, it has acquired the signification 
now attached to it, namely, of exercising power to the 
injury of another ; 


Our sects a more tyrannick power assume, 
And would for scorpions change the rod of Rome. 
Roscommon. 


Absolute power should be granted to no one man or 
body of men; since there is no security that it will not 
be exercised arbitrarily ; ‘ An honest private man often 
grows cruel and abandoned, when converted into an 
absolute prince.’—Appison. In despotick governments 
the tyrannical proceedings of the subordinate officers 
are often more intolerable than those of the Prince 


POSITIVE, ABSOLUTE. PEREMPTORY. 


Positive, in Latin positivus, from pono to put or 
place, signifies placed or fixed, that is, fixed or esta- 
blished in the mind; absolute (v. Adsolute) signifies 
uncontrolled by any external circumstances ; peremp- 
tory, in Latin peremptorius, from perimo to take away, 
signifies removing all further question. 

Positive is said either of a man’s convictions or tem- 
per of mind, or of his proceedings ; absolute is said of 
his mode of proceeding, or his relative circumstances , 
peremptory is said of his proceeding. Positive, as re 
spects a man’s conviction, has been spoken of under 
the article of confident (v. Confident); in the latter 
sense it bears the closest analogy to absolute or peremp 
tory : a positive mode of speech depends upon a posi- 
tive state of mind ; ‘The diminution or ceasing of pain 
does not operate like positive pleasure..—BurkKE. An 
absolute mode of speech depends upon the uncontrol- 
lable authority of the speaker; ‘Those parts of the 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


moral world which have not an absolute, may yet have 
a relative beauty, in respect of some other parts con- 
cealed from us.—Appison. A peremptory mode of 
speech depends upon the disposition and relative cir- 
cumstauces of the speaker; ‘The Highlander gives to 
every question an answer so prompt and peremptory, 
that skepticism is dared ints silence.'.—JoHNsoN. A de- 
cision is positive; a command absolute or peremptory : 
what is positive excludes all question ; what is abso- 
lute bars all resistance; what is peremptory removes 
all hesitation : a positive answer can be given only by 
one who has positive information; an absolute decree 
can issue only from one vested with absolute authority ; 
a peremptory refusal can be given only by one who has 
the will and the power of deciding it without any con- 
troversy. 

As adverbs, positively, absolutely, and peremptorily, 
have an equally close connexion: a thing is said to be 
positively known, or positively determined upon, or 
positively agreed to; itis said to be absolutely neces- 
sary, absolutely true or false, absolutely required ; it is 
not to be peremptorily decided, peremptorily declared, 
peremptorily refused. 

Positive and absolute are likewise applied to moral 
objects with the same distinction as before: the pos7- 
tive expresses what is fixed in distinction from the 
relative that may vary; the absolute is that which is 
independent of every thing: thus, pleasure and pains 
are positive; names in logic are absolute; cases in 
grammar are absolute. 


ROYAL, REGAL, KINGLY. 


Royal and regal from the Latin rez a king, though 
of foreign origin, have obtained more general appli- 
cation than the corresponding English term kingly. 
Royal signifies belonging to a king, in its most general 
sense; regal in Latin regalis, signifies appertaining to 
a king, in its particular application; kingly signifies 
properly like a king. A royal carriage, a royal resi- 
dence, a royal couple, a royal salute, royal authority, 
all designate the general and ordinary appurtenances 
to a king. 


He died, and oh! may no reflection shed 
Its pois’nous venom on the royal dead.—PRior. 


Regal government, regal state, regal power, regal dig- 
nity, denote the peculiar properties of a king ; 


Jerusalem combined must see 
My open fault and regal infamy.—Prior. 

Kingly always implies what is becoming a king, or 
after the manner of a king; a kingly crown is such as 
a king ought to wear; a kingly mien, that which is 
after the manner of a king; 

Scipio, you know how Massanissa bears 

His kingly post at more than ninety years. 

DeENHAM. 


EMPIRE, KINGDOM. 


Attnough these two words obviously refer to two spe- 
cies of states, where the princes assume the title of 
either emperour or king, yet the difference between them 
is not limited to this distinction. 

* The word empire carries with it the idea of a state 
that is vast, and composed of many different people ; 
that of kingdom marks a state more limited in extent, 
and united in its composition. In kingdoms there isa 
uniformity of fundamental laws; the difference in re- 
gard to particular laws or modes of jurisprudence being 
merely variations from custom, which do not affect the 
unity of political administration. From this uni- 
formity, indeed, in the functions of government, we 
may trace the origin of the words king and kingdom: 
since there is but one prince or sovereign ruler, although 
there may be many employed in the administration. 
With empires it is different: one part is sometimes go- 
yverned by fundamental laws, very different from those 
by which another part of the same empire is governed ; 
which diversity destroys the unity of government, and 
makes the union of the state to consist in the submission 
of certain chiefs to the commands of a superiour ge* 
neral or chief. From this very right of commanding, 
then, it is evident that the words empire and emperour 


* Vide Abbe Bauzee: “ Empire, royaume.”’ 


185 


derive their origin; and hence it is that there may be 
many princes or sovereigns, and kingdoms, in the same 
empire. ; 

As a farther illustration of these terms, we need only 
fook to their application from the earliest ages in which 
they were used, down to the present period. The word 
king had its existence long prior to that of emperour, 
being doubtless derived, through the channel of the 


northern languages, from the Hebrew {7} 4 priest, 


since in those ages of primitive simplicity, before the 
lust of dominion had led to the extension of power and 
conquest, he who performed the sacerdotal office was 
unanimously regarded as the fittest person to discharge 
the civil functions for the ccmmunity. So inlike man. 
ner among the Romans the corresponding word rez, 


which comes from rego, and the Hebrew f}}7*4 to feed 
signifies a pastor or shepherd, because he who filled the 
office of king acted both spiritually and civilly as their 
guide. Rome therefore was first a kingdom, while it 
was formed of only one people: it acquired the name 
of empire as soon as other nations were brought into 
subjection to it, and became members of it; not by 
losing their distinctive character as nations, but by sub- 
mitting themselves to the supreme command of their 
conquerors. 

For the same reason the German empire was so de- 
nominated, because it consisted of several states inde- 
pendent of each other, yet all subject to one ruler o, 
emperor ; so likewise the Russian empire, the Ottomar 
empire, and the Mogul empire, which are composed of 
different nations: and on the other hand the kingdom 
of Spain, of Portugal, of France, and of England, all 
of which, though divided into different provinces, were 
nevertheless, one people, having but oneruler. While 
France, however, included many distinct countries 
within its jurisdiction, it properly assumed the nanie of 
an empire; and England having by a legislative act 
united to itself a country distinct both in its laws and 
customs, has likewise, with equal propriety, been de- 
nominated the British empire. 

A kingdom can never reach to the extent of an em 
pire, for the unity of government and administration 
which constitutes its leading feature cannot reach so 
far, and at the same time requires more time than the 
simple exercise of superiority, and the right of receiv. 
ing certain marks of homage, which suffice to form ar. 
emptre. Although a kingdom may not be free, yet an 
empire can scarcely be otherwise than despotick in its 
form of government. Power, when extended and ra- 
mified, as it must unavoidably be in an empire, derives 
no aid from the personal influence of the sovereign, 
and requires therefore to be dealt out in portions far 
too great to be consistent with the happiness of the 
subject. 


or 


TERRITORY, DOMINION. 

Both these terms respect a portion of country under 
a particular government; but the word territory brings 
to our minds the land which is included; dominion 
conveys to our minds the power which is exercised: 
territory refers to that which is in its nature bounded; 
dominion may be said of that which is boundless. A 
petty prince has his territory ; the monarch of a great 
empire has dominions. 

It is the object of every ruler to guard his territory 
against the irruptions of an enemy ; ‘ The conquered 
territory was divided among the Spanish invaders, 
according to rules which custom had introduced.’— 
Rosertson. Ambitious monarchs are always aiming 
to extend their dominions ; 


And while the heroick Pyrrhus shines in arms, 
Our wide dominions shall the world o’errun. 
TRAPP. 


STATE, REALM, COMMONWEALTH. 


The state is that consolidated part Gf a nation in 
which lies its power and greatness; the realm, from 
royaume a kingdom, is any state whose government is 
monarchical; the commonwealth is the grand body of 
a nation, consisting both of the government and people, 
which forms the commonwealth or commonweal of a 
nation. “ 

The ruling idea in the sense and application of the 


190 


sense; affairs of state may either respect the internal 
regulations of a country, or it may respect the arrange- 
ments of different states with each other. The term 
realm is employed for the nation at large, but confined 
to such nations as are monarchical and aristocratical ; 
peers of the realm sit in the English Parliament by 
theirownright. Theterm commonwealth refers rather 
to the aggregate body of men, and their possessions, 
rather than to the government of a country: it is the 
business of the minister to consult the interests of the 
commonwealth. 

The term state is indefinitely applied to all commu- 
ities, large or small, living under any form of govern- 
ment: a petty principality in Germany, and the whole 
German or Russian empire, are alike termed states ; 
‘ No man that understands the state of Poland, and the 
United Provinces, will be able to range them under 
any particular names of government that have been 
invented.’—TrEmpLE. Realm is a term of dignity in 
regard to a nation; France, Germany, England, Russia, 
are, therefore, with most propriety termed realms, 
when spoken of either in regard to themselves or in 
general connexions ; 


Then Saturn came, who fled the power of Jove, 
Robb’d of his realms, and banish’d from above. 
DRYDEN. 


Commonwealth, although not appropriately applied to 
any nation, is most fitted for republicks, which have 
hardly fixedness enough in themselves to deserve the 
name of state; 


Civil dissension is a viperous worm, 
That gnaws the bowels of the commonwealth. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


CREDIT, FAVOUR, INFLUENCE. 


Credit, from the Latin creditus, participle of credo 
to believe or trust, marks the state of being believed 
or trusted; favour, from the Latin faveo, and probably 
favus a honey comb, marks an agreeable or pleasant 
state of feeling; influence signifies the same as in the 
preceding article. 

These terms denote the state we stand in with regard 
to others as flowing out of their sentiments towards 
ourselves: credit arises out of esteem; favour out of 
good-will or affection; influence out of either credit 
or favour : credit depends most on personal merit; 
favour may depend cn the caprice of him who be- 
stows it. 

The credit which we have with others is marked by 
their confidence in our judgement; by their disposition 
to submit to our decisions; by their reliance in our 
veracity, or assent to our opinions: the favour we have 
with others is marked by their readiness to comply 
with our wishes; their subserviency to our views; 
attachment to our society: men of talent are ambi- 
tious to gain credit with their sovereigns, by the supe- 
riority of their counsel; weak men or men of ordinary 
powers are contented with being the favourites of 
princes, and enjoying their patronage and protection. 
Credit redounds to the honour of the individual, and 
stimulates him to noble exertions ; it is beneficial in its 
results to all mankind, individually or collectively ; 
‘Truth itself shall lose its credit, if delivered by a 
person that has none.’—Soutu. Favour redounds to 
the personal advantage, the selfish gratification of the 
individual; it is apt to inflame pride, and provoke 
jealousy ; Halifax, thinking this a lucky opportunity 
of securing immortality, made some advances of fa- 
vour, and some overtures of advantage to Pope, which 
ne seems to have ‘received with sullen coldness.’— 
Jounson. The honest exertion of our abilities is all 
that is necessary to gain credit; there will always be 
found those who are just enough to give credit where 
credit is due: favour, whether in the gaining or main- 
taining, requires much finesse and trick; much man- 
agement of the humours of others; much control of 
one’s own humours; what is thus gained with diffi- 
culty is often lost in a moment, and for a trifle. Credit, 
though sometimes obtained by falsehood, is never got 
without exertion; but. favour, whether justly or un- 
justly bestowed, often comes by little or no effort on 
ihe part of the receiver; aclergyman gains credit with 
his parishioners by the consistency of his conduct, the 
gravity of his demeanour, and the strictness of his 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


word state is that of government in its most abstract | 


life; the favour of the populace is gained by aris 
which men of upright minds would disdain to employ. 

Oredit and favour are the gifts of others; influence 
is a possession which we derive from circumstances : 
there will always be influence where there is credit or 
favour, but it may exist independently of either: we 
have credit and favour tor ourselves; we exert infiu- 
ence over others: credit and favour serve one’s own 
purposes ;. influence is employed in directing others: 
weak people easily give credit, or bestow their faveur, 
by which an influence is gained over them to bend 


‘them to the will of others; the influence itself may be 


good or bad, according to the views of the person by 
whom it is exerted; ‘What motive could induce 
Murray to murder a prince without capacity, without 
followers, without znflwence over the nobles, whom the 
queen, by her neglect, had reduced to the lowest state 
of contempt.’—ROBERTSON. 


GRACE, FAVOUR. 


Grace, in French grace, Latin gratia, comes trom 
gratus kind, because a grace results from pure kind 
ness independently of the merit of the receiver; but 
favour is that which is granted voluntarily and with- 
owt hope of recompense independently of all obli- 
gation. 

Grace is never used but in regard to those who have 
offended and made themselves liable to punishment ; 
favour is employed for actual good. An act of grace 
is a term employed to denote that act of the govern- 
ment by which insolvent debtors are released; but 
otherwise the term is in most frequent use among 
Christians to denote that merciful influence which God 
exerts over his most unworthy creatures from the infi- 
nite goodness of his Divine nature; it is to his’ special 
grace that we attribute every good feeling by which we 
are prevented from committing sin ; 


But say I could repent and could obtain, 
By act of grace, my former state, how soon 
Would height recall high thoughts.—Mi.Ton. 


The term favour is employed indiscriminately with 
regard to man or his Maker; those who are in power 
have the greatest opportunity of conferring favours ; 
‘A bad man is wholly the creature of the world. He 
hangs upon its favour.—Btuair. But all we receive 
at the hands of our Maker must be acknowledged as a 
favour. The Divine grace is absolutely indispensable 
for men as sinners; the Divine favour is perpetually 
necessary for men as his creatures dependent upon him 
for every thing. 


FAVOURABLE, PROPITIOUS, AUSPICIOUS. 


Favourable, disposed to favour, or after the manner 
of favour, is the general term; propitious and auspi- 
cious ate species of the farourable ; propitious, in 
Latin propitius, comes from prope near, because the 
heathens solicited their deities to be near or present to 
give them aid in favour of their designs ; whence pro- 
pitious signifies favourable as it springs from the de 
sign of an agent: auspicious, in French auspice, Latin 
auspicium and auspex, compounded of avis and spicie 
to behold, signifies favourable according to the aus- | 
pices; what is propitious or auspicious, therefore, is 
always favourable, but not vice versd ; the favourable 
properly characterizes both persons and things; the 
propitious, in the proper sense, characterizes the person 
only ; auspicious is said of things only: as applied to 
persons, an equal may be favourable; a superiour 
only is propitious ; the one may be favourable only in 
inclination ; the latter is favourable also in granting 
timely assistance. Cato was favourable to Pompey; 
the gods were propitious to the Greeks: we may all 
wish to have our friends favourable to our projecis; 


Famous Plantagenet! most gracious prince, 
Lend favourable ear to our requests.—SHaKsPEARE. 


None but heathens expect to have a blind destiny pro- 
pitious. In the improper sense, propitious may be 
applied to things with a similar distinction: whatever 
is well disposed to us, and seconds our endeavours, or 
serves our purpose, is favourable ; ‘You have indeed 
every favourable circumstance for your advancement 
that can be wished.’—Mr.moru (Letters of Cicere’ 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


Whatever efficaciously protects us, speeds our exer- 
tions, and decides our success, is propitious to us: 


But ah! what tse of valour can be made, Pte 
When Heaven’s propitious powers refuse their aid. 
DryDENn. 


On ordinary occasions, a wind is said to be favourable 
which carries us to the end of our voyage; but it is 
said to be prapitious if the rapidity of our passage 
forwards any great purpose of our own. Those things 
are auspicious which are casual, or cnly indicative of 
good ; persons are propitious to the wishes of another 
who listen to their requests and contribute to their 
satisfaction. A journey is undertaken under auspi- 
ceous circumstances, where every thing incidental, 
as weather, society, and the like, bid fair to afford 
pleasure ; 

Still follow where auspicious fates invite, 

Caress the happy, andthe wretched slight 

Sooner shall jarring elements unite, 

Than truth with gain, than interest with right. 

Lewis. 


A journey is undertaken under propitious circum- 
stances when every thing favours the attainment of the 
object for which it was begun ; 


Who loves a garden loves a greenhouse too: 
Unconscious of a less propitious clime, 
There blooms exotic beauty.—Cowrerr. 


Whoever has any request to make ought to seize the 
auspicious moment when the person of whom it is 
asked is in a pleasant frame of mind; a poet in his 
invocation requests the muse to be propitious to him, 
or the lover conjures his beloved to be propitious to his 
vows. 


—— 


TO LEAD, CONDUCT, GUIDE. 


Lead, in Saxon ldédden, léden, Danish lede, Swedish 
leda, low German leiden, high German lezten, is most 
probably connected with the obsolete German lett, 
leige, a way or road, Swedish led, Saxon late, &c. 
signifying properly to show or direct in the way; con- 
duct, in Latin conductus, participle of conduco, signifies 
to carry a person with one, or to make a thing go ac- 
cording to one’s will; guzde, in French guider, Saxon 
witan or wisan, German, &C¢. weisen to show, Latin 
video to see or show, signifies properly to point out the 
way. 

These terms are all employed to denote the influence 
which one person has over the movements or actions 
of another; but the first implies nothing more than 
personal presence and direction or going before, the 
last two convey also the idea of superiour intelligence ; 
those are Jed who either cannot or will not go alone, 
those are conducted and guided who do not know the 
road ; in the literal sense it is the hand that leads, the 
head that conducts, and the eye that guides ; one leads 
an infant; conducts a person to a given spot; and 
guides a traveller, 


His guide, as faithful from that day 
As Hesperus that leads the sun his way. 
FarrFrax. 


‘We waited some time in expectation of the next 
worthy, who came in with a great retinue of histo- 
rians, whose names I could not learn, most of them 
being natives of Carthage. The person thus conduct- 
ed, who was Hannibal, seemed much disturbed.’ 
ADDISON. 


Can knowledge have no bound, but must advance 
So far to make us wish for ignorance ? 

And rather in the dark to grope our way 

Than led by a false guide to err by day 7—DENnHAM. 


A general leads an army, inasmuch as he goes before 
t into the field of bate; he conducts an army, inas- 
much as he directs its movements by his judgement 
and skill; he is himself guided, inasmuch as he fol- 
lows the guide who points out the road. The coach- 
man leads his horses in or out of the stable ; he guides 
them when they are in a carriage; the pilot conducts 
a vessel; the steersman guides it. 

These words bear the same analogy in the moral or 
figurative application ; the personal influence of ano- 


a 


191 


ther leads; the understanding conducts ; authority or 
law guides. Men are led into misiakes by listening to 
evil counsellors. ‘The word is also applied in the same 
sense to circumstances ; ‘Human testimony is not so 
proper-to lead us into the knowledge of the essence of 
things, as to acquaint us with the existence of things. 
—Warts. But sometimes the word lead is taken in 
the sense of draw or move into action, as men are said 
to be led by their passions into errours; ‘ What I say 
will have little influence on those whose ends lead 
them to wish the continuance of the war.’—Swirr. 
Conducting inthe moral sense is applied mostly to 
things ; one conducts a lawsuit or a business; ‘He so 
conducted the affairs of the kingdom, that he made the 
reign of a prince most happy to the English.’—Lorp 
LyTTLeToN. Guiding, which comes nearest to lead- 
ing in this application, conveys the idea of serving as 
a rule; an attentive perusal of the Scriptures is suffi- 
cient to guide us in the way of salvation; ‘The brutes 
are guided by instinct and know no sorrow ; the angels 
have knowledge and they are happy..—Srrxrve. ‘Upon 
these, or such like secular maxims, when nothing 
but interest guides men, they many times conclude 
that the slightest wrongs are not to be put up with.’- 
KETTELWELL. 


— 


TO CONDUCT, MANAGE, DIRECT. 


Conducting, as in the preceding article, requires 
most wisdom and knowledge: managing, from the 
French menager and mener, and the Latin manus a 
hand, supposes most action; direction, from the Latin 
directus, participle of diigo or di and rego, signifies to 
regulate distinctly, which supposes most authority. A 
lawyer conducts the cause intrusted to him; a steward 
manages the mercantile concerns for his employer ; a 
superintendent directs the movements of all the subor 
dinate agents. 

Conducting is always applied to affairs of the firs: 
importance; ‘'The general purposes of men in the con- 
duct of their lives, I mean with relation to this hfe only 
end in gaining either the affection or esteem of those 
with whom they converse.—STEELE. Management 
is a term of familiar use to characterize a familiar em 
ployment; ‘ Good delivery is a graceful managemer.t 
of the voice, countenance, and gesture’—STEELE. ‘I 
have sometimes amused myself with considering the 
several methods of managing a debate, which have 
obtained in the world.’—Appison. Direction makes 
up in authority what it wants in importance; it falls 
but little short of the word conduct ; ‘To direct a wan- 
derer in the right way is to light another man’s cand 
by one’s own, which loses none of its light by wha, 
the other gains..—Gruvr. <A conductor conceives and 
plaus as well as executes; ‘If. he did not entirely pro- 
ject the union and regency, none will deny him to have 
been the chief conductor in both.—Appison. <A ma 
nager, for the most part simply acts or executes, 
except in a subordinate capacity, or in mean concerns; 
‘A skilful manager of the rabble, so long as they have 
but ears to hear, need never inquire whether they 
have understanding.’—Souts. A director commands; 
‘Himself stood director over them, with nodding or 
stamping, showing he did like or mislike those things 
he did not understand.’—Sipnry. It is necessary to 
conduct with wisdom; to manage with diligence and 
attention; to direct with promptitude, precision, and 
clearness. A minister of state requires peculiar talents 
to conduct, with success, the various and complicated 
concerns which are connected with his office: he must 
exercise much skill in managing the various charac- 
ters and clashing interests with which he becomes con- 
nected: and possess much influence to direct the mul 
tiplied operations by which the grand machine ef go 
vernment is kept in motion. 

When a general undertakes to conduct a campaign 
he will intrust the management of minor concerns to 
persons on whom he can rely; but he will direct in 
person whatever is likely to have any serious influence 
on his success. 


TO DIRECT, DISPOSE, REGULATE 


We direct for the instruction of individuals We 
regulate for the good order or convenience of many 
We dispose for the benefit of one or many 


£92 


To direct (v. To conduct) is personal, itsupposes au- 
thority ; to regulate, from the Latin regula a rule, sig- 
nifying to settle according to a rule, is general, it sup- 
poses superiour information. An officer directs the 
movements of his men in military operations; 


Canst thou with all a monarch’s cares opprest ! 
Oh Atreus’ son! canst thou indulge thy rest ? 
Ill fits a chief, who mighty nations guides, 
Directs in council, and in war presides.—Porr. 


Ihe steward or master of the ceremonies regulates the 
whole concerns of an entertainment; 


Ev’n goddesses are women: and no wife 
Has power to regulate her husband’s life. 
DRYDEN. 


The director is often a man in power; the regulator is 
always the man of business; the latter is frequently 
employed to act under the former. The Bank of Eng- 
land bas its directors, who only take part in the ad- 
ministration of the whole; the regulation of the subor- 
dinate part, and of the details of business, is intrusted 
to the superiour clerks. 

To direct is mostly used with regard to others; to 
regulate, frequently with regard to ourselves. One 
person directs another according to his better judge- 
ment; he regulates his own conduct by principles or 
circumstances; ‘Strange disorders are bred in the 
minds of those men whose passions are not regulated 
by reason.’—Appison. But sometimes the word 
direct is taken in the sense of giving a direction 
towards an object, and it is then distinguished from 
regulate, which signifies to determine the measure and 
other circumstances ; ‘It is the business of religion and 
philosophy not so much to extinguish our’passions, as 
to regulate and direct them to valuable, well-chosen 
objects.’-—A DDISON. 

To dispose, from dispono, or dis and pono, signify- 
ing to put apart for a particular use, supposes superiour 
power, like the word direct, and superiour wisdom, like 
that of regulate; whence the term has been applied 
to the Supreme Being, who isstyled the ‘ Dzsposer of all 
events ;’ and in the same sense, it is used by the poets 
tn reference to the heathen gods ; 


Endure, and conquer; Jove will soon dispose 
To future good, our past and present woes. 
DRYDEN. 


BEHAVIOUR, CONDUCT, CARRIAGE, DE- 
PORTMENT, DEMEANOUR. 


Behaviour comes from behave, compounded of be and 
have, signifying to have one’s self, or have self-posses- 
sion; conduct, in Latin conductus, participle of con- 
duco, compounded of con or cum and duco to lead along, 
signifies leading one’s self along; carriage, the abstract 
of carry (v. To bear, carry), signifies the act of carry- 
ing one’s body, or one’s self ; deportment, from the Latin 
deporto to carry; and demeanour, from the French 
demener to lead, have the same original sense as the 
preceding. ‘ 

Behaviour respects corporeal or mental actions; con- 
duct, mental actions; carriage, deportment, and de- 
meanour, are different species of behaviour. Be- 
haviour respects all actions exposed to the notice of 
others: conduct the general line of a person’s moral 
proceedings: we speak of a person’s behaviour at 
table, or in company, in a ball room, in the street, orin 
publick ; of his conduct in the management of his pri- 
vate concerns, in the direction of his family, or in his 
different relations with his fellow-creatures. Beha- 
viour applies to the minor morals of society; conduct 
to those of the first moment: in our intercourse with 
others we may adopt acivil or polite, a rude or boister- 
ous behaviour; in our serious transactions we may 
adopt a peaceable, discreet, or prudent, a rash, dan- 
gerous, or mischievous conduct. Our behaviour is 
good or bad; our conduct is wise or foolish: by our 
behaviour we may render ourselves agreeable, or other- 
wise; by our conduct we may command esteem, or 
provoke contempt: the behaviour of young people in 
society is of particular importance; it should, above 
all things, be marked with propricty in the presence of 
wiveriours and elders; ‘The circumstance of life is not 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


that which gives us place, but cur behaviour in that 
circumstance is what should be our solid distinction.’ 
—Strreeve. The youth who does not learn betimes a 
seemly behaviour in company, will scarcely know how 
to conduct himself judiciously on any future occasion ; 
‘Wisdom is no less necessary in religious and moral 
than in civil conduct.,—Buair. 

Carriage respects simply the manner of carrying 
the body ; deportment includes both the action and the 
carriage of the body in performing the action; de 
meanour respects only the moral character or tendency 
of the action; deportment is said only of those exte- 
riour actions that have an immediate reference to 
others ; demeanour, of the general behaviour as it re 
lates to the circumstances and situation of the indivi- 
dual: the carriage is that part of behaviour, which is 
of the first importance to attend to in young persons. 
The carriage should neither be haughty nor servi'e; to 
be graceful, it ought to have a due mixture of dignity 
and condescension: the deportment of a man should 
be suited to his station ; an humble dep irtment is be 
coming in inferiours; a stately and forbidding deport 
ment is very unbecoming in superiours; the demeanour 
of a man should be suited to his situation; the suita 
ble demeanour of a judge on the bench, or of a clergy 
man in the pulpit, or when performing his clerical 
functions, adds much to the dignity and solemnity of 
the office itself. 

The carriage marks the birth and education: an 
awkward carriage stamps a man as vulgar; a grace- 
ful carriage evinces refinement and culture ; ‘ Fle'that 
will look back upon all the acquaintances he has had 
in his whole life, will find he has seen more men ca- 
pable of the greatest employments and performances, 
than such as could in the general bent of their car 
riage act otherwise than according to their own com 
plexion and humour.’—Streete. The deporiment 
marks the existing temper of the mind; whoever is 
really impressed with the solemnity and importance of 
publick worship will evince his‘impressions by a gravity 
of deportment ; females should guard against a light 
deportment, as highly prejudicial to their reputation: 
‘The mild demeanour, the modest deportment, are 
valued not only as they denote internal purity and in- 
nocence, but as forming in themselves the most amiable 
and engaging part of the female character..—MackeEn- 
ziz. The demeanour marks the habitual temper of 
the mind, or in fact the real character; we are often 
led to judge favourably of an individual from the first 
glance, whose demeanour on close examination does 
not leave such favourabie impressions; ‘I have been 
told the same even of Mahometans, with relation to 
the propriety of their demeanour in the conventions of 
their erroneous worship.’-—STEELE. 


CARRIAGE, GAIT, WALK. 


Carriage, from the verb to carry (v. To bear, carry}. 
signifies the act of carrying in general, but here that 
of carrying the body; gait, from go, signifies the 
manner of going with the body; walk signifies the 
manner of walking. 

Carriage is here the most general term; it respects 
the manner of carrying the body, whether in a state 
of motion or rest: gait is the mode of carrying the 
limbs and body whenever we move: walk is the 
manner of carrying the body when we move forward 
to walk. 

A person’s carriage is somewhat natural to him; it 
is often an indication of character, but admits of 
great change by education ; we may alwaysdistinguish 
a man as high or low, either in mind or station; by his 
carriage; ‘Upon her nearer approach to Hercules, 
she stepped before the other lady, who came forward 
with aregular composed carriage.’—AnpIson.. Gait 
is artificial; we may contract a certain gait by habit; 
the gait is therefore often taken for a bad habit of 
going, as when a person has a limping gait, or an 
unsteady gait ; 


Lifeless her gait, and slow, with seeming pan, 
She dragg’d her loit’ring limbs along the plain. 
SHENSTONE. 


Walk is less definite than either, as it is applicable to 
the ordinary movements of men; there is a good, a 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


pad, or an indifferent walk ; but it is not a matter of 
ndifference which of these kinds of walk we have; it 
is the great art of the dancing-master to give a good 
walk ; 


In length of train descends her sweeping gown, 
And by her graceful walk, the queen of love is known. 
DRYDEN. 


eae 


MANNERS, MORALS, 


Manners (v. Air, manner) respect the minor forms 
of acting with others and towards others; morals in- 
clude the important duties of life: manners have, 
therefore, been denominated minor morals. By an 
attention to good manners we render ourselves good 
companions; by an observance of good morals we 
become good members of society: the former gains the 
good will of others, the latter their esteem. (The man- 
ners of achild are of more or less importance, accord- 
ing to his station in life; his moruis cannot be at- 
tended to too early, let his station be what it may; ‘In 
the present corrupted state of human manners, always 
to assent and to comply, is the very worst maxim we 
can adopt. It is impossible to support the purity and 
dignity of Christian morals, without opposing the 
world on various occasions.’— Bair. 


AIR, MANNER. 
Aur, in Latin aer, Greek dijo, comes from the He- 


brew “\)&;3 because it is the vehicle of light; hence in 
the figurative sense, in which it is here taken, it de- 
notes an appearance: manner, in French maniére, 
comes probably from mener to lead or direct, signify- 
ing the direction of one’s movements. 

An air is inherent in the whole person ; a manner is 
confined to the action or the movement of a single limb. 
A man has the air of a common person; it discovers 
itself in all his manners. An air has something su- 
perficial in its nature; it strikes at the first glance; 
‘The air she gave herself was that of a romping girl.’ 
—SvTeELe. JWVanner has something more solidinit; it 
developes itself on closer observation ; ‘The boy is 
well fashioned, and will easily fall into a graceful 
manner..—STEELE. Some people have an air about 
them which displeases; but their manners afterward 
win upon those who have a farther intercourse with 
them. Nothing is more common than to suffer our- 
selves to be prejudiced by a person’s air, either in his 
favour or otherwise: the manners of a man will often 
contribute to his advancement in life, more than his 
real merits. 

An air is indicative of a state of mind; it may re 
sult either from a natural or habitual mode of think- 
ing: a manner is indicative of the education ; it is 
produced by external circumstances. Afi air is noble 
or simple, it marks an elevation or simplicity of cha- 
racter: a manner is rude, rustic, or awkward, for 
want of culture, good society, and good example. 
We assume an air, and affect a manner. An assumed 
air of importance exposes the littleness of the assumer, 
which might otherwise pass unnoticed : the same man- 
ners which are becoming when natural, render a per- 
son ridiculous when they are affected. A prepossess- 
ing air and engaging manners have more influence on 
the heart than the solid qualities of the mind. 


AIR, MIEN, LOOK. 


wiir signifies the same as in the preceding article ; 
mien, in German miene, comes, as Adelung supposes, 
from mahnen to move or draw, because the lines of the 
face, which constitute the mien in the German sense, 
are drawn together: look signifies properly a mode of 
looking or appearing. 

The exteriour of a person is comprehended in the 
sense of all these words. Aix depends not only on the 
countenance, but the stature, carriage, and action: 
mien respects the whole outward appearance, not ex- 
cepting the dress: look depends altogether on the face 
and its changes. ir marks any particular state of 
the mind; ‘ The truth of it is, the air is generally no- 
thing else but the inward disposition of the mind made 
visible —Appison. Mien denotes any state of the 
Mutward circumstances ; 

13 


192 


How sleek their looks, how goodly is cheir men, 
When big they strut behind a double chin. 
DryveEn. 


Look denotes any individual movement of the mind ; 


How in the looks does conscious guilt appear 
ADDISON 


We may judge by a person’s air, that he has a confi 
dent and fearless mind: we may judge by his sorrow 
ful mien, that he has substantial cause for sorrow ; and 
by sorrowful looks, that he has some partial or tempo- 
rary cause for sorrow. 

We talk of doing any thing with a particular air ; 
of having a mien; of giving a look. An innocent man 
will answer his accusers with an air of composure; a 
person’s whole mien sometimes bespeaks his wretched 
condition; a look is sometimes given to one who acts 
in concert, by way of intimation. 


pene 


TO ADMONISH, ADVISE. 


Admonish, in Latin admoneo, is compounded om 
the intensive ad and monea to advise, signifying to put 
seriously in mind; advise compounded of the Latin 
ad and visus, participle of video to see, signifies to 
make to see, or to show. 

Admonish mostly regards the past; advise respects 
the future. We admonish a person on the errours he 
has committed, by representing to him the extent and 
consequences of his offence; we advise a person as to 
his future conduct, by giving him rules and instruc - 
tions. Those who are most liable to transgress require 
to be admonished ; 


ae He of their. wicked ways 
Shall them admonish, and before them set 
The paths of righteousness.—MiL Ton. 


Those who are most inexperienced require to be ad- 
vised; ‘My worthy friend, the clergyman, told us, 
that he wondered any order of persons should think 
themselves too considerable to. be advised.,— ADDISON. 
Admonition serves to put people on their guard against 
evil; advice to direct them in the choice of good. 


ADMONITION, WARNING, CAUTION. 


Admonition signifies the act of admonishing, or that 
by which one admonishes : warning, in Saxon warnien, 
German warnen, probably from wdhren to perceive, 
signifies making to see; caution, from caveo to beware, 
signifies the making beware. 

A guarding against evil is common to these terms; 
but admonition expresses more than warning, and 
that more than caution. 

An admonition respects the moral conduct; it com 
prehends reasoning and remonstrance: warning and 
caution respect the personal interest or safety; the 
former comprehends a strong forcible representation of 
the evil to he dreaded; the latter a simple apprisal of 
a future contingency. Admonition may therefore fre- 
quently comprehend warning; and warning may 
comprehend caution, though not vice versd. We ad 
monish a person against the commission of any offence ; 
we warn him against danger; we caution him against 
any misfortune. 

Admonitions and warnings are given by those who 
are superiour in age and station; cautions by any who 
are previously in possession of information. Parents 
give admonitions ; ministers of the gospel give warn- 
ings: indifferent persons give cautions. It is neces- 
sary to admonish those who have once offended to 
abstain from a similar offence; ‘At the same time 
that I am talking of the cruelty of urging people’s 
faults with severity, I cannot but bewail some which 
men are guilty of for want of admonition.’-—STExXLE. 
It is necessary to warn those of the consequences of 
sin who seem determined to persevere in a wicked 
course ; 

Not e’en Philander had bespoke his shroud, 
Nor had he cause—a warning was denied. 
Youxe. 

It is necessary to caution those against any false ster 
who are going in a strange path; 

You caution’d me against their charms, 
But never gave me equal arms ; 


194 


Your lessons found the weakest part, 
Aim’d at the head, but reach’d the heart—Swirt. 


Admonitions are given by persons only; warnings 
and cautions are given by things. The young are 
admonished by the old: the death of friends or rela- 
tives serves as a warning to the survivors; the unfor- 
tunate accidents of the careless serve as a caution to 
others to avoid the like errour. Admonitions should 
be given with mildness and gravity; warnings with 
impressive force and warmth; cautions with clearness 
and precision. ‘The young require frequent admo- 
nitions ; the ignorant and self-deluded solemn warn- 
ings; the inexperienced timely cautions. 

Admonitions ought to be listened to with sorrowful 
attention ; warnings should make a deep and lasting 
impression; cautions should be borne in mind: but 
admonitions are too often rejected, warnings despised, 
and cautions slighted. 


——$___— 


ADVICE, COUNSEL, INSTRUCTION. 


Advice signifies that which is advised (v. Advice) ; 
counsel, in French canseil, Latin consilium, comes from 
consilio, compounded of con and salio to leap together, 
signifying to run or act in accordance; and in an ex- 
tended sense implies deliberation, or the thing delibe- 
rated upon, determined, and prescribed ; instruction, 
in French instruction, Latin instructio, comes from in 
and struo to dispose or regulate, signifyi.g the thing 
laid down. 

The end of all the actions implied by these words is 
the communication of knowledge, and all of them in- 
clude the accessary idea of superiority, either of age, 
station, knowledge, ortalent. .Advice flows from supe- 
riour professional knowledge, or an acquaintance with 
things in general; counsel regards superiour wisdom, 
or a superiour acquaintance with moral principles and 
practice ; instruction respects superiour local know- 
ledge in particular transactions. A medical man gives 
advice to his patient; a father gives counsel to his 
children ; a counsellor gives advice to his client in points 
of law; he receives instructions from him in matters 
of fact. 

Advice should be prudent and cautious; counsel, sage 
and deliberative ; instructions, clear and positive. Ad- 
vice is given on all the concerns of life, important or 
otherwise; ‘In what manner can one give advice to a 
youth in the pursuit and possession of pleasure ?’— 
, STEELE. Counsel is employed for grave and weighty 
matters; ‘Young persons are commonly inclined to 
slight the remarks and counsels of their elders..—Joun- 
son. Instruction is used on official occasions ; 


To serve by way of guide or direction 

See this despatch’d with all the haste thou canst ; 

Anon I’ll give thee more instruction. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


Men of business are best able to give advice in mercan- 
tile transactions. In all measures that involve our fu- 
ture happiness, it is prudent to take the counsel of those 
who are more experienced than ourselves. An ambas- 
sador must not act without instructions from his court. 

A wise king will not act without the advice of his 
ministers. A considerate youth will not take any seri- 
ous step without the counsel of his better informed 
friends. All diplomatick persons are guided by par- 
ticular instructions in carrying on negotiations. 

Advice and counsel are often given unasked and un- 
desired, but instructions are always required for the 
regulation of a person’s conduct in an official capacity. 
The term instruction may however be also applied 
morally and figuratively for that which serves to guide 
one in his course of life; 


On ev’ry thorn delightful wisdom grows, 
In ev’ry stream asweet instruction flows.—Y ounG. 


TO INFORM, INSTRUCT, TEACH. 


The communication of knowledge in general is the 
common idea by which these words are connected with 
eachother. Inform isthe general term ; the othertwo 
are specifick. ‘To znform is the act of persons in all 
conditions ; to instruct and teach are the acts of supe- 
riours, either on one ground or another: one informs by 
virtue of an accidental superiority or priority of know- 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


ledge; one instructs by virtue of saperiour knowledge 
or superiour station ; one teaches by virtue of superiour 
knowledge, rather than of station: diplomatick agents 
inform their governments of the political transactions 
in which they have been concerned; government 
instructs its different functionaries and officers in re- 
gard to their mode of proceeding ; professors and pre- 
ceptors teach those who attend a publick school to learn 

To inform is applicable to matters of general interest; 
we may inform ourselves or others on every thing which 
is a subject of inquiry or curiosity ; and the information 
serves either to amuse orto improve the mind; ‘While 
we only desire-to have our ignorance informed, we are 
most delighted with the plainest diction.’—JoHNsoNn 
Toinstruct is applicable to matters of serious concern, 
or that which is practically useful ; it serves to set us 
right in the path of life. A parent instructs his child 
in the course of conduct he should pursue; a good child 
profits by the instruction of agood parent to make him 
wiser and better for the time to come; 


Not Thracian Orpheus should transcend my lays, 

Nor Linus, crown’d with never fading bays; 

Though each his heav’nly parent should inspire, 

The Muse instruct the voice, and Pheebus tune the lyre. 
DRYDEN. 


To teach respects matters of art and science ; the 
learner depends upon the teacher for the formation of 
his mind, and the establishment of his principles ; ‘He 
that teaches us any thing which we knew not before is 
undoubtedly to be reverenced as a master.’-—JOHNSON. 
Every one ought to be properly informed before he pre- 
tends to give an opinion; the young and inexperienced 
must be instructed before they can act; the ignorant 
must be taught, in order to guard them against errour. 
Truth and sincerity are all that is necessary for an 
informant ; general experience and a perfect know- 
ledge of the subject in question are requisite for the 
instructer ; fundamental knowledge is requisite for a 
teacher. Those who give information upon the au- 
thority of others are liable to mislead; those who im- 
struct others in doing that which is bad, scandalously 
abuse the authority that is reposed in them ; those wha 
pretend to teach what they themselves do not under- 
stand, mostly betray their ignorance sooner or later. 

To inform and to teach are employed for things as 
Well as persons; to zmstruct only for persons: books 
and reading inform the mind; history or experience 
teaches mankind; ‘The long speeches rather con- 
founded than informed his understanding.’—CLAREN- 
pon. ‘Nature is no sufficient teacher what we should 
do that we may attain unto life everlasting._Hooxrer 


TO INFORM, MAKE KNOWN, ACQUAINT, 
APPRIZE. 


? 

The idea of bringing to the knowledge of one or more 
persons is common -to all these terms. Inform, from 
the Latin informo to fashion the mind, comprehends 
this general idea only, without the addition of any col- 
lateral idea; it is therefore the generick term, and the 
rest specifick : to inform is to communicate what has 
lately happened, or the contrary; but to make known is 
to bring to light what has long been known and pur 
posely concealed : to inform is to communicate directly 
or indirectly to one or many ; 


Our ruin, by thee inform’ d, I learn.—Miton. 


To make known is mostly to communicate indirectly to 
many : one informs the publick of one’s intentions by 
means of an advertisement in one’s own name; one 
makes known a fact through a circuitous channel, and 
without any name; 


But fools, to talking ever prone, 
Are sure to make their follies known.—Gay, 


To inform may be either a personal address or other- 
wise; to acquaint and apprize are immediate and per- 
sonal communications. One informs the government, 
or any publick body, or one informs one’s friends; one 
acquaints or apprizes only one’s friends, or particular 
individuals: one is informed of that which either con- 
cems the informant, or the person informed; one ac- 
quaints a person with, or apprizes him of such thinge 
as peculiarly concern himself, but the latter in more 
specifick circumstances than the former: one informs 
a correspondent by letter of the day on which he max 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


expect to receive his order, or of one’s own wishes with 
regard to an order; 


I have this present evening from my sister, 
Been well infermed of them, and with cautions. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


One acquaints a father with all the circumstances that 
respect his son’s conduct; ‘If any man lives under a 
minister that doth not act according to the rules of the 
gospel, it is his own fault in that he doth not acquaint 
the bishop with it.—Beveriper. One apprizes 2 
friend of a bequest that has been made to him; ‘ You 
know, without my telling you, with what zeal I have 
recommended you to Cesar, although you may not be 
apprized that 1 have frequently written to him upon 
that subject.—Mrximota (Letters of Cicero). One 
informs the magistrate of any irregularity that passes ; 
pne acquaints the master of a family with the miscon- 
duct of his servants: one apprizes a person of the time 
when he will be obliged to appear. Inform is used 
figuratively, but the other terms mostly in the proper 
sense; ‘ Religion informs us that misery and sin were 
produced together.’—JOoHNSON. 


INFORMANT, INFORMER. 


These two epithets, from the verb to inform, have 
acquired by their application an important distinction. 
The informant being he who informs for the benefit of 
others, and the informer to the molestation of others. 
What the informant communicates is for the benefit 
of the individual, and what the informer communicates 
is for the benefit of the whole. The informant is 
thanked for his civility in making the comnyanication ; 
the informer undergoes a great deal of odium, but is 
thanked by notone, net even by those who eraploy him. 
We may all be informants in our turn, if we know of 
any thing of which another may be informed; ‘ Aye 
(says our Artist’s informant), but at the same time he 
declared you (Hogarth) were as good a portrait painter 
as Vandyke.’—PiLKineron. None areinformers who 
do not inform against the transgressors of any law ; 
‘ Every member of society feels and acknowledges the 
necessity of detecting crimes, yet scarce any degree of 
virtue or reputation is able to secure an informer from 
publick hatred.’—JouNson. 


INFORMATION, INTELLIGENCE, NOTICE, 
ADVICE. 


Information (v. To inform) signifies the thing of 
which one is informed: Intelligence, from the Latin 
ntelligo to understand, signifies that by which one is 
siade to understand: notice, from the Latin notztia, is 
\hat which brings a circumstance to our knowledge: 
dvice (v. Advice) signifies that which is made known. 
Yhese terms come very near to each other in significa- 
tion, but difler in application: information is the most 
general and indefinite of all; the three others are but 
modes of information. Whatever is communicated to 
us is information, be it publick or private, open ox con- 
cealed ; 

There, centring in a focus round and neat, 

Let all your rays of information meet.—CowPER. 


Notice, intelligence, and advice, are mostly publick, but 
particularly tle former. Information and notice may 
be communicated by word of mouth or by writing; 
intelligence is mostly communicated by writing or 
printing ; advices are mostly sent by letter: information 
is mostly an informal mode of communication ; notice, 
intelligence, and advice, are mostly formal communi- 
cations. A servant gives his master information, or 
one friend sends another information from the country ; 
magistrates or officers give notice of such things as it 
concerns the publick to know and to observe ; spies 
give intelligence of all that passes under their notice ; 
or intelligence is given in the publick prints of all that 
passes worthy of notice ; ‘ My lion, whose jaws are at 
all hours open to intelligence, informs me that there are 
a few enormous weapons still in being. —SrzeLe. A 
military commander sends advice to his government of 
the operations which are going forward under his di- 
rection ; or one merchant gives advice to another of 
the state of the market; ‘ As he was dictating to his 
hearers with great authority, there came in a gentleman 
from Garrawav’s, who told us that there were several 
12% 


193 


letters from France just come in, with advice that the 
king was in good health.’——ADDIsoNn. 

Information, as calculated to influence men’s ac- 
tions, ought to be correct: those who are too eager to 
know what is passing, are often misled by false in for- 
mation. Notice, as it serves either to warn or direct, 
ought to be timely ; 

At his years 
Death gives short notice —THOMSON. 


No law of general interest is carried into effect withou 
timely notice being given. Intelligence, as the first 
intimation of an interesting event, ought to be early, 
advices, as entering into details, ought to be clear and 
particular ; official advices often arrive to contradict 
non-official zntelligence. 

Information and intelligence, when applied as cha 
racteristicks of men, have a farther distinction: the 
man of information is so denominated only on account 
of his knowledge; but a man of intelligence is so 
denominated on account of his understanding as well 
as experience and information. It is not possible to be 
intelligent without information ; but we may be well 
informed without being remarkable for zntedligence : 
a man of information may be an agreeable companion, 
and fitted to maintain conversation; but an intelligent 
man will be an instructive companion, and most fitted 
for conducting business. 


ACQUAINTANCE, FAMILIARITY, 
INTIMACY. 


Acquaintance comes from acquaint, which is com 
pounded of the intensive syllable ac or ad and quain’y 
in old French coint, Teut. gekannt known, signifying 
known to one; familiarity comes from familiar, in 
Latin familiaris and familia, signifying known as one 
of the family; intimacy, from intimate, in Latin zntz- 
matus, participle of intimo to love entirely, from zn- 
timus innermost, signifies known to the mnermest re- 
cesses of the heart. 

These terms mark different degrees of closeness in 
the social intercourse; acquaintance expressing less 
than familiarity; and that less than intimacy; ‘A 
slight knowledge of any one constitutes an acquaint 
ance ; to be familiar requires an acquaintance of some 
standing ; intimacy supposes such an acquaintance as 
is supported by friendship.,—TRusLER. 

Acquaintance springs from occasional intercourse ; 
familiarity is produced by a daily intercourse, which 
wears off all constraint, and banishes all ceremonf; 
intimacy arises not merely from frequent intercourse, 
but unreserved communication. An acquaintance will 
be occasionally a guest; ‘An acquaintance is a being 
who meets us with a smile and salute, who tells us 
with the same breath that he is glad and sorry for the 
most trivial good and ill that befalls us.—Hawkes- 
wortnH. One that ison terms of familiarity has easy 
access to our table; ‘His familiars were his entire 
friends, and could have no interested views in courting 
his acquaintance. —STeELe. An intimate lays claim 
to a share at least of our confidence; ‘At an enter- 
tainment given by Pisistratus to some of his intimates, 
Thrasippus took some occasion, not recorded, to break 
out into the most violent abuse.—-CuMBERLAND. AnD 
acquaintance with a person affords but little opportu- 
nity for knowing his character ; familiarity puts us in 
the way of seeing his foibles, rather than his virtues ; 
but intimacy enables us to appreciate his worth; 
‘Those who are apt to be famitiar on a slight ae- 
quaintance, will never acquire any degree of intimacy.’ 
—TRUSLER. 

A simple acquaintance is the most desirable footing 
on which to stand with all persons, however deserving 


, Acquaintance grew; th’ acquaintance they improve 
To friendship ; friendship ripen’d into love. 

Evsprn. 
If it have not the pleasures of familiarity or intimacy, 
it can claim the privilege of being exempted from their 
pains. ‘Too much familiarity,” according to the 
old proverb, “ breeds contempt.’? The unlicensed 
freedom which commonly attends familiarity affords 
but too ample scope for the indulgence of the selfish 
and unamiable passions; ‘'That familiarity produces 
neglect has been long observed.’—Jounson. Init- 
macies begun in love often end in hatred, as ill chosen 
friends commonly become the bitterest enemies. 4 


196 : 


man may have a thousand acquaintance, and not one 
whom he should make his intimate ; ‘ The intimacy 
between the father of Eugenio and Agrestis produced 
a tender friendship between his sister and Amelia.’— 
HAWKESWORTH. ; 

These ‘terms may be applied to things as well as 
persons, in which case they bear a similar analogy. 
An acquaintance with a subject is opposed to entire 
ignorance upon it; familiarity with it is the conse- 
quence of frequent repetition; and intimacy of a 
steady and thorough research ; ‘With Homer’s heroes 
we have more than historical acquaintance: we are 
made intimate with their habits and manners.’— 
CumBEeRLAND. ‘The frequency of envy makes it so 
familiar, that it escapes our notice.—Jounson. In 
our intercourse with the world we become daily ac- 
quainted with fresh subjects to engage our attention. 
Some men have by extraordinary diligence acquired a 
considerable familiarity with more than one language 
and science; but few, if any, can boast of having 
possessed an intimate acquaintance with all the parti- 
culars of even one language or science. When we 
can translate the authors of any foreign language, we 
may claim an acquaintance with it; when we can 
speak, or write it freely, we may be said to be familiar 
With it; but an ¢ntimate acquaintance comprehends a 
thorough critical intimacy with all the niceties and 
subtleties of its structure. 


TO KNOW, BE ACQUAINTED WITH. 


To know is a general term; to be acquainted with is 
particular (v. Acquaintance). We may know things 
or persons in various ways; we may know them by 
name only; or we may know their internal properties 
or characters; or we may simply know their figure; 
we may know them by report; or we may know them 
by a direct intercourse: one is acquainted with either 
a person or a thing, only in a direct manner, and by 
an immediate intercourse in one’s own person. We 
know aman to be good or bad, virtuous or vicious, by 
being a witness to his actions; 


Is there no temp’rate region can be known, 
Between their frigid and our torrid zone? 

Could we not wake from that lethargick dream, 
But to be restless in a worse extreme.—DENHAM. 


We become acquainted avith a person by frequently 
being in his company; ‘But how shall I express my 
anguish for my little boy, who became acquainted 
with sorrow as soon as he was capable of reflection.’ 
~MeLmots (Letters of Cicero). 


KNOWLEDGE, SCIENCE, LEARNING, 
ERUDITION. 


Knowledge, from know, in all probability comes 
from the Latin nosco, and the Greek yivadoKw ; science, 
in Latin scientia, from scio, Greek tony to-kKnow, and 


rlDw to see or perceive; learning, from learn, signi- 
fies the thing learned; erudition, in Latin eruditio, 
comes from erudio to bring out of a state of rudeness 
or ignorance. ‘ ; 
Knowledge is a general term which simply implies 
the thing known: science, learning, and erudition, are 
modes of knowledge qualified by some collateral idea ; 
science isa systematick species of knowledge which 
consists of rule and order ; learning is that species of 
knowledge which one derives from schools, or through 
the medium of personal instruction; erudition is 
scholastick knowledge obtained by profound research: 
knowledge admits of every possible degree, and is ex- 
préssly opposei to ignorance; science, learning, and 
erudition, are positiveiy nigh degrees of knowledge. 
The attainment of knowledge is, of itself, a plea- 
sure, independent of the many extrinsick advantages 
which it brings to every individual, according to the 
station of life.in which he is placed; the pursuits of 
science have a peculiar interest for men of a peculiar 
turn: those who thirst after general knowledge may 
not have a reach of intellect to take the comprehensive 
survey of nature, which is requisite for a scientifick 
man. Learning is less dependent on the genius, than 
on the will of the individual ; men.of moderate talents 
have overcome the deficiencies of nature, by labour 
and perseverance, and have acquired such stores of 
learning as have raised them to a respectable station 


\ 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


in the republick of letters. Profound erudition is ol» 
tained but by few; a retentive memory, patient in 
dustry, and deep penetration, are requisites for one 
who aspires to the title of an erudite man. 
Knowledge, inthe unqualified and universal sense, is 
not always a good: Pope says, ‘‘ A little knowledge is 
a dangerous thing:’’ it is certain we may have a 
knowledge of evil as well as good, and as our passiane 
are ever ready to serve us an ill turn, they will call in 
our imperfect or superficial knowledge to their aid; 


Can knowledge have no hound, but must advance 
So far, to make us wish for ignorance.—DENuHAM. 


Science is more exempt from this danger; but the 
scientifick man who forgets to make experience hia 
guide, as many are apt'to do in the present day, will 
wander in the regions of idle speculation, and sink in 
the quicksands of skepticism ; 


O sacred poesy, thou spirit of Roman arts, 
The soul of sczence, and the queen of souls, 
B. Jonson. 


Learning is more generally and practically useful to 
the morals of men than science; while it makes us 
acquainted with the language, the sentiments, and 
manners of former ages: it serves to purify the senti- 
ments, to enlarge the’ understanding, and exert the 
powers; but the pursuit of that learning which con- 
sists merely in the knowledge of words or in the study 
of editions, is even worse than a useless employment 
of the time; ‘As learning advanced, new works were 
adopted into our language, but I think with little im- 
provement of the art of translation.’—Jounson. Eru- 
dition is always good, it does not merely serve to 
ennoble the possessor, but it adds to the stock of im- 
portant knowledge ; it serves the cause of religion and 


‘morality, and elevates the views of men to the grandest 


objects of inquiry; ‘Two of the French clergy with 
whom I passed my evenings were men of deep erudi 
tion.” —BURKE. 


LETTER, EPISTLE. 


According to the origin of these words, letter, 1n 
Latin litera, signifies any document composed of 
written letters; and epistle, in Greek émisoAQ from 
émisé\Xw to send, signifies a letter sent or addressed to 
any one; consequently the former is the generick, the 
latter the specifick term. Leiter is a term altogether 
familiar, it may be used for whatever is written by one 
friend to another in domestick life, or for the publick 
documents of this description, which have emanated 
from the pen of writers, as the letters of Madame de 
Savigny, the letters of Pope or of Swift, and even 
those which were written by the ancients, as the letters 
of Cicero, Pliny, and Seneca: but in strict propriety 
those are entitled epistles, as a term most adapted to 
whatever has received the sanction of ages, and by the 
same rule, likewise, whatever is pecularly solemn in 
its contents has acquired the same epithet, as the 
epistles of St.Paul, St. Peter, St. John, St. Jude; and 
by an analogous rule, whatever poetry is written in 
the epistolary form is denominated an epistle rather 
than a letter, whether of ancient or modern date, as 
the epistles of Horace, or the epistles of Boileau; and 
finally, whatever is addressed by way of dedication 
is denominated a dedicatory epistle. Ease and a 
friendly familiarity should characterize the letter: sen- 
timent and instruction are always conveyed by an 
epistle. 


—— 


LETTERS, LITERATURE, LEARNING. 


Letters and literature signify knowledge, derived 
through the medium of written letters or books, that 
is, information: learning (v. Knowledge) is confined to 
that which is communicated, that is, scholastick know 
ledge. The term men of ietters, or the republick of 
letters, comprehends all who devote themselves to the 
cultivation of their minds; ‘To the greater part of 
mankind the duties of life are inconsistent with much 
study; and the hours which they would spend upon 
letters must be stolen from their occupations and fami 
lies. —Jounson. Jiterary societies have for their ob. 
ject the diffusion of general information: learned socie- 
ties propose to themselves the higher object of extend- 
ing the bounds of science, and increasing the sum of 
human knowledge. Men of letters have a passport 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


for admittance into vhe higher circles; literary men can 
always find resources for themselves in their own soci- 
ety: learned men, or men of learning, are more the 


objects of respect and admiration than of imitation ; | 


‘He that recalls the attention of mankind to any part 
of learning which time has left behind it, may be truly 
said to advance the literature of his own age.’—JoHN- 
SON. 


oe 


CHARACTER, LETTER, 


Character comes from the Greek yapaxrijp, signifying 
an impression or mark, from yapdoow to imprint or 
stamp: Jetter, in French lettre, Latin litera, is probably 
contracted from legitera, signifying what is legible. 

Character is to letter as the genus to the species: 
every letter is a character; but every character is not 
a letter. Character is any printed mark that serves to 
designate something ; a letter is a species of character 
which is the constituted part of a word. Shorthand 
and hieroglyphicks consist of characters, but not of let- 
ters. 

Character is employed figuratively, but letter is not. 
A grateful person has the favours which are conferred 
upon him written in indelible characters upon his 
heart; ‘ A disdainful,a subtle, and a suspicious temper, 
is displayed in characters that are almost universally 
understood.’—HawKESWORTH. 


SCHOLAR, DISCIPLE, PUPIL. 


Scholar and disciple are both applied to such as learn 
from others: but the former is said only of those who 
learn the rudiments of knowledge; the latter of one 
who acquires any art or science from the instruction of 
another ; the scholar is opposed to the teacher, the dzs- 
ciple to the master: children are always scholars ; adult 
persons may be disciples. 

Scholars chiefly employ themselves in the study of 
words; disciples, as the disciples of our Saviour, in 
the study of things: we are the scholars of any one 
under whose care we are placed, or from whom we 
jearn any thing, good or bad; ‘ The Romans confessed 
themselves the scholars of the Greeks.’—JoHNSON. 
We are the disc¢vles only of distinguished persons or 
such as communicate either knowledge or opinions, 
usefiil or otherw‘se; ‘ We are not the disciples of Vol- 
taire.—Burke. Children are sometimes too apt scho- 
lars in learnthg evil from one another. 

A pupil is aspecies of scholar who is under the im- 
mediate and personal superintendance of the person 
from whom he receives hisinstruction. The Latin word 
pupillus signifies a fatherless child, or aman child under 
age and in ward, in which sense it is alsosometimes used 
for the term ward; but in the ordinary acceptation of 
the term it now comprehends the idea of instruction 
more than that of wardship and superintendence ; 


My master sues to her, and she hath taught hersuitor, 
He being her pupil, to become her tutor. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


SCHOOL, ACADEMY. 


The Latin term schola signifies a loitering place, a 
place for desultory conversation or instruction, from 
the Greek oxoAy leisure; hence it has been extended 
to any place where instruction is given, particularly 
that w>*ch is communicated to youth, which being an 
gasy task tv one who is familiar with this subject is con- 


sidered as a relaxation rather than a labour; academy , 


derives its name from the Greek d«adyuia the name of 
a publick place in Athens, where the philesophior Plato 
first gave his lectures, which afterward became a place 
of resort for learned men; hence societies of learned 
men have since been termed academies. 

‘The leading idea in the word school is that of in- 
struction given and doctrine received: in the word aca- 
demy is that of association among those who have al- 
ready learned: hence we speak im the literal sense of 
the school where young persons meet to be taught, or in 
the extended and moral sense of the old and new school, 
the Pythagorean school, the philosophical school, and 
the like; ‘The world is a great school where deceit, in 
all its forms, is one of the lessons that is first learned.’-— 
Briain. Butthe academy of arts or sciences, the French 
academy, being members of any academy, and the like ; 

As for other academies such as those for painting, 


9” 


sculpture, or architecture, we havenot so much as heara 
the proposal.’—SHAFTESBURY. 


EDUCATION, INSTRUCTION, BREEDING. 


Instruction and breeding are to education as parts to 
a whole; instruction respects the communication of 
knowledge, and breeding the manners or outward con 
duct; but education comprehends not only both these 
but the formationof the mind, the regulation of the heart 
andthe establishment of the principles: good instruction 
makes one wiser; good breeding makes one more po- 
lished and agreeable; good education makes one really 
good. A wantof education will always be to the injury 
if not to the ruin of the sufferer: a want of instruction 
is of more or less inconvenience, according to circum 
stances : a want of breeding only unfits a man for the so- 
ciety of the cultivated. Education belongs to the period 
of childhood and youth; ‘ A mother tells her infant that 
two and two make four, the child remembers the pro- 
position, and is able to count four for all the purposes 
of life, tillthe courseof his education brings him among 
philosophers, who fright him from his former knowledge, 
by telling him that four is a certain aggregate of units." 
—Jounson. - Instruction may: be given at different 
ages: ‘To illustrate one thing by its resemblance to 
another, has been always the most popular and effica- 
cious art of instruction.’--JoHNSON. Good breeding 


: is best learned in the early part of life; ‘My breeding 


abroad hath shown me more of the world than yours 
has done.’—WENTWORTH. 


IGNORANT, ILLITERATE, UNLEARNED, 
UNLETTERED. 


Ignorant, in Latin ignorans, from the privative ig 
or zm and noro, or the Greek yivioxw, signifies no 
knowing things in general, or not knowing any parti- 
cular circumstance ; unlearned, illiterate, and unlet- 
tered, are compared with ignorant in the general sense 

Ignorant is a comprehensive term ; it includes want 
of knowledge to any degree from the: highest to the 
lowest, and consequently includes the other terms, <d¢- 
terate, unlearned, and unlettered, which express differ 
ent forms of ignorance ; : 


He said, and sent Cyllenius with command 

To free the ports and ope the Punic land 

To Trojan guests; lest, 7gnorant of fate, 

The queen might force them froin her town and state, 
DryDEn. 


Ignorance is not always to one’s disgrace, since it is 
not always one’s fault; the term is not therefore di 
rectly reproachful: the poor 7gnorant savage is an ob 
ject of pity, rather than condemnation; but. when igno 
rance is coupled with self-conceit and presumption, it 
is a perfect deformity: hence the word illiterate, which 
is used only in such cases as to become a term of re- 
proach: an zgnorant man who sets up to teach others, 


-is termed an zlliterate preacher ; and quacks, whetherin 


religion or medicine, from the very nature of their call- 
ing, are altogether an illiterate race of men. The 
words unlearned and unlettered are exempt from such 
unfavourable associations. A modest man, who makes 
no pretensions to learning,’may suitably apologize for 
his supposed deficiencies by saying he is an wnlearned 
or unlettered man; the former is, however, a term of 
more familiar use than the latter. A man may be de 

scribed either as generally unlearned, or as unlearned in 
particular sciences or arts; as wnlearned in history; 
unlearned in philosophy ; ‘Because this doctrine may 
have appeared to the unlearned light and whimsical, I 
must take leave to unfold the wisdom and antiqu%ty of- 
my first proposition in these my essays, to wit, that 
“every worthless man is a dead man.” ’—AppiIsoNn. 
Wesay of a person that he is unlearned in the ways of 
the world: anda poet may describe his muse as wnlet- 
tered; ‘ Ajax, the haughty chief, the wnlettered soldier, 
had no way of making his anger known, but by gloomy 
sullenness.’—JOHNSON. 


* 


TO ILLUMINATE, ILLUMINE, ENLIGHTEN. 


Illuminate, in Latin, illuminatus, participle of tlw 
mino, and enlighten, from the noun light, both denote 
the communication of light; the former in the natural, 
the latter in the moral sense. We illuminate by neang 


198 


of artificial lights; the sun illuminates the world by its 
own light ; 
Reason our guide, what can she more reply, 
Than that the sun illuminates the sky 2—PR1oR. 


Preaching and instruction enlighten the minds of men; 
‘But if neither you norI can gather so much from 
these places, they will tell us it is because we are not in- 
wardly enlightened..—Sovutu. Illumine is but a poetick 
variation of illwminate; as, the Sun of Righteousness 
illumined the benighted world; 
What in me is dark 
Illumine ; what is low, raise and support. 
MILTON. 

Illuminations are employed as publick demonstrations 
of joy: no nation is now termed enlightened but such 
as have received the light of the Gospel. 


CULTIVATION, CULTURE, CIVILIZATION, 
REFINEMENT. 


Cultivation, from the Latin cultws, denotes the act of 
cultivating, or state of being cultivated ; culture signi- 
fies the state only of being cultivated; civilization sig- 
nifies the act of czvilizing, or stete of being civilized ; 
refinement aenotes the act of refining, or the state of 
being refined. 

Cultivation is with more. propriety applied to the 
thing that grows; culture to that in which it grows. 
The cultivation of flowers will not repay the labour 
unless the soil be prepared by proper culture. In the 
Same manner, when speaking figuratively, we say the 
cultivation of any art or science; the cultivation of 
one’s taste or inclination, may be said to contribute to 
one’s own skill, or the perfection of the thing itself; 
but the mind requires culture previously to this parti- 
cular exertion of the powers; ‘ Notwithstanding this 
faculty (of taste) must be in some measure born with 
us, there are several methods of cultivating and im- 
proving it.’,—AppIson. 


But tho’ Heav’n 
In every breath has sown these early seeds 
Of love and admiration, yet in vain 
Without fair culture’s kind parental aid. 
AKENSIDE. 


Civilization is the first stage of cultivation ; refine- 
ment is the last: we civilize savages by divesting them 
of their rudeness, and giving them a knowledge of 
such arts as are requisite for civil society; we culti- 
vate people in general by calling forth their powers into 
action and independent exertion; we refine them by 
the introduction of the liberal arts. 

The introduction of Christianity has been the best 
means of civilizing the rudest nations. The cultiva- 
tion of the mind in serious pursuits tends to refine the 
sentiments without debilitating the character; but the 
cultivation of the liberal arts may be pursued to a vi- 
cious extent, so as to introduce an excessive refinement 
of feeling that is incompatible with real manliness; 


To civilize the rude unpolish’d world 

And lay it under the restraint of laws, 

To make man mild and sociable to man, 

To cultivate the wild licentious savage 

With wisdom, discipline, and lib’ral arts, 

Th’ embellishments of life! Virtues like these 
Make human nature shine.—Appison. 


Poetry makes a principal amusement among unpo- 
lished nations, but in a country verging to the extremes 
of refinement, painting and musick come in fora share.’ 
GOLDSMITH. 

Cultivation is applied either to p ‘rsons or things; c7- 
vilization is applied to men collectively, refinement to 
men individually: we may cultivate the mind or any 
of its operations; or we may cultivate the ground or 
any thing that grows upon the ground; we civilize na- 
tions ; we refine the mind or the manners. 


SUAVITY, URBANITY. 


Suavity is literally sweetness ; and urbanity the re- 
finement of the city, in distinction with the country : 
inasmuch, therefore, as a polite education tends to 
soften the mind and the manners, it produces suavity ; 
but suavity may sometimes arise from natural temper, 
and exist therefore without wrbanity ; although there 


ENGLISH SY NONYMES. 


cannot be uwrbanity without suavity. By the swavity 


| of our manners we gain the love of those around us; 


by the wrbanity of our manners we render ourselves 
agreeable companions ; ‘ The virtue called urbanity by 
the moralists, or a courtly behaviour, consists in a de- 
sire to please the company.’—Popr. Hence also arises 
another distinction that the term swavity may be ap- 
plied to other things, as the voice, or the style; ‘The 
suavity of Menander’s style might be more to Plu- 
tarch’s taste than the irregular sublimity of Aris- 
tophanes.’—-CUMBERLAND. Urbanity is applied te 
manners only. x 


CIVIL, POLITE. 


Civil, in French civile, Latin civilis, from ciots, . 
citizen, signifies belonging to or becoming a citizen ; 
polite, in French poli, Latin politus, participle of polzo 
to polish, signifies literally polished. 

‘These two epithets are employed to denote different 
modes of acting in social intercourse ; polite expresses 
more than civzd ; it is possible to be czvil without be- 
ing polite : politeness supposes civility and something 
in addition. 

Civility is confined to no rank, age, condition, or 
country; all have an opportunity with equal propriety of 
being civi/, but it isnot so with politeness; this requires 
a certain degree of equality, at least the equality of 
education ; it would be contradictory for masters and 
servants, rich and poor, tearned and unlearned, to be 
polite to each other. Civility is a Christian duty ; 
there are times when every'man ought to be civil to 
his neighbour : politeness is*rather a voluntary devo- 
tion of ourselves to others ‘among the inferiour orders 
civility is indispensable; an uncivil person in a sub- 
ordinate station is an obnoxious member of society ; 


He has good nature, 
And I have good manners, 
His sons too areiczvil to me, because 
I do not pretend to be wiser than they.—OTWway. 


Among the higher orders, politeness is often a substi- 
tute; and where the form and spirit are combined, it 
supersedes the necessity of civility: politeness is the 
sweetener of human society ; it gives a charm to every 
thing that is said and done; ‘ The true effect of genuine 
politeness seems to be rather ease than pleasure,’— 
JOHNSON. 

Civility is contented with pleasing when the occa- 
sion offers ; politeness seeks the opportunity to please, 
it prevents the necessity of asking by anticipating the 
wishes ; it is full of delicate attentions, and is an ac- 
tive benevolence in the minor concerns of life. 

Civility is anxious not to offend, but it often gives 
pain from ignorance or errour : politeness studies all the 
circumstances and situations of men ; it enters into their 
characters, suits itself to their humours, and even yields 
indulgently to their weaknesses ; its object is no less to 
avoid giving pain than to study to afford pleasure. 

Civility is dictated by the desire of serving, politeness 
by that of pleasing : civility often confines itself to the 
bare intention of serving ; politeness looks to the action 
and its consequences : when a peasant is czvil he often 
does the reverse of what would be desired of him}; he 
takes no heed of the wants and necessities of others : 
politeness considers what is due to others and from 
others; it does nothing superfluously ; men of good 
breeding think before they speak, and move before they 
act. It is necessary to be czvi/ without being trouble- 
some, and polite without being affected. 

Civility requires nothing but goodness of intention ; 
it may be associated with the coarsest manners, the 
grossest ignorance, and the total want of all culture : po- 
liteness requires peculiar properties of the head and the 
heart, natural and artificial ; much goodness and gen- 
tleness of character, an even current of feeling, quick- 
ness and refined delicacy of sentiment, a command ot 
temper, a general insight into men and manners, and a 
thorough acquaintance with the forms of society. 

Civility is not incompatible with the harshest ex- 
pressions of one’s feelings; it allows the utterance of 
all a man thinks without regard to person, time, or sea~ 
son ; it lays no restraint upon the angry passions : 
politeness enjoins upon us to say nothing to another 
which we would not wish to be said to ourselves: it 
lays at least a temporary constraint on all the angry 
passions, and prevents all turbulent commotions. 

Civility is always the same ; whatever is once civ 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


18 arways- or. and acknowledged as such by all persons ; 
hence the term cévil may be applied figuratively in the 
fame sense; 


I heard a mermaid on a dolphin’s back, 

Uttering such dulcet and harmonious sounds, 

That the rude sea grew civil at her song. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


Politeness varies with the fashions and times; what is 
polite in one age or in one country may be unpolite in 
another; ‘ A polite country squire shall make you as 
many bows in half an hour as would serve a courtier 
for a week.’— ADDISON. ; 

If cevility be not a splendid virtue, it has at least the 
recommendation of being genuine and harmless, having 
nothing artificial in it: it admits of no gloss, and will 
never deceive; it is the true expression of good will, 
the companion of respect in inferiours, of condescen- 
sionin superiours, of humanity and kindness in equals: 
politeness springs from education, is the offspring of 
refinement, and consists much in the exteriour: it often 
rests contented with the bare imitation of virtue, and is 
distinguished into true and false; in the latter case it 
may be ahused for the worst of purposes, and serve as a 
mask to conceal malignant passions under the appear- 
ance of kindness; hence it is possible to be polite in 
form without being civid, or any thing else that is good. 


CIVIL, CBLIGING, COMPLAISANT. 


Civil (v. Civil, polite) ; obliging, from oblige, signifies 
either doing what obtiges, or ready to oblige ; com- 
plaisant, in French complaisant, comes from complaire 
to please, signifying ready to please. 

Civil is more general than obliging: one is always 
civil when one is obliging, but one is not always 
obliging when one is civil; complaisance is more than 
either, it refines upen both; it is a branch of politeness 
(w. Civil, polite). 

Civil regards the manner as well as the action, 
obliging respects the action, complatsant includes all 
the circumstances of the action: to be civil is to please 
by any word or action; ‘ Pride is never more offensive 
than when it condescends to be civil.’--CUMBERLAND. 
To be obliging is to perform some actual service ; 


The shepherd home 
Hies merry-hearted, and by turns relieves 
The ruddy milkmaid of her brimming pail, 
The beauty whom perhaps his witless heart 
Sincerely loves, by that best language shown 
Of cordial glances, and obliging deeds. 
THOMSON. 


To be complaisant isto do a service in the time and 
manner that is most suitable and agreeable; ‘f seem’d 
so pleased with what every ene said, and smiled with 
so much complaisance at all their pretty fancies, that 
though I did not put one word into their discourse, I 
have the vanity to think they looked upon me as very 
agreeable company.’-—Appison. Civility requires no 
effort; to be obliging always costs the agent some 
trouble ; complaisance requires attention and observa- 
tion; a person is czvzd in his reply, obliging in lending 
assistance, complaisant in his attentions to his friends. 

One is habitually civil ; obliging from disposition ; 
compleisant from education and disposition: it is 
necessary to be civil without being free, to be obliging 
ot being oficious, to be complaisant without being 
servile. 


COURTEOUS, COMPLAISANT, COURTLY. 


Courteous, from court, denotes properly belonging to a 
court, and by a natural extension of the sense, suitable 
to acourt ; complaisant (v. Complaisance). 

Courteous in one respect comprehends in it more than 
complaisant ; it includes the manner as well as the 
action ; itis, properly speaking, polished complaisance : 
on the other hand, complaisance includes more of the 
disposition in it than courteousness ; it has less of the 
polish, but more of the reality of kindness. 

Courtcousness displays itself in the address and the 
manners ; 


And then { stole all courtesy from Heav’n, 

And dress’d myself in such humility, 

That [did pluck allegiance from men’s hearts. 
SHAKSPEARE 


i ne et Yt 


{99 


Complaisance displays itself in direct good offices, par- 
ticularly in complying with the wishes of others; ‘'To 
comply with the notions of mankind is 1n some degree 
the duty of a social being; because by compliance oniyv 
he can please, and by pleasing only he can become 
useful; but as the end is not to be lost for the sake of 
the means, we are not to give up virtue for complat 
sance.’--JOHNSON. Courtcousness is most suitable for 
strangers; complaisance for friends or the nearest rela- 
tives: among well-bred men, and men of rank, it is an 
invariable rule to address each other courteously on all 
occasions whenever they meet, whether acquainted or 
otherwise; there is a degree of complaisance due be- 
tween husbands and wives, brothers and sisters, and 
members of the same family, which cannot be neglected 
without endangering the harmony of their intercourse. 

Courtly, though derived from the same word as 
courteous, is in some degree opposed .o it in point of 
sense; it denotes a likeness to a court, but not a like- 
ness which is favourable; courtly is to courteous as 
the form to the reality; the courtly consists of the ex- 
teriour only, the latter of the exteriour combined with 
the spirit; the former therefore seems to convey the 
idea of insincerity when contrasted with the latter, 
which must necessarily suppose the contrary: a courtly 
Gemeanour, or a courtier-like demeanour may be suit- 
able on certain occasions ; but a cowrteous demeanour 
is always desirable ; 


In our own time (excuse some courtly strains) 
No whiter page than Addison’s remains.—Popre. 


Courtly may likewise be employed in relation te 
things; but courteous has always respect to persons: 
we may speak of a courtly style, or courtly grandeur ; 
but we always speak of courteous behaviour, cour 
teous language, and the like. 


Yes, [ know 
He had a troublesome old-fashion’d way 
Of shocking courtly ears with horrid truth. 
THOMSON 


POLITE, POLISHED, REFINED, GENTEEL 


Polite (v. Civil) denotesa quality ; polished, astate : 
he who is polite is so according to the rules of polite- 
ness ; he who is polished is polished by the force of 
art: a polite man is, in regard to his behaviour, @ 
finished gentleman. A rude person may be more or 
less polished, or freed from rudeness ; ‘In rude nations 
the dependence of children on their parents is of 
shorter continuance than in polished societies.’— 
ReseRtTson. Refined rises in sense, both in regard to 
polite and polished: a man is indebted to nature, 
rather than to art, for his refinement; but his polite- 
ness, or his polish, are entirely the fruit of education. 
Politeness and polish do not extend to any thing but 
externals; refinement applies as much to the mind as 
the body: rules of conduct, and good society, will 
make a man polite; ‘A pedant among men of learn- 
ing and sense is like an ignorant servant giving an 
account of polite conversation.’—StreLe. Lessons in 
dancing will serve to give a polish; refined manners or 
principles will naturally arise out of refinement of 
mind and temper; ‘What is honour but the height 
and flower of morality, and the utmost refinement of 
conversation ?—Souru. 

As polish extends only to the exteriour, it is less lia 
ble to excess than refinement : when the language, the 
walk, and deportment of a man is polished, he is di- 
vested of all that can make him offensive in social 
intercourse; butif the temper of a man be refined be- 
yond a certain boundary, he loses the nerve of cha- 
racter which is essential for maintaining his dignity 
against the rude shocks of human life. 

Genteel, in French gentil, Latin gentilis, signified 
literally one belonging to the ‘same gens or family, the 
next akin to whom the estate would fall, if there were 
no children; hence by an extended application it de- 
noted to be of a good family, and the term gentzlity 
now respects rank in life; in distinction from polite- 
ness, Which respects the refinement of the mind and 
outward behaviour, a genteel education is suited to the 
station of a gentleman; ‘A lady of genius will give a 
genteel air to her whole dress by a well-fancied suit of 
knots, as a judicious writer gives a spirit to a whole 
sentence by a single expression.—Gay. A polit 


200 ENGLISH 


education fits for polished society and conversation, and 
raises the individual among his equals ; 


In this isle remote, 
Our painted ancestors were slow to learn, 
To arms devote, in the poltter arts, 
Nor skilled, nor studious.—SoMERVILLE. 


There may be gentility without politeness; and 
vice versa. A person may have genteel manners, a 
genteel carriage, a genteel mode of living as far as re- 
spects his general relation with society ; but a polite 
behaviour and a polite address, which qualify him for 
every relation in society, and enable him to shine in 
connexion with all orders of men, is independent of 
either birth or wealth; it is in part a gift of nature, 
although it is to be acquired by art. 

A person’s equipage, servants, house, and furniture, 
may be such as to entitle a man to the name of genteel, 
although he is wanting in all the forms of real good- 
breeding. Fortune may sometimes frown upon the 
polished gentleman, whose politeness is a recommen- 
dation to him wherever he goes. 


AFFABLE, COURTEOUS. 


Affable, in French affable, Latin affabzlis, from af 
or ad, and for to speak, signifies a readiness to speak 
to any one; courteous, in French*courtois, from the 
word court, signifies after the refined manner of a 
court. 

We are affable by a mild and easy address towards 
all, without distinction of rank, who have occasion to 
speak to us; we are courteous by a refined and en- 
gaging air to our equals or superiours who address 
themselves to us. 

The affable man invites to inquiry, and is ready to 
gratify curiosity ; ‘ It isimpossible for a publick minister 
to be so open and easy to all his old friends as he was 
in his private condition; but this may be helped out 
by an affability of address’—L’Estranez. The 
courteous Iman encourages to a communication of our 
wants, and discovers in his manners a willingness to 
relieve them; 


Whereat the Elfin knight with speeches gent 

Him first saluted, who, well as he might, ‘ 

Him fair salutes again, as seemeth peste knight. 
EST. 


Afability results from good nature, and courteousness 
from fine feeling ; it is necessary to be affable without 
familiarity, and courteous without offic iousness. 


4 


COMPLAISANCE, DEFERENCE, CONDE- 
SCENSION. 


Complaisance, from com and plaire to please, signi- 
fies the act of complying with, or pleasing others; de- 
ference, in French déference, from the Latin defero to 
bear down, marks the inclination to defer, or acquiesce 
in the sentiments of another in preference to one’s 
own; condescension marks the act of condescending 
from one’s own height to yield to the satisfaction of 
others, rather than rigourously to exact one’s rights. 

The necessities, the conveniences, the accommoda- 
tions and allurements of society, of familiarity, and 
of intimacy, lead to complaisance ; ‘it makes sacrifices 
to the wishes, tastes, comforts, enjoyments, and per- 
sonal feelings of others; ‘ Complatsance renders a su- 
periour amiable, an equal agreeable, and an inferiour 
acceptable.—Appison. Age, rank, dignity, and per- 
sonal merit, call for deference; it enjoins compliance 
with respect to our opinions, judgements, pretensions, 
and designs; ‘Tom Courtly never fails of paying his 
obeisance to every man he sees, who has title or office 
to make him conspicuous; but his deference is wholly 
given to outward consideration.’—Srreie. The in- 
firmities, the wants, the defects and foibles of others, 
call for condescension ; it relaxes the rigour of autho- 
rity, and removes the distinction of rank or station; 
‘The same noble condescension which never dwells 
but in truly great minds, and stich as Homer would re- 
present that of Ulysses to have been, discovers itself 
likewise in the speech which he made to the ghost of 
Ajax.’—AppIson. : 

Complaisance is properly the act of an equal; defer- 
ence that of an inferiour; condescension that of a su- 
periour. Complaisance is due from one well-bred per- 


SYNONYMES. 


son to another ; deference is due to all superiours is 
age, knowledge, or station, whom one approaches; 
condescension is due from all superiours to such as ara 
dependent on them for comfort and enjoyment. 

All these qualities spring from a refinement of hu 
manity; but complaisance has most of genuine kind 
ness in its nature; deference most of respectful sub- 
Inission; condescension most of easy indulgence. Com- 
plaisance has unalloyed pleasure for its companion, 
it is pleased with doing: it is pleased with seeing that 
it has pleased; itis pleasure to the giver and pleasure 
to the receiver. Deference is not unmixed with pain; 
it fears to offend, or to fail in the part it has to perform , 
it is mingled with a consciousness of inferiority, and a 
fear of appearing lower than it deserves to be thought. 
Condescension is not without its alloy; it is accompa- 
nied with the painful sentiment of witnessing infe- 
riority, and the no less painful apprehension of not 
maintaining its own dignity. 

Complaisance is busied in anticipating and meeting 
the wishes of others; it seeks to amalgamate one’s 
own will with that of another: deference is busied in 
yielding submission, doing homage, and marking one’s 
sense of another’s superiority : condescension employs 
itself in not opposing the will of others; in yielding 
to their gratification, and laying aside unnecessary dis- 
tinctions of superiority.. Complaisance among strangerg 
is often the forerunner of the most friendly inter- 
course: it. is the characteristick of self-conceit to pay 
deference to no one, beeause it considers no one as 
having superiour worth: it is the common character- 
istick of ignorant and low persons when placed in a 
state of elevation, to think themselves degraded hy 
any act of condescension. 


IMPERTINENT, RUDE, SAUCY, IMPUDENT, 
INSOLENT. 


Impertinent, in Latin in and pertinens not belonging 
to one, signifies being or wanting to do-what it does 
not belong to one to be or do; rude, in Latin rudis 
rude, and raudus a ragged stone, in the Greek péGdog 
a rough stick, signifies literally unpolished ; and in an 
extended sense, wanting all culture ; saucy comes from 
sauce, and the Latin salsus, signifying literally salt ; 
and in an extended sense, stinging like salt ; impudent 
(v. Assurance) ; insolent, from the Latin in and solens, 
contrary to custom, signifies being or wanting to be 
contrary to custom. 

Impertinent is allied to rude, as respects one’s genera} 
relations in society, without regard to station; it is 
allied to saucy, impudent, and insolent, as respects the 
conduct of inferiours. 

He who does not respect the laws of civil society in 
his intercourse with individuals, and wants to assume 
to himself what belongs to another, is impertinent : if 
he carry vhis impertinence so far as to commit any vio 
lent breach of decorum in his behaviour, he is rude. 
Impertinence seems to spring from a too high regard 
of one’s self: rudeness from an ignorance of what is 
due to others.. An impertinent man will ask questions 
for the mere gratification of curiosity ; a rude man will 
stare in one’s face in order to please himself. An im- 
pertinent man will take possession of the best. seat 
without regard to the right or convenience of an- 
other: a rude man will burst into the room of an- 
other, or push against his person, in violation of all 
ceremony. 

Impertinent, in comparison with the other terms, 
saucy, impudent, and insolent, is the most general and 
indefinite : whatever one does or says that is not com- 
patible with our station is impertinent; saucy ts a 
sharp kind of impertinence ; impudent an unblushing 
kind of impertinence ; insolence is an outrageous kind 
of impertinence, it runs counter to all established or- 
der: thus, the terms seem to rise in sense. A person 
may be zmpertinent in words or actions: he is saucy 
in words or looks: he is impudent or insolent in words, 
tones, gesture, looks, and every species of action. A 
person’s impertinence discovers itself in not giving the 
respect which is due to his superiours in general, 
strangers, or otherwise ; as when a common person sits 
down in the presence of a man of rank: sauciness 
discovers itself towards particular individuals, in eer 
tain relations; as in the case of servants who are 
saucy to their masters, or children who are saucy 
to their teachers: zmpudence and inselence are the 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


strox gest degrees of impertenence ; but the former is more 
particularly said of such things as reflect disgrace upon 
the offender, and spring from a low depravity of mind, 
such as the abuse of one’s superiours, and a vulgar 
defiance of those to whom one owes obedience and 
respect: insolence, on the contrary, originates from a 
haughtiness of spirit, and a misplaced pride, which 
breaks out into a contemptuous disregard of the sta- 
tion of those by whom one is offended ; as in the case 
of a servant who should offer to strike his master, or 
of a criminal who sets a magistrate at defiance; ‘It is 
publickly whispered as a piece of impertinent pride in 
me, that I have hitherto been saucily civil to every 
body, as if I thought nobody good enough to quarrel 
with.’—Lapy M. W. Montagu. 


My house should no such ude disorders know, 
As from high drinking consequently flow. 
POMFRET. 


Whether he knew the thing or no, 
His tongue externally would go; 
For he had impudence at will.—Gay. 


He claims the bull with lawless znsolence, 
And having seiz’d his horns, accosts the prince. 
DRYDEN. 


Self-conceit is the grand source of impertinence, it 
makes persons forget themselves; the young thereby 
forget their youth; the servant forgets his relationship 
to his master; the poor and ignorant man forgets the 
distance between himself and those who are elevated 
by education, rank, power, or wealth: impertinent 
persons, therefore, act towards their equals as if they 
were inferiours, and towards their superiours as if they 
were their equals: an angry pride that is offended with 
reproof commonly provokes sauciness : an insensibility 
to shame, or an unconsciousness of what is honourable 
either in one’s self or others, gives birth.to impudence : 
uncontrolled passions, and bloated pride, are the ordi- 
hary stimulants to insolence. 


ABRUPT, RUGGED, ROUGH. 


Abrupt, in Latin abruptus, participle of abrumpo, 
to break off, signifies the state of being broken off; 
rugged, in Saxon hrugge, comes from the Latin ru- 
gosus full of wrinkles; rowgh is in Saxon reoh, high 
German rauh, low German rug, Dutch ruig, in Latin 
rudis uneven. 

These words mark different degrees of unevenness. 
What is abrupt has greater cavities and protuberances 
than whatis rugged; what is rugged has greater irre- 
gularities than what is rough. In the natural sense 
abrupt is opposed to what is unbroken, rugged to what 
is even, and rough to what is smooth. A precipice is 
abrupt, a path is rugged, a plank is rough ; 

The precipice abrupt, 
Projecting horrour on the blackened flood, 
Softens at thy return.—THomson’s SUMMER. 


‘The evils of this life appear like rocks and precipices; 
rugged and barren at adistance; but at our nearer 
approach we find them little fruitful spots.’—Sprc- 
TATOR. 


Not the rough whirlwind, that deforms 

Adria’s black gulf, and vexes it with storms, 

The stubborn virtue of his soul can move. 
FRANCIS. 


The abruptness of a body is generally occasioned by 
4 violent concussion and separation of its parts; rug- 
gedness arises from natural, but less violent causes; 
roughness is mostly a natural property, although some- 
times produced by friction. 

In the figurative sense the distinction is equally clear. 
Words and manners are abrupt when they are sudden 
and unconnected; the temper is rugged which is ex- 
posed to frequent ebullitionsof angry humour; actions 
are rough when performed with violence and in- 
caution. 

An abrupt behaviour is the consequence of 2n agi- 
tated mind; 


My lady craves 
To know the cause of your abrupt departure. 
SHAKSPEARE. 
A_rugged disposition is inherent in the character; 
The greatest favours to such a one neither soften nor 


201 


win upon him; neither melt nor endear him, but leave 
him as hard, rugged, and unconcerned as ever.’— 
Sourn. A rough deportment arises from an undisci- 
plined state of feeling ; ‘Kind words prevent a good 
deal of that perverseness, which rough and imperious 
usage often produces in generous minds.’—Lockr. 

An habitual steadiness and coolness of reflection is 
best fitted to prevent or correct any abruptness of 
manners; 4 cultivation of the Christian temper cannot 
fail of smoothing down all ruggedness of humour; an 
intercourse with polished society will inevitably refine 
down all roug.imness of behaviour. . 


COARSE, ROUGH, RUDE. 


Coarse, probably from the Gothick kaurids heavy, 
answering to our word gross, and the Latin gravis; 
rough, in Saxon hruh, German rauh, roh, &c. is pro- 
bably a variation of rude (v. Impertinent). 

These epithets are equally applied to what is not 
polished by art. Inthe proper sense coarse refers to 
the composition and materials of bodies, as coarse 
bread, coarse meat, coarse cloth; rough respects the 
surface of bodies, as rough wood and rough skin; 
rude respects the make or fashion of things, as a rude 
bark, a rude utensil. Coarse is opposed to fine, rough 
to smooth, rude to polished. 

In the figurative application they are distinguished 
in a similar manner: coarse language is used by per- 
sons of naturally coarse feeling; ‘The fineness and 
delicacy of perception which the man of taste requires. 
may be more liable to irritation than the coarser feel- 
ings of minds less cultivated.—Craie. Rough lan 
guage is used by those whose tempers are either natu 
rally or occasionally rough ; 


This is some fellow, 
Who, having been prais’d for bluntness, doth affect 
A saucy roughness.—SHAKSPEARE. 


Rude language is used by those who are ignorant of 
any better; ‘Is it in destroying and pulling down 
that skill is displayed? the shallowest understanding, 
the rudest hand, is more than equal to that task.’— 
BuRxKE. 


GROSS, COARSE. 


Gross derives its meaning in this application from 
the Latin crassus thick from fat, or that which is of 
common materials; coarse (v. Coarse.) 

These terms are synonymous in the moral applica- 
tion. Grossness of habit is opposed to delicacy, 
coarseness to softness and refinement. A person be- 
comes gross by an unrestrained indulgence of his 
sensual appetites; particularly in eating and drinking; 
he is coarse from the want of polish either as to his 
mind or manners. A gross sensualist approximates 
very nearly to the brute; he sets aside all moral con 
siderations; he indulges himself in the open face of 
day in defiance of all decency: a coarse person ap- 
proaches nearest to the savage, whose roughness of 
humour and inclination have not been refined down by 
habits of restraining his own will, and complying with 
the will of another. A gross expression conveys the 
idea of that which should be kept from the view of the 
mind, which shocks the moral feeling, a coarse ex- 
pression conveys the idea of an unseemly sentiment in 
the mind of the speaker. The representation of the 
Deity by any sensible image is gross, because it gives 
us a low and grovelling idea of the Supreme; the doing 
a kindness, and making the receiver at the same time 
sensible of your superiority and his dependence, indi- 
cates great coarseness in the character of the person 
granting the favour; ‘A certain preparation is requi 
site for the enjoyment of devotion in its whole extent; 
not only must the life be reformed from gross enor- 
mities, but the heart must have undergone that change 
which the Gospel demands.’—Buair. ‘The refined 
pleasures of a pious mind are, in many respects, supe- 
riour to the coarse gratifications of sense.’—BuaIr 


TO AMEND, CORRECT, REFORM, RECTIFY, 
EMEND, IMPROVE, MEND, BETTER. 


Amend, in Latin emendo, from menda a fault in 
transcribing, signifies to remove this fault; correct, 
in Latin correctus, participle of corrigo, compounded 


202 


of con and rego, signifies to set in order, to set to 
nights; reform, compounded of re and form, signifies 
to reform afresh, or put into anew form; rectify, in 
Latin rectifico, compounded of rectus and facio, sig- 
nifies to make or put right; emend is the immediate 
derivative of the Latin emendo; improve comes from 
the Latin in and prodo to prove or try, signifying to 
make any thing good, or better than it was, by trials 
or after experiments; mend is a contraction of emend ; 
better is properly to make better. 

To amend, correct, rectify, and emend, imply the 
lessening of evil; to improve, reform, and better, the 
increase of good. We amend the moral conduct, 
correct errors, reform the life, rectzfy mistakes, emend 
the readings of an author, 7mprove the mind, mend or 
better the condition. What is amended is mostly that 
which 1s wrong in ourselves: what is reformed or 
corrected is that which is faulty in ourselves or in 
others; what is rectified is mostly wrong in that which 
has been done; that which is improved may relate 
2ither to an individual or to indifferent objects. 

To mend and better are common terms, employed 
only on familiar occasions, corresponding to the terms 
amend and improve. Whatever is wrong must be 
amended ; whatever is faulty must be corrected ; what- 
ever is altogether ‘insufficient for the purpose must be 
reformed ; whatever errour escapes by an oversight 
must be rectified; whatever is obscure or incorrect 
must he amended. 

What has been torn may be mended ; 


The wise for cure on exercise depend, 
God never made his work for man to mend. 
DRYDEN. 


What admits of change may be zmproved or bettered ; 
‘I then bettered my condition a little, and lived a 
whole summer in the shape of a bee.’—Appison. 
When a person’s conduct is any way culpable, it ought 
to be amended ; ‘The interest which the corrupt part 
of mankind have in ha!dening themselves against every 
motive to amendment, has disposed them to give to 
contradictions, when they can be produced against the 
cause of virtue, that weight which they will not allow 
them in any other case.—Jounson. When a person’s 
habits and principles are vicious, his character ought 
to be reformed, ‘Indolence is one of the vices from 
which those whom it onceinfects are seldom reformed.’ 
—Jounson. When a man has any particular faulty 
habit, it ought to be corrected; ‘Presumption will be 
easily corrected ; but timidity is a disease of the mind 
more obstinate and fatal.’—Jounson. When we com- 
mit mistakes we should not object to have them rec- 
tified ; ‘That sorrow which dictates no caution, that 
fear which does not quicken our escape, that austerity 
which fails to rectify our affections, are vain and un- 
availing.’—Jounson. ‘Some had read the manuscript, 
and rectified its inaccuracies.’—Jounson. The emenda- 
tions of criticks frequently involve an author in still 
greater obscurity ; ‘That useful part of learning which 
consists in emendations, knowledge of different read- 
ings, and the like, is what in all ages persons extremely 
wise and learned have had in great veneration.’— 
Apptson. Whoever wishes to advance himself in life 
must endeavour to improve his time and talents. 
‘While a man, infatuated with the promises of great- 
ness, wastes his hours and days in attendance and soli- 
citation, the honest opportunities of improving his 
condition pass by without his notice.’-—Appison. 

The first step to amendment is a consciousness of 
errour in ourselves: busy politicians are ever ready to 
propose a reform in the constitution of their country, 
but they forget the reformation which is requisite in 
themselves; the correction of the temper is of the first 
moment, in order to live in harmony with others: in 
order to avoid the necessity of rectifying what has been 
done amiss, we must strive to do every thing with care: 
criticks emend the productions of the pen, and ingenious 
artists improve the inventions of art. 

Correct respects ourselves or others; rectify has 
regard to one’s self only; correct is either an act of au- 
thority or discretion ; rectify is an act of discretion only. 
What is corrected may vary in its magnitude or import- 
ance, and consequently may require more or less trou- 
ble ; what is rectified is always of a nature to be altered 
without great injury or effort. Habitual or individual 
taults are corrected ; ‘ Desire is corrected when there is 
atenderness or admiration expressed which partakes of 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


the passion. Licentious language hassomething brutal 
in it which disgraces humanity.’—STrEie. Individual 
mistakes are rectified; ‘ A man has frequent opportu- 
nities of mitigating the fierceness of a party; of soft- 
ening the envious, quieting the angry, and rectifying 
the prejudiced.’—Appison. <A person corrects himself 
or another of a bad habit in speaking or pronouncing ; 
he rectifies any errour in his accounts. Mistakes in 
writing must be corrected for the advantage of the 
scholar; mistakes in pecuniary transactions cannot be 
too soon rectified for the satisfaction of all parties. 
Reform like rectify is used only for one’s self when 
it respects personal actions : but reform and correct are 
likewise employed for matters of general interest. Co 
rect in neither case amounts to the same as reform. A 
person corrects himself of particular habits; he reforms 
his whole life; what is corrected undergoes a change, 
more or less slight; what is reformed assttmes a new 
form and hecomes a new thing. Correction is always 
advisable: it is the removal of an evil; reform is 
equally so as it respects a man’s own conduct ; but as 
it respects publick matters, it is altogether of a ques- 
tionable nature ; a mancannot begin too soon to reform 
himself, nor too late to attempt reforming the constitue 
tions of society. The abusez of government may always 
be advantageously corrected by the judicious hand ofa 
wise minister; reforms in a state are always attended 
with a certain evil, and promise but an uncertain good; 
they are never recommended but by the young, the 
thoughtless, the busy, or the interested. The reforma- 
tion of laws is the peculiar province of the prince ; 


Edward and Henry, now the boast of fame, 

And virtuous Alfred, a more sacred name, 

After a life of generous toils endur’d, 

The Gauls subdu’d, or property secur’d, 

Ambition humbled, mighty cities storm’d, 

Or laws establish’d, and the world a 
OPE. 


CORRECT, ACCURATE. 


Correct is equivalent to corrected (v.. To Amend,) or 
set to rights. Accurate (v. Accurate) implies properly 
done with care, or by the application of care. Correct 
is negative in its sense; acewrate is positive ; it is suffi- 
cient to be free from fault to be correct ; it must contain 
every minute particular to be accurate. Information is 
correct which contains nothing but facts; ‘Sallust the 
most elegant and correct of all the Latin historians, 
observes, that in his time when the most formidable 
states of the world were subdued by the Romans, the 
republick sunk into those two opposite vices of a quite 
different nature, luxury and avarice. —Anppison. In- 
formation is accurate when it contains a vast number 
of details; ‘Those ancients who were the most accu- 
rate in their remarks on the geniusand temper of man- 
kind, have with great exactness allotted inclinations 
and objects of desire to every stage of life.’ STEELE. 

Whatis incorrect is allied to falsehood ; what is inac- 
curate is general and indefinite. j 

According to the dialect of modern times, in which 
gross vices are varnished over with smooth names, a 
liar is said to speak incorrectly; this is however not 
only an inaccurate but an incorrect mode of speech, for 
a lie is a direct violation of truth, and the incorrect is 
only a deviation from it to greater or less extent 


JUSTNESS, CORRECTNESS. 


Justness, from jus law (v. Justice), is the conformity 
to established principle: correctness, from rectus right 
or straight (v. Correct), is the conformity to a certain 
mark or line: the former is used in the moral or im- 
proper sense only ; the latter is used either in the proper 
or improper sense. We estimate the value of remarks 
by their justness, that is, their accordance to certain 
admitted principles; ‘ Few men, possessed of the most 
perfect sight, can describe visual objects with more 
spirit and justness than Mr. Blacklock the poet, born 
blind.,—Burxr. Correctness of outline is of the first 
importance in drawing ; correctness of dates enhances 
the value of a history ; ‘I do not mean the popular elo- 
quence which cannotbe tolerated at the bar, but that cor- 
rectness of style and elegance of method which at once 
pleases and persuades the hearer.—Sir Wm. Jonrs It 
has been justly observed by the moralists of antiquity, 


ENGLISH SYNONY MES. 


203 


that money is the root of all evil; partisans seldom | a man of business, in the numer and the details of 


state correctly what they see and hear. 


ACCURATE, EXACT, PRECISE. 


Accurate, in French accurate, Latin accwratus, par- 
ticiple of accuro, compounded of the intensive ae or ad, 


and cure, to take care of, signifies done with great care; _ 


exact, in French exacte, Latin exactus, participle of 
exigo, to finish or complete, denotes the quality of com- 
pleteness, the absence of defect; preczse, in French 


précis, Latin precisus, participle of precido, to cut. 


by rule, signifies the quality of doing by rule. 

A man is accurate when he avoids faults; exact, 
when he attends to every minutia, and leaves nothing 
undone ; precise, when he does it according to a certain 
measure. These epithets, therefore, bear a comparative 
relation to exch other; exact expresses more than accu- 
rate, and precise more than ezact. An account is accu- 
rate in wnich there 1s no misrepresentation ; it isexact 
when nothing essential is omitted; itis precise when it 
contains particular details of time, place, and circum- 
stance. 

Accuracy is indispensable in all our concerns, be they 
ever so ordinary ; ‘ An eminent artist who wrought up 
his pictures with the greatest accuracy, and gave them 
all those delicate touches which are apt to please the 
nicest eye, is represented as tuning a theorbo.’—Appt1- 
SON. Exactness is of peculiar importance in matters 
of economy and taste; ‘ This lady is the most exact 
economist, without appearing busy.—Conereve. In 
some cases, where great results flow from trifling 
causes, the greatest precision becomes requisite: we 
may, however, be too prectse when we dwell on unim- 
portant particulars; but we never can be too accurate 
or exact. Hence the epithet precise is sometimes taken 
in the unfavourable sense for affectedly exact; ‘An 
apparent desire of admiration, a reflection upon their 
own merit, and a precise behaviour in their general 
conduct, are almost inseparable accidents in beauties.’ 
—Huveurs. An accurate man will save himself much 
trouble ; an exact man will gain himself much credit ; 
and a precise man will take much pains only to render 
himself 1idiculous. Young people should strive to do 
every thing accurately, which they think worth doing 
at all, and thus they willlearn to be exact or precise, as 
occasion may require. 

Alccuracy, moreover, concerns our mechanical la- 
bours, and the operations of our senses and under: 
standings; ‘An apiness to jumble things together, 
wherein can be found any likeness, hinders the mind 
from accurate conceptions of them..—Lockr. Evxact- 
ness respects our dealings with others, or our views of 
things; ‘ Angels and spirits, in their several degrees of 
elevation above us, may be endowed with more com- 
prehensive faculties; and some of them, perhaps, have 
perfect and exact views of all finite beings that come 
under their consideration”—Locke. Precision is ap- 
plied to our habits and manners in society, or to our 
representations of things; ‘ A definition is the only way 
whereby the precise meaning of moral words can be 
known.’—Lockr. We write, we see, we think, we 
judge accurately ; we are exact in our payments; we 
are precise in our modes of dress. Some men are very 
accurate in their particular line of business, who are 
not very exact in fulfilling their engagements, nor very 
erecise in the hours which they keep. 


EXACT, NICE, PARTICULAR, PUNCTUAL. 


Exact (v. Accurate); nice, in Saxon nise, comes in 
all probability from the German geniessen, &c. to enjoy, 
signifying a quick and discriminating taste ; particular 
signifies here directed to a particular point ; punctual, 
from the Latin punctum a point, signifies keeping to a 
point. 

_ Exact and nice are to be compared in their applica 
tion, either to persons or things; particular and punc- 
twal only in application to persons. To be exact, is to 
arrive at perfection; to he nice, is to be free from 
faults; to be particular, is to be nice in certain particu- 
lars ; to be punctual, is to be exact in certain points. 
We are exact in our conduct or in what we do; nice 
and particular in our mode of doing it; punctual as to 
the time and season for doing it. It is necessary to be 
exact in our accounts; to be nice as an artist in the 
choice and distribution of colours; to be particular as 


merchandises that are to be delivered out; to be pune- 
twal in observing the hour or the day that has been 
fixed upon for keeping appointments. 

Exactness and punctuality ave always taken in a 
good sense; they designate an attention to that which 
cannot be dispensed with; they form a part of one’s 
duty ; niceness and particularity are not always taken 
in the best sense ; they designate an excessive attention 
to things of inferiour importance ; to matters of taste 
and choice. Early habits of method and regularity will 
make a man very exact in the performance of all his 
duties, and particularly punctual in his payments ; 
‘What if you and I inquire how money matters stand 
between us? Withall my heart, I love exact dealing ; 
and let Hocus audit..—ArsutTunot. ‘The trading 
part of mankind suffer by the want of punetwality in 
the dealings of persons above them.’—STgerLe. An 
over niceness in the observance of mechanical rules 
often supplies the want of genius; or a niceness in 
regard to one’s diet is the mark of an epicure; 


Nor be so nice in taste myself to know, 
If what I swallow, be a thrush or no.—Dryprn 


Thus criticks, of less judgement than caprice 
Curious, not knowing, not exact, but nice.—-Porz. 


It is the mark of a contracted mind to amuse itself with 
particularities about the dress, the person, the furni- 
ture, and the like. On the other hand, it is desirable 
for a person to be particular in the account he is called 
upon to give of any transaction: ‘I have been the more 
particular in thisinquiry, because I hear there is scarce 
a village in England that has not a Moll White in it.’—. 
ADDISON. , 

When exact and nice are applied to things, the for- 
mer expresses more than the latter; we speak of an 
exact resemblance, and a nice distinction. The exact 
point is that which we wish to reach; ‘ We know not 
so much asthe true names of either Homer or Virgil, 
with any exactness..—WatsH. The nice point isthat 
which it is difficult to keep; ‘ Every age a man passes 
through, and way of life he engages in, has some par- 
ticular vice or imperfection naturally cleaving to it, 
which it will require his nicest care to avoid.’—Bup 
GELL. 


REFORM, REFORMATION. 


Reform has a general, and reformation a particular 
application: whatever undergoes such a change as to 
give a new form to an object occasions a reform ; when 
such a change is produced in the moral character, it is 
termed a reformation: the concerns of a state require 
occasional reform; which, when administered with 
discretion, may be of great benefit, otherwise of great 
injury; ‘He was anxious to keep the distemper of 
France from the least countenance in England, where 
he was sure some wicked persons had shown a strong 
disposition to. recommend an imitation of the French 
spirit of reform.—Burxr. The concerns of an indi- 
vidual require reformation ; ‘Examples are pictures, 
and strike the senses, nay, raise the passions, and call in 
those (the strongest and most general of all motives) to 
the aid of reformation.,—Porr. When reform and 
reformation are applied to the moral character, the 
former has a more extensive signification than the 
latter: the term reform conveying the idea of a com- 
plete amendment; reformation implying only the pro- 
cess of ainending or improving. 

A reform in one’s life and conversation will always 
be accompanied with a corresponding increase of hap 
piness to the individual: when we observe any ap: 
proaches to reformation, we may cease to despair of 
the individual who gives the happy indications. 


TO RECLAIM, REFORM. 


Reclaim, from clamo to call, signifies to call back to 
its right place that which has gone astray ; reform sig- 
nifies the same as in the preceding article. 

A man is reclaimed from his vicious courses by the 
force cf advice or exhortation ; he may be reformed by 
various means, external or internal. 

A parent endeavours to reclaim a child, but too often 
in vain; ‘Scotland had nothing to dread from a prin 
cess of Mary’s character, who was wholly occupied in 
endeavouring to reclaim ber heretical subjects.’--Re 


204 


BeRTsoN. A hardened offender isseldom reformed, nor 
8 a corrupt state easy to be reformed ; 


A monkey, to reform the times, 
Resolv’d to visit foreign climes.—Gay. 


PROGRESS, PROFICIENCY, IMPROVEMENT. 


Progress (v. Proceeding) is a generick term, the rest 
are specifick; proficiency, from the Latin proficio, com- 
pounded of pro and faczo, signifies a profited state, that 
is to say, a progress already made; and improvement, 
from the verb improved, signifies an improved condition, 
that is, progress in that which improves. The pro- 
gress liere, as in the former paragraph, marks the step 
or motion onward, and the two others the point already 
reached; but the term progress is applied either in the 
proper or improper sense, that is, either to those tra- 
velling forward, or to those going on stepwise in any 
work ; proficiency is applied in the proper sense, to the 
ground gained in an art, and ¢mprovement to what is 
gained in science or arts: when idle people set out 
about any work, it is difficult to perceive that they 
inake any progress in it from time to time; 


Solon, thesage, his progress never ceas’d, 
But still his learning with his days increas’d. 
DENHAM. 


Those who have a thorough taste for either musick or 
drawing will make a proficiency init which is astonish- 
ing to those who are unacquainted with the circum- 
stances; ‘ When the lad was about nineteen, his uncle 
desired to see him, that he might know what profi- 
ciency he had made.’.—-HawkEswortH. The improve- 
ment of the mind can never be so effectually and easily 
obtained as in the period of childhood; ‘The metrical 
part of our poetry, in the time of Chaucer, was capable 
of more ¢mprovement.’—TYRWHITT. 


PROGRESS, PROGRESSION, ADVANCE, 
ADVANCEMENT. 


A forward motion is designated by these terms: but 
progress and progression simply imply this sort of 
motion; advance and advancement also imply an ap- 
proximation to some object: we may make a progress 
in that which has no specifick termination, as a pro- 
gress in learning, which may cease only with life; ‘I 
wish it were in my power to give a regular history of 
the progress which our ancestors have made in this 
species of versification.—Tyrwuitt. The advance 
is only made to some limited point or object in view ; 
as an advance in wealth or honour, which may find a 
termination within the life; ‘The most successful stu- 
dents make their advances in knowledge by short flights.’ 
—JOHNSON. 

Progress and advance are said of that which has 
been passed over; but progression and advancement 
may be said of that which one is passing: the progress 
is made, or a person is in advance; he isin the act of 
progression Or advancement: a child makes a pro- 
veess in learning by daily attention; the progression 
from one stage of learning to another is not always per- 
reptible ; 

And better thence again, and better still, 
In infinite progression THOMSON. 


It is not always possible to overtake one who is in ad- 
vance; sometimes a person’s advancement: is retarded 
by circumstances that are altogether contingent; ‘I 
have lived to see the fierce advancement, the sudden 
turn, and the abrupt period, of three or four enormous 
friendships.——-Pors. The first step in any destructive 
course still prepares for the second, and the second for 
the third, after which there is no stop, but the progress 
1s infinite. 


os 


CORRECTION, DISCIPLINE, PUNISHMENT. 


As correction and discipline have commonly required 
punishment to render them efficacious, custom has af- 
fixed to them a strong resemblance in their application, 
although they are distinguished from each other by ob- 
vious marks of difference. The prominent idea in cor- 
rection (v. To correct), is that of making right what has 
been wrong. In discipiizxe, from the Latin disciplina 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


and the Greek zefvy pain, the leading idea is that of in- 
flicting pain. 

Children are the peculiar subjects of correction ; 
discipline and punishment are confined to no age. A 
wise parent corrects his child ; 

Wilt thou, pupil-like, 
Take thy correction mildly, kiss the rod ? 
SHAKSPRARE. 


A master maintains discipline in his school; a general 
preserves discipline in his army; “The imaginations 
of young men are of a roving nature, and their passions 
under no discipline or restraint.—Appison. Who- 
ever commits a fault is liable to be punished by those 
who have authority over him; if he commits a crime 
he subjects himself to be punished by law. 

Correction and discipline are mostly exercised by 
means of chastisement, for which they are often em- 
ployed as a substitute ; punishment is inflicted in any 
way that givespain. Correction and discipline are both 
of them personal acts of authority exercised by superi 
ours over inferiours, but the former is mostly employed 
by one individual over another: the latter has regard to 
a number who are the subjects of it directly or indi- 
rectly : punishment has no relation whatever to the 
agent by which the action is performed; it may pro- 
ceed alike from persons or things. A parent who 
spares the due correction of his child, or a master whe 
does not use a proper discipline in his school, will alike 
be punished by the insubordination and irregularities of 
those over whom they have a control; 

When by just vengeance impious mortals perish, 


The gods behold their punishment with pleasure 
ADDISON 


TO CHASTEN, TO CHASTISE. 


Chasten, chastise, both come through the French 
chatier, from the Latin castigo, which is compounded 
of castus and ago to make pure. 

Chasten has most regard to the end, chastise to the 
means; the former is an act of the Deity, the latter a 
human action: God chastens his faithful people tc 
cleanse them from their transgressions ; parents chastis 
their children to prevent the repetition of fauMs: afflic- 
tions are the means which the Almighty adopts for 
chastening those whom he wishes to make more obe- 
dient to his will ; 


I follow thee, safe guide! the pach 
Thou leadst me; and to the hand of Heaven submit, 
However chastening.—MILTon. 


Stripes are the means by which offenders are chastised ; 
‘Bad characters are dispersed abroad with profusion ; I 
hope for example’s sake, and (as punishments are de- 
signed by the civil power) more for the delivering of the 
innocent, than the chastising of the guilty. —Hueuss. 
To chasten is also sometimes taken in the sense ot 

making chaste by a course of discipline, either moral, 
literary, or religious, as to chasten the fancy, or to 
chasten the style; ‘ By repairing sometimes to the house 
of mourning, you would chasten the looseness of fancy. 

—B.air. 


STRICT, SEVERE. 


Strict, from strictus, bound or confined, characterizes 
the thing which binds or keeps in control: severe (v. 
Austere) characterizes in the proper sense the disposi- 
tion of. the person to inflict pain, and in an extended 
application the thing which inflicts pain. The term 
strict is, therefore, taken alwaysin the good sense ; se- 
vere is good or bad, according to circumstances: he whe 
has authority over others must be sérzct in enforcing 
obedience, in keeping good order, and a proper attention 
to their duties; but it is possible to be very severe in 
punishing those who are under us, and yet very lax in 


all matters that our duty demands of us; 


Lycurgus then, who bow'd beneath the force 
Of strictest disciptine, severely wise, 
All human passions.—THomson. 


— 


FINE, MULCT, PENALTY, FORFEITURE. 
Fine, ircm the Latin jfinis the end or purpose, signifies, 


end disco to iearn, she leading idea *s that of instructing | by an extended application, satisfaction by way of 
or regulating. In punishmem, from the Latin punio,! amends for an offence; mulct, in Latin mulcta, comes 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


from mulgeo to draw or wipe, because an offence is 
wiped off by money; penalty, in Latin penalitus, from 
pena a pain, signifies what gives pain by way of pun- 
Ishment; forfeiture, from forfeit, in French forfait, 
from forfaire, signifies to do away or lose by doing 
WIONg.~ 

The fine and mulct are always pecuniary; a penalty 
may be pecuniary; a forfeiture applies to any loss of 
personal property; the fine and mulct are imposed; 
the penalty is inflicted or incurred; the forfeiture is 
incurred. 

The violation of a rule or law is attended with a 
Jine or mulct, but the former is a term of general use; 
the latter is rather a technical term in law: a criminal 
offence incurs a penalty: negligence of duty occasions 
the forfeiture. 

A jine or mulct serves either as punishment to the 
offender, or as an amends for the offence ; 


Too dear a fine, ah much lamented maid! 
For warring with the Trojans thou hast paid. 
DRYDEN. 


For to prohibit and dispense, 

To find out or to make offence, 

To set what characters they please, 

And mulcts on sin, or godliness, 

Must prove a pretty thriving trade—~BuTuer. 


A penalty always inflicts some kind of pain as a 
punishment on the offender; ‘It must be confessed, 
that as for the laws of men, gratitude is not enjoined 
by the sanction of penalties.—Soutu. A forfeiture 
is attended, with loss as a punishment to the delin- 
quent; ‘The Earl of Hereford, being tried secundum 
leges Normannorum, could only be punished by a for- 
forwe of his inheritance’—Tyrwuirr. ‘In the 

oman law, if a lord manumits his slave, gross in- 
gratitude in the person so made free forfeits his free- 
dom.’—Sovutnu. Among the Chinese, all offences are 
punished with fines or flogging ; the Roman Catholicks 
were formerly subject to penalties if detected in the 
performance of their religious worship: societies sub- 
ject their members to forfeitures for the violation of 
their laws. 


os 


TO BANISH, EXILE, EXPEL. 


Banish, in French bannir, German bannen, signi- 
fied to put out of a community by a ban or civil inter- 
dict, which was formerly either ecclesiastical or civil; 
exile, in French eziler, from the Latin ezilium banish- 
ment, and ezul an exile, compounded of extra and 
solum the soil, signifies to put away from one’s native 
soil or country; ezpel, in Latin expello, compounded 
of ex and pello to drive, signifies to drive out. 

The idea of exclusion, or of a coercive removal from 
a place, is common to these terms: banishment in- 
cludes the removal from any place, or the prohibition 
of access to any place, where one has been, or whither 
one is in the habit of going; exile signifies the re- 
moval from one’s home: to evile, therefore, is to 
banish, but to banish, is not always to exile:* the 
Jere were banished from Rome; Coriolanus was 
eziled, 

_Banishment follows from a decree of justice; exile 
either by the necessity of circumstances or an order of 
authority: banishment is a disgraceful punishment in- 
flicted by tribunals upon delinquents; exile is a dis- 
grace incurred without dishonour: exile removes us 
from our country: banishment drives us from it igno- 
miniously: it is the custom in Russia to banish of- 


fenders to Siberia; Ovid was exiled by an order of 
Augustus. 


Banishment is an action, 


a compulsory exercise of 
power over another, : yi 


which must be submitted to; 


0 banishment ! Eternal banishment ! 
Ne’er to return! Must we ne’er meet again! 
My heart will break.—Orway. 


Exile is a state into which we m i 
: ay go voluntarily; 
many Romans chose to go into exile rather than await 


the judgement of the people, b i 
have been banished ; eas pao met 


* Vide Roubaud: “ Exiler, bannir.” 


205 


Arms, and the man I sing, who fore’d by fate, 
And haughty Juno’s unrelenting hate, 
Expell’d and ezil’d, left the Trojan shore—DryprENn 


Banishment and expulsion both mark a disgraceful 
and coercive exclusion, but banishment is authorita 
tive; it is a publick act of government: expulsion is 
simply coercive ; it isthe act of a private individual, or 
a small community; ‘Lhe expulsion and escape of 
Hippias at length set Athens free..—CumBERLAND. 
Banishment always supposes a removal to a distant 
spot, to another land; expulsion never reaches beyond 
a particular house or society: expulsion from the uni- 
versity, or any publick school, is the necessary conse- 
quence of discovering a refractory temper, or a pro- 
pensity to insubordination. 

Banishment and expulsion are likewise used in a 
figurative sense, although exile is not: in this sense, 
banishment marks a distant and entire removal; expul- 
sion a violent removal: we banish that which it is not 
prudent to retain; we expel that which is noxious. 
Hopes are banished from the mind when every prospect 
of success has disappeared; fears are banished when 
they are altogether groundless; 


If sweet content is banish’d from my soul, 
Life grows a burden and a weight of wo. 
GENTLEMAN. 


Envy, hatred, and every evil passion, should be ez 
pelled from the mind as disturbers of its peace: har- 
mony and good humour are best promoted by banish- 
ing from conversation all subjects of difference in re 
ligion and politicks; good morals require that every 
unseemly word should be expelled from conversation; 
‘In all the tottering imbecility of a new government, 
and with a parliament. totally unmanageable, his 
Majesty (King William III.) persevered. He perse- 
vered to expel the fears of his people by his fortitude; 
to steady their fickleness by his constancy.,—Burxg. 


PREVAILING, PREVALENT, RULING, 
OVERRULING, PREDOMINANT. 


Prevailing and prevalent both come from the Latin 
prevaleo to be strong above others; ruling, overruling, 
and predominant (from dominor to rule), signify ruling 
or bearing greater sway than others. 

Prevailing expresses the actual state or quality of a 
particular object: prevalent marks the quality of pre- 
vailing, as it affects objects in general. The same 
distinction exists between overruling and predomi- 
nant. A person has a prevailing sense of religion; 
‘The evils naturally consequent upon a prevailing 
temptation are intolerable.—Sovtu. Religious feel- 
ing is prevalent in a country or ina community. The 
prevailing idea at present is in favour of the legitimate 
rights of sovereigns: a contrary principle has been 
very prevalent for many years; ‘The conduct of a 
peculiar providence made the instruments of that great 
design prevalent and victorious, and all those moun 
tains of opposition to become plains.—Soutu. Pre- 
vailing and prevalent mark simply the existing state 
of superiority: ruling and predominant express this 
state, in relation to some other which it has superseded 
or reduced to a state of inferiority. An opinion ig 
said to be prevailing as respects the number of persons 
by whom it.is maintained: a principle is said to be 
ruling as respects the superiour influence which it has 
over the conduct of men more than any other ; 


Whate’er thou shalt ordain, thou ruling pow’r, 
Unknown and sudden be the dreadful hour. 
Rowe. 


¢ 

An argument is overruling that bears down every 
other, and Providence is said to be overruling when it 
determines things contrary to the natural course of 
events; ‘Nor can a man independently of the over 
ruling influence of God’s blessing and care, call him 
self one penny richer..—Souru. Particular disorders 
are prevalent at certain seasons of the year, when they 
affect the generality or persons: a particular taste or 
fashion is predominant which supersedes all other 
tastes or fashions. Excessive drinking is too prevatent 
a practice in England: virtue is certainly predominant 
over vice in this country, if it be in any country; 
‘The doctrine of not owning a foreigner to be a king 
was held and taught by the Pharisees, a predominané 
sect of the Jews.’—PriDEAUX. 


206 


TO OVERBALANCE, OUTWEIGH, 
PREPONDERATE. 


To overbalance is to throw the balance over on one 
side; to outweigh is to exceed in weight; to prepon- 
derate, from pre before, and pondus a weight, signifies 
also to exceed in weight. 

Although these terms approach so near to each other 
tn their original meaning, yey they have now a different 
application: in the proper sefise, a person overbalances 
himself who loses his balance and goes on one side; a 
heavy body outweighs one that is light, when. they are 
put into the same pair of scales. Overbalance .and 
outweigh are likewise used in the improper applica- 
tion; preponderate is never used otherwise: things are 
said to overbalance which are supposed to turn the 
scale to one side or the other; they are said to out- 
weigh when they are to be weighed against each other ; 
they are saia !o preponderate when one weighs every 
thing else down: the evils which arise from inno- 
vations in society commonly overbalance the good; 
‘Whatever any man may have written or done, his 
precepts or his valour will scarcely overbalance the 
unimportant uniformity which runs through his time.’ 
—Jounson. The will of a parent should outweigh 
every personal consideration in the mind of a child; 


If endless ages can outweigh an hour, 
Let not the laurel but the palm inspire.—Youne. 


Children can never be unmindful of their duty to their 
parents where the power of religion preponderates in 
the heart; ‘Looks which do not correspond with the 
heart cannot be assumed without labour, nor continued 
Without pain; the motive to relinquish them must, 
therefore, soon preponderate.’-HAWKESWORTH. 


TO OVERRULE, SUPERSEDE. 


To overrule is literally to get the superiority of rule; 
and to supersede is to get the upper or superiour seat; 
but the former is employed only as the act of persons 
or things personified; the latter is also applied to things 
as the agents: a man may be overruled in his do- 
mestick government, or he may be overruled in a 
publick assembly, or he may be overruled in the 
cabinet ; ‘ When fancy begins to be overruled by rea- 
son, and corrected by experience, the most artful tale 
raises but little curiosity.Jounson. Large works in 
general supersede the meccessity of smaller ones, by 
containing that which is superiour both in quantity and 
quality; or one person supersedes another in an office ; 
‘ Christoval received a commission empowering him to 
supersede Cortes.’ ROBERTSON. 


CHIEF, CHIEFTAIN, LEADER, HEAD. 

Chief and chieftain signify he who is chief ; leader, 
from to lead, and head, from the head, sufficiently 
designate their own signification. 

Chief respects precedency in civil matters; leader 
regards the direction of enterprises: chieftain is em- 
ployed for the superiour in military rank: and head for 
the superiour in general concerns. 

Among savages the chief of every tribe is a despotick 
prince within his own district. Factions and parties 
In a state, like savage tribes, must have their leaders, 
to whom they are blindly devoted, and by whom they 
are instigated to every desperate proceeding. Rob- 
bers have their chieftains, who plan and direct every 
thing, having an unlimited power over the band. 
The heads of families were, in the primitive ages, the 
chiefs, who in conjunction regulated the affairs of 
state. 

Chiefs havea permanent power, which may descend 
by inheritance to branches of the same families; 


No chef like thee, Menestheus, Greece could yield, 
To marshal armies in the dusty field.-—Popr. 


Leaders and chieftains have a deputed power with 
which they are invested, as the time and occasion 
require; ‘Their constant emulation in military re- 
nown dissolved not that inviolable friendship which 
the ancient Saxons professed to their chieftain and to 
each other.—Humer. ‘Savage alleged that he was 
then dependent upon the Lord Tyrconnel, who was 
an implicit follower »f the ministry; and, being en- 
joined by him, no: without menaces, to write in praise 
of his leader, he had not sufficient resolution to sacri- 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


fice the pleasure of affluence to that of integrity.—~ 
Jounson. Heads have a natural power springing out 
of the nature of their birth, rank, talezits, and situa- 
tion; it is not hereditary, but it may be successive, as 
the father is the head of his family, and may be suc- 
ceeded by his son; a head is also sometimes temporary 
and partial, as the head of a party; ‘As ®@ach ig 
more able to distinguish himself as the head of a party, 
he will less readily be made a follower or associate.’— 
JOHNSON. 

Chiefs ought to have superiority of birth combined 
with talents for ruling ; leaders and chieftains require 
a bold and enterprising spirit ; heads should have talenta 
for directing. 


CHIEF, PRINCIPAL, MAIN. 


Chief, in French chef, from the Latin caput the head, 
signifies belonging to. the uppermost part; principal, 
in French principal, Latin principalis, comes from 
princeps a chief or prince, signifying belonging to a 
prince; main, from the Latin magnus, signifies in a 
great degree. 

Chief respects order and rank; principal has regard 
to importance and respectability; mazn to degree or 
quantity. We speak of a chief clerk; a commander 
in chief: the chief person in a city: but the principal 
people in a city ; the principal circumstances in a nar 
rative, and the mazn object. 

The chief cities, as mentioned by geographers, are 
those which are classed in the first rank ; 


What is man, 
If his chief good and market of, his time 
Be but to sleep and feed? A beast, no more! 
SHAKSPEARE. 


The principal cities generally include those whick 
are the most considerable for wealth and population 
these, however, are not always technically compre- 
hended under the name of chief cities; ‘The right 
which one man has to the actions of another is gene- 
rally borrowed, or derived from one or both of these. 
two great originals, production or possession, which two 
are certainly the principal and most undoubted rights 
that take place in the world.,—Soutu. ‘The main end 
of man’s exertions is the acquirement of wealth ; ‘To 
the accidental or adventitious parts of Paradise Lost, 
some slight exceptions may be made; but the maiz 
fabrick is immoveably supported.’ —JoHNSsON. 


ESPECIALLY, PARTICULARLY, PRINCI- 
PALLY, CHIEFLY. 


Especially and particularly are exclusive or super 
lative in their import; they refer to one object out of 
many that is superiour to all: principally and chigfly 
are comparative in their import; they designate in 
general the superiority of some objects over others 
Especially is a term of stronger import than particu- 
larly, and principally expresses something less gene- 
ral than chiefly: we ought to have God before our 
eyes at all times, but especially in those moments 
when we present ourselves before him in prayer ; ‘ All 
love has something of blindness in it, but the love of 
money especially.—Soutu. The heat is very op- 
pressive in all countries under tne torrid zone, but 
particularly in the deserts of Arabia, where there is 
a want of shade and moisture; ‘ Particularly let a 
man dread every gross act of sin.—Sourn. It is pran- 
cipally among the higher and lower orders of society 
that we find vices of every description to be prevalent; 
‘Neither Pythagoras nor any of his disciples were, 
properly speaking, practitioners of physick, since they 
applied themselves principally to the theory..—Jamus 
Patriots who declaim so loudly against the measures 
of government do it chiefly (may I not say solely ? 
with a view to their own interest; ‘The reformers 
gained credit chiefly among persons in the lower and 
middle classes. ROBERTSON. 


TO GOVERN, RULE, REGULATE. 


Govern, in French gouverner, comes from the 
Latin guberno, Greek xuBeovdw, which Les aged sig 
nify to govern a ship, and are in all probability derived 


from the Hebrew 4) to prevail or be strong: ruse 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


es regulate signify to bring under a rule, or make 
ry Tule. 

‘he exercise of authority enters more or less into the 
signification of these terms; but vo govern implies the 
exercise likewise of judgement and knowledge. 

To rule implies rather the unqualified exercise of 
power, the making the will the rule; a king governs 
his people by means of wise laws and an upright ad- 
ministration: a despot vules over a nation according 
to his arbitrary decision; if he have no principle his 
rule becomes an oppressive tyranny: of Robespierre 
it has been said, that if he did not know how to govern, 
he aimed at least at ruling. 

‘These terms are applied either to persons or things: 
persons govern or rule others; or they govern, rule, or 
regulate things. 

In regard to persons, govern is always in a good 
sense, but rule is sometimes taken in a bad sense; it 
is naturally associated with an abuse of power: to 
govern is so perfectly discretionary, that we speak of 
governing ourselves; but we speak only of ruling 
others: nothing can be more lamentable than to be 
ruled by one who does not know how to govern him- 
self; 


Slaves to our passions we become, and then 
It becomes impossible to govern men.—W ALLER. 


it is the business of a man to rude his house by keeping 
all its members in due subjection to his authority; it is 
the duty of a person to rule those who are under him 
in all matters wherein they are incompetent to govern 
themselves ; 


Marg’ ret shall now be queen, and rule the king, 
But I will rude both her, the king, and realm. 
SHAKSPEARE, 


To govern, necessarily supposes the adoption of ju- 
dicious means; but ruling is confined to no means but 
such as will obtain the end of subjecting the will of 
one to that of another; a woman is said to rule by 
obeying; an artful and imperious woman will have 
recourse to various stratagems to elude the power to 
which she ought to submit, and render it subservient to 
her own purposes. 

In application to things, govern and rule admit of 
a similar distinction : a minister governs the state, and 
a pilot governs the vessel; the movements of the ma- 
chine are in both cases directed by the exercise of the 
judgement ; 

Whence can this very motion take its birth, 

Not sure from matter, from dull clods of earth ? 
But from a living spirit lodg’d within, 

Which governs all the bodily machine.—Jznyns. 


A person rules the times, seasons, fashions, and the 
like; it is an act of the individual will; 


When I behold a factious band agree, 

To call it freedom when themselves are free ; 

Each wanton judge new penal statutes draw; 
Laws grind the poor, and rich men rule the law; 
{ fly from petty tyrants to the throne.—Go.psmtIrTH. 


Regulate is a species of governing simply by judge- 
nent; the word is applicable to things of minor mo- 
ment, where the force of authority is not so requisite : 
one governs the affairs of a nation, or a large body 
where great interests are involved; we regulate the 
concerns of an individual, or we regulate in cases 
where good order or convenience only is consulted ; 
Regulate the patient in his manner of living. —Wr1sz- 
Man. So likewise in regard to ourselves, we govern 
our passions, but we regulate our affections. 

These terms are all properly used to denote the acts 
of conscious agents, but by a figure of personification 
they may be applied to inanimate or moral objects: the 
price of one market governs the price of another, or 
governs the seller in his demand; ‘The chief point 
which he is to carry always in his eye, and by which 
he is to govern all his counsels, designs, and actions.’ 
—ATTERBURY. Fashion and caprice rule the majority, 
or particular fashions rule ; 


Distracting thoughts by turns his bosom rul’ d, 
Now fir’d by wrath, and now by reason cool’d. 
Pore. 


One clock may regulate many others; ‘Though a 
sense of moral good and evil be deeply impressed on 


20 


the heart of man, it is not of sufficient power to regu- 
late his life.’—Buair. 


X 


eee 


GOVERNMENT, ADMINISTRATION. 


Both these terms may be employed either to desig 
nate the act of governing and administering, or the 
persons governing and administering. In both cases 
government has a more extensive meaning than admi- 
nistration ; the government includes every exercise of 
authority ; the administration implies only that exer- 
cise of authority, which consists in putting the laws 
or will of another in force: hence, when we speak of 
the government, as it respects the persons, it implies 
the whole body of constituted authorities; and the 
administratian, only that part which puts in execu- 
tion the intentions of the whole: the government of a 
country, therefore, may remain unaltered, while the 
administration undergoes many changes; ‘ Govern- 
ment is an art above the attainment of an ordinary 
genius.’—Soutu. It is the business of the government 
to make treaties of peace and war; and without a go- 
vernment it is impossible for any people to, negociate; 
‘What are we to doif the government and the whole 
community are of the same description ?’—Burxx. 
It is the business of the administration to administer 
justice, to regulate the finances, and to direct all the 
complicated concerns of a nation; withovt an admi- 
nistration all publick business would be at a stand; 
‘In treating of an invisible world, and the adminis- 
tration of government there carried on by the Father 
of spirits, particulars occur which appear incompre 
hensible.’-—Buair. 


GOVERNMENT, CONSTITUTION. 


Government is here as in the former articlé (v. Go 
vernment) the generick term ; constitution the specifick. 
Government implies generally the act of governing or 
exercising authority under any form whatever; con- 
stitution implies any constituted or fixed form of 
government ;: we may have a government without a 
constitution ; we cannot have a constitution withous 
a government, In the first formation of society go- 
vernment was placed in the hands of individuals who 
exercised authority according to discretion rather thar 
any fixed rule or law: here then was government 
without a constitution: as time and experience proved 
the necessity of some established form, and the wisdom 
of enlightened men discovered the advantages and 
disadvantages of different forms, government in every 
country assumed a more definite shape, and became 
the constitution of the country; hence then the union 
of government and constitution. Governments are 
divided by political writers into three classes, monar- 
chical, aristocratick, and republican: but these three 
general forms have been adopted with such variations 
and modifications as to render the constitution of every 
country something peculiar to itself; ‘Free govern- 
ments have committed more flagrant acts of tyranny 
than the most perfect despotick governments which we 
have ever known.’—Burxke. ‘The physician of the 
state who, not satisfied with the cure of distempers, 
undertakes to regenerate constitutions, ought to show 
uncommon powers.’—BuRKE. 

Political squabblers have always chosen to consider 
government in its limited sense as including only the 
supreme or executive authority, and the constitution 
as that which is set up by the authority of the people; 
but this is only a forced application of a general term 
to serve the purposes of party. Constitution, accord- 
ing to its real signification, does not convey the idea 
of the source of power any more than government ; 
the constitution may with as much propriety be formed 
or constituted by the monarch as government is exer 
cised by the monarch ; and of this we may be assured, 
that what is to be formed specifically by any person er 
persons so as to become constituted must be framed by 
something more authoritative than a rabble. The 
constitution may, as I have before observed, be the 
work of time, for most of the constitutions in Europe, 
whether republican or monarchical, are indebted to 
time and the natural course of events for their esta- 
blishment; but in our own country the case has been 
so far different that by the wisdom and humanity of 
those in government or power, a constitution has been 
expressly formed, which distinguishes the Englisk 


208 


nation from all others Hence the word constitution is 
applied by distinction to the English form of govern- 
ment; and since this constitution has happily secured 
the rights and liberties of the people by salutary laws, 
n vulgar errour has arisen that the constitution is the 
work of the people, and by a natural consequence it is 
maintained that the people, if they are not satisfied 
with their constitution, have the right of introducing 
changes; a dangerous errour which cannot be com- 
bated with too much steadfastness. It must be obvious 
to all who reflect on this subject that the constitutéon, 
as far as it is assignable to the efforts of any man or 
get of men, was never the work of the people; but 
of the government or those who held the supreme 
power. 

This view of the matter is calculated to lessen the 
jealousies of the people towards their government, and 
to abate that overweening complacency with which 
they are apt to look upon themselves, and their own 
imaginary work;~for it is impossible but that. they 
must regard with a more dispassionate eye the pos- 
sesosrs of power, when they see themselves indebted to 
those in power for the most admirable constitution 
ever framed. 

The constitution is in danger, is the watchword of 
a party who want to increase the power of the people; 
but every one who is acquainted with history, and re- 
members that before the constitution was fully formed 

- it wasthe people who overturned the government, will 
perceive that much more is to be apprehended by 
throwing any weight into the scale of the popular side 
of government, than by strengthening the hands of the 
executive government. The constitution of England 
has arrived at the acme of human perfection; it en- 
sures to every man as much as he can wish; it de- 
prives no man of what he can consistently with the 
publick peace expect; it has within itself adequate 
powers for correcting every evil and abuse as it may 
arise, and is fully competent to make such modifica- 
tions of its own powers as the circumstances may re- 
quire. Every good citizen therefore will be contented 
to leave the government of the country in the hands 
of those constituted authorities as they at present exist, 
fully assured that if they have not the wisdom and 
the power to meet every exigency, the evil will not be 
diminished by making the people our legislators. 


UNRULY, UNGOVERNABLE, REFRACTORY. 


Unruly marks the want of disposition to be ruled: 
ungovernable, an absolute incapacity to be governed: 
the former is a temporary or partial errour, the latter 
is an habitual defect in the temper: a volatile child 
will be occasionally unruly ; any child of strong pas- 
sions will become ungovernable by excessive irdul- 
gence: we say that our wills are unruly, and vur 
tempers are ungovernable ; ‘ How hardly is the restive 
unruly will of man first tamed and broke to’ duty.— 
SourTu. 


Heav’ns, how unlike their Belgic sires of old! 
Rough, poor, content, ungovernably bold. 
GoLDSMITH. 


The unruly respects that which is to be ruled or turned 
at the instant, and is applicable therefore to the ma- 
nagement of children: ungovernable respects that 
which is to be put into a reguiar course, and is appli- 
cabie therefore either to the management of children 
or the direction of those who are above the state of 
childhood; a child is unruly in his actions, and ungo- 
vernablein hisconduct. Refractory, which from the 
Latin refringo to break open, marks the disposition to 
break every thing down before it, is the excess of the 
unruly with regard to children: the unruly is however 
negative; but the refractory is positive: an unruly 
chi objects to be ruled ; a refractory child sets up a 
positive resistance to all rule: an unruly child may be 
altogether silent and passive ; a refractory child always 
commits himself by some actof intemperancein word 
pr deed: he is unruly if in any degree he gives trouble 
ine ruling ; he is refractory if he refuses altoge- 
ther to be ruled. This term refractory may also be 
applied to the brutes; ‘I conceive (replied Nicholas) 
J stand here before you, my most equitable judges, for 
no worse a crime than cudgelling my refractory mules. 
CuN BERLAND. ~ 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


TUMULTUOUS, TURBULEN1, SEDITIOUS, 
MUTINOUS. 


Tumuliuous describes the disposition to make a 
noise ; those who attend the play-houses, particularly 
the lower orders, are frequently tumultwous ; ‘ Many 
civil broils and twmultwous rebellions, they fairly over- 
came, by reason of the continual presence of their 
king, whose only presence oftentimes constrains the 
unruly people: from a thousand evil occasions.’— 
SPENSER (on Ireland). Turbulent marks a hostile 
spirit of resistance to authority ; when prisoners are 
dissatisfied they are frequently turbulent ; ‘ Men of 
ambitious and turbulent spirits, that were dissatisfied 
with privacy, were allowed to engage in matters of 
state.—BENTLEY. Seditious marks a spirit of resist- 
ance to government; during the French revolution the 
people were often disposed to be seditious ; ‘ Very 
many of the nobility in Edinburgh, at that time, did 
not appear yet in this seditious behaviour.’—CLaREN- 
pon.—Mutinous marks a spirit of resistance against 
officers either in the army or navy ; a general will not 
fail to quel! the first risings of a mutinous spirit; 


Lend me your guards, that if persuasion fail, 
Force may against the mutinous prevail. -WALLER 


Electioneering mobs are always tumultuous; the 
young and the ignorant are so-averse to control that 
they are easily led by the example of an individual to 
be turbulent ; among the Romans the people were in 
the habit of holding — seditious meetings, and some 
times the soldiery would be mutinous. 


TUMULTUOUS, TUMULTUARY 


Tumultuous signifies having tumult; twmultwary. 
disposed for tumult: the former is applied to object. 
in general; the latter to persons only: in tumultuous 
meetings the voice of reason is the last thing that is 
heard; 

But, O! beyond description happiest he 

Who ne’er must roll on lite’s twmuliwous sea. 

PRIOR. 


It is the natural tendency of large and promiscuous 
assemblies to become tumultuary; ‘With twmul- 
tuary, but irresistible violence, the Scotch insurgents 
fell upon the churches in that city (Perth).’—RosErt- 
SON. 


INSURRECTION, SEDITICN, REBELLION, 
REVOLT. 


Insurrection, from surgo to rise up, signifies rising 
up. gainst any power thatis; sedition, in Latin seditio 
compound:d of se and 2tzo, signifies a going apart,-that 
is, the people going apart from the government; 7cdel- 
lion, in Latin rebellio, from rebello, signifies turning 
upon or against in a hostile manner; revolt, in French 
revolter, 1s most probably compounded of re and volter, 
from volvo to roll, signifying to roll or turn back from, 
to turn against. 

The term insurrection is general; it is used in a 
good or bad sense, according to the nature of the 
power against which one rises up; sedition and re- 
bellion are more specifick ; they are always taken in the 
bad sense of unallowed opposition to lawful authority 
There may be an znsurrection against usurped power 
which is always justifiable ; but sedition and rebellion 
are levelled against power universally acknowledged 
to belegitimate. Insurrection is always open; itis a 
rising up of many in a mass; but it dues not imply 
any concerted, or any specifically active measure; a 
united spirit of opposition, as the moving cause, is all 
that is comprehended in the meaning of the term; 
‘ Elizabeth enjoyed a wonderful calm (excepting some 
short gusts of znsurrection at the beginning) for near 
upon forty-five years together..—Howx.u. Sedition is 
either secret or open, according to circumstances, in 
popular governments it willbe open and determined ; 
in monarchical governments it is secretly organized ; 
‘ When the Roman people began to bring in plebeians 
to the office of chiefest power and dignity, then began 
those seditions which so long distempered, and at 
length ruined, the state’—TrEmpLe. Rebellion is the 
consummation of sedition ; the scheme of opposition 
which has been digested in secrecy breaks out inte 
open hostilities, and becomes rebellion * 


wNGLISH 


ff that rebellion 
Came like itself, in base and abject routs, 
You reverend father, and these noble lords, 
Had not been here to dress the ugly forms 
Of- base and bloody insurrection. SHAKSPEARE. 


Che insurrection which was headgd by Wat Tyler, in 
she time of Richard If. was an unhappy instance of 
widely extended delusion among the common people ; 
the insurrection in Madrid, in the year 1808. against 
the infamous usurpation of Buonaparte, has led to the 
most important results that ever sprung from any com- 
motion. Rome was the grand theatre of seditions, 
which were set on foot by the Tribunes: England has 
been disgraced by one rebellion, which ended in the 
death of its king. 

Sedition is common to all forms of government, but 
flourishes most in republicks, since there it can scarcely 
be regarded as a political or moral offence: rebellion 
exists properly in none but monarchical states; in 
which the allegiance that men owe to their sovereign 
requires to be broken with the utmost violence, in order 
to be shaken off. Insurrections may be made by nations 
Bgainst a foreign dominion, or by subjects against their 
government: sedition and rebellion are carried on by 
pubjects only against their government: revolé is car- 
ried on only by nations against a foreign dominion ; 
_upon the death of Alexander the Great most of his 
conquered countries revolted from his successors; 
‘He was greatly strengthened, and the enemy as much 
enfeebled by daily revolis.’—RALEIGH. 

Revolt is also applied to moral objects in the same 
sense; ‘ Our self-love is ever ready to revolt from 
our better judgement, and join the enemy within.’— 
STEELE. 


FACTION, PARTY 


= These two words equally suppose the union of 
many persons, and their opposition to certain views 
different from their own. But faction, from factio 
making, denotes an activity and secret machination 
against those whose views are opposed; and party, 
frora the verb to part or split, expresses only a division 
of opinion. 

The term party has of itself nothing odious, that 
of faction is always so. Any man, without distinction 
of rank,may have a party either at court or in the 
army, 1n the city or inliterature, without being himself 
immediately implicated in raising it; but factions are 
always the result of active efforts; one may have a 
party for one’s merit from the number and ardour of 
one’s friends; but a faction is raised by busy and tur- 
bulent spirits for their own purposes. Rome was torn 
by the imtestine factions of Cesar and Pompey; 
France, from the commencement of the revolution to 
the period of Buonaparte’s usurpation, was succes- 
sively governed by some ruling faction which raised 
itself upon the ruins of that which it had destroyed. 
Factions are not so prevalent in England as parties, 
owing to the peculiar excellence of the constitution ; 
but there are not wanting factious spirits who, if they 
could overtumm the present balance of power which 
has been so happily obtained, would have an opportu- 
nity of practising their arts alternately on the high and 
low, and carrying on their schemes by the aid of both. 
Faction is the demon of discord, armed with the power 
to do endless mischief, and intent alone on destroying 
whatever opposes its progress. Wo to that state into 
which it has found an entrance; ‘It is the restless am- 
bition of a few artful men that thus breaks a people 
into factions, and draws several well-meaning persons 
to their interest by a specious concern for their coun- 
try.—Appison. Party spiritmay show itself in noisy 
debate; but while it keeps within the legitimate bounds 
of opposition, it is an evil that must be endured; ‘ As 
men formerly became eminent in learned societies by 
their parts and acquisitions, they now distinguish 
themselves by the warmth and violence with which 
they espouse their respective parties..—ADDISON. 


FACTIOUS, SEDITIOUS. 


Factious, in Latin factiosus from facto to do, sig- 
unifies the same as busy or intermeddling; ready to 


* Vide Beauzée: * Faction, parti.” 


SYNONYMES 


209 


take an active part in matters of one’s own immediate 
concern; seditious, in Latin seditiosus, signifies prone 
to sedition (v. Insurrection). 

Factious is an epithet to characterize the tempers of 
men; seditious characterizes their conduct: the fac 
tiows man attempts to raise himself into importance, 
he aims at authority, and seeks to interfere in the mea- 
sures of government; the seditious man attempts to 
excite others, and to provoke their resistance to esta- 
blished authority; the first wants to be alaw-giver ; 
the second does not hesitate to be a law-breaker: the 
first wants to direct the state; the second to overturn 
it: the factious man is mostly in possession of either 
power, rank, or fortune ; the seditious man is seldom 
elevated in station or circumstances above the mass 
of the people. The Roman tribunes were in general 
little better than factiows demagogues; such, in fact, 
as abound in all republicks: Wat Tyler was a sedi 
tious disturber of the peace. Factious is mostly ap- 
plied to individuals ; 

He is a traitor, let him to the Tower, 


And crop away that, factious pate of his. 
SHAKSPEARE 


Seditious is employed for bodies of men: hence we 
speak of a factious nobleman, a seditious multitude ; 
‘France is considered (by the ministry) as merely a 
foreign power, and the seditious English only as a 
domestick faction.’.—BurKE. 


OBSTINATE, CONTUMACIOUS, STUBBORN, 
HEADSTRONG, HEADY 


Obstinate, in Latin obstinatus, participle of obstino, 
from ob and stino, sto or sisto, signifies standing in the 
way of another; contumacious, prone to contumacy 
(v. Contumacy) ; stubborn, or stoutborn, stiff or im- 
moveable by nature; headstrong, strong in the head or 
the mind; and heady, full of one’s own head. 

Obstinacy is a habit of the mind; contumacy is 
either a particular state of feeling or a mode of action: 
ebstinacy consists in an attachment to one’s own mode 
of acting ; contumacy consists in a swelling contempt 
of others: the obstinate man adheres tenaciously te 
his own ways, and opposes reason to reason: the con- 
tumacious man disputes the right of another to contre 
his actions, and opposes force to force. Obstinacy 
interferes with a man’s private conduct, and makes 
him blind to right reason; contwmacy is a crime against 
lawful authority ; the contumacious man sets himself 
against his superiours: when young people are obsti- 
nate they are bad subjects of educaiiun ; 


But man we find the only creature 
Who, led by folly, combats nature; 
Who, when she loudly cries, forbear 
With obstinacy fixes there.—Swirv. 


When people are contwmacious they are troublesome 
subjects to the king; ‘When an offender is cited tc 
appear in any ecclesiastical court, and he neglects to de 
it, he is pronounced contumacious.’--BEVERIDGE. 

The stubborn and the headstrong are species of the 
obstinate: the former lies altogether in the perversion 
of the will; the latter in the perversion of the judge- 
ment: the stubborn person wills what he wills; the 
headstrong person thinks what he thinks. Studborn- 
ness is mostly inherent in the nature: a headstrong 
temper is commonly associated with violence and im- 
petuosity of character. Obstinacy discovers itself in 
persons of all ages and stations; a stubborn and head- 
strong disposition betray themselves mostly in those 
who are bound to conform to the will of another. . 

The obstinate keep the opinions which they have 
once embraced in spite of all proof; but they are not 
hasty in forming their opinions, nor adopt them with- 
out a choice: the headstrong seize the first opinion 
that offer, and act upon them in spite of all remon 
strance; 


We, blindly by our headstrong passions led, 
Are hot for action —DRrypDEN. 
The stubborn follow the ruling will or ffent of th 


mind, without regard to any opinions: they are not tc 
be turned by force or persuasion ; 


From whence he brought them to these salvage parts 
And with science mollified their stubborn hearts. 
SPuNSER. 


210 


If an obstinate child be treated with some degree of 
indulgence, there may be hopes of correcting his fail- 
ng; but a stubborn and a headstrong child are trou- 
blesome subjects of education, who will baffle the ut- 
most skill and patience: the former is insensible to all 
reason ; the latter has blinded the little reason which 
he possesses: the former is unconscious of every thing, 
but the simple will and determination to do what he 
does; the latter is so preoccupied with his own favour- 
ite ideas as to set every other at nought: force serves 
mostly to confirm both in their perverse resolution of 
persistance. Heady is applied as an epithet to the 
thing rather than the person ; ‘ Heady confidence pro- 
mises victory without contest.’—JoHNSON. 


CONTUMACY, REBELLION. 


Contumacy, from the Latin contumaz, compounded 
of contra and tumeo to swell, signifies the swelling 
one’s self by way of resistance; rebellion, in Latin 
rebellio, from rebello, or re and bello to war in return, 
signifies carrying on war against those to whom we 
awe, and have before paid, a lawful subjection. 

Resistance to lawful authority is the common idea 
included in the signification of both these terms, but 
contumacy does not express so much as rebellion: the 
contumacious resist only occasionally; the rebel resists 
systematically: the contwmacious stand only on certain 
points, and oppose the individual; the rebel sets him- 
self up against the authority itself: the contumacious 
thwart and contradict, they never resort to open vio- 
lence ; the redel acts only by main force: contuwmacy 
shelters itself under the plea of equity and justice; 
The censor told the criminal that he spoke in con- 
tempt of the court, and that he should be proceeded 
against for contumacy.’—Appison. Rebellion sets all 
law and order at defiance; ‘The mother of Waller 
was the daughter of John Hampden of Hampden, in 
the same county, and sister te Hampden the zealot of 
rebellion. —JOHNSON. 


DISAFFECTION, DISLOYALTY. 

Disaffection is general; disloyalty is particular, 
being a speciesof disaffection. Men are disaftected 
so the government; disloyal to their prince. 

Disaffection may be said with regard to any form 
of government; disloyalty only with regard to a mo- 
narchy. Although both terms are commonly employed 
in a bad sense, yet the former does not always convey 
the unfavourable meaning which is attached to the 
latter. A man may have reasons to think himself 
ustified in disaffection ; but he will never attempt to 
offer any thing in justification of disloyalty. A usurped 
government will have many disaffected subjects with 
whom it must deal leniently; 


Yet, I protest, it is no salt desire 
Of seeing countries shifting for a religion ! 
Nor any disaffection to the state 
Where [ was bred, and unto which I owe 
My dearest plots, hath brought me out. 
Bren JONSON. 


The best king may have disloyal subjects, upon whom 
he must exercise the rigour of the law; ‘ Milton being 
cleared from the effects of his disloyalty, had nothing 
required from him but the common duty of living 
in quiet.—_Jounson. Many were disaffected to the 
usurpation of Oliver Cromwell, because they would 
vot be disloyal to their king. 


GUIDE, RULE. 


Guide, signifies either the person that guides, or the 
thing that guides ; rule is only the thing that rules or 
regulates ; guide istorule as the genus to the species ; 
every rule is a guide to a certain extent; but the guide 
is often that which exceeds the rule. The guide, in 
the moral sense, as in the proper sense, goes with us, 
and points out the exact path; it does not permit us to 
err either to the right or left: the rule marks out a 
ine, beyond which we may not go; butit leaves us to 
trace the line, aed consequently to fail either on the 
one side or other. 

The Bible is our best guide for moral practice; 
‘ You must first apply to religion as the guide of life, 
before you can have recourse to * as the refuge of 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES 


sorrow. —Brair. Its doctrines as interpreted ir tne 
articles of the established thurch are the best rule of 
faith for every Christian ; ‘ There is something so wild 
and yet so solemn, in Shakspeare’s speeches of his 
ghosts and fairies, and the like imaginary persons, that 
we cannot forbear thinking them natural, though we 
have no rule by wWich to judge them.’—Appison. 


AXIOM, MAXIM, AFHORISM, APOPHTHEGM, 
SAYING, ADAGE, PROVERB, BY-WORD 
SAW. 


Axiom, in French aziome, Latin axioma, comes 
from the Greek dZiow to think worthy, signifying the 
thing valued; mazim, in French mazxime, in. Latin 
maximus the greatest, signifies that which is most im- 
portant; aphorism, from the Greek ddopiopds a short 
sentence, and adopitw to distinguish, signifies that 
which is set apart; apophthegm, in Greek aré¢Oeypa, 
from dropOéyyouat to speak pointedly, signifies a 
pointed saying ; saying signifies literally what is said, 
that is, said habitually ; adage, in Latin adagium, pro- 
bably compounded of ad and ago, signifies that which 
is fit to be acted upon; proverb, in French proverbe, 
Latin proverbium, compounded of pro and verbum, 
signifies that expression which stands for something 
particular; by-word signifies a word by the by, or by 
the way, in the course of conversation; saw is but a 
variation of say, put for saying. 

A given sentiment conveyed in a specifick sentence, 
or form of expression, is the common idea included 
in the signification of these terms. The axiom is a 
truth of the first value; a self-evident proposition 
which is the basis of other truths. A mazim is a 
truth of the first moral importance for all practical] 
purposes. An aphorism is a truth set apart for its 
pointedness and excellence. Apophthegm is, in re- 
spect to the ancients, what saying is in regard to the 
moderns; it is a pointea sentiment pronounced by an 
individual, and adopted hy others. Adage and proverb 
are vulgar sayings, the former among the ancients, the 
latter among the moderns. A by-word is a casual 
saying, originating in some local circumstance. The 
saw, which is a barbarous corruption of saying, is a 
saying formerly current among the ignorant. 

Axioms are in science what maxims are in morals, 
self-evidence is anessential characteristick in both; the 
axiom presents itself in so simple and urdeniable a 
form to the understanding as to exclude doubt, and 
the necessity for reasoning. The mazim, though not 
so definite in its expression as the aztom, is at the 
same time equally parallel to the mind of man, and of 
such general application, that it is acknowledged by 
all moral agents who are susceptible of moral truth; 
it comes home to the common sense of all mankind. 
*“ Things that are equal to one and the same thing 
are equal to each other,”—‘t Two bodies cannot oc 
cupy the same space at the same time,’’ are axioms 
in mathematicks and metaphysicks. ‘ Virtue is the 
true source of happiness,’’—'' The happiness of man 
is the end of civil government,” are axioms in ethicks 
and politicks. ‘To err is human, to forgive divine,”’— 
‘“‘When our vices leave us, we flatter ourselves that 
we leave them,” are among the number of mazims. 
Between axioms and maxims there is this obvious 
difference to be observed; that the aziom is unchange- 
able both in matter and manner, and admits of little 
or no increase in number; the mazim may vary with 
the circumstances of human life, and admit of con- 
siderable extension; ‘Those authors are to be read at 
schools, that supply most axioms of prudence, most 
principles of moral truth.—JoHnson. ‘It was my 
grandfather’s maxim, that a young man seldom makes 
much money, who is out of his time before two and 
twenty.’ —JOHNSON. 

Aphorism is a speculative principle, either in science 
or morals, which is presented in a few words to the 
understanding: it is the substance-of a doctrine, and 
many aphorisms may contain the abstract of a science. 
Of this description are the aphorisms of Hippocrates, 
and those of Lavater in physiognomy; ‘As this one 
aphorism, Jesus Christ is the Son of God, is virtually 
and eminently the whole Gospel; so to confess or deny 


* Vide Roubaud: ‘ Axiome, maxime, apophthégme 
aphorisme.” : 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 212 


ft is virtually to embrace or reject the whole round and 
Series of Gospel truths..—Soura. 

Sayings and apophthegms differ from the preceding, 
in as much as they always carry the mind back to the 
person speaking; there is always one who says when 
there is a'saying or an apophthegm, and both acquire 
a value as much from the person who utters them, as 
from the thing that is uttered: when Leonidas was 
asked why brave men prefer honour to life, his answer 
became an apophthegm; namely, that they hold life 
by fortune, and honour by virtue; ‘It is remarkable 
that so near his time so much should be known of 
what Pope has written, and so little of what he has 
said. One apophthegm only stands upon record. 
When an objection raised against his inscription 
for Shakspeare was defended by the authority of Pa- 
trick, he replied, that he would allow the publisher of a 
dictionary to know the meaning of a single word, but 
not of two words together.—Jonnson. Of this de- 
scription also are the apophthegms comprised by Plu- 
tarch; so likewise in modern times, the sayings of 
Franklin’s Old Richard, or those of Dr. Johnson: these 
are happy effusions of the mind which men are fond of 
treasuring ; ‘he little and short sayings of wise and 
excellent men are of great value, like the dust of gold, 
or the least sparks of diamonds.’—TiLLoTson. 

The adage and proverb are habitual, as well as ge- 
neral sayings, not repeated as the sayings of one, but 
of all; not adopted for the sake of the person, but for 
the sake of the thing; and they have been used in all 
ages for the purpose of conveying the sense of man- 
kind on ordinary subjects. The adage of former times 
is the proverb of the present times; if there be any 
difference between them, it lies in this, that the former 
are the fruit of knowledge and long experience, the 
latter of vulgar observations; the adage is therefore 
more refined than the proverb. Adversity is our best 
teacher, according to the Greek adage, ‘‘ What hurts 
us instructs us,””—* Old birds are not to be caught with 
chafi,” is a vulgar proverb ; ‘Itis in praise and com- 
mendation of men, as it is in gettings and gains; the 
proverb is true that light gains make heavy purses: for 
light gains come thick, whereas great come now and 
then.’—Bacon. 


Qvoth Hudibras, thou offer’st much, 

But art not able to keep touch, 

Mira de lente; as ’tis I, the adage, 

Id est, to make a leek a cabbage.—BuTLeErR. 


By-words rarely contain any important sentiment; 
they mostly consist of familiar similes, nick-names, 
and the like, as the Cambridge by-word of Hobson’s 
choice, signifying that or none: the name of Naza- 
rene was a by-word among the Jews, for a Christian ; 
I knew a pretty young girl in a country village, who, 
averfond of her own praise, became a property toa 
poor rogue in the parish, who was ignorant of all 
things but fawning.-Thus Isaac extols her out of a 
quartern of cut and dry every day she lives, and 
though the young woman is really handsome, she and 
her beauty are become a by-word, and all the country 
round, she is called nothing but Isaac’s best Virginia.’ 
-—-ARBUTHNOT. A saw is vulgar in form, and vulgar 
in matter: it is the partial saying of particular neigh- 
bourhoods, originating in ignorance and superstition: 
of this description are the sayings which attribute par- 
ticular properties:to animals or to plants, termed old 
women’s saws; ‘If we meet this dreadful and por- 
tentous energy with poor commonplace proceedings, 
with trivial mazims, paltry old saws, with doubts, 
fears, and suspicions; down we go to the bottom of 
the abyss, and nothing short of omnipotence can save 
us. —BuRKE. 


MAXIM, PRECEPT, RULE, LAW. 


Mazim (v. Axiom), is a moral truth that carries its 
own weight with itself; precept (v. Command), rule 
(v. Guide), and law, from lex and lego, signifying the 
thing specially chosen or marked out, all borrow their 
weight from some external circumstance: the precept 
derives its authority from the individual delivering it; 
n this manner the precepts of our Saviour have a 
weight which gives them a decided superiority over 
every thing else: the rule acquires a worth from its 
fitness for guiding us in our proceeding: the lav, 
which is @ species of rule, derives its weight from the 

14* 


sanction of power. Maxims are often precepts ina 
much as they are communicated to us by our parents. 
they are rules inasmuch as they serve as a rule for 
our conduct; they are laws inasmuch as they have 
the sanction of conscience. We respect the maxims 
of antiquity as containing the essence of human wis 
dom; ‘1 think I may lay it down as a maaim, the 
every man of good common sense may, if he pleases 
most certainly be rich..—Bupe@rLt. We reverence the 
precepts of religion as the foundation of all happiness ; 
‘Philosophy has accumulated precept upon precept 
to warn us against the anticipation of future calami- 
ties..—Jounson. We regard the rules of prudence as 
preserving us from errours and misfortunes; ‘I know 
not whether any rule has yet been fixed by which it 
may. be decided when poetry can properly be called 
easy.’—Joanson. We respect the Jaws as they are the 
basis of civil society ; : 

God is thy law, thou mine.—-MiLTon. 


LAWFUL, LEGAL, LEGITIMATE, LICIT 


Lawful, from law, and the F:ence loi, comes from 
the Latin lez, in the same manner as legal or legiti- 
mate, all signifying in the proper sense belonging to 
law. They differ therefore according to the sense of 
the word law ; lawful respects the law in general, 
defined or undefined; legal respects only civil law, 
which is defined; and legitimate respects the laws or 
rules of science as well as civil matters in general. 
Licit, from the Latin licet to be allowed, is used only 
to characterize the moral quality of actions: the 
lawful property implies conformable to or enjoined by 
law ; the lexal what is in the form or after the manner 
of law, or binding by law: it is not lawful to coin 
money with the king’s stamp; a marriage is not legal 
in England which is not solemnized according to the 
rites of the established church: men’s passions impel 
them to do many things which are unlawful or illicit ; 
their ignorance leads them into many things which are 
illegal or illegitimate. As a good citizen and a true 
Christian, every man will be anxious to avoid every 
thing which is unlawful: it is the business of the 
lawyer to define what is legal or illegal: it is the 
business of the critick to define what is legitimate verse 
in poetry; it is the business of the linguist to define 
the legitimate use of words; it is the business of the 
moralist to point out what is /ictt or illicit. As usurpers 
have no lawful authority, no one is under any obliga- 
tion to obey them; ‘ According to this spiritual doctor 
of politicks, if his Majesty does not owe his crown to 
the choice of his people, he is no lawful king”—Burxe 
When a claim to property cannot be made out accord- 
ing to the established lows of the country it is not 
legal; ‘Swift's mental powers declined till (1741) it 
was found necessary that legal guardians should be 
appointed to his person and fortune.’—Jounson. The 
cause of legitimate sovereigns is at length brought to 
a happy issue; it is to be hoped that men will never 
be so unwise as ever to revive the question; ‘ Upon 
the whole I have sent this my offspring into the world 
in as decent a dress as I was able; a legitimate one, I 
am sure it is”.—Moorr. The first inclination to an 
allieit indulgence should be carefully suppressed; 
‘The King of Prussia charged some of the officers, 
his prisoners, with maintaining an illicit correspond 
ence.’—SMOLLETT. 


_—_— 


JUDGE, UMPIRE, ARBITER, ARBITRATOR. 


_ Judge, in Latin judico and judez, from jus right, 
signifies one pronouncing the law or determining right; 
umpire is most probably a corruption from empire, sig 
nifying one who has authority; arditer and arbitrator, 
from arbitror to think or determine, signifying one who 
decides. 

Judge is the generick term, the others are specifick 
terms. The judge determines in all matters disputed 
or undisputed ; he pronounces,what is laz now as well 
as what will be law for the future; the umpire and 
arbiter are only judges in particular cases that admit 
of dispute: there may be judges in literature, in arts, 
and civil matters; 


Palemon shall be judge how ill you rhyme. 
Drypan, 


Umpires and arbiters are only judges in civil or pri 


212 


gate matters. The judge pronounces, in matters of 
dispute, according to a written law ora prescribed rule ; 
‘Tam not out of the reach of people who oblige me to 
act as their judge or their arbitrator..—MELMoTH 
(Letters of Pliny). The wmpire decides in all matters 
of contest; and the arbiter or arbitrator in all matters 
of litigation, according to his own judgement. The 
judge acts under the appointment of government; the 
umpire and arbitrator are appointed by individuals: 


the former is chosen for his skill; he adjudges the | 


palm to the victor according to the merits of the case: 
the latter is chosen for his impartiality ; he consults the 
interests of both by equalizing their claims. 

The office of an English judge is one of the most 
honourable in the state; he is the voice of the legislator, 
and the organ for dispensing justice; he holds the ba- 
lance between the king and the subject: the characters 
of those who have filled this office have been every way 
fitted to raise it in the estimation of all the world. An 
umpire has no particular moral duty to discharge, ner 
important office; but he is of use in deciding the con- 
tested merits of individuals; among the Romans and 
Greeks, the umpire at their games was held in high 
estimation; but the term may be used in poetry ina 
higher sense ; 


To pray’r, repentance, and obedience due, 
Mine ear shall not be slow, mine eye not shut, 
And I will place within them as a guide, 

My umpire conscience.—MILToNn. 


The office of an arbiter, although not so elevated as 
that of a judge in its literal sense, has often the im- 
portant duty of a Christian peace-maker ; and as the 
determinations of an arbiter are controlled by no ex- 
ternal circumstances, the term is applied to monarchs, 
and even to the Creator as the sovereign Arbiter of the 
world; 


You once have known me 
'T wixt warring monarchs and contending states, 
The glorious arbiter.—LEwls. 


JUSTICE, EQUITY. 


* Justice, from.jus right, is founded on the laws of 
society : equity, from equitas fairness, rightness, and 
equality, is founded on the laws of nature. 

Justice is a written or prescribed law, to which one 
is bound to conform and make it the rule of one’s de- 
cisions: equity is a law in our hearts; it conforms to 
no rule but to circumstances, and decides by the con- 
sciousness of right and wrong. The proper object of 
justice is to secure property ; the proper object of equity 
is to secure the rights of humanity. Justice is ex- 
clusive, it assigns to every one his own: it preserves the 
subsisting inequality between men: eguzty is communi- 
cative; it seeks to equalize the condition of men by a 
fair distribution. 

Justice forbids us doing wrong to any one; and re- 
quires us to repair the wrongs we have done to others: 
equity forbids us doing to others what we would not 
have them do to us; it requires us to do to others what 
in similar circumstances we would expect from them. 

The obligations to justzce are imperative: the obser- 
vance of its laws is enforced by the civil power, and 
the breachof them is exposed to punishment: the obli- 
gations to equity are altogether moral; we are impelled 
to it by the dictates of conscience; we cannot violate 
it Without exposing ourselves to the Divine displeasure. 
Justice is inflexible, it follows one invariable rule, 
which can seldom be deviated from consistently with 
the general good; equity, on the other hand, varies with 
the circumstances of the case, and is guided by discre- 
tion; justice may, therefore, sometimes run counter to, 
equity, when. the interests of the individual must be 
sacrificed to those of the community ; and equity some- 
times tempers the rigour of justice, by admitting of rea- 
sonable deviations from the literal interpretations of its 
laws; ‘ We see in contracts, and other dealings, which 
daily pass between man and man, that, to the utter un- 
doing of some, many things by strictness of law may 
be done, which equity and honest meaning forbiddcth. 
Not that the law is unjust, but imperfect, nor equity 
against but above law; binding men’s consciences in 
things which law cannot reach unte.,—Hooker, The 


® Vide Roubaud: ‘Justice equité.’ 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


tranquillity of society, and the security of the indivi 
dual, are ensured by justice; the harmony and good 
will of one man towards another are cherished by 
equity : when justice requires any sacrifices which are 
not absolutely necessary for the preservation of this 
tranquillity and security, itisa useless breachof equity : 
on the other hand, when a regard to equity leads to the 
direct violation of any law, it ceases to be either equity 
or justice. The rights of property are alike to be pre- 
served by both justice and equity: but the former re 
spects only those general and fundamental principles 
which are universally admitted in the social compact, 
and comprehended under the laws; the latter respi cte 
those particular principles which belong to the case of 
individuals: justice is, therefore, properly a virtue be 
longing only to a large and organized society: equity 
must exist wherever two individuals come in connexion 
with each other. When a father disinherits his son, 
he does not violate justice, although he does not act 
consistently with equity ; the disposal-of his property 
is a right which is guaranteed to him by the established 
laws of civil society ; but the claims which a child has 
by nature over the property of his parent become the 
claims of equity, which the latter is not at liberty to set 
at nought without the most substantial reasons. On 
the other hand, when Cyrus adjudged the coat to each 
boy as it fitted him, without regard to the will of the 
younger from whom the large coat had been taken, it 
is evident that he committed an act of injustice, without 
performing an act of equity; since all violence is posi 
tively unjust, and what is positively unjust, can never 
be equitable: whence it is clear that justice, which 
respects the absolute and unalienable rights of man 
kind, can at no time be superseded by what issupposed 
to be equity; although equity may be conveniently 
made to interpose where the laws of justice are either 
too severe or altogether silent. On this ground, sup- 
posing I have received an injury, justice demands re- 
paration; it listens to no palliation, excuse, or excep 
tion: but supposing the reparation which I have a 
right to demand involves the ruin of him who is more 
unfortunate than guilty, can I in equity imsist on the 
demand? Justice is that which publick law requires 
equity is that which private law or the law of every 
man’s conscience requires; ‘They who supplicate for 
mercy from others, can never hope for justice throu, 
themselves.’—BuRKE. 


Ev’ry rule of equity demands 
That vice and virtue from the Almighty’s hands 
Should due rewards and punishments receive. 
JENYNS 


———os 


INJUSTICE, INJURY, WRONG. 


Injustice, signifying the abstract quality of unjus., 
injury, from injuria, or in privative, and jus right, sig 
nifying any act that is contrary to right; and wrong, 
signifying the thing that is wrong, are all opposed to 4e 
right; but the injustice lies in the principle, the znsury 
in the action that zrjures. ‘There may, therefore, be 
injustice Where there is no specifick injury ; and, on the 
other hand, there may be injury where there is no in- 
justice. When we think worse of a person than we 
ought to think, we do him an act of injustice; but we 
do not, in the strict sense of the word, do him an in- 
jury: on the other hand, if we say any thing to the 
discredit of ancther, it will be an znjury to his reputa- 
tion if it be believed; but it may not be an znjustsce, if 
it be strictly conformable to truth, and that which one 
is compelled to say. ’ 

The violation of justice, or a breach of the rule of 
right, constitutes the injustice; but the quantum of il 
which falls on the person constitutes the injury. Some- 
times a person is dispossessed of his property by fraud 
or violence, this is an act of injustice ; but it is not an 
injury, if, in consequence of this act, he obtains friends 
who make it good to him beyond what he has lost: on 
the other hand, a person suffers very much through the 
inadvertence of another, which to him is a serious in 
jury, although the offender has not been guilty of in- 
justice; ‘A lie is properly a species of injustice, and a 
violation of the right of that person to whom the false 
speech is directed.’.—Souru. 


Law snits I’d shun with as much studious care, 
As I would dens where hungry lions are: 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


- And rather put up injuries than be 
A plague to him who'd be a plague to me. 
PoMFRET. 


A wrong partakes both of injustice and injury ; 
is in fact an injury done by one person to another, in 
express violation of justice. The man who seduces a 
woman from the path of virtue does her the greatest of 
all wrengs. One repents of injustice, repairs injuries 
and redresses wrongs ; 

The humble man when he receives a wrong, 
Refers revenge to whom it doth belong.— WaLLER. 


PRINCIPLE, MOTIVE. 


The principle (v. Doctrine) may sometimes be the 
motive; but often there is a principle where there is no 
motive, and there is a motive where there is no prin- 
ciple. The principle lies in conscious and unconscious 
agents; the motive only in conscious agents: all nature 
is guided by certain principles ; its movements go for- 
ward by certain principles; man 1s put into action by 
certain motives; the principle is the prime moning 
cause of every thing that is set in motion; the motive 
is the prime moving cause that sets the human machine 
into action. The principle in its restricted sense comes 
still nearer to the motive, when it refers to the opinions 
which we form; the principle in this case is that idea 
which we form of things, so as to regulate our conduct ; 
‘The best legislators have been satisfied with the es- 
tablishment of some sure, solid, and ruling principle in 
government.’—BurkE. The motive is that idea which 
simply impels to action; ‘The danger of betraying our 
weakness to our servants, and the impossibility of con- 
cealing it from them, may be justly considered as one 
motive to a regular life.—Jounson. ‘The former is 
therefore something permanent, and grounded upon the 
exercise of our reasoning powers; the latter is mo- 
mentary, and arises simply from our capacity of think- 
ing: bad principles-lead a man into a bad course of life; 
‘ad motives lead him to the commission of actions bad 
»r good. 


DIRECTION, ORDER. 


Direction (v. To direct) contains most of instruction 
in it: order (v. To command) most of authority. D7- 
rections should be followed; orders obeyed. It is ne- 
cessary to direct those who are unable to act for them- 
selves: it is necessary to order those whose business it 
is to execute the orders. To servants and children the 
directions must be clear, simple, and precise ; 


Then meet me forthwith at the notary’s, 
Give him direction for this merry bond. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


To tradespeople the orders may be particular or gene- 
ral; ‘T'o execute laws is a royal office: to execute 
orders is not to bea king.’—Burkx. 

Directions extend to the moral conduct of others, as 
well as the ordinary concerns of life; ‘A general 
direction for scholastick disputers is never to dispute 
upon mere trifles’—Watrs. Orders are confined to 
the personal convenience of the individual; 


Give order to my servants, that they take 
No note of our being absent.—_SHAKSPEARE. 


A parent directs a child as to his behaviour in com- 
pany, or as to his conduct when he enters life; a 
teacher directs his pupil in the choice of books, or in 
the distribution of his studies: the master gives orders 
to his attendants to be in waiting for him at a certain 
hour; or he gives orders to his tradesmen to provide 
what is necessary 


DIRECTION, ADDRESS, SUPERSCRIPTION. 


Direction marks that which directs; address is that 
which addresses: superscription, from super and 
peas signifies that which is written over something 
else. 

Although these terms may be used promiscuously for 
each other, yet they have a peculiarity of signification 
by which their proper use is defined : the direction may 
serve to direct tu places as well as to persons: the 
address is never used but in direct. application to the 
person ; the superscription has more respect to the thing 
yan the person. The direction may he written or 


218 


verbal; the address in this sense is always written ; the 
superscription must not only be written, but either on 
or over some other thing» a direction is given to such 


it | a8 goin search of persons and places, it ought to be 


clear and particular; ‘There could not be a greater 
chance than that which brought to light the powder 
treason, when Providence, as it were, snatched a king 
and a kingdom out of the very jaws of death only by 
the mistake of a word in the dzrection of a letter.’— 
Sourn. An address is put either on a card, and a 
letter, or ina book; it ought to be suitable to the station 
and situation of the person addressed; ‘We think you 
may be able to point out to him the evil of succeeding ; 
if it be solicitation, you will tell him where to aadress 
it’—Lorp CHESTERFIELD. A superscription is placed 
at the head of other writings, or over tombs and pillars, 
it ought tobe appropriate; ‘ Deceit and hypocrisy carry 
in them more of the express image and superscription 
of the devil than any bodily sins whatsoever.’—SouTH 


* 


INSIGHT, INSPECTION. 


The insight is what we receive; the inspection 18 
what we give: one gets a view into a thing by the 
insight; one takes a view over a thing by an inspection. 
The insight serves to increase our own knowledge; the 
inspection enables us to instruct others. An inquisitive 
traveller tries to get an insight into the manners, cus- 
toms, laws, and government of the countries which he 
visits ; ‘Angels both good and bad have a full instght 
into the activity and force of natural causes.’—Sourag. 
By inspection a master discovers the errours which 
are committed by his scholars, and sets them right; 
‘Something no doubt is designed; but what that is, I 
will not presume to determine from an inspection of 
men’s hearts.’"—Souru. 


——_ 


INSPECTION, SUPERINTENDENCY, OVER 
SIGHT. 


The office of looking into the conduct of others 1s 
expressed by all these terms; but the former compre 
hends little more than the preservation of good order , 
the two latter include the arrangement of the whole. 

The monitor of a schoo! has the inspection of the 
conduct of his schoolfellows, but the master has the 
superintendence of the school. The officers of an army 
inspect the men, to see that they observe all the rules 
that have been laid down to them; ‘This author pro- 
poses that there should be examiners appointed to 
mspect the genius of every particular boy.—Bupe@rLu. 
A general or superiour officer has the superintendence 
of any military operation ; ‘ When female minds are im- 
bittered by age or solitude, their malignity is generally 
exerted by a spiteful superintendence of trifles..—_Joun 
son. Fidelity is peculiarly wanted in an inspector, 
judgement and experience in a superintendent. Inspec: 
tion is said of things as well as persons; oversight only 
of persons: one has the inspection of books in order to 
ascertain their accuracy: one has the oversight of per- 
sons to prevent irregularity: there are znspector's of the 
customs, and overseers of the poor. 


TO INSTITUTE, ESTABLISH, FOUND, ERECT. 


Institute, in Latin institutus, participle of instituo, 
from in and statuo to place or appoint, signifies to 
dispose or fix a specifick end; establish (v. To fix); 
found (v To found) ; erect (v. To build). 

To institute is to form according to a certain plan: 
to establish is to fix in a certain position what has been 
formed; to found is to lay the foundation; to erect is 
to make erect. Laws, communities, and particular 
orders, are znstituted. schools, colleges, and various 
societies, are established ; inthe former case something 
new is supposed to be framed; in the latter case it is 
supposed only to have acertain situation assigned to it. 
The order of the Jesuits was instituted by Ignatius de 
Loyola: schools were estailished by Alfred the Great 
in various parts of his dominions. The act of insti- 
tuting comprehends design and method ; that of estab- 
lishing includes the idea of authority. The inquisition 
was instituted in the time of Ferdinand; the Church 
of England is established by authority. 'To institute ig 
always the immediate act of some agent; to establish 
is sometimes the effect of circumstances. Men ci puh 


214 


lick spirit institute that which is for the publick good ; 
&@ communication or trade between certain places 
becomes established in course of time Aninstitution 
is properly of a publick nature, but esiablishments are 
as often private: there are charitable and literary in- 
stitutions, but domestick establishments ; *'The leap 
years were fixed to their due times according to Julius 
Cesar’s institution. —PripEaux. ‘The French have 
outdone us in these particulars by the establishment of 
a society for the invention of proper inscriptions (for 
their medals).’—Appison. To found isa species of 
instituting which borrows its figurative meaning from 
the nature of buildings, and is applicable to that which 
is formed after the manner of a building: a publick 
school is founded when its pecuniary resources are 
formed into a fund or fowndation; * After the flood 
which depopulated Attica, it is generally supposed no 
king reigned over it till the time of Cecrops, the founder 
of Athens.’—CuMBERLAND. ‘To erect is a species of 
founding, for it expresses in fact a leading particular in 
the act of founding ; ‘ Princes as well as private per- 
sons have erected colleges, and assigned liberal endow- 
ments to students and professors.,—BrrRKrELEY. No- 
thing can be founded without being erected; although 
some things may be erected without being expressly 
founded in the natural sense ; a house is both founded 
and erected; a monument is erected but not founded: 
so in the figurative sense, a college is founded and con- 
sequently erected: but a tribunal is erected, but not 
founded. 


—— 


TO CONSTITUTE, APPOINT, DEPUTE. 


To consiztute, in Latin constitutus, participle of con- 
ituo, that is con and statuo to place together, signifies 
here to put or place for a specifick purpose, in which 
sense it is allied to appoint as explained under the head 
of allot, and also depute, which from the French 
deputer, Latin deputo, compounded of de and puto to 
esteem or assign, signifies to assign a certain office to a 
person. : 

The act of choosing some person or persons for an 
office, is comprehended under all these terms: to con- 
stitute is a more solemn act than appoint, and this 
than depute. To constitute is the act of a body; to 
appoint and depute, either of a body or an individual: 
a community constitutes any one their leader; a 
monarch appoints his ministers, an assembly deputes 
some of its members. 

To constitute implies the act of making as well as 
choosing; the office as well as the person is new: in 
appointing, the person but not the office is new. A 
person may be constituted arbiter or judge as circum- 
stances may require ; a successor is appointed but not 
constituted. 

Whoever is constituted is invested with supreme 
authority derived from the highest sources of human 
power; ‘Where there is no constituted judge, as be- 
tween independent states there is not, the vicinage 
itself is the natural judge.’—Burke. Whoever is ap- 
pointed derives his authority from the authority of 
others, and has consequently but limited power: no 
individual can appoint another with authority equal to 
his own; ‘The accusations against Columbus gained 
such credit ina jealous court, that a commissioner was 
appointed to repair to Hispaniola, and to inspect into 
his conduct.’—Roserrson. Whoever is deputed has 
private and not publick authority ; his office is partial, 
often confined to the particular transaction of an indi- 
vidual, or a body of individuals ; ‘If the Commons dis- 
agree to the amendments, a conference usually follows 
between members deputed from each house.’—B.Lack- 
stone. According to the Romish religion, the Pope is 
constituted supreme. head of the Christian church 
throughout the whole world; governours are appointed 
to distant provinces, persons are deputed to present 
petitions or make representations to government. 

It has been the fashion of the present day to speak 
contemptuously of all constituted authorities: the ap- 
pointments made by government are a fruitful source 
of discontent for those who follow the trade of oppo- 
sition: a busy multitude, when agitated by political 
discussions, are ever ready to form societies and send 
deputations, in order to communicate their wishes to 
thir rulers. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


AMBASSADOR, ENVOY, PLENIPOTENTIAR£ 
DEPUTY. 


Ambassador is supposed to come from the low Latir, 

ambasciator a waiter, although this does not accord 
with the high station which ambassadors have always 
held ; envoy, from the French envoyer to send, signifies 
one sent; plenipotentiary, from the Latin plenus and 
potens, signifies one invested with full powers; deputy, 
signifies one deputed. 
_ Ambassadors, envoys, and plenipotentiaries, speak 
and act in the name of their sovereigns, with this dif- 
ference, that the first are invested with the highest au- 
thority, acting in all cases as their representatives; the 
second appear only as simple authorized ministerg 
acting for another, but not always representing him; 
the third are a species of envoy used by courts only on 
the occasion of concluding peace or making treaties. 
deputies are not deputed by sovereigns, although they 
may be deputed to sovereigns; they have no power to 
act or speak, but in the name of some subordinate com- 
munity, or particular body. The functions of the first 
three belong to the minister, those of the latter to the 
agent. 

An ambassador is a resident in a country during a 
state of peace; he must maintain the dignity of his 
court by asuitable degree of splendour; ‘Prior con- 
tinued to act without a title till the Duke of Shrewsbury 
returned next year to England, and then he assumed 
the style and dignity of an ambassador.’—JOHNSON. 
An envoy may be a resident, but he is more commonly 
employed on particular occasions; address in nego- 
tiating forms an essential in his character; ‘ We hear 
from Rome, by letters dated the 20th of April, that the 
count de Mellos, envoy from the king of Portugal, had 
made his publick entry into that city with much state 
and magnificence.’—STEELE. A plenipotentiary is not 
so much connected with the court immediately, as with 
persons in the same capacity with himself; he requires 
to have integrity, coolness, penetration, loyalty, and 
patriotism ; ‘The conferences began at Utrecht on the 
ist of January, 1711-12, and the English plenipotentia- 
ries arrived on the fifteenth.—Jounson. A deputy has 
little or no responsibility ; and stillless intercourse with 
those to whom he is deputed; he needs no more talent 
than is sufficient to maintain the respectability of his 
own character, and that of the body to which he be- 
longs; ‘ They add that the deputies of the Swiss cantons 
werereturned from Soleure, where they were assembled 
at the instance of the French ambassador.’—STEELE. 


DELEGATE, DEPUTY. 


Delegate, in Latin delegatus, from delego, signifies 
one commissioned; deputy, in Latin deputatus, from 
deputo, signifies one to whom a business is assigned, 

A delegate hasa more active office than a deputy; he 
is appointed to execute some positive commission, and 
officiates in the place of another ; 


Elect by Jove, his delegate of sway, 
With joyous pride the summons I’d obey.—Porpz: 


A deputy may often serve only to supply the place or an- 
swerin the name of one who is absent; ‘Every member 
(of parliament), though chosen by one particular district, 
when elected and returned serves for the whole realm ; 
and therefore he is not bound, like a deputy in the United 
Provinces, to consult with his constituents on any par- 
ticular point.—BuLackstonre. Delegates are mostly 
appointed in publick transactions ; deputies are chosen 
either in publick or private matters: delegates are 
chosen by particular bodies for purposes of negotia- 
tion either in regard to civil or political affairs ; deputies 
are chosen either by individuals or small communities 
to officiate on certain occasions of a purely ¢ivil nature: 
the Hans towns in Germany used formerly to send 
delegates to the Diet at Ratisbon; ! 


Let chosen delegates this hour be sent, 
Myself will name them, to Pelides’ tent.—Popr. 


When Calais was going to surrender to Edward IIL 
King of England, deputies were sent from the towns: 
men to implore his mercy: ‘The assembling of persona 
deputed from people at great distances is a trouble to 
them that are sent and a charge to them that send.’— 
TempPLe. Delegate is sometimes also used figuratively 
in the same sense; 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


But this 
And all the much transported muse can sing, 
Are to thy beauty, dignity, and use, 
Unequal far, great delegated source 
Of light, and life, and grace, and joy below. 
THOMSON. 


PHeputy is also extended in its application to other ob- 
jects; ‘ He exerciseth dominion over them as the vice- 
gerent and deputy of Almighty God.’—Ha.e. 


TO NEGOTIATE, TREAT FOR OR ABOUT, 
TRANSACT. 


The idea of conducting business with others is in- 
eluded in the signification of all these terms; but they 
differ in the mode of conducting it, and the nature of 
the business to be conducted. Negotiate, in the Latin 
negotiatus, participle of negotior, from negotium, is 
applied in the original mostly to merchandise or traffick, 
but it ismow more commonly employed in the compli- 
cated concerns of governments and nations. T'reat, 
from the Latin tracto, frequentative of traho to draw, 
signifies to turn over and over or set forth in all ways: 
these two verbs, therefore, suppose deliberation: but 
transact, from transactus, participle of transago, to 
carry forward or bring to an end, supposes more direct 
agency than consultation or deliberation: this latter is 
therefore adapted to the more ordinary and less entan- 
gied concerns of commerce. Vegotiations are com- 
ducted by many parties, and involve questions of peace 
or war, dominions, territories, rights of nations, and 
the like; ‘ [do notlove to minglespeech with any about 
news or worldly negotiations in God’s holy house.’— 
Howes. Treaties are often a part of negotiations : 
they are seldom conducted by more than two parties, 
and involve only partial questions, as in treaties about 
peace, about commerce, about the boundaries of any 
particular state, or between families about domestick 
concerns; ‘You haye a great work in hand, for you 
write to me that you are upon a treaty of marriage.’— 
Howe. A congress carries on negotiations for the 
establishment of good order among the ruling powers 
df Europe; individual states treat with each other, to 
settle their particular differences. To negotiate mostly 
respects political concerns, except in the case of nego- 
tiating bills: to treat, as well as transact, is said of 
domestick and private concerns: we treat with a person 
about the purchase of a house; we transact business 
with a person either by paying or receiving money, 
or in any matter of mutual interest; ‘We are permitted 
to know nothing of what is transacting in the regions 
above us.’—BLarr. 

As nouns, negotiation expresses rather the act of de- 
liberating than the thing deliberated: treaty includes 
the ideas of the terms proposed, and the arrangement 
of those terms: transaction expresses the idea of some- 
thing actually done and finished, and in that sense may 
often be the result of a negotiation or treaty ; ‘It isnot 
the purpose of this discourse to set down the particular 
transactions of this treaty.—-CLARENDON. WNegotia- 
tions are sometimes very long pending before the pre- 
liminary terms are even proposed, or any basis is de- 
fined; treattes of commerce are entered into by all 
civilized countries, in order to obviate misunderstand- 
ings, and enable them to preserve an amicable inter- 
course ; the transactions which daily pass in a great 
metropolis, like that of London, are of so multifarious 
a nature, and so infinitely numerous, that the bare con- 
zemplation of them fills the mind with astonishment. 
Negotiations are long or short; treaties are advan- 
tageous or the contrary; transactions are honourable 
or dishonourable. 


MISSION, MESSAGE, ERRAND. 


Message, from the Latin missus, participle of mitto 
to send, signifies the thing for which one is sent; mis- 
sion, signifies the state of being sent, or thing for which 
one is sent; errand, from erro to wander, or go toa 
distance, signifies the thing for which one goes toa 
distance. 

Between mission and message the difference consists 
as much in the application as the sense. The mission 
is always a subject of importance, and the situation one 
of trust and authority, whence it is with propriety ap- 
nijed to our Saviour; 


216 


Her son tracing the desert wild, 

All his great work to come before him set, 

How to begin, how to accomplish best, 

His end of being on earth, and mission high 
MILTON. 


The subject of a message is of inferiour importance, 
and is commonly intrusted to inferiour persons. 

The message is properly any communication which is 
conveyed; the errand sent from one person to another 
is that which causes one to go: servants are the bearers 
of messages, and are sent on various errands. The 
message may be either verbal or written; the errand 
is limited to no form, and to no circumstance: one 
delivers the message, and goes the errand. Sometimea 
the message may be the errand, and the errand may 
include the message: when that which is sent consists 
of a notice or intimation to another, it is a message ; 
and if that causes any one to go toa place, it is an 
errand; thus it is that the greater part of errands con- 
sist of sending messages from one person to another. 
Both the terms message and errand are employed by the 
poets in reference to higher objects, but they preserve 
the same distinction ; 


The scenes where ancient bards th’ inspiring breath 
Eestatick felt, and, from this world retir’d, 
Convers’d with angels and immortal forms, 

On gracious errands bent.—THomsoN. 


Sometimes, from her eyes, 
I did receive fair speechless messages. 
SHAKSPEARB 


MINISTER, AGENT. 


Minister comes from minus less, as magister comes 
from magis more; the one being less, and the other 
greater, than others: the minister, therefore, is literally 
one that acts in asubordinate capacity ; and the agent, 
from ago to act, is the one that takes the acting part 
they both perform the will of another, but the minists 
performs a higher part than the agent: the minister 
gives his counsel, and exerts his intellectual powers in 
the service of another; but the agent executes the 
orders or commission given him: a minister is em- 
ployed by government in political affairs; an agent is 
employed by individuals in commercial and pecuniary 
affairs, or by government in subordinate matters: a 
minister is received at court, and serves as a represent- 
ative for his government; an agent generally acts under 
the directions of the minister or some officer of govern- 
ment: ambassadors or plenipotentiaries, or the first 
officers of the state, are mznisiers ; but those who regu 
late the affairs respecting prisoners, the police, and the 
like, are termed agents. 


FORERUNNER, PRECURSOR, MESSENGER, 
HARBINGER. 


Forerunner and precursor signify literally the same 
thing, namely, one running before; but the term fore- 
runner is properly applied only to one who runs before 
to any spot to communicate intelligence ; and it is figu- 
ratively applied to things which in their nature, or from 
a natural connexion, precede others ; precursor is only 
employed in this figurative sense: thus imprudent spe 
culations are said to be the forerunners of a man’s 
ruin; ‘Loss of sight is the misery of life, and usually 
the forerunner of death.’.—Sourn. The ferment which 
took place in men’s minds was the precursor of the 
French revolution; ‘ Gospeller was aname of contempt 
given by the papists to the Lollards, the puritans of 
early times, and the precursors of protestantism.’— 
JOHNSON. 

Messenger signifies literally one bearing messages : 
and harbinger, from the Teutonick herbinger, signifies 
a provider of a herbege or inn for princes. 

Both terms are employed for persons: but the mes- 
senger states what has been or is; the harbinger an- 
nounces what is tobe. Our Saviour was the messenger 
of glad tidings to all mankind ; the prophets were the 
harbingers of the Messiah. A messenger may be em- 
ployed on different offices; a harbinger is a messenger 
who acts in a specifick office. The angels are repre 
sented as messengers on different occasions ; 

His words are bonds, his oaths are oracles, 


His tears pure messengers sent from his heart 
SHaKSPEARB. 


216 


John the Baptist was the harbinger of our Saviour, 
who prepared the way of the Lori; 
Sin, and her shadow death ; and misery, 
Death’s harbinger.—MI1LTON. 


TO INIERCEDE, INTERPOSE, MEDIATE, IN- 
TERFERE, INTERMEDDLE. 


Intercede signifies literally going between; inter- 
pose, placing one’s self between; mediate, coming in 
the middle ; interfere, setting one’s self between ; and 
sntermeddle, meddling or mixing among. 

One intercedes between parties that are unequal ; 
one interposes between parties that are equal: one zn- 
tercedes in favour of that party which is threatened 
with punishment; one interposes between parties that 
threaten each other with evil: we intercede with ‘the 
parent in favour of the child who has offended, in 
order to obtain pardon for him; one interposes between 
two friends who are disputing, to prevent them from 
going to extremities. One intercedes by means of 
persuasion ; it is an act of courtesy or kindness in the 
anterceded party to comply: one interposes by an ex- 
ercise of authority; it is a matter of propriety or 
necessity in the parties to conform. The favourite of 
a monarch intercedes in behalf of some criminal, that 
his punishment may be mitigated; ‘ Virgil recovered 
his estate by Mecenas’s intercession.’—DrypEN. The 
magistrates interpose with their authority, to prevent 
the broils of the disorderly from coming to serious acts 
of violence ; 


Those few you see escap’d the storm, and fear, 
Unless you znterpose, a shipwreck here.—DrybDeEn. 


To mediate and intercede are both conciliatory acts; 
the intercessor and mediator are equals or even infe- 
riours; to interpose is an act of authority, and belongs 
most commonly to a superiour : one tntercedes or enter- 
poses for the removal of evil; one mediates for the 
attainment of good: Christ is our Intercessor, to avert 
from us the consequences of our guilt; he is our 
Mediator, to obtain for us the blessings of grace and 
salvation. An intercessor only pleads: a mediator 
guarantees; he takes upon himself a responsibility. 
Christ is our Intercessor, by virtue of his relationship 
with the Father: he is our Mediator, by virtue of his 
atonement; by which act he takes upon himself the 
sins of all who are truly penitent. 

To intercede and interpose are employed on the 
highest and lowest occasions; to mediate is never em- 
ployed but in matters of the greatest moment. As 
earthly offenders we require the ¢ntercession of a fellow 
mortal; as offenders against the God of Heaven, we 
require the intercession of a Divine Being: without 
the timely interposition of a superiour, trifling disputes 
may grow into bloody quarrels; without the znter- 
position of Divine Providence, we cannot conceive of 
any thing important as taking place; to settle the affairs 
of nations, medzators may afford a salutary assistance; 
‘Tt is generally better (in negotiating) to deal by speech 
than by letter, and by the mediation of a third than 
by a man’s self.—Bacon. To bring about the re- 
demption of a lost world, the Son of God condescended 
to be Mediator. 

All these acts are performed for the good of others: 
but interfere and intermeddle are of a different de- 
scription: one may interfere for the good of others, or 
to gratify one’s self; one never intermeddles but for 
selfish purposes: the first three terms are, therefore, 
always used in a good sense; the fourth in a good or 
bad sense, according to circumstances; the last always 
in a bad sense. 

To interfere has nothing conciliating in it like 
intercede, nothing authoritative in it like interpose, 
nothing responsible in it like mediate ; it may be useful, 
or it may be injurious ; it may be authorized or unau- 
thorized; it may be necessary, or altogether imper- 
tinent: when we interfere so as to make peace be- 
tween men, it is useful; but when we interfere unrea- 
sonably, it often occasions differences rather than 
removes them; ‘Religion interferes not with any 
rational pleasure.’—Sourtu- 

Intercede, and the other terms, are used im cases 
where two or more parties are concerned; but interfere 
and intermeddle are said of what concerns only one 
individual; one interferes and intermeddles rather in 
the concern, than between the persons; and, on that 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


account, it becomes a question of some importance to 
decide when we ought to interfere in the affairs of 
another: with regard to tntermeddle, it always is the 
unauthorized act of one who is busy in things that 
ought not to concern him; ‘The sight intermeddles not 
with that which affects the smell.’—Sourn. 


INTERMEDIATE, INTERVENING. 


Intermediate signifies being in the midst, between 
two objects; intervening signifies coming between; 
the former is applicable to space and time; the latter 
either to time or circumstances. 

The intermediate time between the commencement 
and the termination of a truce is occupied with pre- 
parations for the renewal of hostilities; ‘A right 
opinion is that which connects truth by the shortest 
train of zntermediate propositions.’—Jounson. Inter- 
vening Circumstances sometimes change the views of 
the belligerent parties, and dispose their minds to 
peace; ‘Hardly would any transient gleams of inter- 
vening joy be able to force its way through the clouds, 
if the successive scenes of distress through which we 
are to pass were laid before our view.-—BLaiR 


INTERVENTION, INTERPOSITION. 


The intervention, from inter between, and venzo to 
come, is said of inanimate objects; the interposition, 
from inter between, and pono to place, is said only 
of rational agents. ‘The light of the moon is obstructed 
by the intervention of the clouds; the life of an indi- 
vidual is preserved by the interposition of a superiour : 
human life is so full of contingencies, that when we 
have formed our projects we can never say what may 
intervene to prevent their execution; ‘Reflect also on 
the calamitous intervention of picture-cleaners (to 
originals).’—Barry. When a man is engaged in an 
unequal combat, he has no chance of escaping but 
by the timely interposition of one who is able to rescue 
him; 

Death ready stands to interpose his dart.’—Mi.Ton 


TO BIND, OBLIGE, ENGAGE 


Bind, through the medium of the northern lan- 
guages, comes from the Latin vineio, and the Greek 
ogiyyw; to oblige, in French obdliger, Latin obligo, 
compounded of 0b and digo, signifies to tie up; engage, 
in French éngager, compounded of en or in and ga 
a pledge, signifies to biad by means of a pledge. 

Bind is more forcible and coercive than obliges; 
oblige than engage. We are bound by an Cath, 
obliged by circumstances, and engaged by promises. 

Conscience binds, prudence or necessity obliges, 
honour and principle engage. A parent is bound no 
less by the law of his conscience, than by those of the - 
community to which he belongs, to provide for hig 
helpless offspring. Politeness obliges men of the world 
to preserve a friendly exteriour towards those for whom 
they have no regard. When we. are engaged in the 
service of our king and country, we cannot shrink from 
our duty without exposing ourselves to the infamy ox 
all the world. 

We bind a man by fear of what may befall him; we 
oblige him by some immediately urgent motive; we 
engage him by alluring offers, and the prospect of 
gain. A debtor is bownd to pay by virtue of a written 
instrument in law ; 


Who can be bound by any solemn vow, 
To do a murd’rous deed 2—SuHaxksPEARE, 


He is obliged to pay in consequence of the importa 
nate demands of the creditor ; ‘No man is commanded 
or obliged to obey beyond his power.’—Sourn. We is 
engaged to pay in consequence of a promise given; 
‘While the Israelites were appearing in God’s house, 
God himself engages to keep and defend theirs’— 
Souru. A dond is the strictest deed in law; an obié- 
gation binds under pain of a pecuniary los; an 
engagement is mostly verbal, and rests ent(rely on the 
rectitude of the parties. 


TO BIND, TIE. 


Bind, in Saxon binden, German, &c. bindsy, comes 
from the Latin vincio, Greek odfyyw, end $3 2ounecter 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


with the word wind: tie, in Saxon tian, is very pro- 
pably connected with the low German tehen, high 
German ziehen to draw, the English tug or tow, and the 
Latin duco to draw. 

The species of fastening denoted by these two words 
differ both in manner and degree Binding is per- 
formed by circumvolution round a body; tying, by 
involution within itself. Some bodies are bound with- 
out being tied; others are tied without being bound ; 
a wounded leg is bound but not tied ; 


Now are our brows bound with victorious wreaths, 
Our stern alarms are chang’d to merry meetings. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


A string is tied but not bownd ; 


A fluttering dove upon the top they tie, 
The living mark at which their arrows fly 
DRYDEN. 


A riband may sometimes be bound round the head, 
and tied under the chin. Binding therefore serves to 
keep several things in a compact form together ; tying 
may serve to prevent one single body separating from 
another: a criminal is bownd hand and foot; he is 
tied to astake. 

Binding and tying likewise differ in degree; bind- 
ing serves to produce adhesion in all the parts of a 
body ; tying only to produce contact in a single part; 
thus when the hair is bound, it is almost enclosed in 
an envelope: when it is tied with a string, the ends are 
left to hang loose. 

A similar distinction is preserved in the figurative 
use of the terms. A bond of union is applicable toa 
large body with many component parts; a tze of affec- 
tion marks an adhesion between individual minds; 


As nature’s ties decay ; 
As duty, love, and honour fail to sway; 
Fictitious bonds, the bonds of wealth and law, 
Still gather strength, and force unwilling awe. 
GOLDSMITH. 


CHAIN, FETTER, BAND, SHACKLE. 


Chain, in French chaine, Latin catena, probably 
contracted from captena, comes from capio, signifying 
that which takes or holds; fetter, in German fessel, 
comes from fassen to lay hold of; band, from bind, sig- 
nifies that which b2nds ; shackle, in Saxon scacul, from 
shake, signifies that which makes a creature shake or 
move irregularly by confining the legs. . 

All these terms designate the instrument by which 
animals or men are confined. Chain is general and 
indefinite; all the rest are species of chains: but 
there are many chains which do not come under the 
other names; a chain is indefinite as to its make; it 
is made generally of iron rings, but of different sizes 
and shapes: fetters are larger, they consist of many 
stout chains: bands are in general any thing which 
confines the body or the limbs; they may be either 
chains or even cords: shackle is that species of chain 
which goes on the legs to confine them; malefactors 
of the worst order have fetters on different parts of 
their bodies, and shackles on their legs. 

These terms may all be used figuratively. The 
substantive chain is applied to whatever hangs toge- 
ther like a chain, as a chain of events; but the verb 
to chain signifies to confine as with a chain: thus the 

-mind is chained to rules, according to the opinions of 
the free thinkers, when men adhere strictly to rule 
and order ; and to represent the slavery of conforming 
to the establishment, they tell us we are fettered by 
systems ; P 


Almighty wisdom never acts in vain, 

Nor shail the soul, on which it has bestow’d 

Such powers, e’er perish like an earthly clod; 

But purg’d at length from foul corruption’s stain, 

Freed from her prison, and unbound her chain, 

She shall her native strength and native skies regain, 

JENYNS. 

‘ Legislators have no rule to bind them but the great 
principles of justice and equity. These they are 
bound to obey and follow; and rather to enlarge and 
enlighten law by the liberality of legislative reason 
than to fetter their higher capacity by the narrow con- 
structions of subordinate artificial justice.—Burxg. 
Band in the figurative sense is applied 


217 


poetry, to every thing which is supposed to serve the 
purpose of a band ; thus love is said to have its silken 
bands ; 


Break his bands of sleep asunder, 
And rouse him like a rattling peal of thunder 
DRYDEN. 


Shackle, whether as a substantive or a verb, retains 
the idea of controlling the movements of the person, 
not in his body only, but also in his mind and in his 
moral conduct ; thus, a man who commences life with 
a borrowed capital is shackled in his commercial con 
cerns by the interest he has to pay, and the obligations 
he has to discharge; ‘It is the freedom of the spirit 
that gives worth and life to the performance. Buta 
servant commonly is less free in mind than in condition; 
his very will seems to be in bonds and shackles.’— 
Sourn. 


DEBT, DUE. 


Debt and due are both derived from the same verv. 
Debt comes from debitus, participle of the Latin verb 
debeo: and due, in French du, participle of devoir 
comes likewise from dedco to owe. 

Debt is used always as a substantive; due, either as 
a substantive or an adjective. A person contracts 
debts, and receives his due. The debt is both obli- 
gatory and compulsory; it is a return for something 
equivalent in value, and cannot be dispensed with; 
what is dwe is obligatory, but not always compulsory. 
A debtor may be compelled to discharge his debts ; but 
it isnot always in the power of a man even to claim 
that which is his due. Debt is generally used in a 
mercantile sense; due either in a mercantile or moral 
sense. A debt is determined by law: what is due is 
fixed often by principles of equity and honour. He 
who receives the stipulated price of his goods receives 
his debt ; he who receives praise and honour, as a re- 
ward of good actions, receives his due ; 


The ghosts ‘rejected are th’ unhappy crew, 
Depriv’d of sepulchres and fun’ral due. 
DRYDEN. 
Debt may sometimes be used figuratively, as, to pay 
the debt of nature; ‘Though Christ was as pure and 
undefiled, without the least spot of sin, as purity and 
innocence itself; yet he was pleased to make himself 
the greatest sinner in the world by imputation, and 
aoe himself a surety responsible for our debts’ 
OUTH. 


PROMISE, ENGAGEMENT, WORD. 


Promise, in Latin promissus, from promitto, com 
pounded of pro before, and mitto to set or fix, that is, 
to fix beforehand ; engagement is that which engages 
a person, or places him under an engagement; word, 
that is, the word given. 

The promise is specifick, and consequently more 
binding than the engagement: we promise a thing in 
a set form of words, that are clearly and strictly under- 
stood; we engage in general terms, that may admit of 
alteration: a promise is mostly unconditional; an en 
gagement is frequently conditional. In promises the 
faith of an individual is admitted upon his word, and 
built upon as if it were a deed; in engagements the 
intentions of an individual for the future are all that 
are either implied or understood: on the fulfilment of 
promises often depend the most important interests of 
individuals; ‘An acre of performance is worth the 
whole world of promise’—Howertu. An attention to 
engagements is a matter of mutual convenience in the 
ordinary concerns of life; ‘The engagements I had to 
Dr. Swift were such as the actual services he had 
done me, in relation to the subscription for Homer, 
obliged me to.’—Porz. A man makes a promise of 
payment, and upon his promise it may happen that 
many others depend upon the fulfilment of their pro 
mises ; when engagements are made to visit or meet 
others, an inattention to such engagements causes 
great trouble. As a promise and engagement can be 
made only by words, the word is often put for either, 
or for both, asthe case requires: he who breaks his 
word in small matters cannot be trusted when he gives 


, Particularly in; his word in matters of consequence; 


218 ENGLISH 


®neas was our prince, a juster lord, 

Or nobler warriour, never drew a sword ; 

Observant of the right, religious of his word. 
DRYDEN. 


os 


TO IMPLICATE, INVOLVE. 


Implicate, from plico to fold, denotes to fold into a 
hing; and involve, from volvo to roll, signifies to roll 
into a thing: by which explanation we perceive, that 
to implicate marks something less entangled than to 
involve: for that which is folded may be folded only 
once, but that which is rolled, is rolled many times. 
In application therefore to human affairs, people are 
said to be implicated who have taken ever so small a 
share in a transaction; but they are involved only 
when they are deeply concerned: the former is like- 
wise especially applied to criminal transactions, the 
latter to those things which are in themselves trouble- 
some: thus a man is implicated in the guilt of robbery, 
who should stand by and see it done, without inter- 
fering for its prevention; as law-suits are of all things 
the most intricate and harassing, he who is engaged in 
one is said to be involved in it, or he who is in debt in 
every direction is strictly said to be ¢nvolved in debt ; 
‘Those who cultivate the memory of our Revolution, 
will take care how they are involved with persons who, 
under pretext of zeal towards the Revolution and con- 
stitution, frequently wander from their true princi- 
ples..—Burxe. When implication is derived from 
the verb imply, signifying the act of implying, it de- 
parts altogether from the meaning of involve; ,‘ That 
which can exalt a wife only by degrading a husband, 
will appear on the whole not worth the acquisition, 
even though it could be made without provoking 
jealousy by the implication of contempt.’—HawkEs- 
WORTH. 


TO DISENGAGE, DISENTANGLE, 
EXTRICATE. 


To disengage is to make free from an engagement ; 
disentangle to get rid of an entanglement ; extricate, 
in Latin extricatus, from ex and trica a hair, or noose, 
signifies to get as it were out of anoose. As to en- 

age signifies simply to bind, and entangle signifies to 

ind in an involved manner; to disentangle is natu- 
rally applied to matters of greater difficulty and per- 
plexity than to disengage: and as the term extricate 
Includes the idea of that which would hold fast and 
keep within a tight involvement, it is employed with re- 
spect to matters of the greatest possible embarrassment 
and intricacy. We may be disengaged from an oath; 
disentangled from pecuniary difficulties; extricated 
from a suit at law: it is not right to expect to be dis- 
engaged from all the duties which attach to men as 
members of society; ‘In old age the voice of nature 
calls you to leave to others the bustle and contest of 
the world, and gradually to disengage yourself from 
a burden which begins to exceed your strength.’— 
Buair. He who enters into disputes about contested 
property must not expect to be soon disentangled from 
the law; ‘Savage seldom appeared to be melancholy 
but when some sudden misfortune had fallen upon 
him, and even then in a few moments he would 
disentangle himself from his perplexity..—Jounson. 
When a general has committed himself by coming 
into too close a contact with a very superiour force, he 
may think himself fortunate if he can extricate him- 
self from his awkward situation with the loss of half 
his army; ‘ Nature felt its inability to extricate itself 
from the consequences of guilt; the Gospel reveals 
the plan of Divine interposition and aid.’—Buair. 


TO UNFOLD, UNRAVEL, DEVELOPE. 


To unfold is to open that which has been folded; 
to unravel is to open that which has been ravelled or 
tangled; to develope is to open that which has been 
wrapped in an envelope. The application of these terms 
therefore to moral objects is obvious: what has been 
ee and kept secret is wnfolded; in this manner a 
nidden transaction is unfolded, by being related cir- 
ecumstantially ; 


And te the sage-instructing eye unfold 
The various fwine of light—Tuomson. 


SYNONYMES. 


What has been entangled in any mystery or contusion 
is unravelled: in this manner a mysterious transaction 
is unravelled, if every circumstance is fully accounted 
for; ‘You must be sure to wnravel all your designs to 
a jealous man.’—Appison. What has been wrapped 
up so as to be entirely shut out from view is developed ; 
in this manner the plot of a play or novel, or the cha- 
racter and talent of a person, are developed; * The cha. 
racter of Tiberius is extremely difficult to develope 
CUMBERLAND. 


es 


COMPLEXITY, COMPLICATION, 
INTRICACY. 


Complexity and complication, in French complica 
tion, Latin complicatie and complico, compounded of 
com and plico, signifies a folding one within another ; 
intricacy, in Latin intricatio and intrico, compounded 
of in and trico or trices, the small hairs which are used 
to eusnare birds, signifies a state of entanglement by 
means of many involutions. 

Complexity expresses the abstract quality or state; 
complication the act: they both convey less than intra 
cacy ; intricate is that which is very complicated. 

Complexity arises from a multitude of objects, and 
the nature of these objects; complication from,an in- 
volvement of objects; and zntricacy from a winding 
and confused involution. What is complex must be 
decomposed ; what is complicated must be developed ; 
what is zntricate must be unravelled. A proposition 
is complex; affairs are complicated ; the law is intrt- 
cate. % 

Complexity puzzles; complication confounds ; intra- 
cacy bewilders. A clear head is requisite for under- 
standing the complex; keenness and penetration are 
required to Jay open that which is complicated; a 
comprehensive mind, coupled with coolness and per- 
severance of research, are essential to disentangle the 
intricate. A copmlex system may have every perfec- 
tion but the one that is requisite, namely, a fitness to be 
reduced to practice. Complicated schemes of villany 
commonly frustrate themselves. They require unity 
of design among too many individuals of different sta- 
tions, interests, and vices, to allow of frequent success 
with such heterogeneous combinations. The intricacy 
of the law is but the natural attendant on human 
affairs ; every question admits of different illustrations 
as to their causes, consequences, analogies, and bear- 
ings; it is likewise dependent on so many cases infi 
nitely ramified as to impede the exercise of the judge- 
ment in the act of deciding. 

The complexity of the subject often deters young 
persons from application to their business ; 


Through the disclosing deep 

Light my blind way ; the mineral strata there 

Thrust blooming, thence the vegetable world; 

O’er that the rising system more complex 

Of animals, and higher still the mind. 

THOMSON. 

There is nothing embarrasses a physician more than a 
complication of disorders, where the remedy for one 
impedes the cure for the other ; ‘ Every living creature, 
considered in itself, has many very complicated parts 
that are exact copies of some other parts which it pos- 
sesses, and which are complicated inthe same manner.’ 
—Appison. Some affairs are involved in such a de-. 
gree of intricacy, as to exhaust the patience and perse- 
verance of the most laborious; ‘ When the mind, by 
insensible degrees, has brought itself to attention and 
close thinking, it will be able to cope with difficulties. 
Every abstruse problem, every intricate question, will 
not baffle or break it.’—Locxkg. 


COMPOUND, COMPLEX, 


Compound comes from the present of compono, as 
compose (v. To compose) comes from composut the pre- 
terite of the same verb; complex (v. Complexity). 

The compound consist of similar and whole bodies 
put together; the complex consists of various parts 
linked together ; adhesion is sufficient to constitute a 
compound ; involution is requisite for the complex 
We distinguish the wholes that form the compound ; 
We separate the parts that form the comples, hat is 


compound may consist only of two; what is complez 
consists always of several. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 218 


FORCE, VIOLENCEH. 


Force signifies here the exertion of strength in a par 
ticular manner, which brings it very near to the mean. 
ing of violence, which, from the Latin violentia and vis 
force, comes from the Greek Bia strength. 

Force, which expresses a much less degree of exer 
tion than violence, is ordinarily employed tosupply the 
want of a proper will, violence is used to counteract an 
opposing will. The arm of justice must exercise force 
in order to bring offenders to a proper account; one 
nation exercises violence against another in the act of 
carrying on war. Force is mostly conformable te 
reason and equity, or employed in self defence ; 


Our host expell’d, what farther force can stay 
The victor troops from universal sway ? 
DryDEN 


Compound and complex are both commonly opposed 
to the simple; but the former may be opposed to the 
single, and the latter to the simple. Words are com- 
pound, sentences are compler ; ‘ Inasmuch as man is a 
compound and a mixture of flesh as well as spirit, the 
soul during its abode in the body does all things by the 
mediation of these passions, and inferiour affections.’— 
Sours. 

With such perfection fram’d, 
Ts this complex stupendous scheme of things. 
# THOMSON. 


TO COMPOUND, COMPOSE. 


Compound (v. Compound) is used in the physical 
seuse only; compose in the proper or the moral sense. 
Words are compounded by making two or more into 
one; sentences are composed by putting words together 
so as to make sense. A medicine is compounded of 
many ingredients; society is composed of various 
classes; ‘The simple beauties of nature, if they can- 
not be multiplied, may be compounded.’—BaTuuRsT. 
‘The heathens, ignorant of the true source of moral 
. evil, generally charged it on the obliquity of matter. 
This notion, as most others of theirs, is a composition 
of truth and errour.’—GRovE. 


Violence is always resorted to for the attainment of 
that which is unattainable by law; ‘He sees his dis- 
tress to be the immediate effect of human violence or 
oppression; and is obliged at the same time to consider 
it as a Divine judgement.’—Briarr. All who are in- 
vested with authority have occasion to use force at 
certain times to subdue the unruly will of those who 
should submit: violence and rapine are inseparable 
companions: a robber could not subsist by the latter 
without exercising the former. 

In an extended and figurative appl'cation to things, 
these terms convey the same general idea of exerting 
strength. That is said to have force that acts with 
force ; and that to have violence that acts with vio- 
lence. A word, an expression, or a remark, has force 
oris forcible ; a disorder, a passion, a sentiment, has 
violence or is violent. Force is always something de- 
sirable ; violence is always something hurtful. We 
ought to listen to arguments which have force in them ; 
we endeavour to correct the violence of all angry pas 
sions. 


TO COMPEL, FORCE, OBLIGE, NECESSITATE, 


Compel, Latin compello or pello to drive, signifies to 
drive for a specifick purpose or to a point; fow:, in 
French force, comes from the Latin fortis strong ; force 
being nothing but the exertion of strength; oblige, in 
French obdliger, Latin obligo, compounded of ob and 
ligo, signifies to bind down. These three terms mark 
an external action on the will, but compel expresses 
more than oblige, and less than force. JVecessitate is 
to make necessary. 

Compel and force act much more directly and posi- 
tively than oblige or necessitate; and the latter indi- 
cates more of physical strength than the former. We 
are compelled by outward or inward motives; we are 
obliged more by motives than any thing else; we are 
forced sometimes by circumstances, though oftener by 
plain strength; we are necessitated solely by cireum- 
stances. An adversary is compelled to yield who re- 
stgns from despair of victory; he is forced to yield if 
he stand in fear of his life; he is obliged to yield if he 
cannot withstand the entreaties of his friends; he is 
necessitated to yield if he want the strength to continue 
the contest. 

An obstinate person must be compelled to give up his 
point ; 

You will compel me then to read the will. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


A turbulent and disorderly man must be forced to go 
where the officers of justice choose to lead him ; 


With fates averse, the rout in arms resort 
To force their monarch, and insult the court. 
DRYDEN. 


An unreasonable person must be obliged to satisfy a 
ust demand; ‘He that once owes more than he can 
pay is often obliged to bribe his creditors to patience, 
by increasing his debt.’—Jounson. We are all occa- 
sionally necessitated to do that which is not agreeable 
tous; ‘I have sometimes fancied that women have not 
a retentive power, or the faculty of suppressing their 
thoughts, but that they are necessitated to speak every 
thing they think.’—Appison. 

Pecuniary want compels men to do many things in- 
consistent with their station; 


He would the ghosts of slaughter’d soldiers call, 
These his dread wands did to short life compel, 
And fore’d the fate of battles to foretell —_DrypDEN. 


Honour and religion oblige men scrupulously to observe 
their word one to another; ‘The church hath been 
thought fit to be called Catholick, in reference to the 
universal obedience which it prescribeth; both in re- 
spect of the persons obliging men of alk conditions ; and 
m relation to the precepts requiring the performance of 
all the evangelical commands.’—Prarson. Hunger 
furces men to eat that which is most loathsome to the 
palate. The fear of a loss necessitates a man to give 
up a favourite project. _ 


VIOLENT, FURIOUS, BOISTEROUS, VEHE 
MENT, IMPETUOUS. 


Violent signifies having force ; furious having fury , 
boisterous in all. probability comes from bestir, signi- 
fying ready to bestir or come into motion; vehement, 
in Latin vehemens, compounded of veho and mens, sig- 
nifies carried away by the mind or the force of passion ; 
impetuous, that is, having an ¢mpetus. 

Violent is here the most general term, including the 
idea of force or violence, which is common to them all: 
it is as general in its application as in its meaning. 
When violent and furious are applied to the same 
objects, the latter expresses a higher degree of the 
former: thus a furious temper is violei.t to an exces- 
sive degree: a furious whirlwind is violent beyond 
measure ; 

The furious pard, 
Cow’d and subdu’d, flies from the face of man. 
SOMERVILLE. 


Violent and boisterous are likewise applied to the same 
objects; but the boisterous refers only to the violence 
of the motion or noise: hence we say that a wind is 
violent, inasmuch as it acts with great force upon al! 
bodies ; it is bozsterous, inasmuch as it causes the great 
motion of bodies: a violent person deals in violence of 
every kind; a boisterous person is full of violent ac- 
tion ; 

Ye too, ye winds! that now begin to blow 

With boisterous sweep, I raise my voice to you. 

THOMSON. 


Violent, vehement, and impetuous, are all applied tc 
persons, or that which is personal: a man is violent in 
his opinions, violent in his measures, violent in his re- 
sentments; ‘This gentleman (Mr. Steele) among « 
thousand others, is a great instance of the fate of all 
who are carried away by party spirit of any side; [ 
wish all violence may succeed as ill.—Porr. He is 
vehement in his affections or passions, vehement in ove, 
vehement in zeal, vehement in pursuing an object, ve- 
hement in expressicn ; ‘If there be any use of gesticu 
lation, it must be applied to the ignorant and rude, who 
will be more affected by vehemence than delighted by 
propriety..—Jounson. Violence transfers itself to some 
external object on which it acts with force; but vehe- 
mence respects that species of violence which is con. 


220 


fined to the person himself; we may dread violence, 
because it is always liable to do mischief; we ought to 
suppress our vehemence, because it is injurious to our- 
selves : a violent partisan.renders himself obnoxious to 
others; a man who is vehement in any cause puts it 
out of his own power to be of use. IJmpetuosity is 
rather the extreme of violence or vehemence: anim- 
petuous attack is an excessively violent attack: an im- 
petuous character is an excessively vehement cha- 
racter ; 


The central waters round impetuous rush’d. 
THOMSON. 


—_— 


BUSTLE, TUMULT, UPROAR. 


Bustle is probably a frequentative of busy; tumult, 
in French tumulte, Latin tumultus, compounded pro- 
bably of tumor multus, signifies much swelling and per- 
turbation; uproar, compounded of wp and roar, marks 
the act of setting up a roar or clamour, or the state of 
its being so set up. 

Bustle has most of hurry in it; twmulé most of dis- 
order and confusion ; uproar most of noise. 

The hurried movements of one, or many, cause a 
bustle; disorderly struggles of many constitute a tu- 
mult; the loud elevation of many opposing voices pro- 
duces an uproar. 

Bustle is frequently not the effect of design, but the 
natural consequence of many persons coming together ; 
‘They who live in the bustle of the world are not, per- 
haps, the most accurate observers of the progressive 
change of manners in that society in which they pass 
their time..—ABERcRoMBY. Tumult commonly arises 
see a general effervescence in the minds of a multi- 
tude ; 


Outlaws of nature! yet the great must use ’em 
Sometimes as necessary tools of tumult.—DRyYDEN. 


Uproar is the consequence either of general anger or 
mirth; ‘Amid the uproar of other bad passions, 
conscience acts as a restraining power.’—BLAIR. 

A crowded street will always be ina bustle. Con- 
tested elections are always accompanied with great 
tumult. Drinking parties make a considerable uproar, 
in the indulgence of their intemperate mirth. 


TO COERCE, RESTRAIN. 


Cozrce, in Latin coerceo, that is, con and arceo, sig- 
nifies to drive into conformity with any person or 
thing ; restrain, in Latin restringo, i.e. re and stringo, 
signifies to bind hard. 

Coercion is a species of restraint: we always re- 
strain or intend to restrain when we coerce; but we 
do not always coerce when we restrain: coercion 
always comprehends the idea of force, restraint that 
of simply keeping under or back: coercion is always 
an external application; restraint either external or 
internal: a person is coerced by others only ; he may 
be restrained by himself as well as others. 

Coercion acts by a direct application, it opposes force 
to resistance ; restraint acts indirectly to the preven- 
tion of an act: the law restrains all men in their 
actions more or less; it coerces those who attempt to 
violate it: the unruly will is coerced; the improper 
willis restrained : coercion is exercised; restraint is 
imposed: punishment, threats, or any actual exercise 
of authority, coerces; ‘Without coercive power all 
government is but toothless and precarious, and does 
not so much command as beg obedience.—Sourtu. 
Fear, shame, or a remonstrance from others, restrains ; 
‘The enmity of some men against goodness is so vio- 
lent and implacable, that no innocency, no excellence 
of goodness, how great soever, can restrain their ma- 
lice.—Ti1LLotson. ‘The innovators of the present 
age are for having all coercion laid aside in the manage- 
ment of children, in lieu of which a system of reason- 
ing is to be adopted ; could they persuade the world 
to adopt their fanciful scheme, we may next expect to 
hear that all restraint on the inclinations ought to be 

laid aside as an infringement of personal liberty. 


COGENT, FORCIBLE, STRONG. 


Cogent, from the Latin cogo to compel ; and forcible, 
from the verb to force, have equally the sense of 
acting by force; strong is here figuratively employed 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


for that species of strength which is connected with 
the mind. 

Cogency applies to reasons individually considered : 
force and strength to modes ot reasoning or expres- 
sion: cogent reasons impel to decisive conduct; strong 
conviction is produced by forcible reasoning conveyed 
in strong language: changes of any kind areso seldom 
attended with benefit to society, that a legislator will 
be cautious not to adopt them without the most cogent 
reasons; ‘Upon men intent only upon truth, the art 
of an orator has little power; a credible testimony, or 
a cogent argument, will overcome all the art of modu- 
lation and all the violence of contortion.’—JoHNson 
‘The important truths of Christianity cannot be pre- 
sented from the pulpit too forcibly to the minds of 
men; ‘The ingenious author just mentioned, assured 
me that the Turkish satires of Ruhi Bag-dadi were 
very forcible.’—Sir Ww. Jones. 

Accuracy and strength are seldom associated in the 
same mind; those who accustom themselves to strong 
language are not very scrupulous about the correctness 
of their assertions; ‘Such is the censure of Dennis. 
There is, as Dryden expresses it, perhaps ‘too much 
horse-play in his raillery ;’’ butif his jests are coarse 
his arguments are strong.’ JOHNSON. 


CONSTRAINT, COMPULSION. 


Constraint, from constrain, Latin constringo, com: 
pounded of con and stringo, signifies the act of strain- 
ing or tying together ; compulszon signifies the act of 
compelling. 

There is much of binding in constraint ; of vio- 
lence in compulsion ; constraint prevents from acting 
agreeably to the will: compulsion forces to act con 
trary to the will: a soldier in the ranks moves with 
much constraint, and is often subject to much com- 
pulsion to make him move as is desired. Constraint 
may avise from outward circumstances ; compulsion is 
always produced by some active agent: the forms of 
civil society lay a proper constraint upon the beha- 
vue of men so as to render them agreeable to each 
other ; 


Commands are no constraints. 
I do it freely —MiLTon. 


The arm of the civil power must ever be ready tc 
compel those who will not submit without compulsion : 
‘ Savage declared that it was not his design to fly from 
justice ; that he intended to have appeared (to appear) 
at the bar without compulsion.’—Jounson. In the 
moments of relaxation, the actions of children should 
be as free from constraint as possible, which is one 
means of lessening the necessity for compulston when 
they are called to the performance of their duty. 


If I obey them 


CONSTRAINT, RESTRAINT, RESTRICTION 


The meaning of constraint is given in the preceding 
article; that of restraint as given under To coerce, 
restrain; restriction is but a variation of restraint. 

Constraint respects the movements of the body 
only ; restraint those of the mind and the outward 
actions : when they both refer to the outward actions, 
we say a person’s behaviour is constrained ; his feel 
ings are restrained : he is constrained 10 act or not to 
act, or to act in a certain manner; he is restrained 
from acting at all, if not from feeling: the conduct is 
constrained by certain prescribed rules, by discipline 
and order; it is restrained by particular motives’ 
whoever learns a mechanical exercise is constrained to 
move his body in a certain direction; the fear of de- 
tection often restrains persons from the commission of 
vices more than any sense of their enormity. 

The behaviour of children must be more constrained 
in the presence of their superiours than when they are 
by themselves: the angry passions should at all times 
be restrained. A person who is in the slightest degree 
constrained to do a good action, does good only by 
halves; ‘When from constraint only the offices of 
seeming kindness are performed, little dependence can 
be placed on them.’—Buair. The inordinate passions 
and propensities of men are restrained by nothing so 
effectually as religion; ‘What restraints do they lie 
under who bave no regards beyond the grave ?— 
BERKELEY. Whoever is restrained by shame onl 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


may scek gratification under the shelter of conceal- 


ment. 
Restraim and restrict, though but variations from the 
same verb, have acquired a distinct acceptation : the 


former applies to the desires, as well as the outward 
conduct; the latter only to the outward conduct. A 
person restrains his inordinate appetite; or he is 


restrained by others from doing mischief: he is re- 


stricted in the use of his money. Restrain is an act 


of power ; but restrict is an act of authority or law: 


the will or the actions of a child are restrained by the 


parent; 


Tully, whose powerful eloquence awhile 
Restrain’d the rapid fate of rushing Rome. 
THOMSON. 


A patient is restricted in his diet by a physician, or 
any body of people may be restricted by laws; 
Though the Egyptians used flesh for food, yet they 
were under greater restrictions, in this particular, than 


most other nations.’—Jamus. 


STRAIN, SPRAIN, STRESS, FORCE. 


Strain and sprain are without doubt variations of 
the same word, namely, the Latin stringo to pull tight, 


or to stretch; they have now, however, a distinct ap- 
plication: to strain is to extend a thing beyond its 
ordinary length by some extraordinary effort; to sprain 
is to strain it so as to put out of its place, or extend 
to an injurious length: the ankle and the wrist are 
liable to be sprained by a contusion; the back and 
other parts of the body may be strained by over-ex- 


ertion. E ’ 
Strain and stress are kindred terms, as being both 


variations of stretch and stringo; but they differ now 
very considerably in their application: figuratively we 
speak of straining a nerve, or straining a point, to 


express making great exertions, even beyond our ordi- 


nary powers; and morally we speak of laying a stress 
upon any particular measure or mode of action, sig- 


nifying to give a thing importance: the strain may be 


put for the course of sentiment which we express, and 
the manner of expressing it; the stress may be put for 


the effortsof the voice in uttering a word or syllable: 
a writer may proceed in a strain of panegyric or in- 
vective ; aspeaker or a reader lays a stress on certain 
words by way of distinguishing them from others. 
To strain is properly a species of forcing ; we may 
force in a variety of ways, that is, by the exercise of 
force upon different bodies, and in different directions ; 
but to strain is to exercise force by stretching or pro- 
longing bodies; thus to strain a cord is to pull it to its 
full extent; but we may speak of forcing any hard 
substance in, or forcing it out, or forcing it through, 
or forcing it from a body: a door or a lock may be 
forced by violently breaking them: but a door or a 
lock may be strained by putting the hinges or the 
spring out of its place. So likewise, a person may be 
said to force himself to speak, when by a violent exer- 
tion he gives utterance to his words; but he strains his 
throat or his voice when he exercises the force on the 
throat or lungs so as to extend them, or he strains his 
powers of thinking; ‘ There was then (before the fall) 
no poring, no struggling with memory, no straining 
for invention..—Sourn. Force and stress as nouns 
are in like manner coinparable when they are applied 
to the mode of utterance. we must use a certain force 
in the pronunciation of every word; this therefore is 
indefinite and general ; but the stress is that particular 
and strong degree of force which is exerted in the pro- 
munciation of certain words; ‘ Was ever any one ob- 
served to come out of a tavern fit for his study, or in- 
deed for any thing requiring stress..—Souru. 


Oppose not rage, while rage is in its force. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


STRESS, STRAIN, EMPHASIS, ACCENT. 


Stress and strain signify the same as in the pre- 
veding article; emphasis, from the Greek ¢atyw to 
appear, signifies making to appear; accent, in Latin 
accentus, from cano to sing, signifies to suit the tune or 
tone of the voice. 

Stress and strain are general both in sense and ap- 
plication: the former still more than the latter: em- 


phasts anil accent are modes of the stress Stress is 


221 


applicable to all bodies, the powers of which may be 
tried by exertion; as the stress upon a rope, upon a 
shaft of a carriage, a wheel or spring in a machine: 
the strain is an excessive stress, by which a thing is 
thrown out of itscourse; there may be a strain in 
most cases where there is a stress; but stress and 
strain are to be compared with emphasis and accent, 
particularly in the exertion of the voice, in which case 
the stress is a strong and special exertion of the voice, 
on one word, or one part of a word, so as to distin 

guish it from another ; but the strain is the undue ex 

ertion of the voice beyond its usual pitch, in the utter 

ance of one or more words; we lay a stress on our 
words for the convenience of others; but when we 
strain the voice it is as much to the annoyance of 
others as it is hurtful to ourselves; ‘Singing differs 
from vociferation in this, that it consists in a certain 
harmony ; nor is it performed with so much straiming 
of the voice.—Jamers. ‘The stress may consist in an 
elevation of voice, or a prolonged utterance ; ‘ Those 
English syllables which I call long ones receive a pecu- 
liar stress of voice from their acute or circumflex 
accent, as in quickly, déwry.’—Fostrer. The em- 
phasis is that species of stress which is employed to 
distinguish one word or syllable from another: the 
stress may be accidental; but the emphasis is an in 
tentional stress: ignorant people and children are 
often led to lay the stress on little and unimportant 
words in a sentence; speakers sometimes find it con 
venient to mark particular words, to which they at 
tach a value, by the emphasis with which they utter 
them ;.‘ Emphasis not so much regards the time as & 
certain grandeur, whereby some letter, syllable, word. 
or sentence, is rendered more remarkable than the 
rest by a more vigorous pronunciation and a longer 
stay upon it..—Hotprer. The stress may be casual 
or regular, on words or syllables; the accent is that 
kind of regulated st7ess which is laid on one syllable 
to distinguish it from another: there are many words 
in our own language, such as subject, object, present, 
and the like, where, to distinguish the verb from the 
noun, the accent falls on the last syllable for the former, 
and on the first syllable for the latter ; ‘ The correct- 
ness and harmony of English verse depends entirely 
upon its being composed of a certain number of syl 
lables, and its having the accents of those syllables 
properly placed.’—TyRWHITT. 

In reference to the use of words, these terms may 
admit of a farther distinction: for we may lay a stress 
or emphasis ou a particular point of our reasoning, in 
the first case, by enlarging upon it longer than on 
other points; or, in the second case, by the use of 
stronger expressions or epithets ; ‘ After such a mighty 
stress, so irrationally laid upon two slight, empty 
words (‘self-consciousness’ and ‘mutual conscious- 
ness’) have they made any thing, but the author him- 
self (Sherlock on the Trinity) better understood ?’— 
Soutu. ‘The idle, who are neither wise for this 
world nor the next, are emphatically called, by Dr. 
Tillotson, “ Fools at large.” ’—Sprctrator. The strain 
or accent may be employed to designate the tone or 
manner in which we express ourselves, that is, the 
spirit of our discourse: in familiar language we talk of 
a person’s proceeding in a strain of panegyric, or of 


‘censure; ‘An assured hope of future glory raises him 


to a pursuit of a more than ordinary strain of duty and 
perfection.—Souru. In poetry persous are said to 
pour forth their complaints in tender accents ; 


For thee my tuneful accents will I raise—Drypsnx 


TO REPRESS, RESTRAIN, SUPPRESS. 


To repress is to press back or down: to restrain is 
to strain back or down. the former is the general, the 
latter is the specifick term: we always repress when 
we restrain, but not vice versd. Repress is used mostly 
for pressing down, so as to keep that inward which 
wants to make its appearance: restrain is an habitual 
repression by which it is kept in a state of lowness: a 
person is said to repress his feelings when he.does not 
give them vent either by his words or actions; he is 
said to restrain his feelings when he never lets them 
rise beyond a certain pitch: good morals, as well as 
good manners, call upon us to repress every unseemly 
expression of joy in the company of those who are not 
in a condition to partake of our joy; it is prudence as 
well as virtue to restrain our appetites by an habituad 


222 


forbearance, that they may not gain the ascendancy, 
One cannot too quickly repress a rising spirit of re- 
sistance in any community, large or small; ‘ Philo- 
sophy has often attempted to repress insolence by as- 
gerling that all conditions are levelled by death.’— 
Jounson. One cannot too early restrain the irregu- 
larities of childhood; ‘ He that would keep the power 
of sin from running out into act, must restrain it from 
conversing with the object.—Sournu. The innocent 
vivacity of youth should not be repressed ; but their 
wildness and intemperance ought to be restrained. 

To repress is simply to keep down or to keep from 
rising to excess. To suppress is to keep under or to 
keep from appearing in publick or coming into notice. 
A judicious parent represses every tumultuous passion 
in a child; ‘Her forwardness was repressed with a 
frown by her mother or aunt.’—Jounson. A judicious 
commander suppresses a rebellion by a timely and 
resolute exercise of authority; ‘ Every rebellion, when 
it is suppressed, makes the subject weaker and the 
prince stronger.,—Davirs. ‘To repress a feeling is to 
keep it down so that it may not increase in force; so 
likewise to repress violence either of feeling or con- 
duct ; 


Such kings 
Favour the innocent, repress the bold, 
And, while they flourish, make an age of gold, 
WALLER. 


‘Some, taking dangers to be the only remedy against 
dangers, endeavoured to set up the sedition again, but 
they were speedily repressed, and thereby the sedition 
suppressed wholly.’--Haywarp. To suppress a feel- 
ing is not to give it expression, to suppress a work, 
&c. is not to give it publication, or withdraw it from 
farther publication ; 


With him Palemon kept the watch at night, 

In whose sad bosom many a sigh supprest 

Some painful secret of the soul confest. 
“ FALCONER. 


You may depend upon the suppression of these 
verses.’—PorE. 


TO STIFLE, SUPPRESS, SMOTHER. 


Stifle is a frequentative of stuff, in Latin stipo, and 
Greck svdw to make tight or close; suppress signifies 
the same as in the preceding article; smother, as a fre- 
quentative of smut or smoke, signifies to cover with 
smut or smoke. 

Stifie and smother in their literal sense will be more 
properly considered under the article of Suffocate, &c. 
(v. To suffocate) ; they are here taken in a moral ap- 
plication. 

The leading idea of all these terms is that of keep- 
ing out of view: stifle is applicable to the feelings 
only ; suppress to the feelings or to outward circum- 
stances; smother to outward circumstances only: we 
stifle resentment; we suppress anger: the former is 
an act of some continuance; the latter is the act of 
the moment: we stifle our resentment by abstaining to 
take any measures of retaliation; ‘You excel in the 
art of stifling and concealing your resentment.’— 
Swirr. We suppress the rising emotion of anger, so 
as not to give it utterance or even the expression of a 
look; ‘ They foresaw the violence with which this in- 
dignation would burst out after being so long sup- 
pressed.’—RoBERTSON. It requires time and powerful 
motives to stifle, but only a single effort to suppress ; 
nothing but a long course of vice can enable a man to 
stifle the admonitions and reproaches of conscience ; 


Art, brainless art! our furious charioteer, 

(For nature’s voice unstifled would recall) 

Drives headlong to the precipice of death. 
Youne. 


A sense of prudence may sometimes lead a man to 
suppress the joy which an occurrence produces in his 
wind; 

Well did’st thou, Richard, to suppress thy voice; 

For had the passions of thy heart burst out, 

1 fear we should have seen decipher’d there 

More rancorous spight, more furious raging broils. 

SHAKSPEARE. 


In regard to outward circumstances, we say that a 


book is suppressed by the authority of government ; 
that vice is suppressed by the exertions of those who 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


have power: an affair is smothered so that it shall not 
become generally known, or that the fire is smothered 
under the embers; ‘ Great and generous principles not 
being kept up and cherished, but smothered in sensual 
delights, God suffers them to sink into low and inglo- 
rious satisfaction.’—Sovurn. 


TO SUFFOCATE, STIFLE, SMOTHER. CHOKE. 


Suffocate, in Latin suffocatus, participle of suffoco, 
is compounded of sub and faux, signifying to stop up 
the throat; stifle is a frequentative of stuf’, that is, to 
stuff excessively; smother is a frequentative of smoke ; 
choke is probably a variation of cheek, in Saxon ceac, 
because strangulation is effected by a compression of 
the throat under the cheek-bone. 

These terms express the act of stopping the breath; 
but under various circumstances and by various means; 
suffocation is produced by every kind of means, ex 
ternal or internal, and is therefore the most general of 
these terms; 

A suffocating wind the pilgrim smites 

With instant death—THomson. 
Stifling proceeds by internal means, that is, by the aa 
mission of foreign bodies into the passages which lead 
to the respiratory organs, and in this sense is employed 
figuratively ; 


When my heart was ready with a sigh to cleave, 

Ihave, with mighty anguish of my soul, 

Just at the birth sézjled this still-born sigh. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


We may be suffocated by excluding the air externally, 
as by gagging, confining closely, or pressing violently : 
we may be suffocated or stifled by means of vapours, 
close air, or smoke. To smother is to suffocate by 
the exclusion of air externally, as by covering a person 
entirely with bedclothes: to choke is a mode of stifling 
by means of bodies disproportionately large, as a piece 
of food lodging in the throat or the larynx, in which 
sense they may both be used figuratively; ‘The love 


| of jealous men breaks out furiously (when the object 


of their loves is taken from them) and throws off all 
mixture of suspicion which choked and smothered i? 
before.’—ADDISON. 


TO CHECK, CURB, CONTROL. 


All these terms express a species of restraining. 

Check and curd are figurative expressions borrowed 
from natural objects. Check, from check or check-mate 
in the game of chess, signifies as a verb to exert a re- 
strictive power ; curb, from the curb, by which horses 
are kept in, signifies in like manner, acoercive restrain 
ing; control is probably contracted from counter-roll, 
that is, to turn against an object, to act against it. 

To check is to throw obstacles in the way, to impede 
the course; to curb is to bear down by the direct exer- 
cise of force, to prevent from action; to control is to 
direct and turn the course: the actions of men are 
checked; their feelings are curbed; their actions or 
feelings are controlled. 

External means are employed in checking or con- 
trolling ; external or internal means are employed in 
curbing: men check and control others; they curb 
themselves or others; young people ought always to be 
checked whenever they discover a too forward temper 
in the presence of their superiours or elders; ‘ Devo 
tion, when it does not lie under the check of reason, 1s 
apt to degenerate into enthusiasm.’—Appison. It is 
necessary to curb those who are of an impetuous 
temper ; 

The point of honour has been deem’d of use, 

To teach good manners, and to curd abuse ; 

Admit it true, the consequence is clear, 

Our polished manners are a mask we wear. 
CowPprr. 


It is necessary to keep youth under control, until they 
have within themselves the restrictive power of judge- 
ment to curb their passions, and control their inordinate 
appetites ; 

Whatever private views and passions plead, 

No cause can justify so black a deed ; 

These, when the angry tempest clouds the soul, 

May darken reason and her course control. 

THOMSOX 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


Unlimited power cannot with propriety be intrusted 
to any body of individuals; there ought in every state 
to be a legitimate means of checking those who show a 
disposition to exercise an undue authority ; but to invest 
the people with this office is in fact giving back, into the 
hands of the community, that which for the wisest pur- 
poses was taken from them by the institution of govern- 
ment: it is giving a restraining power to those who 
themselves are most mm want of being restrained; 
whose ungovernable passions require to be curbed by 
the iron arm of power, whose unruly wills require all 
he influence of wisdom and authority to control them. 


TO FORBID, PROHIBIT, INTERDICT, 
PROSCRIBE. 


The for in forbid, from the German ver, is negative, 
signifying to bid not to do; the pro in prohibit, and 
inter in interdict, have both asimilarly negative sense: 
the former verb, from haveo to have, signifies to have or 
hold that a thing shall not be done, to restrain from 
doing ; the latter, from dico to say, signifies to say that 
a thing shall not be done. 

Forbid is the ordinary term; prohibit is the judicial 
term; dnterdict the moral term. 

To forbid is a direct and personal act ; to prohzbit is 
an indirect action that operates by means of extended 
influence: both imply the exercise of power or authority 
of an individual ; but the former is more applicable to 
the power of an individual, and the latter to the autho- 
rityof government. A parent forbids his child marry- 
ing when he thinks proper; ‘The father of Constantia 
was so incensed. at the father of Theodosius that he 
forbade the son his house.’—Appison. The govern- 

‘ment prohibits the use of spirituous liquors; ‘I think 
that all persons (that is, quacks) should be prohibited 
from curing their incurable patients by act of parlia- 
ment.—HawkKEsworTH. Interdict is a species of 
(ee applied to more serious concerns ; we may 
e interdicted the use of wine by a physician; ‘It is not 
to be desired that morality should be considered as 
interdicted to all future writers.’-—JoHNSON. 

A thing is forbidden by a command; it is prohibited 
by a law: hence that which is immoral is forbidden by 
the express word of God; that which is illegal is pro- 
hibited by the laws of man. We are forbidden in the 
Scripture from even indulging a thought of committing 
evil; itis the policy of every government to prohibit 
the importation and exportation of such commodities 
as are likely to affect the internal trade of the country.* 
To forbid or interdict are opposed to command ; to pro- 
hébit, to allow. As nothing is forbidden to Christians 
which is good and just in itself, so nothing is com- 
manded that is hurtful and unjust; the same cannot be 
said of the Mahometan or any other religion. As no 
one is prohibited in our own country from writing that 
which can tend to the improvement of mankind; so on 
the other hand he is not allowed to indulge his private 
malignity by the publication of injurious personalities. 

Forbid and interdict, as personal acts, are properly 
applicable to persons only, but by an improper applica- 
tion are extended to things; prohibit, however, in the 
general sense of restraining, is applied with equal pro- 
priety to things as to persons: shame forbids us doing 
a thing ; : 


Life's span forbids us to extend our cares, 
And stretch our hopes beyond our years. 
CREECH. 


Law, authority, and the like, prohibit ; ‘Fear prohibits 
endeavours by infusing despair of success.’—JoHNSON. 
Nature interdicts ; 


Other ambition nature interdicts.—Younae. 


Proseribe, in Latin proscribo, signified originally to 
offer for sale, and also to outlaw a person, but is now 
employed either in the political or moral sense of con- 
demning capitally or utterly, whence it has been ex- 
tended in its application to signify the absolutely for- 
bidding to be used or held as to proscribe a name or a 
doctrine ; ‘Some utterly proscribe the name of chance, 
es a word of impious and profane. signification.’ — 
SouTn. 


* Vide Trusler: “To forbid, prohibit.” 


223 


TO DECIDE, DETERMINE, CCNCLUDE UPON 


The idea of bringing a thing to an end is common to 
the signification of allthese words; but decide expresses 
more than determine, and determine more than conclude 
upon; to decide, from the Latin decido, compounded of 
de and cedo, signifying to cut off or cut short a busi- 
ness; and determine, from the Latin determino, com- 
pounded of de and terminus a berm or boundary, signi- 
fying to fix the boundary, are both employed in maiters 
relating to ourselves or others; conclude, from the 
Latin concludo, signifying to make the mind up toa 
thing, is employed in matters that respect the parties 
only who conclude. As it respects others, to decide is 
an act of greater authority than to determine: a parent 
decides for his child; a subordinate person may deter- 
mine sometimes for those who are under him in the 
absence of hissuperiours. In all cases, to decide is an 
act of greater importance than to determine. The na- 
ture and character of a thing is decided upon: its limits 
or extent are determined on. <A judge decides on the 
law and equity of the case; the jury determine as to the 
guilt or innocence of the person. Anindividual decides 
in his own mind on any measure, and the propriety of 
adopting it; he determznes in his own mind, as to how, 
when, and where it shall be commenced. 

One decides in all matters of question or dispute; one 
determines in al) matters of fact. We decide in order 
to have an opinion; we determine in order to act. In 


complicated cases, where arguments of apparently 


equal weight are offered by men of equal authority, it 


is difficult to decide ; 


With mutual blood th’ Ausonian soil is dyed, 
While on its borders each their claim decide. 
DRYDEN 


When equally feasible plans are offered for our choice, 
we are often led to determine upon one of them from 
trifling motives; ‘Revolutions of state, many times 
make way for new institutions and forms; and often 
determine in either setting up some tyranny at home, 


or bringing in some conquest from abroad.’—TrmPLE 


To determine and conclude are equally practical: but 
determine seems to be more peculiarly the act of an 
individual; conclude may be the act of one or cf many 
We determine by an immediate act of the will: we con- 
clude on a thing by inference and deduction. Caprice 
may often influence in determining ; but nothing is 
concluded on without deliberation and judgement. 
Many things may be determined on which are either 
never put into execution, or remain long unexecuted; 

Eve! now expect great tidings, which perhaps 
Of us will soon determine, or impose 
New laws to be observ’d.— Mit Ton. 


What is concluded on is mostly followed by immediate 
action. To conclude on is properly to come to a final 
determination ; 


Ts it concluded he shall he protector ? 

It is determined, not concluded yet; 

But so it must be, if the king miscarry. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


TO DETERMINE, RESOLVE. 


To determine (v. To decide) is more especially an act 
of the judgement; *to resolve (v. Courage) is an act of 
the will: the former requires examination and choice; 
we determine how or what we shall do: the latter re- 
quires’a firm spfrit; we resolve that we will do what 
we have determined upon. Our determinations should 
be prudent, that they may not cause repentance; our 
resolutions should be fixed, in order to prevent varia- 
tion. There can be no co-operation with a man who 
is undetermined ; it will be dangerous to co-operate 
with a man who is zrresolute. 

In the ordinary concerns of life we have frequent oc- 
casion to determine withoutresolving ; in the discharge 
of our moral duties, or the performance of any office, 
we have occasion to 7esolve without -determining. A 
master determines to dismiss his servant; the servant 
resolves on becoming more diligent. Personal con- 
venience or necessity gives rise to the determination ; 
asense of duty, honour, fidelity, and the like, gives 
birth to the resolution. A traveller determines to take 
acertain route; a learner resolves to conquer ever 


* Vide Abbe Girard: ‘ Decision, resolution ’ 


224 


difficulty in the acquirement of learning. Humour or 
change of circumstances occasions a person to alter his 
determination; timidity, fear, or defect in principle, 
occasions the resolution to waver. Children are not 
capable of determining ; and their best resolutions fall 
before the gratification of the moment. Those who 
determine hastily are frequently under the necessity of 
altering their determinations ; ‘When the mind hovers 
among such a variety of allurements, one had better 
settle ona way of life that is not the very best we might 
have chosen, than grow old without determining our 
choice.—Appison. There are no resolutions so weak 
as those that are made ona sick bed: the return of 
health is quickly succeeded by a recurrence to. our 
former course of life; ‘The resolution of dying to end 
our miseries does not show sucha degree of magna- 
nimity, as a resolution to bear them, and submit to the 
dispensations of Providence.’—A DDISON. 

In matters of science, determine is to fix the mind, or 
to cause it to rest in a certain opinion; to resolve is to 
lay open what is obscure, to clear the mind from doubt 
and hesitation. We determine points of question; we 
resolve difficulties. Itis more difficult to determine in 
matters of rank or precedence than in cases where the 
solid and real interests of men are concerned; ‘We 
pray against nothing but sin, and against evil in general 
(in the Lord’s prayer), leaving it with Omniscience to 
determine what is really such.—Appison. It is the 
business of the teacher to resolve the difficulties which 
are proposed by the scholar; ‘I think there is no great 
difficulty in resolving your doubts. The reasons for 
which you areinclined to visit London are, I think, not 
of sufficient strength to answer the objections.’—Joun- 
30n. Every point is not proved which is determined ; 
nor is every difficulty resolved which is answered. 


TO SOLVE, RESOLVE. 
Solve and resolve both come from the Latin solva, in 


Greek \Jvw, in Hebrew Sy to loosen. 

Between solve and resolve there is no considerable 
difference either in sense or application: the former 
seems merely tospeak of unfolding, ina general manner, 
that which is wrapped up in obscurity: to resolve is 
rather to unfold it by the particular method of carrying 
ene back to first principles; we solve a problem, and 
resolve a difficulty ; 


Something yet of doubt remains, 
Which only thy solution can resolve-—MILToN. 


DECIDED, DETERMINED, RESOLUTE. 


A man who is decided (v. To decide) remains in no 
foubt: he who is determined is uninfluenced by the 
doubts or questions of others: he who is resolute (v. 
To determine, resolve) is uninfluenced by the con- 
sequences of his actions. A decided character is at 
all times essential for a prince or a minister, but par- 
ticularly so in an unsettled period like the present; a 
determined character is essential for a commander, or 
any one who has-to exercise authority; a resolute 
character is essential for one who has engaged in dan- 
gerous enterprises. Pericles was aman of a decided 
temper, which was well fitted to direct the affairs of 
government in a season of turbulence and disquietude ; 
‘Aimost all the high-bred republicans of my time 
have, after a short space, become the most decided 
thorough-paced courtiers.—Burxe. ‘Titus Manlius 
Torquatus displayed himself to be a man of a deter- 
mined character, when he put to death his victorious 
son for a breach of military discipline ; 


A race determined, that to death contend; 
So fierce these Greeks their last retreats defend. 
PopE. 

Brutus, the murderer of Cesar, wasa man of a resolute 
temper; ‘Most of the propositions we think, reason, 
discourse, nay, act upon, are such as we cannot have 
undoubted knowledge of their truth; yet some of them 
border so near upon certainty that we make no doubt 
at all about them; but assent to them as firmly, and 
vact according to that assent as resolutely, as if they 
were infallibly demonstrated.’,—Lockg. 


DECIDED, DECISIVE. 


Decided marks that which is actually decided: deci- 
sine that which appertains to decision. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


only for things. A person’s aversion or attachment is 
decided ; a sentence, a judgement, or a victory, is de- 
cistve. A man of a decided character always adopts 
decisive measures. It is right to be decidedly averse 
to every thing which is immoral: we should be cau 
tious not to pronounce déciszvely on any point where 
we are not perfectly clear and well grounded in our 
opinion. In every popular commotion it is the duty 
of a good subject to take a decided part in favour of 
law and order; ‘ A politick caution, a guarded circum 
spection, were among the ruling principles of our 
forefathers in their most decided conduct.’—Burxke 
Such is thenature of law, that, if it were not decisive, 
it would be of no value; ‘The sentences of superiour 
judges are final, decisive, and irrevoeable.’—Buack- 
STONE. 


Decided is employed for persons or things; aeczseve 


—_—_—— 


DECISION, JUDGEMENT, SENTENCE. 


Decision signifies literally the act of deciding, or the 
thing decided upon (v. To decide) ; judgement signifies 
the act of judging or determining in general (v. To 
decide); sentence, in Latin sententia, signifies the 
opinion held or maintained, , 

~ These terms, though very different in their original 
meaning, are now employed so that the two latter are 
species of the former; a final conclusion of any busi- 
ness is comprehended in them all: but the decision 
conveys none of the collateral ideas which are expressed 
by judgement and sentence: a decision has no respect 
to the agent; it may be said of one or many; it may 
be the decision of a court of law, of the nation, of the 
publick, of a particular body of men, or of a private 
individual: but a judgement is given in a publick 
court, or among private individuals: a sentence is 
passed in a court of law, or at the bar of the publick. 

A «decision specifies none of the circumstances of 
the action; it may be a legal or an arbitrary decision ; 
it may be a decision according to one’s caprice, or 
after mature deliberation: a judgement is always 
passed either in a court of law, and consequently by 
virtue of authority; or it is passed by an individual 
by the authority of his own judgement: a sentence is 
always passed by the authority of law, or the will of 
the publick. 

A decision respects matters of dispute or litigation; 
it puts an end to all question; ‘he decisions of the 
judges, in the several courts of justice, are the prin- 
cipal and most authoritative evidence that can be given 
of the existence of such a custom as shall form a part 
of the common law.’—BLacKsTonE. A judgement 
respects the guilt or innocence, the moral excellence 
or defects, of a person; ‘It is the greatest folly to seek 
the praise or approbation of any being besides the Su- 
preme Being ; because no other being can make a right 
judgement of us..—Appison. A sentence respects the 
punishment or consequent fate of the object: ‘The 
guilty man has an honour for the judge, who with 
justice pronounces against him the sentence of death 
itself’—Sruute. Some questions are of so compli 
cated a nature, that it is not possible to bring them to 
a decision; men are forbidden by the Christian reli- 
gion to be severe in their judgements on one another ; 
the works of an author must sometimes await the sen- 
tence of impartial posterity before their value can be 
duly appreciated. 


—__ 


FINAL, CONCLUSIVE. 


Final, in French final, Latin jinalis, from finis the 
end, signifies having an end; conclusive, as in the 
preceding article, signifies shutting up, or coming to a 
conclusion. 

Final designates siinply the circumstance of being 
the last; conclusive the mode of finishing or coming 
to the last: a determination is final which is to be 
succeeded by no other ; ‘Neither with us in England 
hath there been (till very lately) any final determina- 
tion upon the right of authors at the common law.’— 
BuLacksTong. A reasoning is conclusive that puts a 
stop to farther question; ‘I hardly think ‘the example 
of Abraham’s complaining, that, unless he had some 
children of his body, his steward Eliezer of Damascus 
would be his heir, is quite conclusive to show that he 
made him so by will’—Buacxsrong. The final i. 

i arbitrary ; it depends upon the will to make it 80 oa 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


not; the conclusize ts relative; it depends upon the 
circumstances and the understa:iding. a person gives 
a final answer at option; but, in order to make an 
answer conclusive, it must be satisfactory to all parties. 


CONCLUSIVE, DECISIVE, CONVINCING. 


Conclusive applies either to practical or argumenta- 
tive matters; decisive to what is practical only ; con- 
vincing to what is argumentative only. : 

It is necessary to be conclusive when we deliberate, 
and decisive when we command. What is conclusive 
puts an end to all discussion, and determines the 
judgement; ‘I will not disguise that Dr. Bentley, 
whose criticism is so conclusive for the forgery of those 
tragedies quoted by Plutarch, is of opinion “ ‘Thespis 
himself published nothing in writing.” ’—CUMBERLAND. 
What is decisive puts an end to all wavering, and de- 
termines the will; ‘Is it not somewhat singular that 
Young preserved, without any palliation, this pretace 
(to his Satire on Women) so bluntly decisive in favour 
of laughing at the world, in the same collection of his 
works which contains the mournful, angry, gloomy, 
Nicht Thoughts ??—Crorr. Negotiators have some- 
times an interest in not speaking conclusively ; com- 
manders can never retain their authority without 
speaking decisively ; conclusive, when compared to 
convincing, is general; the latter is particular: an ar- 
gument is convincing, achain of reasoning conclusive. 
There may be much that is convincing, where there is 
nothing conclusive: a proof may be convincing of a 
particular circumstance ; but conclusive evidence will 
dear upon the main question; ‘That religion is essen- 
tial to the welfare of man, can be proved by the most 
convincing arguments.’—BLaIR. 


‘CRITERION, STANDARD. 


Criterion, in Greek xprriprov, from Kpivw to judge, 
signifies the mark or sule by which one may judge; 
standard, from the verb to stand, signifies the point 
at which one must stand, or beyond which one must 
not go. 

The criterion is employed only in matters of judge- 
ment; the standard is used in the ordinary concerns 
of life. The former serves for determining the cha- 
racters and qualities of things; the latter for defining 
quantity and measure. ‘I'he language and manners of 
# person is the best criterion for forming an estimate 
of his station and education ; 


But have we then no law besides our will, 

No just criterion fix’d to good or ill? 

As well at noon we may obstruct our sight, 

Then doubt if such a thing exists as light. 
JENYNS. 


{n order to produce a uniformity in the mercantile 
transactions of mankind, one with another, it is the 
custom of government to set up a certain standard for 
the regulation of coins, weights, and measures. 

The word standard may likewise be used figura- 
tively in the same sense. The Bible is a standard of 
excellence, both in morals and religion, which cannot 
be too closely followed. It is impossible to have the 
same standard in tie arts and sciences, because all 
our performances fall short of perfection, and will 
admit of improvement ; 

Rate not th’ extension of the human mind, 

By the plebeian standard of mankind.—Jenyns. 


TO CONFIRM, CORROBORATE. 


Confirm, in French confirmer, Latin confirmo, which 
is compounded of con and firmo or firmus, signifying 
to make additionally firm ; corroborate, in Latin corro- 
boratus, participle of corrobore, compounded of cor or 
con and roboro to strengthen, signifies to add to the 
strength. 

The idea of strengthening is common to these terms, 
but under different circumstances: confirm is used 
generally; corroborate only in particular instances. 

What confirms serves to confirm the minds of others: 
‘There is an Abyssinian here who knew Mr. Bruce 
at Givender. I have examined him, and he confirms 
Mr. Bruce’s account.’—Sir Wma. Jones. What cor- 
rohorates strengthens one’s self; ‘The secrecy.of this 
conterence very “uch favours my conjecture, that 

15 


e 


225 


Augustus made an attempt to persuade T berius from 
holding on the empire; and the length of time it took 
up corroborates the probability of that conjecture.’ - 
CumBrerLanp. A testimony may be confirmed or cor 
roborated ; but all doubt is removed by a conyirmation , 
the persuasion is strengthened by a corroboration ; 
when the truth of a person’s assertions is called in 
question, it is fortunate for him when circumstances 
present themselves that confirm the truth of what he 
has said, or, if he have respectable friends, to corrobo- 
rate his testimony. 


TO CONFIRM, ESTABLISH. 


Confirm (v. To confirm, corroborate) ; establish, from 
the word stadle, signifies to make stable or able to 
stand. 

The idea of strengthening is common to these as to 
the former terms, but with a different application: 
confirm respects the state of a person’s mind, and 
whatever acts upon the mind; establish is employed 
with regard to whatever is external: a report is con 
jirmed ; a reputation is established: a person is con- 
firmed in the persuasion or belief of any truth or cir 
cumstance ; 


Trifles, light as air, 
Are to the jealous, confirmations strong 
As proofs of Holy Writ.—SuHaksPEaRE 


Athing is established in the publick estimation, or 
a principle is established in the mind; ‘ The silk 
worm, after having spun her task, lays her eggs and 
dies ; but a man can never have taken in his full mea- 
sure of knowledge, has not time to subdue his pas- 
sions, or establish his soul in virtue, and. come up to 
the perfection of his nature, before he is hurried off 
the stage..— ADDISON. 

The mind seeks its own means of confirming itself ; 
things are established either by time or authority: no 
person should be hasty in giving credit to reports that 
are not fully confirmed, nor in giving support to mea 
sures that are not established upon the surest grounds‘ 
a reciprocity of good offices serves to confirm an alli 
ance, or a good understanding between people anc 
nations; interest or reciprocal affection serve to esta- 
blish_an intercourse between individuals, which has 
perhaps, been casually commenced. 


UNDETERMINED, UNSETTLED, 
UNSTEADY, WAVERING. 


Undetermined (v. To determine,) is a temporary 
state of the mind; unsettled is commonly more lasting ; 
we are undetermined in the ordinary concerns of life; 
we are unsettled in matters of opinion: we may be 
undetermined whether we shall go or stay; we are 
unsettled in our faith or religious profession ; ‘Uncer 
tain and unsettled as Cicero was, he seems fired with 
the contemplation of immortality. —Prarss. 

Undetermined and unsettled are applied to parti- 
cular objects; unsteady and wavering are habitsof the 
mind: to be unsteady is, in fact, to be habitually unset- 
tled in regard to all objects. An unsettled character is 
one that has no settled principles: an wnsteady cha 
racter has an unfitness in himself to settle; ‘ You will 
find soberness and truth in the proper teachers of reli- 
gion, and much uwnsteadiness and vanity in others,’— 
Earn Wentwortnu. Undetermined describes one 
uniform state of mind, namely, the want of deter- 
mination : wavering describes a changeable state, 
namely, the state of determining variously at different 
times. Undetermined is always taken in an indif- 
ferent, wavering mostly in a bad, sense: we may fre- 
quently be undetermined from the nature of the case, 
which does not present motives for determining; ‘ We 
suffer the last part of life to steal from us in weak 
hopes of some fortuitous occurrence or drowsy equi- 
librations of undetermined counsel.’—JoHNsoN. 
person is mostly wavering from a defect in his cha-— 
racter, in cases where he might determine ; 


Yet such, we find, they are as can control 
The servile actions of our wav ring soul. 
PRIOR. 


A parent may with reason be undetermined as to the 
line of life which fae shall choose for his aan; men of 


226 ENGLISH 


soft and timid characters are always wavering in the 
most trivial, as well as the most important, concerns 
of life. 


— 


CONSTANCY, STABILITY, STEADINESS, 
FIRMNESS. 


Constancy, in French constance, Latin constantia, 
from constans and consto, compounded of con and sto 
to stand by or close to a thing, signifies the quality of 
adhering to the thing that has been once chosen; sta- 
bility, in French stabilité, Latin stabilitas, from sta- 
bilis and sto to stand, signifies the abstract quality of 
being able to stand; steadiness, from steady or staid, 
Saxon stetig, high German stdtig, Greek oraSog and 
isnue to stand, signifies a capacity for standing ; firm- 
ness, signifies the abstract quality of firm. 

Constancy respects the affections; stabzlity the opi- 
nions ; steadiness the action or the motives of action ; 
firmness the purpose or resolution. 

* Constancy prevents from changing, and furnishes 
the mind with resources against weariness or disgust 
of the same object; it preserves and supports an 
attachment under every change of circumstances ; 
‘Without constancy there is neither love, friendship, 
nor virtue in the world.’—Appison. Stability pre- 
vents from varying, it bears up the mind against the 
movements of levity or curiosity, which a diversity of 
objects might produce; ‘ With God there is no varia- 
bleness, with man there is no stability. Virtue and 
vice divide the empire of his mind, and wisdom and 
folly alternately rule him.’—Biair. Steadiness pre- 
vents from deviating; it enables the mind to bear up 
against the influence of humour, which temperament 
or outward circumstances might produce; it fixes on 
one course and keeps to it; ‘ A manly steadiness of 
conduct is the object we are always to keep in view.’ 
—Buair. Firmness prevents from yielding; it gives 
the mind strength against all the attacks to which it 
may be exposed ; it makes a resistance, and comes off 
triumphant; ‘ A corrupted and guilty man Can possess 
no true firmness of izeart.’—BLarr. 

Constancy, among lovers and friends, is the favourite 
theme of poets; the world has, however, afforded but 
few originals from which they could copy their pic- 
tures: they have mostly described what is desirable 
rather than what is real. Stability of character is 
essential for those who are to command; for how can 
they govern others who cannot govern their own 
thoughts? Steadiness of deportment is a great re- 
commendation to those who have to obey: how can 
any one perform his part well who suffers himself to 
be perpetually interrupted 2 Firmness of character is 
indispensable in the support of principles: there are 
many occasions in which this part of a man’s cha- 
racter is likely to be put to a severe test. 

Constancy is opposed to fickleness; stability to 
changeableness; steadiness to flightiness ; firmness to 
pliancy. 


FIRM, FIXED, SOLID, STABLE. 


Firm,in French férme, Latin firmus, comes from 
fero to bear, signifying the quality of bearing, up- 
holding, or keeping ; fixed denotes the state of being 
fived: solid, in Latin solidus, comes from solum the 
ground, which is the most solid thing existing; stadle, 
in Latin stabilis, from sto, signifies the quality of 
being able to stand. 

That is firm which is not easily shaken; that is 
fixed which is fastened to something else, and not 
easily torn; that is solid which is able to bear, and 
does not easily give way; that is stable which is able 
to make a stand against resistance, or the effects of 
time. A pillar which is firm on its base, fired to a 
wall made of solid oak, is likely to be stable. A man 
stands firm in battle who does not flinch from the at- 
tack: he is fixed to a spot by the order of his com- 
mander. An army of firm men form a solid mass, 
and, by their heroism, may deserve the most stable 
monument that can be erected ; 


{n one firm orb the bands were rang’d around, 
A cloud of heroes blacken’d all the ground. 


Pore. 


* Girard: “ Stabilité, constance, fermeté.” 


SYNONYMES. 


Unmev’d and silent, the whole war they wa « 
Serenely dreadful, and as fiz’d as fate.—Poprx. 


In the moral sense, firmness respects the purpose, 
or such actions as depend on the purpose; fized i ase 
either for the mind, or for outward circumsiances’ 
solid is applicable to things in general, in an absalute 
sense; stable is applicable to things in a relative sense. 
Decrees are more or less firm, according to the source 
from which they spring; none are firm, compare 
with those which arise from the will of the Almighty: 


The man that’s resolute and just 
Firm to his principles and trust, 
Nor hopes nor fears can bind.—W/aLsu. 


Laws are fixed in proportion as they are connectes 
with a constitution in which it is difficult to innovate, 
‘One loves fied laws, and the other arbitrary power.’ 
—Temrpue. That which is solid isso of its own na 
ture, but does not admit of degrees: a solid reasor 
has within itself an independent property, which can 
not be increased or diminished ; 


But these fantastick errours of our dream 
Lead us to solid wrong.—Cowtey. 


That which is stable is so by comparison with tha 
which is of less duration; the characters of some men 
are more stable than those of others; youth will noi 
have so stable a character as manhood; ‘The pros 
perity of no man on earth is stable and assured.’—- 
Bair. 

A friendship is firm when it does not depend upon 
the opinion of others: it is fixed when the choice is 
made and grounded in the mind; it is solid when it 
rests on the only solid basis of accordancy in virtue 
and religion; it is stable when it is not liable to de 
crease or die away with time. 


HARD, FIRM, SOLID. 


The close adherence of the component parts of a 
body constitutes hardness. The close adherence of 
different bodies to each other constitutes firmness (v- 
Fixed). That is hard which will not yield to a closer 
compression; that 1s firm which will not yield so as to 
produce a separation. Ice is hard, as far as it respects 
itself, when it resists every pressure ; it is firm, with 
regard to the water which it covers, when it is so 
closely bound as to resist every weight without 
breaking. 

Hard and solid respect the internal constitution of 
bodies, and the adherence of the component parts; 
but hard denotes a much closer degree of adherence 
than solid: the hard is opposed to the soft; the soled 
to the fluid; every hard body is by nature solid ; al- 
though every sulid body is not hard. Wood is always 
a solid body, but it is sometimes hard, and sometimes 
soft; water, when congealed, is a solid body, and ad- 
mits of different degrees of hardness. 

In the improper application, hardness is allied to 
insensibility: firmness to fixedness; solidity to sub- 
stantiality: a hard man is not to be acted upon by 
any tender motives; a jirm man is not to be turned 
from his purpose; a solid man holds no purposes that 
are not well founded. A man is hardened in that 
which is bad, by being made insensible-to that which 
is good; aman Is confirmed in any thing good or bad, 
by being rendered less disposed to lay it aside; his 
mind is consolidated by acquiring fresh motives for 
action. 


TO FIX, FASTEN, STICK. 


Fix (v. To fix, settle); fasten isto make fast; stick 
is to make to stick. 

Fix is u generick term; fasten and stick are but 
modes of jfizing. we fiz whatever we make to remain 
in a given situation; we fasten if we fiz it firmly: we 
stick when we fiz a thing by means of sticking. A 
post is fixed in the ground; it is fastened to a wall by 
a nail; it is stuck to another board by means of glue, 
Shelves are jized: a horse is fastened to a gate: bills 
are stuck up. What is fived may be removed in 
various ways; 

On mules and dogs the infection first began, 

And fast the vengeful arrows jiz’d in man.+-Poprs 


What is fastened is removed by main force ; 


ENGLISH 


As te bold hound that gives the lion chase, 
With beating bosom, and with eager pace, 
Hangs on his haunch, or fastens on his hews, 
Guards as he turns, and circles as he eed 
OPE. 


What is stuck must be separated by contrivance ; 


Some lines more moving than the rest, 
Stuck to the point that piere’d her breast.—Swirr. 


TO FIX, SETTLE, ESTABLISH. 


To fiz, in Latin fizum, perfect of figo, and in Greek 
mfyw, signifies simply to make to Keep its place ; settle, 
which is a frequentative of sez, signifies to make to 
sit or be at rest; establish, from the Latin stadilis, 
signifies to make stable or keep its ground. 

Fiz is the general and indefinite term; to settJe and 
establish are to fix strongly. Fa and setéle are ap- 
plied either to material or spiritual objects, establish 
only to moral objects. A post may be jfixzed in the 
ground in any manner, but it requires time for it to 
settle ; 


Hell heard the insufferable noise, hell saw 

Heaven running from heav’n, and would have fled 
Aftrighted, but that fate had jfiz’d too deep 

Her dark foundations.—MILTon. 


Warm’d in the brain the brazen weapon lies, 
And shades eternal settle o’er his eyes.—Pope. 


\ person may either fiz himself, settle himself, or 
establish himself: the first case refers simply to his 
taking up his abode, or choosing a certain spot; the 
second refers to his permanency of stay; and the 
third to the business which he raises or renders per- 
manent. 

The same distinction exists between these words in 
their farther application to the conductof men. We 
may fiz one or many points, important or unimportant, 
itis a mere act of the will; we settle many points of 
importance; it is an act of deliberation: thus we fiz 
the day and hour of doing a thing; we settle the affairs 
of our family ; 


While wavering councils thus his mind engage, 
Fluctuates in doubtful thought the Pylian sage, 
To join the host or to the gen’ral haste, 
Debating long, he fizes on the last.—Poprs. 


Justice submitted to what Abra pleas’d, 

Her will alone could settle or revoke, 

And law was fixed by what she latest spoke. 
Prior. 


So likewise to fiz is properly the act of one; to settle 
may be the joint act of many: thus a parent jizes on 
a business for his child, or he settles the marriage con- 
tract with another parent. To fiz and settle are per- 
sonal acts, and the objects are mostly of a private 
nature, but to establish is an indirect action, and the 
object mostly of a public nature: thus we fiz our opi- 
nions; we settle our minds; or we are instrumental in 
establishing laws, institutions, and the like. It is 
much to be lamented that any one should remain wn- 
settled in his faith; and still more so, that the best 
form of faith is not universally established ; ‘ A pam- 
phiet that talks of slavery, France, and the pretender ; 
they desire no more; it will settle the wavering and 
confirm the doubtful.—Swirr. ‘I would establish 
but one general rule to be observed in all conversation, 
which is this, that men should not talk to please them- 
selves, but those that hear them,’—STEL.e. 


TO FIX, DETERMINE, SETTLE, LIMIT. 


To fiz, as in the preceding article, is here the general 
term ; to determine (v.To decide) ; to settle (v. To fiz) ; 
to limit (v. To bound); are here modes of fixing. 
They all denote the acts of conscious agents, but differ 
in the object and circumstances of the action: we may 
fiz any object by any means, and to any point, we may 
fix material objects or spiritual objects, we may either 
fiz by means of our senses, or our thoughts; but we 
can determine only by means of our thoughts. To 
fiz, in distinction from the rest, is said in regard to a 
single point or a line; but to determine is always said 
of one or more points, or a whole: we fiz where a 
thing shall begin; but we determine where it shall 
begin, and where it shall end, which way, and how 


SYNONYMES. 227 


far it shall go, and the like: thus, we may jiz our eye 
upon a star, or we fiz our minds upon a particular 
branch of astronomy; ‘In a rotund, whether it be a 
building or a plantation, you can no where fiz a boun- 
dary.—Burxke. We determine the distance of the 
heavenly bodies, or the specific gravity of bodies, and 
the like, upon philosophical principles. So in morals 
we may fiz our minds on an object; but we determine 
the mode of accomplishing it; ‘ Your first care must 
be to acquire the power of fizing your thoughts.’— 
Buair. ‘More particularly to determine the proper 
season for grammar, I do not see how it can be made 
astudy, but as an introduction to rhetorick.’—Lockg. 

Determine is to settle asa means to the end; we 
commonly determine all subordinate matters, in order 
to settle a matter finally: thus, the determination of a 
single cause will serve to settle all other differences. 
‘ One had better settle on a way of life that is not the 
very best we might have chosen, than grow old with- 
out determining our choice.—Appison. The deter- 
mination respects the act of the individual who fizes 
certain points and brings them to a term; the settle- 
ment respects simply the conclusion of the affair, or 
the termination of all dispute and question; ‘ Religion 
settles the pretensions and otherwise interfering in 
terests of mortal men.’—AppDISoN. 


How can we bind or limit his decree 
But what our ear has heard or eye may see ? 
PRIOR. 

To determine and limit both signify to fiz bounda- 
ries; but the former respects, for the most part, such 
boundaries or terms as are formed by the nature of 
things; ‘ No sooner have they climbed that hill, which 
thus determines their view at a distance, but a new 
prospect is opened..—ATTERBURY. 


No mystic dreams could make their fates appear, 
Though now determin’d by Tydides’ spear.—Porsg. 


Limit, on the other hand, is the act of a conscious 
agent employed upon visible objects, and the process 
of the action itself is rendered visible, as when we 
limit a price, or limit our time, &c. 


TO COMPOSE, SETTLE. 


Compose, in Latin composui, perfect of compono to 
put together, signifies to put in due order; in which 
sense it is allied to settle. 

We compose that which has been disjointed and 
separated, by bringing it together again; we settle that 
which has been disturbed and put in motion, by mak 
ing it rest: we compose the thoughts which have been 
deranged and thrown into confusion ; 


Thy presence did each doubtful heart compose, 
And factions wonder’d that they once arose. 


TICKELL. 


We settle the mind which has been fluctuating and 
distracted by contending desires ; 


Perhaps my reason may but ill defend 
My settled faith, my mind with age impair’d. 
SHENSTONE. 
The mind must be composed before we can think 
justly ; it must be scttled before we can act consist 
ently. 

We compose the differences of others: we settle our 
own differences with others: it is difficult to compose 
the quarrels of angry opponents, or to settle the dis. 
putes of obstinate partisans. 


COMPOSED, SEDATE. 


Composed expresses the state of being composed (v. 
To compose) ; sedate, in Latin sedatus, participle of 
sedo to settle, signifies the quality of being settled. 

Composed respects the air and looks externally, and 
the spirits internally ; sedate relates to the deportmen 
or carriage externally, and the fixedness of the pur- 
pose internally : composed is opposed to ruffled or hur- 
ried, sedate to buoyant or volatile. 

Composure 1s a particular state of the mind; sedate- 
ness is an habitual frame of mind; a part of the-cha- 
racter: a composed mien is very becoming in the sea- 
son of devotion; ‘Upon her nearer approach to Her 
cules she stepped before the other lady, who caine for 
ward with aregular composed carriage.’~-ADDISON 


228 


A sedate tarr age is becoming in youth who are en- 
gaged in serious concerns ; 


Let me associate with the serious night, 
And contemplation, her sedate compeer. 
THOoMsoNn. 


od 


TO ASK, OR ASK FOR, CLAIM, DEMAND. 


To ask, is here taken for something more than a 
simple expression of wishes, as denoted in the article 
under To ask, beg; claim, in Latin clamo to cry after, 
signifies to express an imperious wish for; demand, 
in French demander, Latin demando, compounded of 
de and mando, signifies to call for imperatively. 

Ask, in the sense of beg, is confined to the expression 
of wishes on the part of the asker, without involving 
any obligation on the part of the person asked; all 
granted in this case is voluntary, or complied with as a 
favour: but ask for in the sense here taken is involun- 
tary, and springs from the forms and distinctions of 
society. Ask is here, as before, generick or specifick ; 
claim and demand are specifick; in its specifick sense 
it conveys a less peremptory sense than either claim or 
demand. 'To ask for denotes simply the expressed 
wish to have what is considered as due; 


Virtue, with them, is only to abstain 
From all that nature asks, and covet pain. 
JENYNS. 


To clavm is to assert a right, or to make it known; 


My country claims me all, claims ev’ ry passion. 
Marryn. 


Even mountains, vales, 
And forests, seem impatient to demand 
The promis’d sweetness. THOMSON. 


Asking respects obligation in general, great or 
small; claim respects obligations of importance. Ask- 
ing for supposes a right, not questionable; claim sup- 
poses a right hitherto unacknowledged; demand sup- 
poses eitner a disputed right, or the absence of all 
right, and the simple determination to have: a trades- 
man asks for what is owing to him as circumstances 
may require; a person claims the property he has lost; 
people are sometimes pleased to make demands, the 
legality of which cannot be proved. What is lent 
must be asked for when it is wanted ; whatever has 
been lost and is found must be recovered by a claim ; 
whatever a selfish person wants, he strives to obtain 
by a demand, whether just or unjust. 


TO DEMAND, REQUIRE. 


To demand, is here taken in the same sense as in the 
preceding article; require, in Latin reguiro, com- 
pounded of 7e and quero, signifies to seek for, or to 
seek to get back. 

We demand that which is owing and ought to be 
given; we-require that which we wish and expect to 
have done. A demand is more positive than a requt- 
sition; the former admits of no question; the latter is 
liable to be both questioned and refused: the creditor 
makes a demand on the debtor; the master requires 
a certain portion of duty from his servant: itis unjust 
to demand of a person what he has no right to give; 


To demand is to insist 9») having without the liberty | 
Hear, all ye Trojans! all ye Grecian bands, 
What Paris, author of the war, demands. 


of a refusal; 
Popr. 


[t is unreasonable to require of a person what it is not 


in his power to do; 


Now, by my sov’reign and his fate I swear, 

Renown’d for faith in peace, and force in war, 

Oft our alliance other lands desir’d, 

And what we seek of you, of us requir'd. 
DRYDEN. 


A thing is commonly demanded in express words; it 
is required by implication: a person demands admit- 
tance when it is not voluntarily granted; he requires 
respectful deportment from those who are subordinate 
to him. 

In the figurative application the same sense is pre- 
served: things of urgency and moment demand imme- 
diate attention ; ‘Surely the retrospect of life and the 
extirpation of lusts and appetites, deeply rooted and 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


widely spread, may be allowed to demandsome secession 
from business and folly. —Jounson. Difficult matters 
require a steady attention; 


Oh then how blind to all that truth requires, 
Who think it freedom when a part aspires. 
GOLDSMITH 


RIGHT, CLAIM, PRIVILEGE. 


Right signifies in this sense what it is right for one 
to possess, which is in fact a word of largé meaning: 
for since the r7ght and the wrong depend upon inde 
terminable questions, the right of having is equally 
indeterminable in some cases with every other species 
of right.. A claim (v.To ask for) is a species of right 
to have that which is in the hands of another; the 
right to ask another for it. The privilege is a speciza 
of right peculiar to particular individuals or bodies. 

Right, in its fullsense, is altogether an abstract thing 
whiten is independent of human laws and regulations ; 
claims and privileges are altogether connected with the 
establishments of civil society. 

Liberty, in the general sense, is an unalienable right 
which belongs to man as a rational and -responsible 
agent ; it is not a claim, for it is set above all question, 
and all condition; nor is it a privilege, for it cannot be 
exclusively granted to one being, nor uncorditionally be 
taken away from another. 

Between the right and the power there is often as 
wide a distinction as between truth and falsehood ; we 
have often a right to do that which we have no power 
to do, and the power to do that which we have no right 
to do; slaves have a right to the freedom which is en 
joyed by all other creatures of the same species with 
themselves, but they have not the power to use this 
freedom as othersdo. In England men have the power 
of thinking for themselves as they please: but, by the 
abuse which they make of this power, we see that, in 
many cases, they have not the right, unless we admit 
the contradiction that men have a right to do what is 
wrong; they have the power therefore of exercising . 
this right only, because no other person has the legal 
right of controlling them ; 


In ev’ry street a city bard 
Rules, like an alderman, his ward: 
His undisputed rights extend 
Through all the lane from end to end.—Swirt. 


We have often a claim to a thing, which it is not in our 
power to substantiate; and, on the other hand,.claims 
are set up in cases which are totally unfounded on any 
right ; 

Whence is this pow’r, this fondness of all arts, 
Serving, adorning life through all its parts; 

Which names impos’d, by letters mark’d those nanes, 
Adjusted properly by legal claims ?—Jenyns. 


Privileges are rights granted to individuals, depending 
either upon the will of the granter, or the circumstances 
of the receiver, or both ; privileges are therefore partial 
rights, transferable at the discretion of persons indivi 
dually or collectively ; 


A thousand bards thy rights disown, 
And with rebellious arm pretend, 
An equal privilege to descend.—Swirr 


PRIVILEGE, PREROGATIVE, EXEMPTION 
IMMUNITY. 


Privilege, in Latin privilegium, compoundel of © 
privus and lez, signifies a law made in favour of any 
individual or set of individuals; prerogative, comes 
from the Latin prerogativi,so called from pre and roge 
to ask, because certain Roman tribes, so called, were 
first asked whom they would have to be consuls: hence 
applied in our language to the right of determining or 
choosing first in many particulars; exemption, from the 
verb to exempt, and zmmunity, from the Latin immunis 
free, are both employed for the object from which one 
is exempt or free. 

Privilege and prerogative consist of positive advan: 
tages; exemption and immunity of those which are 
negative: by the former we obtain an actual good, by 
the latter the removal of an evil. 

Privilege, in its most extended sense, comprehendg 
all the rest: for every prerogative, exemption, ané 
immunity, are privileges, inasmuch as they rest upon 
certain laws or customs, which are made for the beneft: 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


of certain individuals; but in the restricted sense the 
privilege is used only for the subordinate parts of 
society, and the prerogative for the superiour orders; 
as they respect the publick, privileges belong to, or are 
granted to, the subject: prerogatives belong} to the 
crown. It is the privilege of a member of parliament 
to escape arrest for debt; it is the prerogative of the 
crown to be irresponsible for the conduct of its minis- 
ters: as respects private cases it is the privilege of 
females to have the best places assigned to them; it is 
the prerogative of the male to address the female. 

Privileges are applied to every object which it is desi- 
rable to have; ‘ As the aged depart from the dignity, so 
they forfeit the privileges of gray hairs.—Buarr. 
Prerogative is confined to the case of making one’s 
election, or exercising any special power; ‘By the 
worst of usurpations, a usurpation on the prerogatives 
of nature, you attempt to force tailors and carpenters 
into the state’—Burkse. Ezemption is applicable to 
cases in which one is exempted from Sy pean or 
payment; ‘ Neither nobility nor clergy (in France) en- 
joyed any exemption from the duty on consumable com- 
modities. —BurkE. Jmmunity, from the Latin munus 
an office, is peculiarly applicable to cases in which one 
is freed from a service: but itis figuratively applied to 
a privileged freedom from any thing painful; ‘ You 
claim an immunity from evil which belongs not to the 
lot of man.’—Buarr. All chartered towns or corpo- 
rations have privileges, exemptions, and immunities : 
it is the privilege of the city of London to shut its 
gates against the king. 


—— 


PRETENSION, CLAIM. 


Pretension (v. To affect) and claim (v. To ask for) 
both signify an assertion of rights, but they differ in the 
nature of the rights. The first refers only to the rights 
which are calculated as such by an individual; the 
latter to those which exist independently of his suppo- 
sition: there cannot therefore be a pretension without 
one to pretend, but there may be a claim without any 
immediate claimant: thus we say a person rests his 
pretension to the crown upon the ground of being de- 
scended from the former king; in hereditary monarchies 
there is no one who hasty claim to the crown except 
the next heir in succession. The pretension is com- 
monly built upon one’s personal merits, or the views of 
one’s own merits; 


But if to unjust things thou dost pretend, 
Ere they begin, let thy pretensions end. 
DENHAM. 


(he claim rests upon the laws of civil society; ‘ Will 
he not therefore, of the two evils, choose the least, by 
submitting to a master who hath no immediate claim 
upon him, rather than to another who hath already 
revived several claims upon him ?_—Swirr. A person 
makes high pretensions who estimates his merits and 
consequent deserts at a high rate; he judges of his 
claims according as they are supported by the laws of 
his country or the circumstances of the case: the pre- 
tension, when denied, can never be proved; the claim, 
when proved, can always be enforced. One is in 
general willing to dispute the pretensions of men who 
make themselves judges in their own cause; but one 
is not unwilling to listen to any claims which are mo- 
destly preferred. Those who make a pretenszon to the 
greatest learning are commonly men of shallow infor- 
mation; ‘It is often charged upon writers, that, with 
all their pretensions to genius and discoveries, they do 
little more than copy one another.’—JouHnson. Those 
who have the most substantial claims to the gratitude 
and respect of mankind are commonly found to be men 
of the fewest pretensions ; 


Poets have undoubted right to claim, 
If not the greatesty tae most lasting name. 
CoNGREVE. 


PRET@NCE, PRETENSION, PRETEXT, 
EXCUSE. 


Pretence comes from pretend (y. To affect) in the 
sense of setting forth any thing independent of our- 
selves. Pretenston comes from the same verb in the 
sense of setting forth any thing that depends upon our- 
selves. The pretence iscommonly a misrepresentation ; 
‘he pretension is frequently a miscalculation ; the pre- 


4 


229 


tence is set forth to conceal what is bad in one s self; the 
pretension is set forth to display what is good: the former 
betrays one’s falsehood, the latter one’s conceit or self- 
importance; the former can never be employed ina 
good sense, the latter may sometimes be employed in 
an indifferent sense: a man of bad character may 
make a pretence of religion by adopting an outward 
profession ; 


Ovid had warn’d her to beware 

Of strolling gods, whose usual trade is, 
Under pretence of taking air, 

To pick up sublunary tadies.—Swirt. 


Men of the least merit often make the highest preten 
sions ; 


Each thinks his own the best pretension.—Gay. 


The pretence and pretext alike consist of what is 
unreal; but the former is not so great a violation of 
truth as the latter: the pretence may consist of truth 
and falsehood blended; the pretext, from pretego to 
cloak or cover over, consists altogether of falsehoads 
the pretence may sometimes serve only to conceal or 
palliate a fault; the pretext serves to hide something 
seriously culpable or wicked: a child may make indis- 
position a pretence for idleness; 


Let not the Trojans, with a feigned pretence 
Of proffer’d peace, delude the Latian prince. 
DrybDeEn. 


A thief makes his acquaintance with the servants a 
pretext for getting admittance into houses; ‘ Justifying 
perfidy and murder for publick benefit, publick benefit 
would soon become the pretext, and perfidy and murder 
the end.’—Burkg. , 

The pretence and excuse (v. To apologise) are both 
set forth to justify one’s conduct in the eyes of others; 
but the pretence always conceals something more or 
less culpable, and by a greater or less violation of 
truth; the excusemay sometimes justify that which is 
justifiable, and with strict regard to truth. To oblige 
one’s self, under the pretence of obliging another, is a 
despicable trick; ‘I should have dressed the whole 
with greater care; but I had little time, which I am 
sure you know tobe morethan pretence..—Wakg. IIl- 
ness is an allowable excuse to justify any omission in 
business ; 


Nothing but love this patience could produce, 
And I allow your rage that kind excuse. 
DRYDEN. 


Although the excuse for the most part supposes what 
is groundless, yet it is moreover distinguished’from the 
pretence, that it never implies an intentional falsehood ; 
‘The last refuge of a guilty person is to take shelter 
under an excuse.’—SoutTu. 


TO AFFECT, PRETEND TO. 


Affect is here taken in the same sense as in the fol- 
lowing article; pretend, in Latin pretendo, that is, pre 
and tendo, signifies to hold or stretch one thing before 
another by way of a blind. 

These terms are synonymous only in the bad sense 
of setting forth to others what is not real: we affect by 
putting on a false air; we pretend by making a false 
declaration. Artis employed in affecting ; assurance 
and self- complacency in pretending. A person affects 
not to hear what it is convenient for him not to answer; 
he pretends to have forgotten what it is convenient for 
him not to recollect. One affects the manners of a 
gentleman, and pretends to gentility of birth. One 
affects the character and habits of a scholar; one pre- 
tends to learning. 

To affect the qualities which we have not spoils those 
which we have; 


Self, quite put off, affects with too much art 
To put on Woodward in each mangled part. 
CHURCHILL 


To pretend to attainments which we have not mude, 
obliges us to have recourse to falsehoods in order to 
escape detection; ‘There is something so natively 
great and good in a person that is truly devout, thad 
an awkward man may as well pretend to be genteel as 
a hypocrite to be pious.’—STrErELE. 


* Vide Trussler “‘ To affect, pretend to.” 


230 


TU AFFECT, ASSUME. 


Affect, in this sense, derives its origin immediately 
from the Latin affecto to desire after eagerly, signifying 
to aim ator aspire after; assume, in Latin assumo, 
compounded of as or ad and sumo to take, signifies to 
take to one’s self. 

To affect is to use forced efforts to appear to have 
some quality; to assume is to appropriate something 
to one’sself. One affects to have fine feelings, and as- 
sumes great importance. ' 

Affectation springs from the desire of appearing 
better than we really are; assumption from the think- 
ng ourselves better than we really are. We affect the 

irtues which we have not: ‘It has been from age to 
age an affectation to love the pleasures of solitude, 
among those who cannot possibly be supposed qualified 
for passing lifein that manner.’—Srrecraror.. We as- 
sume the character which does not belong tous ; 


Laughs not the heart when giants, big with pride, 
Assume the pompous port, the martial part ? 
: CHURCHILL. 


An affected person is always thinking of others; an 
assuming person thinks only of himself. The affected 
man strives to gain applause by appearing to be what 
he is not; the assuming man demands respect upon the 
ground of what he supposes himself tobe. Hypocrisy is 
often the companion of affectation; self-conceit always 
that of assumption. 

To affect is mostly taken in a bad sense, but some- 
times in an indifferent sense; to asswme may be some- 
times an indifferent action at least, if not justifiable. 
Men always affect that which is admired by others, in 
order to gain their applause; ‘ In conversation the medi- 
um is neither to affect silence nor eloquence.’—STERNE. 
Men sometimes asswme an appearance, a name, or an 
authority, which is no more than their just right ; 


This when the various god had urg’d in vain, 
He strait assuz’d his native form again.—PorPr. 


TO APPROPRIATE, USURP, ARROGATE, 
ASSUME, ASCRIBE. 


Appropriate, in French approprier, compounded of 
ep or ad and propriatus, participle of proprio, an old 
verb, from proprius proper or own, signifies to make 
one’s own: usurp, in French usurper, Latin usurpo, 
from wsus use, is a frequentative of utor, signifying to 
make use of as if it were one’s own; a7rogate, in 
Latin arrogatus, participle of arrogo, signifies to ask 
or claim to for one’s self; assume, in French assumer, 
Latin assumo, compounded of as or ad and sumo to 
ake, signifies to take to one’s self; ascribe, in Latin 
ascribo, compounded of as or ad and scribe to write, 
mgnifies here to write down to one’s own account. 

he idea of taking something to one’s self by an act 
of on’s own, is common to all these terms. 

To appropriate is to take to one’s self either with or 
without right; to wsurp is to take to one’s self by vio- 
lence, or in violation of right. Appropriating is ap- 
pried in its proper sense to goods or possessions ; 


To themselves appropriating 
The spirit of God, promis’d alike, and giv’n 
To all believers.—MILTon. 
Usurping is properly applied to power, publick or pri- 
vate; a usurper exercises the functions 9f government 
without a legitimate sanction; ‘ Not hav ing the natural 
superiority of fathers, their power must be wsurped, and 
hen unlawful; or if lawful, then granted or consented 
unto by them over whom they exercise the same, or 
else given them extraordinarily from God.’-—Hooxer. 
Appropriation is a matter of convenience; it springs 
from a selfish concern for ourselves, and a total uncon- 
cern for others: usurpation is a matter of self-indul- 
gence; it springs from an inordinate ambition that is 
gratified only at the expense of others. Appropriation 
seldom requires an effort: a person appropriates that 
which casually fallsinto hishands. Z/surpation mostly 
takes place in a disorganized state of society ; when 
the strongest prevail, the most artful and the most vi- 
cious individual invests himself with the supreme au- 
thority. Appropriation is generally an act of injustice : 
usurpation is always an act of violence. To wsurp is 
applied figuratively in the same sens* ; ‘ If any passion 
hag so much usurped our understanding, as not to suffer 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


us to enjoy advantages with the moderation prescribed 
by reason, it is not too late to apply this remedy : when 
we find ourselves sinking under sorrow, we may then 
usefully revolve the uncertainty of our condition, and 
the folly of lamenting that from which, if it had staid a 
little longer, we should ourselves have been taken 
away.’—Jounson. To appropriate may be applied in 
the sense of assigning to others their own, as well as 
taking to one’s self; ‘ Things sanctified were thereby 
in such sort appropriated unto God, as that they might 
never afterward be made common.’—Hooxer. But 
in this sense it has nothing in common with the word 
usurp. 

Arrogate, assume, and ascribe, denote the taking to 
one’s self, but do not, like appropriate and usurp, imply 
taking from another. rrogate isa more Violent action 
than assume, and assume than ascribe. Arrogate and 
assume are employed either in the proper or figurative 
sense, ascribe only in the figurative sense. We arro- 
gate distinctions, honours, and titles; we asswme 
names, rights, privileges. 

In the moral sense we arrogate pre-eminence, assume 
importance, ascribe merit. To arrogate is a species 
of moral usurpation; it isalways accompanied with 
haughtiness and contempt for others: that 1s arrog ated 
to one’s self to which one has not thesmallest title: an 
arrogant temper is one of the most odious features in 
the human character; it is a compound of folly and 
insolence; ‘ After having thus ascribed due honour to 
birth and parentage, I must however take notice of 
those who arrogate to themselves more honours than 
are due to them on this account.’—Appison. To as- 
sume isa species of moral appropriation ; its objects are 
of a less serious nature than those of arrogating ; and 
it does less violence to moral propriety: we assume in 
trifles, we arrogate only in important matters ; ‘ It very 
seldom happens that a man is slow enough in assuming 
the character of a husband, or a woman quick enough. 
in condescending to that of a wife.—Appison. Té 
ascribe is oftener an act of vanity than of injustice 
many men are entitled to the merit which they ascribe 
to themselves; but by this very act they lessen the, 
merit of their best actions; ‘ Sometimes we ascribe ta 
ourselves the merit of good qualities, which, if justly 
considered, should cover us with shame.’—Craie. A 
conscientious man will appropriate nothing to himself 
which he cannot unquestionably claim as hisown; ‘ A 
voice was heard from the clouds declaring the inten 
tion of this visit, which was to restore and appropriate 
to every one what was his due.’-—Appison. 

Usurpers, who violate the laws both of God and 
man, are as much to be pitied as dreaded: they gene 
rally pay the price of their crimes. in a miserable life, 
and a still more miserable death. Nothing exposes a 
man to greater ridicule than arrogating to himself 
titles and distinctions which do not belong to him. 
Although a man may sometimes innocently assume to 
himself the right of judging for others, yet hecan never, 
with any degree of justice, assume the right of oppress- 
ing them. Self-complacence leads many to ascribe 
great merit to themselves for things which are gene- 
rally regarded as trifling. 

Arrogating as an action, or arrogance as a disposi- 
tion, is always taken in a bad sense: the former is 
always dictated by the most preposterous pride; the 
latter is associated with every unworthy quality. As- 
sumption, as an action, varies in its character according 
to circumstances ; it may be either good, bad, or indif- 
ferent: it is justifiable in certain exigencies to assume 
a command where there is no one else able to direct: it 
is often a matter of indifference what name a person 
assumes who does so only in conformity to the will of 
another; but it is always bad to assume a name asa 
mask to impose upon others. 

As a disposition assumption is always bad, but still 
not to the same degree as arrogance. An arrogant 
man renders himself intolerable to society; an as- 
suming man makes himself offensive: arrogance is 
the characteristick of men; assumption is peculiar to 
youths: an arrogant man can be humbled only by 
silent contempt; ‘Humility is expressed by the stoop- 
ing and bending of the head; arrogance when it is 
lifted up, or, as we say, tossed up.’—DrypEN. An as 
suming youth must be checked by the voice of au 
thority; ‘This makes him over-forward in business, 
assuming in conversation, and peremptory in answers. ' 
—CoLuier. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


ARROGANCE, PRESUMPTION. 


“rragance signifies either the act of arrogating or 
the Gisposition to arrogate; presumption, trom pre- 
seme, Latin presumo, compounded of pre before, and 
sumv to take or put, signifies the dispos:tion to put one’s 
self forward. 

arrogance is the act of the great; presumption that 
of the little: the arregant man takes upon himself to he 
above others; ‘I must confess I was very much sur- 
prised to see so great abody of editors, criticks, commen- 
tators, and grammarians, meet with so very ill a recep- 
tion They had formed themselves into a body, and 
with a great deal of arrogance demanded the first sta- 
tion in the column of knowledge; but the goddess, in- 
stead of complying with their request, clapped them 
into liveries’—Appison. The presumptuous man 
strives to be on a level with those who are above him; 
‘In the vanity and presumption of youth, it is com- 
mon to allege the consciousness of innocence as a 
reason fer the contempt of censure.’ —HawkKzswortu. 
Arrogance is commonly coupled with haughtiness ; 
presumption with meanness: men arrogantly demand 
as aright the homage which has perhaps before been 
voluntarily granted; the creature preswmptuously ar- 
raigns the conduct of the Creator, and murinurs against 
the dispensations of his providence. 


TO APPROPRIATE, IMPROPRIATE. 


To appropriate (v. To appropriate) is to consign to | 


zome particular use ; 


Some they appropriated to the gods, 
And seme to publick, some to private ends. 
RoscoMMon. 


But in a more particular manner to take to one’s own 
private use; ‘Why should people engross and appro- 
priate the common benefits of fire, air, and water to 
themselves.—L’Estraner. To impropriate is in 
some cases used in this latter sense; ‘ For the pardon 
of the rest, the king thought it not fit it should pass by 


-Parliament; the better, being matter of grace, to impro- | 


préate the thanks to himself.—Bacon. But for the 


most part this word has been employed to denote the | 


lawless appropriation of the church lands by the laity, 
which took place at the Reformation; ‘Those impro- 
priated livings, which have now no settled endowment, 
and are therefore called not vicarages, but perpetual or 
sometimes arbitrary curacies; they are such, as be- 
longed formerly to those orders who could serve the 
cure of them in their own persons.’—WHaRTON. 


PRELUDE, PREFACE. 


Prelude, from the Latin pre before and dudo to play, 
signifies the game that precedes another ; preface, from 
the Latin for to speak, signifies the speech that pre- 
eedes. 

The idea of a preparatory introduction is included in 
both these terms, but the former consists of actions; the 
fatter of words; the throwing of stones and breaking 
of windows is the prelude on the part of a mob to a 
generai riot; ‘ At this time there was a general peace 
all over the world, which was a proper prelude for 
ushering in his coming who was the Prince of peace.’ 
—Pripkaux. An apology for one’s ill-behaviour js 
sometimes the preface to soliciting a remission of pun- 
ishment; 

As no delay 
Of preface brooking through his zeal of right. 
MILTON. 


The prelude is mostly preparatory to that which is in 
itself actually bad: the preface is mostly preparatory to 
something supposed to be objectionable. Intemperance 
in liquor is the prelude to every other extravagance ; 
when one wishes to ensure compliance with a request 
that may possibly be unreasonable, it is necessary to 
pave the way by some suitable preface. 


TO PREMISE, PRESUME. 


Premise, from pre and mitta, signifies set down 
eeforehand; presume, from pre and sumo to take, sig- 
aifies to take beforehand. 

Both these terms are employed in regard to our pre- 
vious assertions or admissions of any circumstance ; 


231 


the former is used for what is theoretical or belongs to 
opinions; the latter is used for what is practical or 
belongs to facts: we premise that the existence of a 
Deity is Caouenienehle when we argue respecting his 
attributes; ‘Here we must first premise what it is ta 
enter into temptation.—Souru. We presume that a 
person has a firm belief in divine revelation when we 
exhort him to follow the precepts of the Gospel ; ‘In the 
long Iambic metre, it does not appear that Chaucer 
ever composed at all; for I presume no one can imagine 
that he was the author of Gamelyn.’—Tyrwuitt. 
No argument can be pursued until we have premised 
those points upon which both parties are to agree: we 
must Le careful not to presume upon more than what 
we are fully authorized to take for certain. 


PECULIAR, APPROPRIATE, PARTICULAR. 


Peculiar, in Latin peculiaris, comes from pecus 
cattle, that is, the cattle which belonged to the slave or 
servant, in distinction from the master; and the epithet, 
therefore, designates in a strong manner private pro- 
perty, belonging exclusively to one’s self; appropriate 
signifies appropriated (v. To ascribe); particular (v. 
Particutar). 

Peculiar is said of that which belongs to persons or 
things; appropriate is said of that which belongs to 
things only: the faculty of speech is peculiar to man, in 
distinction from all other animals; ‘I agree with Sir 
William Temple, but not that the thing itself is pecu- 
liar to the English, because the contrary may be found 
in many Spanish, Italian, and French productions.’— 
Swirt. An address may be appropriate to the circum 
stances of the individual who makes it; ‘ Modesty and 
diffidence, gentleness and meekness, were looked upon 
as the appropriate virtues of the sex.’—JoHNSON. 
Peculiar designates simple property ; appropriate desig- 
nates the right of propriety; there are advantages and 
disadvantages peculiar to every situation; the excel- 
lence of a discourse depends often on its being appro- 
priate tothe season Peculiar and particular are both 
employed to distinguish objects; but the former distin- 
guishes the object by showing its connexion with, or 
alliance to, others; particular distinguishes it by a 
reference to some acknowledged circumstance; hence 
we may say that a person enjoys peculiar privileges or 
particular privileges: in this case peculzar signifies such 
as are confined to him, and enjoyed by none else ; 

Great father Bacchus, to my song repair, 

For clust’ring grapes are thy pecudiar care. 

DrypDmun. 

Particular signifies such as are distinguished in degree 
and quality from others of the kind; ‘This is true of 
actions considered in their general nature or kind, but 
not considered in their particular individual instances.’ 
—Souru. 


TO ASCRIBE, ATTRIBUTE, IMPUTE. 


Ascribe signifies the same as in the article under Te 
Appropriate, Usurp; attribute, in Latin attributus, 
participle of attribue, compounded of ad and tribuo, 
signifies to bestow upon, or attach to a thing what 
belongs to it ; ¢mpute, compounded of im or in and pute, 
Latin pute to think, signifies to think or judge what is 
in a thing. 

To ascribe is to assign any thing to a person as his 
property, his possession, or the fruit of his labour, &c.; 
to attribute is to assign things to others as their causes ; 
to impute is to assign qualities to persons. Milton 
ascribes the first use of artillery to the rebel angels; the 
loss of a vessel is attributed to the violence of the storm; 
the conduct of the captain is ¢mputed to his want of 
firmness. The letters of Junius have been falsely 
ascribed to many persons in succession, as the author 
to this day remains concealed, and out of the reach of 
even probable conjecture; the oracles of the heathens 
are ascribed by some theologians to the devil; ‘ Holi- 
ness is ascribed to the pope; majesty to kings ; serenity 
or mildness to princes; excellence or perfection to 
ambassadors; grace to archbishops; honour to peers.” 
—Appison. The death of Alexander the Great is 
attributed to his intemperance; generosity has been 
imputed to him from his conduct on certain occasions, 
but particularly in his treatment of the Persian prin- 
cesses, the relatives of Darius; ‘Perhaps it may appear 


B32 


upon examination thet the most polite ages are the least 
virtuous, This may be attributed to the folly of admit- 
ting wit and learning as merit in themselves, without 
considering the application of them.’—SrgrLe. ‘Men 
in their innovations should follow the example of time, 
which innovateth, but quietly, and by degrees scarce to 
be perceived, for otherwise what is new and unlooked 
for, ever mends some and impairs others; and he that 
is hurt for a wrong imputeth it to the author.’—Bacon. 

Ascribe is mostly used in a favourable or indifferent 
sense ; impute is either favourable or unfavourable. In 
the doxology of the church ritual, all honour, might, 
majesty, dominion, and power, are ascribed to the 
three persons in the Holy Trinity: the actions of men 
are often so equivocal that it is difficult to decide 
whether praise or blame ought to he imputed to them; 
‘T made it by your persuasion, to satisfy those who 
imputed it to folly”—Tmmpie. ‘We who are adepts 
in astrology can impute it to several causes in the 
planets, that this quarter of our great city is the region 
of such as either never had, or have lost, the use of 
reason.’—STEELE. 


QUALITY, PROPERTY, ATTRIBUTE. 


Quality, in Latin gualitas, from qualis such, signi- 
fies such as a thing really is; property, which is 
changed from propricty and proprius proper or one’s 
own, signifies belonging to a thing as an essential ingre- 
dient ; attribute, in Latin attributus, participle of attri- 
buo to bestow upon, signifies the things bestowed upon 
or assigned to anocher. 

The quality is that which is inherent in the object 
and co-existent; ‘Humility and patience, industry and 
temperance, are very often the good qualities of a poor 
man.’—Appison. The property is that which belongs 
to it for the time being; ‘ No man can have sunk so far 
into stupidity, as not to consider the properties of the 
ground on which he walks, of the plants on which he 
feeds, or of the animals that delight his ear.—Joun- 
son. The attribute is the quality which is assigned 
to any object ; 


Man o’er a wider field extends his views, 

- God through the wonder of his works pursues, 
Exploring thence his attributes and laws, 
Adores, loves, imitates, th’ Eternal Cause. 

JENYNS. 


We cannot alter the quality of a thing without altering 
the whole thing; but we may give or take away pro- 
perties from bodies at pleasure, without entirely de- 
stroying their identity ; and we may ascribe attributes 
at discretion. 


PRESUMPTIVE, PRESUMPTUOUS, PRE- 
SUMING. 


Presumptive comes from presume, in the sense of 
supposing or taking for granted; presumptuous, pre- 
suming (v. Arrogance), come from the same verb in 
the sense of taking upon one’s self, or taking to one’s 
self any importance: the former is therefore employed 
in an indifferent, the latter in a bad acceptation: a pre- 
sumptive heir is one presumed or expected to be heir; 
presumptive evidence is evidence founded on some pre- 
sumption or suppusition ; so likewise presumptive rea- 
soning; ‘ There is no qualification for government but 
virtue and wisdom, actual or presumptive.'—BuRKE. 
A presumptuous man, a presumptuous thought, a pre- 
sumptuous behaviour, all indicate an unauthorized pre- 
sumption in one’s own favour; ‘See what is got by 
those presumptuous principles which have brought 
your leaders (of the revolution) to despise all their pre- 
decessors.’"--BuRKE. Presumptuous is a stronger term 
than presuming, because it has a more definite use; the 
former designates the express quality of presumption, 
the latter the inclination; a man is presumptuous when 
his conduct partakes of the nature of presumption ; he 
is presuming Inasmuch as he shows himself disposed 
to presume: hence we speak of a presumptuous Jan- 
guage, not a presuming language ; a presuming temper, 
not a presumptuous temper. In like manner when one 
zays it is presumptuous in a man to do any thing, this 
expresses the idea of presumption much more forcibly 
than to say it is presuming in him to do it. It would 
be presumptuous in aman to address a monarch in the 

anguage of familiarity and disrespect; it is presuming 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


in a common person to address any one whe js superlouy 
in station with familiarity and disrespect. ; 


TO DENY, REFUSE. 


Deny, in Latin dentgo, or nego, that is, ne or non 
and ago, signifies to say no to a thing; refuse, in 
Latin refusus, from re and fundo to pour, signifies to 
throw back that which is presented. 

To deny respects matters of fact or knowledge; to 
refuse matters of wish or request. We deny whet 
immediately belongs to ourselves ; we refuse what be 
longs to another. We deny as to the past; we refuse 
as to the future: we deny our participation in that 
which has been; we refuse our participation in that 
which may be: to deny must always be expressly 
verbal; a refusal may sometimes be signified by ac- 
tions or looks as well as words. A denial affects our 
veracity; a refusal affects our good-nature. 

To deny is likewise sometimes used in regard to 
one’s own gratifications as well as to one’s knowledge, 
in which case it is still more analogous to refuse, 
which regards the gratifications of another. In this 
case we say we deny a person a thing, but we refuse 


! his request, or refuse to do a thing; 


Jove to his Thetis nothing could deny, 
Nor was the signal vain that shook the sky. 
Pop. 


O sire of Gods and men! Thy suppliant hear ; 
Refuse or grant; for what has Jove to fear ? 
Pors. 

Some Christians think it very meritorious to deny 
themselves their usual quantity of food at certain 
times ; they are however but sorry professors of 
Christianity if they refuse at the same time to give 
of their substance to the poor. Instances are not rare 
of misers who have dented themselves the common 
necessaries of life, and yet have never refused to re- 
lieve those who were in distress, or assist those who 
were in trouble. 

Deny is sometimes the act of unconscious agents ;~ 
refuse is always a personal and intentional act. We 
are sometimes denied by circumstances the consolation 
of secing our friends before they die; 


Inquire you how these pow’rs we shall attain ? 

*T is not for us to know; our seareh is vain; 

Can any one remember or relate 

How he existed in the embryo state ? 

That light’s deny’d to him which others see, 

He knows perhaps you ’l] say—and so do we. 
JENYNS 


TO REFUSE, DECLINE, REJECT, REPEL, 
REBUFF. 

Refuse signifies, as in the preceding article, simply 
to pour, that is, to send baek, which is the common 
idea of all these terms ; to decline, in Latin dectino, is 
literally to turn aside; to reject, from jacio to throw, is 
to cast back; repel, from pello to drive, to drive back ; 
to rebuff, from buff or puff, signifies to puff one back, 
send off with a puff. 

Refuse is an unqualified action, it is accompanied 
with no expression of opinion; decline is a gentle and 
indirect mode of refusal; reject is a direct mode, and 
conveys a positive sentiment of disapprobation: we 
refuse what is asked of us, for want of inclination te 
comply ; 

But all her arts are still employ’d in vain ; 

Again she comes, and is refus’d again. 

Dryven. 

We decline what is proposed from motives of discre 
tion ; ‘ Melissa, though she could not boast the apathy 
of Cato, wanted not the more prudent virtue of Scipio, 
and gained the victory by declining the contest.’— 
Jounson. We reject what is offered to us, because 
it does not fall in with our views; 


Why should he then reject a suit so just —Drypen. 


We refuse to listen to the suggestions of our friends 

‘ Having most affectionately set life and death before 
them, and conjured them to choose one and avoid the 
other, he still leaves unto them, as to free and rational 
agents, a liberty to refuse all his calls, to let his talents 
lie by them unprofitable—Hammonn We decline ay 


ENGLISH 


offer of service ; ‘ Could Caroline have been captivated 
with the glories of this world, she had them all laid be- 
fore her;,but she generously declined them, because she 
saw the acceptance of them was inconsistent with re- 
ligion..—Appison. We reject the insinuations of the 
interested and evil-minded ; ‘Whether it be a divine 
revelation or no, reason must judge, which can never 
permit the mind to reject a greater evidence, to em- 
brace waat is less evident..—Locxr. To refuse is 
properly the. act of an individual; to reject is said of 
that which comes from any quarter: requests and peti- 
tions are refused by those who are golicited ; opinions, 
propositions, and counsels, are rejected by particular 
communities: the king refuses to give his assent to a 
bill; ‘If he should choose the right casket, you should 
refuse to perform his father’s will, if you should refuse 
to accept him.’—SHAKSPEARE. The parliament re- 
jects a bill; ‘The House was then so far from being 
possessed with that spirit, that the utmost that could 
be obtained, upon a long debate upon that petition (for 
the total extirpation of episcopacy) was, that it should 
not be rejected.’—CLARENDON. 

To repel is to reject with violence; to rebuff is to re- 
fuse with contempt. We refuse and reject that which 
is either offered, or simply presents itself, for accept- 
ance: but we repel and rebuff that which forces itself 
into our presence, contrary to our inclination: we repel 
the attack of an enemy, or we repel the advances of 
one who is not agreeable; 


Th’ unwearied watch their listening leaders keep, 
And, couching close, repel invading sleep.—Popr. 


We rebuff those who put that in our way that is offen- 
sive. Importunate persons must necessarily expect to 
meet with rebuffs, and are in general less susceptible 
of them than others; delicate minds feel.a refusal as 


a rebuff ; 
At length rebuff’d, they leave their mangled prey 


DRYDEN. 


TO TAKE, RECEIVE, ACCEPT. 


To take, which in all probability comes from the 
Latin tactum, participle of tango to touch, is a general 
term; receive, from re and capio to take back, and 
accept, from ae or ad and capio to take to one’s self, 
are specifick. 

To take signifies to make one’s own by coming in 
exclusive contact with it; to receive is to take under 
peculiar circumstances. We take either from things 
or persons; we receive from persons only: we take a 
book from the table; we receive a parcel which is sent 
us: we take either with or without the consent of the 
person; we recezve it with his consent, or according to 
his wishes; 


Each takes his seat, and each recezves his share. 
Pork. 
A robber takes money when he can find it; a friend 
receives the gift of a friend. 

To receive is an act of right, we receive what is our 
own ; to accept is an act of courtesy, we accept what 
is offered by another. To receive simply excludes the 
idea of refusal; to accept includes the idea of con- 
sent: we may recetve with indifference. or reluctance ; 
but we accept with willingness: the idea of receiving is 
included in that of accepting, but not vice versd: 
what we receive may either involve an obligation or 
not; what we accept always involves the return of 
like courtesy at least: he who receives a debt is under 
no obligation, but he who receives a favour is bound 
by gratitude ; 


The sweetest cordia we receive at last 
Is conscience of our virtuous actions past. 
DENHAM. 
He who accepts a present will feel himself called upon 
fo make some return; 
Unransom’d here receive the spotless fair, 
Alceept the hecatomb the Greeks prepare.—Popr 


_—_—— 


RECEIPT, RECEPTION. 


Receipt comes from receive, in its application «) 
Inanimate objects, which are taken into possession ; 
reception comes from the same verb, in the sense of 
eating persons at their first arrival: in the commer- 


SYNONYMES. 233 


cial intercourse of men, the receipt of goods or money 
must be acknowledged in writing; ‘If a man will 
keep: but of even hand, his ordinary expenses vught 
to be but to half of his receipts..—Bacon. In the 
friendly intercourse of men, their reception of each 
other will be polite or cold, according to the senti-. 
ments entertained towards the individual; ‘I thank 
you and Mrs. Pope for my kind reception. —ATTER 

BURY. 


TO CHOOSE, PREFER 


Choose, in French chotsir, German kiesen from the 
French cher, Celtick choe dear or good, signifies to hold 
good; prefer, in French preferer, Latin prefero, com- 
pounded of pre and fero to take before, signifies to 
take one thing rather than another. 

* To choose is to prefer as the genus to the species: 
we always choose in preferring, but we do not always 
prefer in choosing. 'To choose is to take one thing 
from among others; to prefer is to take one thing 
before or rather than another. We sometimes choose 
from the bare necessity of choosing ; but we never 
prefer without making a positive and voluntary choice. 

When we choose from a specifick motive, the acts 
of choosing and preferring differ in the nature of the 
motive. The former is absolute, the latter relative. 
We choose a thing for what it is, or what we esteem it 
to be of itself; we prefer a thing for what it has, or 
what we suppose it has, superiour to another ; ‘ Judge- 
ment was wearied with the perplexity of choice where 
there was no motive for preference.’ JOHNSON. 

Utility and convenience are grounds for choosing; 
comparative merit occasions the preference : we choose 
something that is good, and are contented with it until 
we see something better which we prefer. 

We calculate and pause in choosing ; we decide in 
preferring ; the judgement determines in making the 
choice ; the will determines in giving the preference. 
We choose things from an estimate of their merits or 
their fitness for the purpose proposed ; we prefer them 
from their accordance with our tastes, habits, and 
pursuits. Books are chosen by those who wish to 
read ; romances and works of fiction are preferred by 
general readers; learned works by the scholar. 

One who wants instruction chooses a master, but he 
will mostly prefer a teacher whom he knows toa per- 
fect stranger. Our choice is good or bad according to 
our knowledge ; our preference is just or unjust, ac- 
cording as it is sanctioned by reason. 

Our choice may be directed by our own experience or 
that of others; our preference must be guided by our 
own feelings. We make our choice; we give our pre- 
ference: the first is the settled purpose of the mind, it 
fixes on the object; the latter is the inclining of the 
will, it yields to the object. 

Choosing must be employed inall the important con- 
cerns of life; ‘There is nothing of so great importance 
to us, as the good qualities of one to whom we join 
ourselves for life. When the choice is left to friends, 
the chief point under consideration is an estate ; 
where the parties choose for themselves, their thoughts 
turn most upon the person.—Appison. Preferring 
is admissible in subordinate matters only ; ‘When a 
man has a mind to venture his money in a lottery, 
every figure of it appears equally alluring; and no 

manner of reason can be given why a man should 
prefer one to the other before the lottery is drawn.’— 
Appison. There is but one thing that is right, and 
that ought to be chosen when it is discovered: there 
are many indifferent things that may suit our tastes 
and inclinations; these we are at liberty to prefer. 
; But to prefer what we ought not to choose is to make 
our reason bend to our will. Our Saviour said of 
Mary that she chose the betterpart: had she consulted 
her feelings she would have preferred the part she had 
rejected. The path of life should be chosen; but the 
path to be taken in a walk may be preferred. It is 
advisable for a youth in the choice of a profession to 
consult what he prefers, as he has the greatest chance 


* The Abbe Girard, under the article choisir, pre- 
ferer, has reversed this rule; butas I conceive, from 
a confusion of thought, which pervades the whole of 
his illustration on these words. The Abbe Roubaud 
has controverted his positions with some degree of 
accuracy. I have, however, given my own view of 
the matter in distinction from either. 


234 


of succeeding when he can combine his pleasure with 
his duty. A friend should be chosen: a companion 
may be preferred. A wife should be chosen ; but un- 
fortunately lovers are most apt to give a preference ina 
inatter where a good or bad choice may determine one’s 
happiness or misery for life. A wise prince is careful 
in the choice of his ministers; but a weak prince has 
mostly favourites whom he prefers. 


TO CHOOSE, PICK, SELECT. 


Choose signifies the same as in the preceding article ; 
ick, in German picken, or bicken, French bicquer, 
Duteh becken, Icelandick picka, Swedish piacka, comes 
very probably from the old German bag, bich, to stick, 
corresponding to the Latin jigo to fix, signifying to fix 
upon; select, Latin selectus, participle of seligo, that 
is, lego to gather or put, and se apart. 

Choose is as in the former case the generick; the 
others are specifick terms : pick and select are expressly 
different modes of choosing. We always choose when 
we pick and select ; but we do not always pick and 
select when We choose. 

To choose may be applied to two or more things ; 
to pick and select can be used only for several things. 
We may choose one book out of two, but we pick and 
select out of a library or a parcel; pick may be said of 
one or many; select only of many. 

To choose does not always spring from any parti- 
cular design or preference; ‘My friend, Sir Roger, 
being a good churchman, has beautified the inside of 
his church with several texts of his own choosing.’— 
Appison. To pick and select signify to choose with 
care. What is picked and selected is always the best 
of its kind, but the former is commonly something of 
a physical nature; the latter of a moral or intellectual 
description. Soldiers are sometimes picked to form a 
particular regiment; ‘ I know, by several experiments, 
that those little animals (the ants) take great care to 
provide themselves with wheat when they can find it, 
and always pick out the best.,—Appison. Pieces are 
selected in prose or verse for general purposes; ‘The 
chief advantage which these fictions have over real 
life is, that their authors are at liberty, though not to 
invent, yet to select objects.’—JOHNSON. 


TO CHOOSE, ELECT. 


Both these terms are employed in regard to persons 
appointed to an office ; the former in a general, the 
latter in a particular sense. 

Choosing (v. To choose, prefer) is either the act of 
one man or of many ; election, from eligo, or e and 
lego, signifying to take or gather out of or from, is 
always that of a number; it is performed by the con- 
currence of many voices. 

A prince chooses his ministers ; the constituents elect 
members of parliament. A person is chosen to serve 
the office of sheriff; he is elected by the corporation to 
be mayor. 

Choosing isan act of authority ; it binds the person 
chosen: election is a voluntary act; the elected have 
the power of refusal. People are obliged to serve in 
some offices when they are chosen, although they 
would gladly be exempt ; 


Wise were the kings who never chose a friend, 

Till with full cups they had unmask’d his soul, 

And seen the bottom of his deepest thoughts. 

Roscommon. 

The circumstance of being elected is an honour after 
which men eagerly aspire; and for the attainment of 
which they risk their property, and use the most 
strenuous exertions; ‘This prince, in gratitude to the 
people, by whose consent he was chosen, elected a 
hundred senators out of the commoners.’—Swirr. 


ELIGIBLE, PREFERABLE. 


Eligible, or fit to be elected, and preferable, fit to be 
preferred, serve as epithets in the sense of choose and 
prefer (v. To choose, prefer) ; what is eligible is desira- 
ble in itself, what is preferable is more desirable than 
another. ‘There may be many el7gible situations, out 
of which perhaps there is but one preferable. Of 
persons however we say rather that they are eligible 
to an office: than preferable ; ‘ The middle condition is 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


the most eligible to the man who would improve him 
self in virtue.’—Appzson. ‘The saying of Plato is, 
that labour is as preferable to idleness as brightness to 
rust !’—HUuGHES. 


OPTION, CHOICE. 


Option is immediately of Latin derivation, and 1s 
consequently a term of less frequent use than the 
word choice, which has been shown (v. To choose) to 
be of Celtick origin. The former term, from the Greek 
éxrépuat to see or consider, implies an uncontrolled act 
of the mind; the latter a simple leaning of the will. 
We speak of option only as regards one’s freedom from 
external constraint in the act of choosing ; one speaks 
of choice only as the simple act itself. The option or 
the power of choosing is given; the choice itself is 
made: hence we say a thing is at a person’s option, or 
it is his own option, or the option is left to him, in 
order to designate his freedom of choice more strongly 
than is expressed by the word choice itself; ‘ While 
they talk we must make our choice, they or the jaco- 
bins. We have no other option.’—BuRKE. 


TO GATHER, COLLECT. 


To gather, in Saxon gatherian, probably contracted 
from get here, signifies simply to bring to one spot. 
To collect, from colligo or col, cum, and lego to gather 
into one place, annexes also the idea of binding or 
forming into a whole; we gather that which is scat 
tered in different parts: thus stones are gathered intoa 
heap: vessels are collected so as to form a fleet. Ga- 
thering is a mere act of necessity or convenience ; 


As the small ant (for she instructs the man, 
And preaches labour) gathers all she can. 
CREECH. 
Collecting is an act of design or choice; 
The royal bee, queen of the rosy bower, 
Collects her precious sweets from every flower 
C. JouNson. 


We gather apples from a tree, or a servant gathers 
the books from the table; the antiquarian collects 
coins, or the bibliomaniac collects rare books. 


ACCEPTABLE, GRATEFUL, WELCOME. 


‘Acceptable signifies worthy to he accepted ; grateful, 
from the Latin gratus pleasing, signifies altogether 
pleasing; it is that which recommends itself. The 
acceptable is arelative good ; the grateful is positive: 
the former depends upon our external condition, the 
latter on our feelings and taste: a gift is acceptable toa 
poor man, which would be refused by one less needy 
than himself; ‘I cannot but think the following letter 
from the Emperor of China to the Pope of Rome, 
proposing a coalition of the Chinese and Roman 
Churches, will be acceptable to the curious."—STEELE. 
Harmonious sounds are always grateful to a musical 
ear; 

The kids with pleasure browze the bushy piain: 

The showers are grateful to the swelling grain 

Drypen. 
Alcceptable and welcome both apply to external circum- 
stances, and are therefore relatively employed; but 
acceptable is confined to such things as are offered for 
our choice; but welcome, signifying come well or in 
season, refers to whatever happens according to our 
wishes: we may not always accept that which is ae 
ceptable, but we shall never reject that which is aed- 
come : it is an insult to offer any thing by way of a gift 
to another which is not acceptable; it is a grateful 
task to be the bearer of welcome intelligence to our 
friends; ‘Whatever is remote from commen appear- 


ances is always welcome to vulgar as to childish cre- 
dulity.,—-JoHNsoNn 


ACCEPTANCE, ACCEPTATION. 


Though both derived from the verb accept, have thts 
difference, that the former is employed to express the 
abstract action generally; the latter only in regard to 
particular objects. A book, or whatever else is offered 
to us, may be worthy of our acceptance or not; § It is 
not necessary to refuse benefits from a bad man, when 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


the acceptance iim lies no approbation of his crimes.’— 
Jounson. A word acquires its acceptation from the 
manner in which it is generally accepted by the learn- 
ed; ‘On the subject of dress I may add by way of 
caution that the ladies would do well not to forget 
themselves. I do not mean this in the common accepta- 
tion of the phrase, which it may be sometimes con- 
venient and proper to do..—MackeEnzin. 


TO ADMIT,* RECEIVE. 


Admit, in French admettre, Latin admitto, com- 
pounded of ad and mitto, signifies to send or suffer to 
pass into; receive, in French recevoir, Latin recipio, 
compounded of ve and capio, signifies to take back or 
to one’s se’f. 

To admit is a general term, the sense of which de- 
pends upon what follows ; to recetzve has a complete 
sense in itself: we cannot speak of admitting, without 
associating with it an idea of the object to which one 
is admitted ; but receive includes no relative idea of 
the receiver or the received. 

Admitting is an act of relative import; receiving is 
always a positive measure: a person may be admitted 
into a house, who is not prevented from entering ; 


Somewhat is sure design’d by fraud or force; 
Trust not their presents, nor admit the horse. 
DRYDEN. 


A person is received only by the actual consent of 
some individual; 


He star’d and roll’d his haggard eyes around ; 
Then said, ‘ Alas! what earth remains, what sea 
Is open to receive unhappy me ?—DryDEN. 


We may be admitted in various capacities; we are 
received only as guests, friends, or inmates. Persons 
are admitted to the tables, and into the familiarity or 
confidence of others; 


The Tyrian train, admitted to the feast, 
Approach, and on the painted couches rest. 
DRYDEN. 


Persons are hospitably received by those who wish to 
be their entertainers ; 


Pretending to consult 
About the great reception of their king 
T hither to come.—MILTon. 


We admit. willingly or reluctantly; we receive po- 
litely or rudely. Foreign ambassadors are admitted to 
an audience, and received at court. It is necessary to 
be cautious not to admzt any one into our society, who 
may not be agreeable and suitable companions; but 
still more necessary not to receive any one into our 
houses whose character may reflect disgrace on our- 
selves. 

Whoever is admitted as a member of any commu- 
nity should consider himself as bound to conform to its 
regulations: whoever is received into the service of an- 
other should study tomake himself valued and esteemed. 
A winning address, and agreeable manners, gain a 
person admittance into the genteelest circles: the 
talent for affording amusement, procures a person a 
good reception among the mass of mankind. 

When applied to unconscious agents there is a simi- 
lar distinction between these terms: ideas are admitted 
into the mind. by means of association and the like ; 
‘There are some ideas which have admittance only 
through one sense, which is peculiarly adapted to re- 
ceive thein.”—Lockr. Things are received by others in 
consequence of their adaptation to each other ; 


The thin-leav’d arbute hazel-grafts receives, 
And planes huge apples bare, that bore but leaves. 
DRYDEN. 


ADMITTANCE, ACCESS, APPROACH. 


Admittance marks the act or liberty of admitting 
(vw. To admit, receive) ; access, from accedo to approach 
or come up to, marks the act or liberty of approaching; 
approach, from ap or ad and proximus nearest, signifies 
coming near or drawing near. 

We get admittance into a place or a society; we 
have access to a person; and make an approach either 
towards a person or a thing. 


* Girard: “* Amettre, recevoir.’ 


235 


Admittance may be open or excluded; access and 
approach may be free or difficult. 

We have admittance when we enter; we have ac- 
cess to him whom we address. There can be no accese 
where there is no admittance ; but there may be ad- 
mittance without access. Servants or officers may 
grant us admittance into the palaces of princes; ‘ As 
my pleasures are almost wholly confined to those of the 
sight, I take it for a peculiar happiness that I have 
always had an easy and familiar admittance to the fair 
sex.—STEELE. The favourites of princes have access 
to their persons; ‘Do not, be surprised, most holy 
father, at seeing, instead of a coxcomb to laugh at, 
your old friend who has taken this way of access to 
admonish you of your own folly.,—STEEr.e. 

Access and admittance are here considered as the 
acts of conscious agents; approach is as properly the 
act of unconscious as conscious agents. We may 
speak of the approach of an army, or the approach of 
a war; 


*T is with our souls 
As with our eyes, that after a long darkness 
Are dazzled at th’ approach of sudden light. 


Admittance may likewise sometimes be taken figura 


tively, as when we speak of the admittance of ideas 
into the mind. 


ADMITTANCE, ADMISSION. 


These words differ according to the different ac- 
ceptations of the primitive from which they are both 
derived; the former being taken in the proper sense 
or familiar style, and the latter in the figurative sense 
or in the grave style. 

The admitiance to publick places of entertainment is 
on particular occasions difficult; ‘Assurance never 
failed to get admittance into the houses of the great.’ 
—Moorg. The admission of irregularities, however 
trifling in the commencement, is mostly attended with 
serious consequences; ‘'{he gospel has then only a 
free admission into the assent of the understanding, 
when it brings a passport from a rightly disposed will ° 
—Souru. 


ee 


IMPERVIOUS, IMPASSABLE, INACCESSIBLE 


Impervious, from the Latin in, per, and via, signifies 
not having a way through; impassable, not to be 
passed through; inaccessible, not to be approached. 
A wood is impervious when the trees, branches, and 
leaves are entangled to such a degree as to admit of 
no passage at all; 


The monster, Cacus, more than half a beast, 
This hold impervious to the sun possess’d. 
Drypen. 


A river is témpassable that is so deep that it cannot 
be forded. 


But lest the difficulty of passing back 
Stay his return perhaps over this gulf 
Impassable, impervious, let us try 
Advent’rous work.—MI.LTon. 


A rock or a mountain is inaccessible the summit of 
which is not to be reached by any path whatever; 


At least our envious foe hath fail’d who thought 
All like himself rebellious, by whose aid 

This inaccessible high strength, the seat 

Of Deity Supreme, us dispossess’d, 

He trusted to have seiz’d.— Mion. 


What is ?mpervious is for a permanency ; what is 2m 
passable is commonly so only for a time: roads are 
frequently impassable in the winter that are passable 
in the summer, while a thicket is impervious during the 
whole of the year: impassable is likewise said only 
of that which is to be passed by living creatures, but 
impervious may be extended to inanimate objects; a 
wood may be zmpervious to the rays of the sun 


TO APPROACH, APPROXIMATE. 


Approach, in French approcher, compound of ap ox 
ad and proche, or in Latin prope near, signifies to come 
near ; approximate, compounded of ap and prozximus 
to come nearest or next, signifies either to draw near 
or bring near. 


236 


To approach is intransitive only ; a person approaches 
an object; ‘Lambs push at those that approach them 
with their heads before the first budding of a horn ap- 
pears..—Appison. ‘To approximate is both transitive 
and intransitive; a person approximates two objects ; 
‘Shakspeare approximates the remote and far.’— 
JOHNSON. 

To approach denotes simply the moving of an object 
towards another, but to approximate denotes the gra- 
dual moving of two objects towards each other: that 
which approaches may come into immediate con- 
junction; ‘Comets, in their approaches towards the 
earth, are imagined to cause diseases, famines, and 
other such like judgements of God..—Drruam. But 
bodies may approximate for some time before they 
form a junction, or may never form a junction ; ‘The 
approximations and recesses of some of the’little stars 
I speak of, suit not with the observations of some 
very ancient astronomers.’.—DERHAM. An equivo- 
cation approaches toa lie. Minds approximate by long 
intercourse. : 


TO HOLD, KEEP, DETAIN, RETAIN. 


Hold, in Saxon healden, Teutonick holden ; is pro- 
bably connected with the verb to have, in Latin habeo, 
&c.; keep in all probability comes from capio to lay 
hold of; detain and retain both come from the Latin 
teneo to hold; the first signifies, by virtue of the par- 
ticle de, to hold from another; the second, by virtue of 
the particle re, signifies to hold back for one’s self. 

To hold is a physical act; it requires a degree of 
bodily strength, or at least the use of the limbs; to 
keep is simply to have by one at one’s pleasure. The 
mode of the action is the leading idea in the signifi- 
cation of hold; the durability of the actionis the lead- 
ing idea in the word keep: we may hold a thing only 
fora moment: but what we keep we keep for a time. 
On the other hand, we may keep a thing by holding, 
although we may keep it by various other means: we 
may therefore hold without keeping, and we may keep 
without holding. A servant holds a thing in his hand 
for it to be seen, but he does not keep it; he gives it to 
his master who puts it into his pocket, and conse- 
juently keeps, but does not hold it. A thing may be 
veld in the hand, or kept in the hand; in the former 
‘sage, the pressure of the hand is an essential part of 
the action, but in the latter case it is simply a contin- 
xent part of the action: the hand holds, but the person 
keeps it. 

What is held is fixed in position, but what is kept is 
left loose or otherwise, at the will of the individual. 
Things are held by human beings in their hands, by 
beasts in their claws or mouths, by birds in their beaks; 
things are kept by human beings either about their 
persons or in their houses, according to convenience ; 


France, thou mayst hold a serpent by the tongue, 

A fasting tiger safer by the tooth, 

Than keep in peace that hand which thou dost hold. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


Detain and retain are modes of keeping: the 
former signifies keeping back what belongs to another ; 
the latter signifies keeping a long time for one’s own 
purpose. A person may be either held, kept, detained, 
or retained: when he is held he is held contrary to his 
will by the hand of another; as suspected persons are 
Aeld by the officers of justice, that they may not make 
their escape: he is kept, if he stops in any place, by the 
desire of another; as a man is Kept in prison until his 
innocence is proved; or a child is kept at school, until 
he has finished his education: he is detained if he be 
“ept away from any place to which he is going, or 
from any person to whom he belongs: as the servant 
of another is detained to take back a letter; or one is 
detained by business, so as to be prevented attending to 
an appointment: a person is retained, who is kept for 
a continuance in the service, the favour, or the power 
of another; as some servants are said to be retained 
while others are dismissed ; 


Too late it was for satyr to be told, 
Or ever hope recover her again; 
In vain he seeks, that having, cannot hold. 
SPENSER. 
That I may know what keeps you here with me. 
DryDEN. 
‘He has described the passion of Calypso, and the 
indecent advances she made to detain him from his 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES 


country.,—Broomer. ‘Having the address to retain 
the conquest she (Roxalana) had made, she kept pos- 
session of his (Solyman’s) love without any rival for 
many years.’—RoBERTSON. 

These words bear a similar analogy to each other in 
an extended application. A money-lender holds the 
property of others in pledge; the idea of a temporary 
and partial action is here expressed by hold, in distinc- 
tion from keep, which is used to express something defi- 
nite and permanent; ‘Assuredly it is more shame fora 
man to lose that which he holdeth, than to fail in getting 
that which he never had..—Haywarp. The money- 
lender keeps the yroperty as his own, if the borrower 
forfeits it by breacn of contract ; 


This charge I keep until my appointed day 
Of rendering up.—Mi.Ton. 


When a person purchases any thing, he is expected to 
keep it, or pay the value of the thing ordered, if the 
tradesman fulfil his part of the engagement. What is 
detained is kept either contrary to the will, or without 
the consent, of the possessor: when things are suspected 
to be stolen, the officers of justice have the right of. 
detaining them until inquiry be instituted ; 


Haste! goddess, haste! the flying host detain 
Nor let one sail be hoisted on the maln.—Popr_, 


What is retained is continued to be*kept; it supposes, 
however, some alteration in the terms or circumstances 
under which it is kept; a person retains his seat ina 
coach, notwithstanding he finds it disagreeable; or a 
lady retains some of the articles of millinery, which 
are sent for her choice, but she returns the rest } 


Let me retain 
The name, and all th’ addition to a king. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


Allare used in a moral application except detain; ir. 
this case they are marked by a similar distinction. A 
person is said to hold an office, by which simple pos 
session is implied; he may hold it for a long or a short 
time, at the will of others, or by his own will, which 
are not marked: he keeps a situation, or he keeps his 
post, by which his continuance in the situation, or at 
the post, are denoted: he vetazns his office, by whichis 
signiiied that he might have given it up, or lost it, haa 
he not been led to continue init. In like manner, with 
regard to one’s sentiments, feelings, or external circum 
stances, a man is said to hold certain opinions, which 
are ascribed to him as a part of his creed; ‘It is a cer- 
tain sign of a wise government, when it can hold men’s 
hearts by hopes.’—Bacon. A person keeps his opinions 
when no one can induce him to give them up; ‘ The 
proof is best when men keep their authority towards 
their children, but not their purse.’’—Bacon. He retains 
his old attachments, notwithstanding the lapse of years, 
and change of circumstances, which have intervened, 
and were naturally calculated to wean him; ‘ Ideas are 
retained by renovation of that impression which time 
is always wearing away.’—JOHNSON, 


TO HOLD, OCCUPY, POSSESS. 


Hold has the same general meaning as in the pre 
ceding article; occupy, in Latin occupo, or oc and capio 
to hold or keep, signifies to keep so that it cannot be 
held by others; possess, in Latin possideo, or potis and 
sedeo, signifies to sit as master of. ; 

We hold a thing fora long or ashort time; we occupy 
it for a permanence: we hold it for ourselves or others; 
we occupy it only for ourselves: we hold it for various 
purposes ; we occupy only for the purpose of converting 
itto our private use. Thus a person may hold an 
estate, or, Which is the same thing, the title deeds toan 
estate pro tempore, for another person’s benefit : but he 
occupies an estate if he enjoys the fruit of it. On the 
other hand, to occupy is only to hold under a certain 
compact; but to possess is to hold as one’s own. The 
tenant occupies the farm when he holds it by a certain 
lease, and cultivates it for his subsistence: but the 
landlord possesses the farm who possesses the right to 
let it, and to receive the rent. 

We may hold by force, or fraud, or right ; 

He (the eagle) drives them from his fort the towering 
seat 

For ages of his empire which in peace 

Unstain’d he holds.’—THOMSON 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES 


We occupy either by force or right; ‘If the title of 

occupiers be good in a land unpeopled, why should it be 

bad accounted in a country peopled thinly.,—Rateien. 
We possess only by right; 


But now the feather’d youth their former bounds 

Ardent disdain, and weighing oft their wings, 

Demand the free possession of the sky. 
THOMSON. 


Hence we say figuratively, to hold a person in esteem 
or contempt, to occupy a person’s attention, to occupy 
a place, &c. or to possess one’s affection ; 


I, as a stranger to my heart and me, 
Hold thee from this for ever.—SHAaKSPEARE. 


‘He must assert infinite generations before that first 
deluge, and then the earth could not receive them, but 
the infinite bodies of men must occupy an infinite 
Space.’--BENTLEY. 


Of fortune’s favour long possess’ d, 
He was with one fair daughter only bless’d. 
DRYDEN. 


, 


TO HOLD, SUPPORT, MAINTAIN. 


Hold is here, as in the former article, a term of very 
general import ; to support, from sub and porto to carry, 
signifying to bear the weight of a thing; and to main- 
tain, from the French maintenir, and the Latin manus 
a hand, and teneo to hold, signifying to hold firmly, are 
particular modes of holding. 

Hold and support are employed in the proper sense, 
maintain in the improper sense. To hold is aterm 
unqualified by any circumstance; we may holda thing 
in any direction, hold up or down, straight or crooked : 
support isaspecies of holding up; to hold up, however, 
is a personal act, ora direct effort of the individual; to 
support may be an indirect and a passive act ; he who 
holds any thing up keeps it in an upright posture, by the 
exertion of his strength ; he who supports a thing only 
bears its weight, or suffers it to rest upon himself: per- 
sons or voluntary agents can hold up; inanimate objects 
may support; a servant holds up a child that it may 
see; a pillar supports a building. 

Hold, maintain, and support are likewise employed 
still farther ina moral application, as it respects the 
different opinions and circumstances of men; opinions 
are held and maintained as one’s own; they are sup- 
ported when they are another’s. We hold and maintain 
when we believe; we support the belief or doctrine 
of another, or what we ourselves have asserted and 
maintained at a former time. What is held is held by 
the act of the mind within one’s self; what is main- 
tained and supported is openly declared to beheld. To 
hold marks simply the state of one’s own mind; ‘It 
was a notable observation of a wise father, that those 
which held and persuaded pressure of consciences were 
commonly interested therein themselves for their own 
ends.’--Bacon. To maintain indicates the effort 
which one makes to inform others of this state; ‘If 
any man of quality will maintain upon Edward, Earl 
of Gloucester, that he is a manifold traitor, let him 
appear.’--SHAKSPEARE. To support indicates the 
efforts which one ‘makes to justify that state. We 
hold an opinion only as it regards ourselves; we main- 
tain and support it as it regards others; that is, we main- 
tain it either with others, for others, or against others: 
we support it in an especial manner against others: we 
maintain it by assertion; we support it by argument, 
Bad principles do harm only to the individual when 
they are held; they willdo harm to allover whom our 
influence extends when we maintain them; they may do 
harm to all the world, when we undertake to support 
them. Good principtes need only be held, or at most 
maintained, unless where adversaries set themselves up 
against them, and render it necessary to support them. 
Infidel principles have been held occasionally by indi- 
viduals in all ages, but they were never maintained 
with so much openness and effrontery at any time, as 
at the close of the eighteenth century, when supporters 
of such principles were to be found in every tap-room. 

Hoid is applied not only to principles and opinions, 
but also to sentiments ; maintain and support are con- 
fined either to abstract and speculative opinions, or to 
the whole mind: we hold a thing dear or cheap, we 
hold itin abhorrence, or we koldit sacred, ‘ AsChaucer 


231 


is the father of English poetry, so 1 hold him in the 
same degree of veneration as the Grecians held Homer. 
or the Romans Virgil’—Dryprn. We maintain or 
support truth or errour; we maintain an influence ovei 
ourselves, or maintain a cause ; 


Who thenis free? The wise, who well maintains 
An empire o’er himself.—F Rancis. 


We support our resolution or our minds; ‘ Nothing 
can support the minds of the guilty from drooping.’— 
Sourn. 


TO HAVE, POSSESS. 
Have, in German haben, Latin hadeo, not improbabiy 


from the Hebrew JAN to desire, or STIX he loved, 
because those who have most, desire most, or becausu 
men love worldly possessions above every thing else: 
possess has the same meaning as in the preceding arti- 
cle; have isthe general, possess isthe particular term 
have designates nocircumstance of the action ; possess 
expresses a particular species of having. 

To have is sometimes to have in one’s hand or within 
one’s reach; but to possess is to have as one’s own: a 
clerk has the money which he has fetched for his em- 
ployer; the latter possesses the money, which he has 
the power of turning to his use. To have is sometimes 
to have the right to, to belong; to possess is to have by 
one and at one’s command: a debtor has the property 
which he has surrendered to his creditor ; but he cannot 
be said to possess it, because he has it not within his 
reach, and at his disposal: * we are not necessarily 
masters of that which we have; although we always 
are of that which we possess ; to have is sometimes 
only temporary ; to possess is mostly permanent: we 
have money which we are perpetually disposing of; we 
possess lands which we keep for a permanency: a 
person fas the good graces of those whom he pleases; 
he possesses the confidence of those who put every 
thing in his power: the stoutest heart may have occa- 
sional alarms, but will never lose its self-possession: a 
husband has continual torments who is possessed by 
the demon of jealousy : a miser has goods in his coffers, 
but he is not master of them; they possess his heart 
and affections: we have things by halves when we 
share them with others; we possess them only when 
they are exclusively ours and we enjoy them unéi- 
videdly; 


That [ spent, that I had; 
That 1 gave, that I have; 
That I left, that I lost. 
EPITAPH ON A CHARITABLE Man 


A lover has the affections of his mistress by whom he 
is beloved; he possesses her whole heart when she 
loves him only: one has an interest in a mercantile 
concern in which he is a partner ; the lord of a manor 
possesses all the rights annexed to that manor; ‘ The 
various objects that compose the world were by nature 
formed to delight our senses; and as it is this alone 
that makes them desirable to an uncorrupted taste, a . 
man may be said naturally to possess them when he 
possesseth those enjoymeuts which they are fitted by 
nature to yield.’-BERKELEY 


TO LAY OR TAKE HOLD OF, CATCH, SEIZE, 
SNATCH, GRASP, GRIPE. 


To lay or take hold of is here the generick expression : 
it denotes simply getting into the possession, which is 
the common idea in the signification of all these terms, 
which differ chiefly in regard to the motion in which 
the action is performed. To catch is to lay hold of 
with aneffort. To seize is to lay hold of with violence. 
To snatch is to lay hold of by asudden and violent 
effort. One is said to lay hold of that on which he 
places his hand ; he takes hold of that which he secures 
in his hand. We lay hold of any thing when we see it 
falling; we take hold of any thing when we wish to 
lift it up; ‘Sometimes it happens that a corn slips out 
of their paws when they (the ants) are climbing up; 
they take hold of it again when they can find it, other- 
wise they look for another.’—Appison. We catch the 
thing which attempts to escape; ‘One great genius 


* Vide Abbe Girard : “ Avoir, posséder 


238 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


often catches the flame from another..—Appison. We | of possessing a thing, over which we have actually no 


seize a thing when it makes resistance ; 


Furious he said, and tow’rd the Grecian crew, 
( Seiz’d by the crest) th’ unhappy warriour lag 
OPE. 


We snatch, that which we are particularly afraid of 
not getting otherwise ; 


The hungry harpies fly, 
They snatch the meat, defiling all they find. 
DRYDEN. 


A person, who is fainting, lays hold of the first thing 
which comes in his way; a sick person or one that 
wants support takes hold of another’s arm in walking ; 
various artifices are employed to catch animals; the 
wild beasts of the forest seize their prey the moment 
they come within their reach; it is the rude sport of a 
schoolboy to snatch out of the hand of another that 
which he is not,/willing to let go. 

To lay hold of isto getin the possession. To grasp 
and to gripe signify to have or keep in the possession : 
an eagerness to keep or not to let go is expressed by 
that of grasping ; 

Like a miser ’midst his store, 

Who grasps and grasps till he can hold no more. 

DRYDEN. 


A fearful anxiety of losing and an earnest desire of 

keeping is expressed by the act of griping ; 

They gripe their oaks ; and every panting breast 

Is rais’d by turns with hope, by turns with fear depress’d. 
DryDEN. 


When a famished man lays hold of food, he grasps it, 
from a convulsive kind of fear lest it should leave him; 
when a miser lays hold of money he gripes it from 
the love he bears to it; and the fear he has that it will 
be taken from him. 


OCCUPANCY, OCCUPATION, 


Are words which derive their meaning from the dif- 
ferent acceptations of the primitive verb occupy: the 
former being used to express the state of holding or 
possessing any object; the latter to express the act of 
taking possession of, or keeping in possession. He 

_ who has the occupancy of land enjoys the fruits of it; 
‘ As occupancy gave the right to the temporary use of 
the soil; so it is agreed on all hands, that occupancy 
gave also the original right to the permanent property 
in the substance of the earth itself.—BLAcKs'ToNE. 
The occupation of a country by force of arms is of 
little avail, unless one has an adequate force to main- 
tain one’s ground; ‘The unhappy consequences of 
this temperament is, that my attachment to any occu- 
pation seldom outlives its novelty..—_CowPeER. 


POSSESSOR, PROPRIETOR, OWNER, 
MASTER. 


The possessor has the full power, if not the right, 
ot the present disposal over the object of possession ; 
‘Tam convinced that a poetick talent is a blessing to 
its possessor. SEWARD. The proprietor and owner 
has the unlimited right of transfer, but not always the 
power of immediate disposal. The proprietor and the 
owner are the same in signification, though not in ap- 
plication; the first term being used principally in re- 
gard to matters of importance; the Jatter on familiar 
occasions: the proprietor of an estate is a more suita- 
ble expression than the owner of an estate ; 


Death! great proprietor of all! ’T is thine 
To tread out empire and to quench the stars. 
Youna. 


The owner of a book is a more becoming expression 
than the proprietor ; ‘One cause of the insufficiency 
of riches (to. produce happiness) is, that they very 
seldom make their owner rich.—Jounson. The pos- 
sessor and the master are commonly the same person, 
when those things are in question which are subject to 
possession ; but the terms are otherwise so different 
in their original meaning, that they can scarcely admit 
of comparison: the possessor of a house is naturally 
tne master of the house; and, in general, whatever a 
man possesses, that he has in his power, and is conse- 

uently master of ; but we may have, legally, the right 


a a ee EL Re I a ea NNR IE IEC eR ee te ee ge ee EY i ee 


power of control: in this case, we are nominally pos- 
sessor, but virtually not master. A minor, or insane 
person, may be both possessor and proprietor of that 
over which he has no control; a man is, therefore, on 
the other hand, appropriately denominated master, 
not possessor of his actions ; 


There, Cesar, grac’d with both Min¢ tvas, shone, 


Cesar, the world’s great master, and his own. 
Pops. 


TO SUSTAIN, SUPPORT, MAINTAIN. 


The idea of exerting one’s self to keep an object from 
sinking is common to all these terms, which vary 
either in the mode or the object of the action. To sus- 
tain, from the Latin sustineo, i.e. sus or sub and teneo 
to hold, signifying to hold from underneath; and sup-, 
port, from sub and porto to bear, signifying to bear 
from underneath, are passive actions, and imply that 
we bear the weight of something pressing upon us; 
maintain (v. To assert) is active, and implies that we 
exert ourselves so as to keep it from pressing upon us. 
We sustain a load; we support a burden; we main- 
tain acontest. The principal difficulty in an engage- 
ment is often to sustain the first shock of the attack ;_ 


With labour spent, no longer can he wield 
The heavy falchion, or sustain the shield, 
O’erwhelm’d with darts.—Drypen. 


A soldier has not merely to support the weight of his 
arms, but to maintain his post; ‘ Let this support and 
comfort you, that you are the father of ten children, 
among whom there seems to be but one soul of love » 
and obedience.’.—-LyTTLeTON. What is sustained is 
often temporary; what is supported is mostly perma- 
nent: a loss or an injury is sustained; pain, distress, 
and misfortunes, are supported; maintain, on the 
other hand, is mostly something of importance or ad- 
vantage ; credit must always be maintained ; 


As compass’d with a wood of spears around, 
The lordly lion sll maztaans his ground, 
So Turnus fares.—DrypDrEn. 


We must sustain a loss with tranquillity ; we must 
support an affliction with equanimity ; we must mazn- 
tain our own honour, and that of the community to 
which we belong, by the rectitude of our conduct 


STAFF, STAY, PROP, SUPPORT. 


From staff in the literal sense (v. Staff) comes staff 
in the figurative application: any thing may be de- 
nominated a staff which holds up after the manner of 
a staff, particularly as it respects persons; bread is 
said to be the staff of life; one person may serve as 
a staff to another. The staff serves in a state of 
motion; ‘Let shame and confusion then cover me if 
I do not abhor the intolerable anxiety I well understand 
to wait inseparably upon that staff of going about be- 
guilefully to supplant any man.’—Lorp WENTWORTH. 
The stay and prop are employed for objects in a state 
of rest: the stay makes a thing stay for the time being, 
it keeps it from falling ; it is equally applied to persons 
and things; we may be a stay to a person who is fall- 
ing by letting his body rest against us; in the same 
manner buttresses against a wall, and shores against a 
building, serve the purpose of a stay, while it is under 
repair. For the same reason that part of a female’s 
dress which serves as a stay to the body is denomi 
nated stays ; the prop keeps a thing up for a perma 
nency ; every pillar on which a building rests is a 
prop; whatever therefore requires to be raised from 
the ground, and kept in that state, may be set upon 
props; between the stay and the prop there is this 
obvious distinction, that as the stay does not receive 
the whole weight, it is put so as to receive it indirectly, 
by leaning against the object ; but the prop, for a con- 
trary reason, is put upright underneath the object so as 
to receive the weight directly: the derivation of this 
word prop, from the Dutch proppe a plug, and the 
German pfropfen a cork, does not seem to account 
very clearly for its present use in English. 

Stay and prop may be figuratively extended in their 
application with the same distinction in theiy sense; a 
crust of bread may serve as a stay to the stomach 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


it nope precarious, and of things when gain’d 
Of little moment, and as little stay, 
Can sweeten toils and dangers into joys, 
When then that hope which nothing can defeat ? 
Youne. 


A person’s money may serve as a prop for the credit 
ef another. Support is altogether taken in the moral 
and abstract sense: whatever supports, that is, bears 
the weight of an object, is a support, whether in a state 
of motion like a staff, or in a state or rest like a stay; 
whether to bear the weight in part like a stay, or alto- 
gether like a prop, it is still a support; but the term is 
likewise employed on all occasions in which the other 
terms are not admissible. Whatever supports exist- 
ence, whether directly or indirectly, is a support: 
food is the support of the animal body; labour or any 
particular employment is likewise one’s support, or the 
indirect means of gaining the support; hope is the 
support of the mind under the most trying circum- 
stances; religion, as the foundation of all our hopes, 
is the best and surest support under afiliction ; 


Whate’er thy many fingers can entwine, 
Proves thy support and all its strength is thine, 
Tho’ nature gave not Jegs, it gave thee hands, 
By which thy prop, thy prouder cedar stands. 
DrENHAM. 


STAFF, STICK, CRUTCH 


Staff, in Low German staff, &c., in Latin stipes, in 
Greek stxn, comes from st¢w stipo to fix ; stick signi- 
fies that which can be stuck in the ground; crutch, 23 
changed from cross, is a staff or stick which has a 
cross bar at the top. 

The ruling idea in a staff is that of firmness and 
fixedness; it is employed for leaning upon: the ruling 
idea in the stick is that of sharpness with which it can 
penetrate, it is used for walking and ordinary pur- 
poses ; the ruling idea mm the crutch is its form, which 
serves the specifick purpose of support in case of lame- 
ness; a staff can never be sniall, but a stick may be 
large ; a crutch is in size more of a staff than a com- 
mon stick. 


——— 


LIVELIHOOD, -LIVING, SUBSISTENCE, 
MAINTENANCE, SUPPORT, 
SUSTENANCE, 


The means of living or supporting life is the idea 
common to all these terms, which vary according to 
the circurmstances of the individual and the nature of 
the object which constitutes the means: the livelihood 
is the thing sought after by the day; a labourer earns 
a livelihood by the sweat of his brow: living is ob- 
tained by more respectable and less severe efforts than 
the two former; tradesmen obtain a good living by 
keeping shops; artists procure a living by the exercise 
of their talents; ‘A man may as easily know where 
to find one to teach to debauch, whore, game, and 
blaspheme, as to teach him to write or cast accounts; 
‘tis the very profession and livelihood of such people, 
getting their wing by those practices for which they 
deserve to forfeit their lives” —Soutn. A subsistence 
is obtained by irregular efforts of various descriptions ; 
beggars meet with so much that they obtain something 
better than a precarious and scanty subsistence: ‘ Just 
the necessities of a bare subsistence are not to be the 
only measure of a parent’s care for his children.’— 
Souru. Maintenance, support, and sustenance, differ 
from the other three inasmuch as they do not compre- 
hend what one gains by one’s own efforts, but by the 
efiorts of others: the maintenance is that which is per- 
manent; it supplies the place of a living: the support 
may be casual, and vary in degree: the object of most 
publick charities is to afford a maintenance to such as 
cannot obtain a livelihood or living for themselves; 
‘The Jews, in Babylonia, honoured Hyrcanus their 
king, and supplied him with a maintenance suitable 
thereto.’—Pripraux. It is the business of the parish 
to give support, in time of sickness and distress, to all 
who are legal parishioners; ‘If it be a curse to be 
forced to toil for the necessary support of. lilt, how 
does he heighten the curse who toils for superfluities.’ 
—Soutu. The maintenance and support are always 
granted ; but the sustenance is that which is taken or 
received: the former comprehends the niwans of oi- 


238 


taining food; the sastenance comprehends that whick 
sustains the body which supplies the place of food; 
‘Besides, man has a claim also to a promise for his 
support and sustenance which none have ever missed , 
of who come up to the conditions of it..—Sourn. 


LIVING, BENEFICE. 


Living signifies literally the pecuniary resource by 
which one lives; benefice, from benefacio, signifies 
whatever one obtains as a benefit: the former is appli- 
cable to any situation of\life, but particularly to that 
resource which a parish affords to the clergyman; the 
latter is applicable to no other object: we speak of the 
living as a resource immediately derived from the 
parish, in distinction from a curacy, which is derived 
from an individual; ‘Jn consequence of the Pope’s 
interference, the best livings were filled by Italian, and 
other foreign, clergy.—Biacksronr. We speak of a 
benefice in respect to the terms by which it is held, ac- 
cording to the ecclesiastical law: there are many 
livings which are not benefices, although not vice 
versa ; ‘Estates held by feudal tenure, being originally 
gratuitous donations, were at that time denominated 
beneficia ; their very name, as well as constitution, was 
borrowed, and the care of the souls of a parish thence 
came to be denominated a benefice.’ BLACKSTONE. 


TO BE, EXIST, SUBSIST. 
Be, with its inflections, is to be traced through the 
northern and Oriental languages to the Hebrew 74° 


the name of God, and Njj7q to de. From the derivation 
of exist, as given under the article To Exist, Live 
arises the distinction in the use of the two words. To 
be is applicable either to the accidents of things, or to 
the substances or things themselves; to exist only to 
substances or things that stand or exzst of themselves. 

* We say of qualities, of forms, of actions, of ar- 
rangement, of movement, and of every different re- 
lation, whether real, ideal, or qualificative, that they 
are; ‘He does not understand either vice or virtue who 
will not allow that life without the rules of morality is 
a wayward uneasy being..—STEELE. We say of 
matter, of spirit, of body, and of all substances, that 
they exist ; ‘ When the soul is freed from all corporeal 
alliance, then it truly extsts..—HuGurEs AFTER XENO- 
pHON. Man zs man, and will be man.under all cir- 
cumstances and changes of life: he exists under every 
known climate and variety of heat or cold in the at- 
mosphere. 

Being and existence as nouns have this farther dis- 
tinction, that the former is employed not only to de 
signate the abstract state of bezng, but is metaphori 
cally employed for the sensible objectthat zs ; the latter 
is confined altogether to the abstract sense. Hence we 
speak of human beings ; beings animate or inanimate, 
the Supreme Being’: but the existence of a God; ez- 
istence of innumerable worlds; the existence of evil. 
Being may in some cases be indifferently employed for 
existence, particularly in the grave style; when speak 
ing of animate objects, as the being of a God; our 
frail being ; and when qualified in a compound form is 
preferable, as our well-being. 

Subsist is properly a species of existing ; from the 
Latin prepositive swb, signifying for a time, it denotes 
temporary or partial existence. Every thing ezists by 
the creative and preservative power of the Almighty: 
that which subsists depends for its existence upon the 
chances and changes of this mortal life ; 


Forlorn of thee, 
Whither shall I betake me? where subsist? 
Miron. 


To exist therefore designates simply the event of being 
or existing ; to subsist conveys the accessory ideas 
of the mode and duration of existing. Man exists 
while the vital or spiritual part of him remains; he 
subsists by what he obtains to support life. Friend- 
ships exist inthe world, notwithstanding the prevalence 
of selfishness; but it cannot subsist for any length of 
time between individuals in whom this base tempes 
prevails. 


* Vide Abbe Girard: “ Etre exister subsister ’ 


240 
TO BE, BECOME, GROW. 


Be (v. To be, exist) ; become signifies to come to be, 
that is, to be in course of time ; gvov is, in all probability, 
changed from the Latin crevi, perfect of cresce to in- 
crease or grow. 

Be (v. To be, exist) is positive ; become, thatis to come 
to be, or to be in course of time is relative: a person zs 
what he zs without regard to what he was ; he becomes 
that which he was not before; 


To be or not to be? that is the question. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


We judge of a man by what he zs, but we cannot 
judge of him by what he will become: this year he is 
immoral and irreligious, but by the force of reflection 
on himself he may become the contraty in another 
year: ‘About this time Savage’s nurse, who had 
always treated him as her own son, died; and it was 
natural for him to take care of those effects which by 
her death were, as he imagined, become his own.’— 
JOHNSON. 

To become includes no idea of the mode or circum- 
stance of becoming ; to grow is to become by a gradual 
process: a man may become a good man from a vicious 
one, in consequence of a sudden action on his mind; 
but he grows in wisdom and virtue by means of an in- 
crease in knowledge and experience ; 

Authors, like coins, grow dear, as they eae 

OPE. 


TO EXIST, LIVE. 


Exist, in French exister, Latin existe, compounded 
of e or ex and sisto, signifies to place or stand by itself 
or of itself; live, through the medium of the Saxon 
libban, and the other northern dialects, comes in all 


probability from the Hebrew 45 the. heart, which is 
the seat of animal life. 

Existence is the property of all things in the uni- 
verse; life, which is the inherent power of motion, is 
the, particular property communicated by the Divine 
Being to some parts only of his creation: east, there- 
fore, is the general, and live the specifick, term: what- 
ever lives, exists according to a certain mode; but 
many things exist without living: when we wish to 
speak of things in their most abstract relation, we say 
they exzst; 

Can any now remember or relate 
How he existed in an embryo state ?—Junyns. 


When we wish to characterize the form of existence 
we say they live; ‘ Death to such a man is rather to be 
looked upon as the period of his mortality, than the end 
of his life’—Mrtmorn (Letters of Pliny). 

Existence, in its proper sense, is the attribute which 
we commonly ascribe to the Divine Being, and it is that 
which is immediately communicable by himself; life 
is that mode of existence which he has made to be com- 
municable by other objects besides himself: existence 
is taken only in its strict and proper sense, independent 
of allits attributesand appendages; but life isregarded 
in connexion with the means by which it is supported, 
as animal life, or vegetable life. In like manner, when 
speaking of spiritual objects, exist retains its abstract 
sense, and live is employed to denove an active prin- 
ciple: animosities should never exist in the mind; and 
every thing which is calculated to keep them alive 
should be kept at a distance. 


TO OUTLIVE, SURVIVE. 


To outlive is literally to live out the life of another, to 
live longer: to survive, in French survivre, is to live 
after : the former is employed to express the comparison 
between two lives; the latter to denote a protracted ex- 
istence beyond any given term: one person is said pro- 
perly to owtlive another who enjoys a longer life; but we 
speak of surviving persons or things, in an indefinite or 
unqualified manner: it is not a peculiar blessing to 
eutlive all our nearest relatives and friends; ‘A man 
never outlives his conscience, and that for this cause 
only, he cannot outlive himself.’—Souru. No man 
ean be happy in surviving his honour; ‘Of so vast, so 
lasting, so surviving an extent is the malignity of a 
great gui's ’--SOUTH. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


= 


TO DELIVER, RESCUE, SAVE. 


To deliver,in French delivrer, compounded of de and 
livrer, in Latin libero, signifies literally to make free: 
to rescue, contracted from the French ré* and secourir, 
and indirectly from the Latin re and curro to run, sig 
nifies to run to a person’s assistance in the moment ot 
difficulty ; to save is to make safe, 

The idea of taking or keeping from danger is com- 
mon to these terms; but deliver and rescue signify 
rather the taking from, save the keeping from danger: 
we deliver and rescue from the evil that is; we save 
from evils that may be, as well as from those that are, 
Deliver and rescue do not convey any idea of the 
means by which the end is produced; save commonly 
includes the idea of some superiour agency : aman may 
be delivered or rescued by any person without distinc- 
tion; he is commonly saved by a superiour. 

Deliver is an unqualified term, it is applicahle to 
every mode of the action or species of evil; to rescue is 
aspecies of delivering, namely, delivering from the 
power of another: to save is applicable to the greatest 
possible evils: a person may be delivered from a burden, 
from an oppression, from disease, or from danger by 
any means; ‘In our greatest fears and troubles we 
may ease our hearts by reposing ourselves upon God, 
in confidence of his support and deliverance ’—Ti.- 
LOTsoN. A prisoner is rescued from the hands of an 
enemy ; 

My household gods, companions of my woes, 

With pious care I resew’d from our foes.—DrynEn 


A person is saved from destruction ; 


Now shameful flight alone can save the host, 
Our blood, our treasure, and our glory lost.—Popn. 


‘He who feareth God and worketh righteousness, and 
perseveres in the faith and duties of our religion, shall 
certainly be saved.’-—RocGERs. 


DELIVERANCE, DELIVERY, 


Are drawn from the same verb (v. To deliver) to ex 
press its different senses of taking from or giving to; the 
former denotes the taking of something from one’s self: 
the latter implies giving something to another. 

To wish for a deliverance from that which is hurtful 
or painful is to a certain extent justifiable; 


Whate’er befalls your life shall be my care, 
One death, or one deliverance, we will share. 
DRYDEN. 


The careful delivery of property into the hands of the 
owner will be the first object of concern with a faithful 
agent; ‘With our Saxon ancestors the delivery of 2 
turf was a necessary solemnity to establish the con 
veyance of lands.’ BLACKSTONE. 


TO FREE, SET FREE, DELIVER, LIBERATE 


To free is properly to make free, in distinction from 
set free; the first is enployed in what concerns our: 
selves, and the.second in that which concerns another. 
A man frees himself from an engagement; he sets 
another free from his engagement: we free or set 
ourselves free, from that which hasbeen imposed upon 
us by ourselves or by circumstances; we are delivered 
or liberated from that which others have imposed upon 
us; the former from evils in general, the latter from 
the evil of confinement. 1 free myself from a burden; 
T se¢ my own slave free from his slavery; I deliver 
another man’s slave from a state of bondage; I liberate 
aman from prison. A man frees an estate from rent, 
service, taxes, and all incumbrances; a king sets jis 
subjects free from certain imposts or tribute, he de- 
livers them from a foreign yoke, or he liberates tnose 
who have been taken in war. We free either hy 
un act of the will, or by contrivance and method; 
we set free by an act of authority; we deliver or 
liberate by active measures and physical strength. 
A man_ frees himself from impertinence by es- 
caping the company of the impertinent; he sets 
others free from all apprehensions by assuring them 
of his protection; he delivers them out of a perilous 
situation by his presence of mind. A country is freed 
from the horrours of a revolution by the vigorous 
councils of a determined statesman; in this manner 
was England freed from a counterpart of the French 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


evolution by the vigour of the government; a country 
s set free from the exactions and hardships of usurpa- 
tion and tyranny by the mild influence of established 
government: in this manner is Europe set free from 
the iron yoke of the French usurper by its ancient 
rulers. A country is delivered from the grasp and 
oppression of the invader; in this manner has Spain 
been delivered, by the wisdom and valour of an illus- 
trious British general at the head of a band of British 
heroes. 

When applied in a moral sense free is applied to sin, 
or any other moral evil; 


She then 
Sent Iris down to free her from the strife 
Of Jabouring nature, and dissolve her life. 
DryDEn. 


Set free is employed for ties, obligation, and respon- 
sibility ; 
When heav’n would kindly set us free, 
And earth’s enchantment end; 
It takes the most effectual means, 
And robs us of a friend.—Youne. 


Deliver is employed for external circumstances ; ‘How- 
ever desirous Mary was of obtaining deliverance from 
Darnley’s caprices, she had good reasons for rejecting 
the method by which they proposed to accomplish it.’ 
—Rosertson. God, as our Redeemer, frees us from 
the bondage and consequences of sin, by the dispensa- 
tions of his atoning grace; but he does not set us 
free from any of our moral obligations or moral re- 
sponsibility as free agents; as our Preserver he deli- 
vers us from dangers and misfortunes, trials and 
temptations. 


——— 


FREE, LIBERAL. 


Free is here considered as it respects actions and 
sentiments. In all its acceptations free is a term of 
dispraise, and lzberal that of commendation. To be 
free, signifies to act or think at will; to be Uberal is to 
act according to the dictates of an enlarged heart. and 
an enlightened mind. A clown or a fool may be free 
with his money, and may squander it away to please 
his humour, or gratify his appetite; but the nobleman 
and the wise man will be liberal in rewarding merit, 
in encouraging industry, and in promoting whatever 
can contribute to the ornament, the prosperity, and im- 
provement of his country. A man who is free in his 
sentiments thinks as he pleases; the man whois liberal 
thinks according to the extent of his knowledge. The 
free-thinking man is wise in his own conceit, he de- 
spises the opinions of others; the liberal-minded thinks 
modestly on his own personal attainments, and builds 
upon the wisdom of others. 

The freethinker circumscribes all knowledge within 
the conceptions of a few superlatively wise heads; 
‘The freethinkers plead very hard to think freely : 
they have it; but what use do they make of it? Do 
their writings show a greater depth of design, or more 
just and correct reasoning, than those of other men ?? 
—BerxkeLry. ‘Their pretensions to be freethinkers is 
no other than rakes have to be freelivers, and savages 
to be freemen.’—Anpnpison. The liberal-minded is 
anxious to enlarge the boundaries of science by making 
all the thinkiag world in all ages to contribute to the 
advancement of knowledge ; 


For me, for whose well-being 
So amply, and with hands so 7beral, 
Thou hast provided all things.—MiLTon. 


The desire of knowledge discovers a dzberal mind.’— 

Buarrk. With the freethinker nothing is good that is 
old or established; with the lzéberal man nothing is 
good because it is new, nothing bad because it is old. 
Men of the least knowledge and understanding are 
the most free in their opinions, in which description 
of men this age abounds above all others; such men 
are exceedingly anxious to usurp the epithet liberal to 
themse.ves; but the good sense of mankind will pre- 
yall against “artial endeavours, and assign this title to 
none but men of comprehensive talents, sound iudge- 
nents, extensive €x, erience, and deep erudition. 

It seems as if freedom of thought was that aberra- 
tion of the mind which is opposed to the two extremes 
‘f euperstition and bigotry; and that liberality is the 
aappy medium. The freethinker holds Steaks Ue 


241 


and is attached to nothing but his own conccits; the 
superstitious man holds too many things sacred, and is 
attached to every thing that favours this bent of his 
mind. A frecthinker accommodates his duties to his 
inclinations: he denies his obligation to auy thing 
which comes across the peculiar fashion of his senti 
ment. A man of free sentiments rejects the spirit of 
Christianity, with the letter or outward formality ; the 
superstitious man loses the spirit of Christianity in his 
extravagant devotion to its outward formalities. 

On the other hand bigotry and liberality are opposed 
to each other, not in regard to what they believe, so 
much as in regard to the nature of their belief. The 
bigoted man so narrows his mind to the compass of his 
belief as to exclude every other object; the liberal 
man directs his views to every object which does not 
directly interfere with his belief. It is possible for the 
bigoted and the liberal man to have the same faith 
but the former mistakes its true object and tendency 
namely, the improvement of his rational powers, 
which the latter pursues. 

It is evident, therefore, from the above, that the 
freethinker, the superstitious man, and the bigot, are 
alike the offspring of ignorance; and that liberality 
is the handmaid of science, and the daughter of truth. 
Of all the mental aberrations freedom of thinking is 
the most obnoxious, as it is fostered by the pride of the 
heart, and the vanity of the imagination. In super- 
stition we sometimes see the anxiety of a well-disposed 
mind to discharge its conscience: with bigotry we often 
see associated the mild virtues which are taught by 
Christianity ; but in the freethinker we only see the 
bad passions and the unruly will set free from all tke 
constraints of outward authority, and disengaged from 
the control of reason and judgement: in such a mar 
the amiable qualities of the natural disposition become 
corrupted, and the evil humours triumph 


FREE, FAMILIAR. 


Free has already been considered as it respects the 
words, actions, and sentiments (v. Free); in the pre 
sent case it is coupled with familiarity, inasmuch as 
they respect the outward behaviour or conduct in 
general of men one to another. 

To be free is to be disengaged from all the con 
straints which the ceremonies of social intercourse 
impose; to be familiar is to be upon the footing of a 
familiar, of a relative, or one of the same family. 
Neither of these terms can be admitted as unexcep- 
tionable; but freedom is that which is in general 
totally unauthorized; familiarity sometimes shelters 
itself under the sanction of icng, cluse, and friendly 
intercourse. 

Free is a term of much more extensive import than 
familiar ; a man may be free towards another in a 
thousand ways; but he is familiar towards him only 
in his manners and address. A man who is free looks 
upon every thing as his which he chooses to.make use 
of; a familiar man only wants to share with another 
and to stand upon an equal footing. A man who is 
free will take possession of another man’s house or 
room in his absence, and will make use of his name 
or his property as it suits his convenience; his freedom 
always turus upon that which contributes to his own 
indulgence; ‘Being one day very free at a great 
feast, he suddenly broke forth into'a great laughter.’— 
HaKEWELL. A man who is familiar will smile upon 
you, take hold of your arm, call you by some friendly 
orcommon name, and seek to enjoy with you all the 
pleasures of social intercourse; his familiarity always 
turns upon that which will increase his own im- 
portance; ‘ Kalandar streight thought he saw his niece 
Parthenia, and was about in such familiar sort to 
have spoken unto her; but she in grave and honour- 
able manner, gave him to understand he was mistaken.’ 
—Sipnry. ‘There cannot be two greater euemies to 
the harmony of society than freedom and familiarity ; 
both of which it is the whole business of politeness to 
destroy; for no man can be free without being in 
danger of infringing upon what belongs to anoiner, 
nor familiar without being in danger of obtruding 
himself to the annoyance of others. 

When these words are used figuratively in re.erence 
to things, they do not bear that objectionable feature ; 


Freeand familiar with misfortune grow, 
Be us’d to sorrow, and inur’d to wo.—PRIOR 


+3 


242 
FREE, EXEMPT. 


To free is as general in its signification as in the 


preceding articles ; to exempt, in Latin exemptus, par- 
liciple of ezimo, signifies set out or disengaged from a 
Tt. 

Phe condition and not the conduct of men is here 
considered. Freedom is either accidental or inten- 
tional; the exemption is always intentional: we may 
be free from disorders, or free from troubles ; we are 
exempt, that is exempted by government, from serving 
in the militia. Free is applied to every thing from 
which any one may wish te be free; but exempt, on 
the contrary, to those burdens which we should share 
with others: we may be free from imperfections, free 
from inconveniencies, free from the interruptions of 
others ; 


O happy, if he knew his happy state, 

The swain who, free from bus’ness and debate, 

Receives his easy food from nature’s hand! 
DRYDEN. 


A man is exempt from any office or tax; ‘To be ez- 
smpt from the passions with which others are tor- 
mented, is the only pleasing solitude..—Appison. We 
may likewise be said to be exempt from troubles when 
speaking of these as the dispensations of Providence 
to others. 


——- 


FREEDOM, LIBERTY. / 


Freedom, the abstract noun of free, is taken in al! 
the senses of the primitive; liberty, from the Latin 
liber free, is only taken in the sense of free from ex- 
ternal constraint, from the action of power. 

Freedom is personal and private ; liberty is publick. 
The freedom of the city is the privilege granted by any 
city to individuals; the liberty of the city are the im- 
munities enjoyed by the city. By the same rule of 
distinction we speak of the frecdom of the will, the 
freedom of manners, the freedom of conversation, or 
the freedom of debate; ‘The ends for which men 
unite in society, and submit to government, are to 
enjoy security to their property, and freedom to their 
persons, from all injustice or violence..—Brair. ‘I 
would not venture into the world under the character 
of a man who pretends to talk like other people, until 
1 had arrived at a full freedom of speech.’—AppIson. 
We speak of the liberty of conscience, the liberty of 
the press, the liberty of the subject; ‘ The liberty of 
the press is a blessing when we are inclined to write 
against others, and a calamity when we find ourselves 
overborne by the multitude of our assailants.’—Joun- 
son. A slave obtains his freedom ; 


O freedom! first delight of human kind! 
Not that which bondmen from their masters find, 
The privilege of doles.—DrypeEn. 


A captive obtains his liberty. 

Freedom serves moreover to qualify the action; 
liberty is applied only to the agent: hence we say, to 
speak or think with freedom; but to have the liberty 
of speaking, thinking, or acting. Freedom and liberty 
are likewise employed for the private conduct of indi- 
viduals towards each other; but the former is used in 
a qualified good sense, the latter in an unqualified bad 
sense. A freedom may sometimes be licensed or 
allowed ; liberty is always taken in a bad sb 8 A 
freedom may be innocent and even pleasant; a liberty 
always does more or less violence to the decencies of 
life, or the feelings of individuals. There are little 
freedoms which may pass betweén youth of different 
sexes, so as to heighten the pleasures of society; but 
a modest woman will be careful to guard against any 
freedoms which may admit of misinterpretation, and 
resent every liberty offered to her as an insult. 


TO GIVE UP, DELIVER, SURRENDER, 
YIELD, CEDE, CONCEDE. 


We giveup (v. To give, grant) that which we wish 
to retain; we deliver that which we wish not to re- 
tain, Deliver does not include the idea of a transfer ; 
but give up implies both the giving from, and the 
giving to: we give up our house to the accommoda- 
tion of our friends ; ‘A popish priest threatens to ex- 
communicate a Northumberland esquire if he did not 
give up to him the church lands.’—Appison. We 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


deliver property into the hands of the owner; ‘ It is “# 
wonder that they who at such a time could be conx- 
rupted to frame and deliver such a petition, would nos 
be reformed by such an answer.’.—DrypEn. We may 
give up With reluctance, and deliver with pleasure ; 
‘ Such an expectation will never come to pass; there- 
fore I will e’en give it up and go and fret myself.’— 
CouuiER. 


On my experience, Adam, freely taste, 
And fear of death deliver to the winds.—M:iTonr 


To give up is a colloquial substitute for either eur 
render or yield; as it designates no circumstance of 
the action, it may be employed in familiar discourse, 
in almost every case for the other terms: where the 
action is compulsory, we may either say an officer 
gives up or surrenders his sword ; when the action is 
discretionary, we may either say he gives up, or yields 
a point.of discussion: give up has, however, an ex 
tensiveness of application which gives it an office dis- 
tinct from either surrender or yield. When we speak 
of familiar and personal subjects, give wp is more 
suitable than surrender, which is confined to matters 
of publick interest or great moment, unless when takei. 
figuratively: a man gives up his place, his right, his 
claim, and the like ; he surrenders a fortress, a vessel, 
or his property to his creditors, or figuratively he su 

renders his judgement or opinions. When give up is 
compared with yield, they both respect personal mat- 
ters; but the former expresses a much stronger action 
than the latter: a man gives up his whole judgement 
to another ; he yields to the opinion of another in par- 
ticular cases: he gives himself up to sensual indul- 
gencies; he yields to the force of temptation; ‘ The 
peaceable man will give up his favourite schemes: 
he will yield to an opponent rather than become the 
cause of violent embroilments.’—Buair. ‘The young, 
half-seduced by persuasion, and half-compelled by ridi- 
cule, surrender their convictions, and consent to live 
as they see others around them living.’—Buai. 

Cede, from the Latin cedo to give, is properly to sur 
render by virtue of a treaty: we may surrender a 
town as an act of necessity; but the cession of a 
country is purely a political transaction: thus, generals 
frequently surrender such towns as they are not able 
to defend; and governments cede such countries as 
they find it not convenient to retain. To concede, 
which is but a variation of cede, is a mode of yielding 
which may be either an act of discretion or courtesy ° 
as when a government concedes to the demands of the 
people certain privileges, or when an individual con- 
cedes any point in dispute for the sake of peace: ‘As 
to the magick power which the devil imparts for these 
concessions Of his votaries, theologians have different 
opinions.’—CuMBERLAND. 


TO GIVE UP, ABANDON, RESIGN, FOREGO. 


These terms differ from the preceding (v. To give 
up), inasmuch as they designate actions entirely free 
from foreign influence. A man gives up, abandons, 
and resigns, from the dictates of his own mind, inde- 
pendent of all control from others. To give up and 
abandon both denote a positive decision of the mind ; 
but the former may be the act of the understanding or 
the will, the latter is more commonly the act of the 
will and the passions: to give up is applied to familiar 
cases; abandon to matters of importance: one gives 
up an idea, an intention, a plan, and the like; ‘ Upon 
his friend telling him, he wondered he gave up the 
question, when he had visibly the better of the dis- 
pute; 1 am never ashamed, says he, to be confuted by - 
one who is master of fifty legions.—Appison. One 
abandons a project, a scheme, a measure of govern 
ment; 


For Greece we grieve, abandoned by her fate, 
To drink the dregs of thy unmeasur’d hate. 
Pore. 


To give up and resign are applied either to the out 
ward actions, or merely to the inward movements: 
but the former is active, it determinately fixes the con 
duct; the latter seems to be rather passive, it is the 
Jeaning of the mindyto the circumstances: a man gives 
up his situation by a positive act of his choice; he 
resigns his office when he feels it inconvenient to hold 
it: So, likewise, we gave up what we expect or lay 
claim to; ‘ He declares himself to be now satisfied te 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


the contrary, in which he has given up the cause. — 
DrypEN. We resign what we hope or wish for ; 


The praise of artful numbers [ resign, 
And hang my pipe upon the sacred pine.—DRrYDEN. 


In this sense, forego, which signifies to let go or let 
pass by, is comparable with resign, inasmuch as it 
expresses a passive action; but we resign that which 
we have, and we forego that which we might have: 
thus, we resign the claims which we have already 
made; we forego the claim if we abstain altogether 
from making it: the former may be a matter of pru- 
dence: the latter is always an act of virtue and for- 
bearance; 


Desirous to resign and render back 
AllI receiv’d.—Mitron. 


‘What they have enjoyed with great pleasure at one 
time, has proved insipid or nauseous at another ; and 
they see nothing in it, for which they should forego a 
present enjoyment.’—LockE. 

Then, pilgrim, turn, thy cares forego; 

All earth-born cares are wrong.—GoLDSMITH. 


When applied reflectively, to give up is used either in 
a good, bad, or indifferent sense; abandon always in 
a bad sense; resign always in a good sense: a man 
may give himself up, either to studious pursuits, to idle 
vagaries, or vicious indulgencies; he abandons him- 
self to gross vices; he resigns himself to the will of 
Providence, or to the circumstances of his condition: 
a man is said to be given up to his lusts who is without 
any principle to control him in the gratification ; he is 
said to be abandoned, when his outrageous conduct 
bespeaks an entire insensibility to every honest prin- 
ciple; he is said to be resigned when he discovers com- 
posure and tranquillity in the hour of affliction. 


TO ABANDON, DESERT, FORSAKE, 
RELINQUISH. 


The idea of leaving or separating one’s self from an 
object is common to these terms, which differ in the 
tircumstances or modes of leaving. The two former 
are more solemn acts than the two latter. Abandon, 
from the French abandonner, is a concretion of the 
words donner &@ ban, to give up toa publick ban or out- 
lawry. To abandon then is to expose to every mis- 
fortune which results from a formal and publick de- 
nunciation; to set out of the protection of law and 
government ; and to deny the privileges of citizenship ; 
desert, in Latin desertus, participle of desero, that is, 
de privative and sere to sow, signifies to lie unsown, 
unplanted, cultivated no longer. To desert then is to 
leave off cultivating; and as there is something of 
idleness and improvidence’in ceasing to render the soil 
productive, ideas of disapprobation accompany the 
word in all its metaphorical applications. He who 
leaves off cultivatiug a farm usually removes from it; 
hence the idea of removal and blameworthy removal, 
which usually attaches to the term; forsake, in Saxon 
forsecan, is compounded of the primitive for and 
sake, seek, secan, signifying to seek no more, to leave 
off seeking that which has been an object of search; 
relinquish, in Latin relinguo, is compounded of re or 
retro behind, and linguo to leave, that is, to leave 
what we would fain take with us, to leave with re- 
luctance. 

To abandon is totally to withdraw ourselves from 
an object ;to-tay-aside all care and concern for it; to 
leave it altogether to itself: fo.desert is to withdraw 
ourselves at certain times when our assistance or co- 
operation is required, or to separate ourselves from that 
to which we ought to be attached: to forsake is to 
withdraw our regard for and interest in an object, to 
keep at a distance from it; to relinquish is to leave 
that which has once been an object of our pursuit. 

Abandon and desert are employed for persons or 
things; forsake for persons or places; relinquish for 
things only. 

With regard to persons these terms express moral 
culpability in a progressive ratio downwards: abandon 


comprehends the violation of the most sacred ties, ' 


desert, a breach of honour and fidelity ; for : 
ture of the social bond. gee 23r os 4 TOP 

We abandon those who are entirely dependent for 
protection and support; they are left in a helpless state 
exposed to every danger; a chid is abandoned by its 


243 
parent; ‘He who abanuons his offspring or corrupta 
them by his example, perpetrates a greater evil than a 
murderer. —Hawkrsworts. We desert those with 
whom we have entered into a coalition; they are left 
to their own resources: a soldier deserts his comrades ; 
a partisan deserts his friends; ‘After the death of 
Stella, Swift’s benevolence was contracted, and his 
severity exasperated: he drove his acquaintance from 
his table, and wondered why he was deserted.’—Joun- 
son. We forsake those with whom we have been in 
habits of intimacy; they are deprived of the pleasures 
and comforts of society ; a man forsakes his compan- 
ions; a lover forsakes his mistress, or a husband his 
wife ; 3 


Forsake me not thus, Adam !—Mi.tTon. 


We are bound by every law human and divine not 
to abandon ; we arecalled upon by every good principle 
not to desert ; we are impelled by every kind feeling not 
to forsake. Few animals except man will abandon 
their young uritil they are enabled to provide for thein- 
selves. Interest, which is but too often the only prin- 
ciple that brings men together, will lead them to desert 
each other in the time of difficulty. We are enjoined 
in the gospel not to forsake the poor and needy. 

When abandoned by our dearest relatives, deserted 
by our friends, and forsaken by the world, we have 
always a resource in our Maker. 

With regard to things (in which sense the wora’ 
relinquish is synonymous) the character of abandoning 
varies with the circumstances and motives of the action. 
according to which it is either good, bad, or indifferent , 
deserting is always taken in an unfavourable or ba¢é 
sense; the act of forsaking is mostly indifferent, biw 
implies a greater or less breach of some tie; that ot 
relinquishing is prudent or imprudent. 

A captain may abandon his vessel when he has ne 
means of saving it, except at the risk of his life; 


He boldly spake, sir knight, if knight thou be, 

Abandon this forestalled place at erst, 

For fear of further harm, I counsel thee. 
SPENSER 


neglected nature pines 
Abandoned.—CowPeEr. 


An upright statesman will never desert his post wher 
his country is in danger, nor a true soldier desert his 
colours; ‘He who at the approach of evil betrays his 
trust, or deserts his post, is branded with cowardice.’— 
Hawxkeswortag. Birds will mostly forsake their nests 
when they discover them to have been visited, and 
most animals will forsake-their haunts when they find 
themselves discovered; ‘Macdonald and Macleod of 
Skie have lost many tenants and labourers, but Raarsa 
has not yet been forsaken by any of its inhabitants.’— 
Jounson. So likewise figuratively ; ‘When learning, 
abilities, and what is excellent in the world, forsake 
the church, we may easily foretell its ruin without the 
gift of prophecy.—Soutn. Men often inadvertently 
relinquish the fairest prospects in order to follow some 
favourite scheme which terminates in their ruin; ‘Men 
are wearied with the toil which they bear, but cannot 
find in their hearts to relinquish it.’-—-STHELE. 

Having abandoned their all, they forsook the place 
which gave them birth, and relinguished the adyvan- 
tages which they might have obtained from theit rank 
and family. 


TO ABANDON, RESIGN, RENOUNCE, ABDI- 
CATE. 


The idea of giving up is common to these terms, 
which signification, though analogous to the former, 
admits, however, of a distinction; as in the one case we 
separate ourselves from an object, in the other we send 
or cast it from us. In this latter sense the terms aban- 
don and resign have been partially considered in the 
preceding articles; renounce, in Latin renwncio, from 
nuncio to tell or declare, is to declare off from a thing ; 
abdicate, from dico to speak, signifies likewise to call ov 
cry off from a thing. 

We abandon and resign by giving up to another; we 
renounce by sending away from ourselves; we abandor 
a thing by transferring our power over to another; in 
this manner a debtor abandons his goods to his credit- 
ors: we resign a thing by transferring our possession 
of it to another; in this manner we resign a place to a 


244 
friend: we renounce a thing by siinply ceasing to hold 
it; in this manner we renounce a claim or a profession. 
As to renounce signified originally to give up by word 
of mouth, and to resign to give up by signature, the 
former is consequently a less formal action than the 
latter: we may renownce by implication; we resign in 
direct terms. we renounce the pleasures of the world 
when we do not seek to enjoy them; we resign a plea- 
sure, a profit, or advantage, of which we expressly give 
up the enjoyment. 

To abdicate is a species of informal resignation. A 
monarch abdicates his throne who simply declares his 
will to cease to reign; but a minister reszgns his office 
when he gives up the seals by which he held it. 

A humane commander will not abandon a town to 
the rapine of the soldiers; 


The passive Gods beheld the Greeks defile 
Their temples, and abandon to the spoil 
Their own abodes.—DryYDEN. 


The motives for resignations are various. Discontent, 
disgust, and the love of repose, are the ordinary 
inducements for men to resign honourable and lucra- 
tive employments; ‘It would be a good appendix to 
‘‘ the art of. living and dying,” if any one would write 
“ the art of growing old,” and teach men to ves?gn their 
pretensions to the pleasures of youth.’—SrrreLu. Men 
are not so ready to renounce the pleasures that are 
within their reach, as to seek after those which are out 
of their reach; ‘ For ministers to be silent in the cause 
of Christ is to renounce it, and to fly is to desert it.’— 
Soutu. The abdication of a throne is not always an 
act of magnanimity, it may frequently result from 
caprice or necessity ; ‘Much gratitude is due to the nine 
from their favoured poets, and much hath-been:paid : for 
even to the present hour they.are:invoked;and wor- 
shipped by the sons of verse, while all the other deities 
of Olympus have either abdicated their. thrones, or been 
dismissed from them with contempt.’—CuMBERLAND. 

Charles the Fifth abdicated his crown, and his 
minister resigned his office on the very same day, 
when both renounced the world with its allurements 
and its troubles. 

We abandon nothing but that over which we have 
had an entire and lawful control; we abdicate nothing 
but that which we have held by acertain right; but we 
may resign or renounce that which may be in our pos- 
session only by an act of violence. A usurper cannot 
abandon his people, because he has no people over 
whom he can exert a lawful authority ; still less can he 
abdicate a throne, because he has no throne to abdicate, 
but he may resign supreme power, because power may 
be unjustly held; or he may renownce his pretensions 
to a throne, because pretensions may be fallacious or 
extravagant. 

Abandon and resign are likewise used in a reflective 
sense; the former to express an involuntary or culpable 
action, the Jatter that which is voluntary and proper. 
The soldiers of Hannibal abandoned themselves to 
efieminacy during their winter quarters at Cume; 
‘It is the part of every good man’s religion to resign 
himself to God’s will.’—CuMBERLAND. 


TO ABSTAIN, FORBEAR, REFRAIN. 


Abstain, in French abstenir, Latin abstineo, is com- 
pounded of ad or abs from and teneo to keep, signifying 
to keep one’s self from a thing; forbear is compounded 
of the preposition for, or from, and the verb to bear or 
carry, signifying to carry or take one’sself from a thing; 
refrain, in French refréener, Latin referno, is com- 
pounded of ve back and freno, from frenum a bridle, 
signifying to keep back as it were by a bridle, to 
bridle in. : 

The first of these terms marks the leaving a thing, 
and the two others the omission of an action. We 
abstain from any object by not making use of it; we 
forbear to do or refraiw from doing a thing by not 
taking any part in it. 

Abstaining and forbearing are outward actions, but 
refraining is connected with the operations of the 
mind. ‘We may abstain from the thing we desire, or 
forbear to do the thing which we wish to do; but we 
can never refrain from any action Without in some 
measure losing our desire to do it. 

We abstain from whatever concerns our food and 
cluthing; we jorbear to do what we may have parti- 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


cular motives for doing; refrain from what we desire 
to do, or have been in the habits of doing. 

It is a part of the Mahometan faith to abstain from 
the use of wine; but it is a Christian duty to forbear 
doing an injury even in return for an injury: and to 
refrain from all swearing and evil speaking. 

Abstinence is a virtue when we abstain from that 
which may be hurtful to ourselves or injurious to 
another; ‘Though a man cannot abstain from being 
weak, he may from being vicious.—Appison. For- 
bearance is essential to preserve peace and good will 
between man and man. Every one is too liable to 
offend, not to have motives for forbearing to dea) 
harshly with the offences of his neighbour; ‘ By for 
bearing to do what may be innocently done, we may 
add hourly new vigour and resolution, and secure the 
power of resistance when pleasure or interest shall lend 
their charms to guilt..—-Jounson. If we refrain from 
uttering with the lips the first dictates of an angry mind, 
we shall be saved much repentance in future ; ‘If we 
conceive a being, created with all his faculties and 
senses, to open his eyes in a most delightful plain, to 
view for the first time the serenity of the sky, the 
splendour of the sun, the verdure of the fields and 
woods, the glowing colours of the flowers, we can 
hardly believe it possible that he should refrain from 
bursting into an ecstacy of joy, and pouring out his 
praises to the Creator of those wonders.’—Sir WH 
LIAM JONES. 


“ABSTINENT, SOBER, ABSTEMIOUS, TEM 
" PERATE. 


The first of these terms is generick, the rest specifick ; 
Abstinent (v. To abstain) respects every thing that 
acts on the senses, and in a limited sense applies parti- 
cularly to solid food; sober, from the Latin sobrius, or 
sebrius, that is, sine ebrius, not drunk, implies an 
abstinence from excessive drinking; abstemious, from 
the Latin abstemzus, compounded of abs and temetum 
wine, implies the abstaining from wine or strong liquor 
in general; temperate, in Latin temperatus, participle 
of tempero to moderate or regulate, implies a well regu 
lated abstinence in all manner of sensual indulgence. 

We may be abstinent without being sober, sober 
without being abstemious, and all together without 
being temperate. 

An abstinent man does not eat or drink so much as 
he could enjoy; a sober man may drink much without 
being affected.* An abstemious man drinks nothing 
strong. A temperate manenjoys all ina due proportion. 

A particular passion may cause us to be abstinent, 
either partially or totally: sobriety may often depend 
upon the strength of the constitution, or be prescribed 
by prudence: necessity may dictate abstemiousness, but 
nothing short of a well disciplined mind will enable us 
tobetemperate. Diogenes practised the most rigorous 
abstinence: some men have unjustly obtained a eha- 
racter for sobriety, whose habit of body has enab.ed 
them to resist the force of strong liquor even when 
taken to excess: it is not uncommon for persons to 
practise abstemiousness to that degree, as not todrink 
any thing but water all their lives: Cyrus was distin- 
guished by his temperance as his other virtues; he 
shared all hardships with his soldiers, and partook of 
their frugal diet. 

Unlimited abstinence is rather a vice than a virtue, 
for we are taught to enjoy the things which Providence 
has set before us ; ‘To set the mind above the appetites 
is the end of abstinence, which one of. the fathers 
observes to be not a-virtue, but the groundwork of 
virtue..—Jonnson. Sobriety ought to be highly 
esteemed among the lower orders, where the abstinence 
from vice is to be regarded as positive virtue; ‘ Cratinus 
carried his love of wine to such an excess, that he got 
the name of ¢fAozoros, launching out in praise of 
drinking, and rallying all sobriety out of countenance.’ 
—CUMBERLAND. Abstemiousness is sometimes the — 
only means of preserving health ; 


_ The strongest oaths are straw 
To th’ fire i’ th’ blood; be more abstemrous, 
Or else good night your vow.—SHaksPEARE. 


Habitual temperance is the most efficacious means of 
keeping both body and mind in the most regular state; 
‘If we consider the life of these ancient sages, a great, 


* Vide Trusler: “ Sober, temperate, abstemious’ 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


part of whose philosophy consisted in a temperate and 
abstemious course of life, one would think the life of a 
philosopher and the life of a man were of two different 
dates.’— ADDISON. 


MODESTY, MODERATION, TEMPERANCE, 
SOBRIETY. 


Modesty, in French modestie, Latin modestia, and 
moderation, in Latin moderatio and moderor, both come 
from modus a measure, limit, or boundary: that is, 
forming a measure or rule; temperance, in Latin tempe- 
rantia, from tempus time, signifies fixing a time or term 
(v. Abstinent) ; sobriety (v. Abstinent). 

Modesty lies in the mind, and in the tone of feeling ; 
moderation respects the desires: modesty is a principle 
that acts discretionally ; moderation is a rule or line that 
acts as a restraint on the views and the outward con- 
duct. 

Modesty consists in a fair and medium estimate of 
one’s character and qualification; it guards a man 
against too high an estimate; it recommends to him an 
estimate below the reality: moderation consists in a 
suitable regulation of one’s desires, demands, and ex- 
pectations ; it consequently depends very often on 
modesty as its groundwork: he who thinks modestly 
of his own acquirements, his own performances, and 
his own merits, will be moderate in his expectations of 
praise, reward, and recompense: he, onthe other hand, 
who overrates his own abilities and qualifications, will 
equally overrate the use he makes of them, and conse- 
quently be émmoderate in the price which he sets upon 
his services: in such cases, therefore, modesty and 
moderation are to each other as cause and effect; but 
there may be modesty without moderation, and modera- 
tion without modesty. Modesty isasentiment confined 
to one’s self as the object, and consisting solely of one’s 
judgement of what one is, and what one does. Mode- 
ration, as is evident from the above, extends to objects 
that are external of ourselves: modesty, rather than 
moderation, belongs to an author; moderation, rather 
than modesty, belongs to a tradezman, or a man who 
has gains to make and purposes to answer; ‘I may 
modestly conclude, that whatever errours there may be 
in this play, there are not those which have been ob- 
jected to it. —DrvypEn. 

Equally inur’d 
By moderation either state to bear, 
Prosperous or adverse.—MILTon. 


Modesty shields a man from mortification and disap- 
pointments which assail the self-conceited man in 
every direction: a modest man conciliates the esteem 
even of an enemy and a rival; he disarms the resent- 
ments of those who feel themselves most injured by his 
superiority ; he makes all pleased with him by making 
them at ease with themselves: the self-conceited man, 
on the contrary, sets the whole world against himself, 
because he sets himself against every body; every one 
is out of humour with him, because he makes them ill 
at ease with themselves while in his company ; 


There’s a proud modesty in merit !—DrypDEN. 


Moderation protects a man equally from injustice on 
the one hand, and imposition on the other: he who is 
moderate himself makes others so; for every one finds 
his advantage in keeping within that bound which is as 
convenient to himself as to his neighbour: the world 
will always do this homage to real goodness, that they 
will admire it if they cannot practise it, and they will 
practise it to the utmost extent that their passions will 
allow them. Modesty, asa female virtue, has regard 
solely to the conduct of females with the other sex, and 
is still more distinguished from moderation than in the 
former case. 

-Moderationis the measure of one’s desires, one’s ha- 
hits, one’s actions and one’s words; temperance is the 
adaptation of the time or season for particular feelings, 
actions, or words ; a man is said to be moderate in his 
principles, who adopts the medium or middle course of 
thinking; it rather qualifies the thing than the person: 
he is said to be temperate in his anger, if he do not 
suffer it to break out into any excesses; temperance 
characterizes the person rather than the thing; ‘ These 
are the tenets which the moderatest of the Romanists 
will not venture to affirm.’—Sma.rings. 


She ’s not forward, but modest as the dove, 
She ’s not hot, but temperate as the morn. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


245 


A moderate man in politicks endeavours to steer 
clear of all party spirit, and is consequently so temperate 
in his language as to provoke no animosity; ‘Few 
harangues from the pulpit, except in the days of your 
league in France, or in the days of our solemn league 
and covenant in England, have ever breathed less of 
the spirit of moderation than this lecture in the Old 
Jewry.—Burke. ‘ Temperate mirth is not extin- 
guished by old age.’.—Buair. Moderationin the enjoy- 
ment of every thing is essential in order to obtain the 
purest pleasure; and temperance, which absolutely 
taken is habitual moderation, is always attended with 
the happiest effects to one’s constitution; as, on the 
contrary, any deviation from temperance, even in a 
single instance, is always punished with bodily pain 
and sickness. 

Temperance and sebriety have already been consi 
dered in their proper application, which will serve to 
illustrate their improper application (v. Abstinent). 
Temperance is an action; it is the tempering of our 
words and actions to the circumstances: sobricty is a 
state in which one is exempt from every stimulus to 
deviate from the right course; as a man who is intoxi- 
cated with wine runs into excesses, and loses that 
power of guiding himself which he has when he is 
sober or free from all intoxication, so is he who is 
intoxicated with any passion, in like manner, hurried 
away intoirregularities which a man in his right senses 
will not be guilty of: sobriety is, therefore, the state 
of being in one’s right or sober seuses ; and sobriety is 
with regard to temperance, as a cause to the effect; 
sobriety of mind will not only produce moderation and 
temperance, but extend its influence to the whole con- 
duct of aman in every relation and circumstance, to 
his internal sentiments and his external behaviour: 
hence we speak of sobriety in one’s mien or deport- 
ment, sobriety in one’s dress and manners, sobriety in 
one’s religious opinions and observances; ‘ The vines 
give wine to the drunkard as well as to the sober man.’ 
—Taytor. ‘Another, who had a great genius for 
tragedy, following the fury of his natural temper, made 
every man and woman in his plays stark raging mad 
there was not a sober person to be had.’—Drypben. 


Spread thy close curtains, love-performing night, 
Thou sober-suited matron, all in black.— SHaKsPEARE. 


CHASTITY, CONTINENCE, MODESTY. 
Chastity, in French chastité, Latin castt as, comes 
from castus pure, and the Hebrew wtp sacred ; con- 


tinence, in French continence, Latin continentia, from 
continens and contineo, signifies the act of keeping 
one’s self within bounds. 

These two terms are equally employed in relation to 
the pleasures of sense: bothare virtues, but sufficiently 
distinct in their Characteristicks. 

* Chastity prescribes rules for the indulgence of 
these pleasures; continence altogether interdicts their 
use. Chastity extends its views to whatever may bear 
the smallest relation to the object which it proposes to 
regulate; it controls the thoughts, words, looks, atti- 
tudes, food, dress, company, and in short the whole 
mode of living: continence simply confines itself to the 
privations of the pleasures themselves: it is possible, 
therefore, to be chaste without being continent, and 
continent without being chaste. 

Chastity is suited to all times, ages, and conditions ; 
continence belongs only to a state of celibacy: the 
Christian religion enjoins chastity, as a positive duty 
on all its followers; the Romish religion enjoins contz- 
mence on its clerical members: old age renders inen 
continent, although it seldom makes them chaste ; 


It fails me here to write of chastity,” 
That fairest virtue far above the rest.- -SPENSER. 


‘When Pythagoras enjoined on his disciples an absti- 
nence from beans, it has been thought by some an in- 
junction only of continency.’—Brown (Vulgar Errors) 

Chastity and continence have special regard to the 
outward conduct , modesty goes farther, it is an habi 
tual frame of mind, which prescribes a limit to all the 
desires. When modesty shows itself by an external 
sign, it is to be seen mostly in the behaviour ; but chastity 
shows itself more commonly in the conduct. We 


* Beauzée: “ Chastité, continence ” 


246 


speak of a modest blush, not of achaste blush. When 
the term chastity is applied to the mind it denotes a 
chastened mind, or a chastened tone of feeling, which 
has been evidently acquired ; but modesty results from 
the natural character, or from early formed habits. 
Modesty is the peculiar characteristick of a virtuous 
female, and is the safeguard of virtue. When a 
woman has Jaid aside her modesty, she will not long 
‘retain her chastity; ‘Of the general character of 
women, which is modesty, he has taken a most beco- 
ming care: for his amorous expressions go no farther 
than virtue may allow.’—DrypDeEn. 


MODERATION, MEDIOCRITY. 


Moderation (v. Modesty) isthe characteristick of 
the person; mediocrity, implying the mean or medium, 
sharacterizes the condition: moderation is a virtue of 
‘10 small importance for beings who find excessin every 
thing to be an evil; 


Such moderation.with thy bounty join, 
That thou may’st nothing give that is not thine. 
DENHAM. 


Mediocrity in external circumstances is exempt from 
all the evils which attend either poverty or riches; 
‘ Mediocrity only of enjoyment is allowed to man.’— 
Boar. 


MEAN, MEDIUM. 


Mean is but 2 contraction of medium, which sig- 
nifies in Latin the middle path. The term meanis used 
abstractedly in all speculative matters: there is a 
mean in opinions between the two extremes; this 
mean is doubtless the point nearest to truth, and has 
deen denominated the golden mean, from its supposed 
excellence; 


The man within the golden mean, 

Who can his boldest wish contain, 

Securely views the ruin’d cell 

Where sordid want and sorrow dwell. 
FRANCIs. 


Medium is employed in practical matters; computa- 
tions are often erroneous from being too high or too 
low: the medium is in this case the one most to be 
preferred. The moralist will always recommend the 
mean in all opinions that widely differ from each other: 
dur passions always recommend to us some extrava- 
gant conduct either of insolent resistance or mean 
compliance; but discretion recommends the medium 
or middle course in such matters. This term is how- 
ever mostly used to denote any intervening object, 
which may serve as a middle point; ‘He who looks 
upon the soul through its outward actions, often sees 
it through a deceitful medium.’—ADDISON. 


BECOMING, aR a? FIT, SUITA- 


Becoming, from become, compounded of be and 
come, signifies coming in its place; decent, in French 
decent, in Latin decens, participle of deceo, from the 


Greek déxet, and the Chaldee %5"4 to beseem, signifies 
the quality of beseeming and befitting; seemly, com- 
pounded of seem to appear, and ly or like, signifies 
likely or pleasant in appearance; fit and suitable are 
explained under the article Fit. 

What is becoming respects the manner of being in 
society, such as it ought to be, as to person, time, and 
Place. Decency regards the manner of displaying 
one’s self, so as to be approved and respected. Seem- 
liness is very similar in sense to decency: but its ap- 
plication is confined only to such things as immediately 
strike the observer. Fitness and suitableness relate 
.o the disposition, arrangement, and order of either 
being or doing, according to persons, things, or circum- 
stances. 

The becoming consists of an exteriour that is pleas- 
ing to the view: decency involves moral propriety ; it 
is regulated by the fixed rules of good breeding: 
seemliness is decency in the minor morals, or in our 
behaviour to or in the presence of others: fitness is 
reguiated by local circumstances, and suitableness by 
the established customs and usages of society. The 
dress of a woman is becoming when it renders her per- 
zon more agreeablé to the eye; it is decent if it in no 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


wise offend modesty ; it is unseemly if in any degree, 
however trivial, it violates decorum; it is fit if it be 
what the occasion requires; it is suitable if it be ac- 
cording to the rank and character of the wearer. What 
is becoming varies for every individual; the age, the 
complexion, the stature, and the habits of the person 
must be consulted in order to obtain the appearence 
which is becoming ; what becomes a young female, o1 
one of fair complexion, may not become one wko ig 
farther advanced in life, or who has dark features! 
decency and seemliness are one and the same for all; 
all civilized nations have drawn the exact line between 
the decent and indecent, although fashion may sonie- 
times draw females aside from this line, and cause them 
to be unseemly if not expressly indecent: jitness varies 
with the seasons, or the circumstances of persous, 
what is fit for the winter is unfit for the summer, or 
what is fit for dry weather is unfit for the wet; wheat 
is fit for town is not fit for the country, what is fit 
fora healthy person is not fit for one that is infin: 
suitableness accommodates itself to the external cir. 
cumstances and conditions of persons; the house, the 
furniture, and equipage of a prince, must be suitable 
to his rank; the retinue of an ambassador must be 
suitable to the character which he has to maintain, 
and to the wealth, dignity, and importance of the 
nation, whose monarch he represents; ‘ Raphael, 
amid his tenderness and friendship for man, shows 
sucn a dignity and condescension in all his speech and 
behaviour, as are suitable to a superiour nature.’-—Ap- 
DISON. 

Gravity becomes a judge, or a clergyman, at all 
times: an unassuming tone is becoming in a child 
when he addresses his superiours; ‘ Nothing ought to 
be held laudable or becoming, but what nature itself 
should prompt us to think so.—SrexeLe. Decency 
requires a more than ordinary gravity when we are in 
the house of mourning or prayer; it is indecent for a 
child on the commission of a fault to affect a careless 
unconcern in the presence of those whom he has 
offended; ‘A Gothick bishop, perhaps, thought it 
proper to repeat such a form in such particular shoes 
or slippers; another fancied it would be very decent 
if such a part of publick devotions was performed with 
a mitre on his head..—Apvison. Seemliness is an 
essential part of good manners; to be loud in one’s 
discourse, to use expressions not authorized in culti- 
vated society, or to discover a captious or tenacioue 
temper in one’s social intercourse with others are ux 
seemly things ; 

I am a woman lacking wit 
To make a seemly answer to such persons. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


There is a fitness or unfitness in persons for each 
other’s society: education jits a person for the society 
of the noble, the wealthy, the polite, and the learned. 
There is also a fitness of things for persons according 
to their circumstances; ‘To the wiser judgement of 
God it must be left to determine what is fit to be be- 
stowed, and what to be withheld..—Buarr. There is 
a suitableness in people’s tempers for each other; such 
a suitability is particularly requisite for those who are 
destined. to live together: selfish people, with opposite 
taste and habits, can never be suitable companions; 
‘ He creates those sympathies and suitableness of na 
ture that are the foundation of all true friendship, and 
by his providence brings persons so affected together ’ 
—Sours. 


DECENCY, DECORUM. 


Though decency and decorum are both derived from 
the same word (v. Becoming), they have acquired a 
distinction in their sense and application. Decency 
respects a man’s conduct; decorum his behaviour: a 
person conducts himself with decency; he behaves 
with decorwm. 

Indecency is a vice; it is the violation of publick or 
private morals: indecorum is a fault; it offends the 
feelings of those who witness it. Nothing but a de- 
praved mind can lead to indecent practices: indisere 
tion and thoughtlessness may sometimes give rise tc 
that which is indecorous. Decency enjoins upon ali 
relatives, according to the proximity of their relation- 
ship, to show certain marks of respect to the memory 
of the dead; ‘Even religion itself, unless decency be 
the handmaid which waits upon her, is apt to make 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


people appear guilty of sourness and ill-humour.’— 
Spectator. Regard for the feelings of others en- 
joins a certain outward decorum upon every one who 
attends a funeral ; ‘1 will admit that a fine woman of 
a certain rank cannot have too many real vices ; but 
at the same time I do insist upon it, that it is essen- 
tially her interest not to have the appearance of any 
ene. This decorum, I confess, will conceal her con- 
quests: but on the other hand, if she will be pleased 
to reflect that those conquests are known sooner or 
later, she will not upon an average find herself a 
loser.’,—-CHESTERFIELD. 


IMMODEST, IMPUDENT, SHAMELESS. 


Immodest signifies the want of modesty ; impudent 
and skameless signify without shame. 

The immodest is less than either the impudent or 
shameless: an immodest girl lays aside the ornament 
of her sex, and puts on ancther garb that is less becom- 
ing; but her heart need not be corrupt until she be- 
comes impudent: she wants a good quality when she 
is immodest ; she is possessed of a positively bad qua- 
lity when she is impudent. There is always hope that 
an wamodest woman may be sensible of her errour, and 
amend ; but of an impudent woman there is no such 
chance, she is radically corrupt; ‘ Musick diffuses a 
calm all around us, and makes us drop all those tmmo- 
dest thoughts which would be a hindrance to us in the 
performance of the great duty of thanksgiving.’”— 
Specraror. ‘Iam atonce equally fearful of sparing 
you, and of being too impudent a corrector.’—Popr. 

Impudent may characterize the person or the thing: 
shameless characterizes the person. A person’s air, 
look, and words, are impudent, when contrary to all 
modesty: the person himself is shameless who is de- 
void of all sense of shame; 


The sole remorse his greedy heart can feel 
Is if one life escapes his murdering steel ; 
Shameless by force or fraud to work his way, 
And no less prompt to flatter than betray. 

: CUMBERLAND. 


INDECENT, IMMODEST, INDELICATE. 


Indecent is the contrary of decent (v. Becoming), im- 
modest the contrary of modest (v. Modest), indelicate 
the contrary of delicate (v. Fine). 

Indecency and immedesty violate the fundamental 
principles of morality: the former however in external 
matters, as dress, words, and looks; the latter in con- 
duct and disposition. A person may be indecent for 
want of either knowing or thinking better ; but a female 
cannot be habitually immodest without radical cor- 
ruption ef principle. Indecency may be a partial, cm- 
modesty is a positive and entire breach of the moral 
law. Indecency belongs to both sexes; immodesty is 
peculiarly applicable to the misconduct of females ; 
‘The Dubistan contains more ingenuity and wit, more 
indecency and blasphemy, than I ever saw collected in 
one single volume.’—Sir Wn. Jones. 


Immodest words admit of no defence, 
For want of decency is want of sense. 
Roscommon. 


Indecency is less than immodesty, but more than in- 
delicacy: they both respect the outward behaviour ; 
but the former springs from illicit or uneurbed desire ; 
indelicacy from the want of education. It is a great 
indecency for a man to marry again very quickly after 
the death of his wife; but a still greater indecency for 
@ woman to put such an affront on her deceased hus- 
band: it is a great indelicacy in any one to break in 
upon the retirement of such as are in sorrow and 
mourning. It is indecent for females to expose their 
persons as many do whom we cannot call. immodest 
women; it 18 ixdelicate for females to engage in mas- 
culine exercises; ‘Your papers would be chargeable 
with something worse than indelicacy, did you treat 
she detestable sin of uncleanness in the same manner 
as you rally self-love”—Sprcraror. 


TO ABJURE, RECANT, RETRACT 
es SRT YL Bevo Kis 


Abjure, iu Latin abjuro, is compounded of the pri 
vative ab and juro to swear, signifying to swear to the 


247 


contrary or give up with an oath; recant, in Latin 
recanto, is compounded of the privative re and canto 
to sing or declare, signifying to unsay, to contradict by 
a counter declaration ; retract, in Latin retractus, par- 
ticiple of retraho, is compounded of re back and traho 
to draw, signifying to draw back what has been let 
go; revoke and recall have the same original sense 
as recant, with this difference only, that the word 
call, which is expressed also by voke, or in Latin woco, 
implies an action more suited to a multitude than the 
word canto to sing, which may pass in solitude. 

We abjure a religion, we recant a doctrine, we re- 
tract a promise, we revoke a command, we recall an 
expression. : 

What has been solemnly professed is renounced by 
abjuration ; 

The pontiff saw Britannia’s golden fleece, 
Once all his own, invest her worthier sons ! 
Her verdant valleys, and her fertile plains, 
Yellow with grain, abjure his hateful sway. 
SHENSTONE. 


What has been publickly maintained as a settled 
point of belief is given up by recanting; ‘A false 
satire ought to be recanted for the sake of him whose 
reputation may be injured.’—Jonnson. What has 
been pledged so as to gain credit is contradicted by re- 
tracting ; ‘ When any scholar will convince me that 
these were futile and malicious tales against Socra- 
tes, I will retract all credit in them, and thank him 
for the conviction.,.—CUMBERLAND. What has been 
pronounced by an act of authority is rendered null 
by revocation; ‘ What reason is there, but that those 
grants and privileges should be revoked or reduced to 
their first intention.’—SPENsER. What has been mis 
spoken through inadvertence or mistake is rectified by 
recalling the words ; 

*T is done, and since ’t is done ’t is past recall, 

And since ’t is past recall must be forgotten. 

DRYDEN. 


Although Archbishop Cranmer recanfed the princi 
ples of the reformation, yet he soon after recailed his 
words, and died boldly for his faith. Henry IV. of 
France abjured Calvinism, but he did not retract the 
promise which he had made to the Calvinists of his 
protection. Louis XIV. drove many of his best sub- 
jects from France by revoking the edict of Nantes. 

Interest but too often leads men to abjure their 
faith ; the fear of shame or punishment leads them to 
recané their opinions ; the want of principle dictates 
the retracting of one’s promise; instability is the or- 
dinary cause for revoking decrees; a love of preci- 
sion commonly induces a speaker or writer to recall 
a false expression. 


TO ABOLISH, ABROGATE, REPEAL, 
REVOKE, ANNUL, CANCEL. 


Abolish, in French abolir, Latin aboleo, is com- 
pounded of ab and oleo to lose the smell, signifying 
to lose every trace of former existence; abrogate, in 
French abroger, Latin abrogatus, participle of abro- 
go, compounded of ab and rogo to ask, signifies lite- 
rally to ask away, or to ask that a thing may be done 
away; in allusion to the custom of the Romans, 
among whom no law was valid unless the consent of 
the people was obtained by asking, and in like manner 
no law was unmade without asking their consent ; 
repeal, in French rappeler, from the Latin words re 
and appello, signifies literally to call back or unsay 
what has been said, which is in like manner the ori- 
ginal meaning of revoke; annul, in French annuller, 
comes from nulle, in Latin nzhil, signifying to reduce 
to nothing ; cancel, in French canceller, comes from 
the Latin cancello to cut crosswise, signifying to 
strike out crosswise, that is, to cross out. 

Abolish is a more gradual proceeding than abrogate 
or any of the other actions. Disuse abolishes; a posi- 
tive interference is necessary to abrogate. 'The for- 
mer is employed with regard to customs: the latter 
with regard to the authorized transactiens of man- 
kind; ‘ The long-continued wars between the English 
and the Scots, had then raised invincible jealousies 
and hate, which long-continued peace hath since abol- 
ished.,—Si1rx Jonn Haywarv. ‘Solon abrogated all 
Draco’s sanguinary laws, except those that affected 
murder.’—CUMBERLAND. 


248 


Laws are repealed or abrogated; but the former of 
these terms is, mostly in modern use, the latter is ap- 
plied to the proceedings of the ancients. dicts are 
revoked. Ofticial proceedings, contracts, &c. are an- 
nulled. Deeds, bonds, obligations, debts, &c. are 
cancelled. ‘ 

The introduction of new customs will cause the 
abolition of the old. ‘On the parliament’s part it was 
proposed that all the bishops, deans, and chapters 
might be immediately taken away and abolished.’— 
Cuarenpon. None can repeal, but those that have 
the power to make laws; ‘If the Presbyterians should 
obtain their ends, I could not be sorry to find them 
mistaken in the point which they have most at heart, 
by the repeal of the test; I mean the benefit of em- 
ployments.’—Swirr. The revocation of any edict is 
the individual act of one who has the power to pub- 
lish it; ‘When we abrogate a law as being ill made, 
the whole cause for which it has been made still re- 
maining, do we not herein revoke our own deed, and 
upbraid ourselves with folly?—Hooxrer. To annul 
may be the act of superiour authority, or an agree- 
ment between the parties from whom the act ema- 
nated; a reciprocal obligation is annulled by the mu- 
tual consent of those who have imposed it on each 
other; but if the obligation be an authoritative act, the 
annulment must be so too; 


I will annul 
By the high power with which the laws invest me, 
Those guilty formsin which you have entrapp’d, 
Basely entrapp’d, to thy detested nuptials, 
My queen betroth’d.—T'Homson 


To cancel is the act of an individual towards another 
on whom he has a legal demand; an obligation may 
be cancelled, either by a resignation of right on the 
part of the one to whom it belonged, or a satisfaction 
of the demand on the part of the obliged person; 


This hour makes friendships which he breaks the 
next 
And every breach supplies a vile pretext, 
Basely to cancel ail concessions past, 
If in a thousand you deny the last. 
CUMBERLAND. 


A change of taste, aided by political circumstances, 
has caused the abolition of justs and tournaments and 
other military sports in Europe. The Roman people 
sometimes abrogated from party spirit what the magis- 
trates enacted for the good of the republick ; the same 
restless temper would lead many to wish for the repeal 
of the most salutary acts of our parliament. 

Caprice, which has often dictated the proclamation 
of a decree in arbitrary governments, has occasioned 

ts revocation after a short interval. 

It is sometimes prudent to annul proceedings which 
have been decided upon hastily. 

A generous man may be willing to cancel a debt; 
but a grateful man preserves the debt in his mind, and 
will never suffer it to be cancelled. 


TO BLOT OUT, EXPUNGE, RASE OR ERASE, 
EFFACE, CANCEL, OBLITERATE. 


Blot is in all probability a variation of spot, signify- 
ing to cover over with a blot; expunge, in Latin ez- 
pungo, compounded of ex and pungo to prick, signifies 
to put out by pricking with the pen ; erase, comes from 
the Latin erasus, participle of erado, that is, e and rado 
to scratch out; efface, in French effacer, compounded 
of the Latine and facto to make, signifies literally to 
make or put out; cancel, in French canceller, Latin 
cancello, from cancelli lattice-work, signifies to strike 
out with cross lines; obliterate, in Latin obliteratus, 
participle of oblitero, compounded of ob and litera, 
signifies to cover over letters. 

AlJl these terms obviously refer to characters that are 
impressed on bodies ; the first three apply in the proper 
sense only to that which is written with the hand, and 
bespeak the manner in which the action is performed. 
Letters’ are blotted out, so that they cannot be seen 
again; they are expunged, so as to signify that they 
cannot stand for any thing; they are erased, so that 
the space may be reoccupied with writing. The last 
three are extended in their application to other cha- 
racters formed on other substances: efface is general, 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


and does not designate.either the manner or the ob. 
ject: inscriptions on stone may be effaced, which are 
rubbed off so as not to be visible: cancel is principally 
confined to written or printed characters; they are 
cancelled by striking through them with the pen; in 
this manner, leaves or pages of a book are cancelled 
which are no longer to be uted as a part of a work: 
obliterate issaid of all characters, but without defining 
the mode in which they are put cut; letters are obJé- 
terated, which are in any way made illegible. 

Efface applies to images, or the representations of 
things; in this manner the likeness of a person may 
be effaced from a statue; cancel respects the subject 
which is written or printed; odliterate respects the 
single letters which constitute words. 

Effacing is the consequence of some direct action 
on the thing which is effaced ; in this manner writing 
may be effaced from a wall by the action of the ele- 
ments: cancel is the act of a person, and always the 
fruit of design: obliterate is the fruit of accident and 
circumstances in general; time itself may obliterate 
characters on a wall or on paper. 

The metaphorical use of these terms is easily de- 
ducible from the preceding explanation; what is 
figuratively described, as written in a book, may be 
said to be blotted; thus our sins are blotted out by the 
atoning blood of Christ, and in the same manner things 
may be blotted out from the mind or the recollection ; 
‘If virtue is of this amiable nature, what can we think 
of those who can look upon it with an eye of hatred 
and ill-will, and can suffer themselves, from their aver- 
sion for a party, to blot out all the merit of the person 
who is engaged in it. —Appison. When the contents 
of a book are in part rejected, they are aptly described 
as being expunged ; in this manner, the free-thinking 
sects expunge every thing from the Bible which does 
not suit their purpose, or they expunge from their cree@ 
what does not humour their passions ; ‘I believe that 
any person who was of age to take a part in publick 
concerns forty years ago (if the intermediate space 
were expunged from his memory) would hardly eredit 
his senses when he should hear that an army of two 
hundred thousand men was kept up in this island.’— 
Burke. When the memory is represented as having 
characters impressed, they are said to be erased, when 
they are, as it were, directly taken out and occupied 
by others; in this manner, the recollection of what a 
child has learned is easily erased by play; and- with 
equal propriety sorrows may be said to efface the re- 
collection of a person’s image from the mind; 


Yet the best blood by learning is refin’d, 

And virtue arms the solid mind; 

While vice will stain the noblest race, 

And the paternal stamp efface—OLpDIsworTH 


From the idea of striking out or cancelling a debt in 
an account book, a debt of gratitude, or an obligation, 
is said to be cancelled ; 


Yet these are they the world pronounces wise; 
The world, which cancels nature’s right and wrong, 
And new casts wisdom.—Youne. 


As the lineaments of the face correspond to written 
characters, we may say that all traces of his former 
greatness are obliterated; ‘The transferring of the 
scene from Sicily to the Court of King Arthur, must 
have had a very pleasing effect, before the fabulous 
majesty of that court was quite obliterated..—Trr 
WHITT. 


FORSAKEN, FORLORN, DESTITUTE. 


To be forsaken, (v. To abandon) is to be deprived 
of the company and assistance of others ; to be forlorn, 
from the German verlohren lost, is to be forsaken in 
time of difficulty, to be without a guide in an unknown 
road ; to be destitute, from the Latin destitutus, is to be 
deprived of the first necessaries of life. . 

To be forsaken is a partial situation; to be forlorn 
and destitute are permanent conditions. We may be 
forsaken by a fellow-traveller on the road; we are 
forlorn when we get into a deserted path, with no one 
to direct us; we are destitute when we have no mean. 
of subsistence, nor the prospect of obtaining the means 
It is particularly painful to be forsaken by the friendo. 
our youth, and the sharer of our fortunes: 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


But fearful for themselves, my countrymen 
Left me forsaken in the Cyclops’ den. 
DRYDEN. 


The orphan, who is left to travel the road of life without 
counsellor or friend, is of all others in the most forlorn 
condition; ‘ Conscience made them (Joseph’s brethren) 
recollect, that they who had once been deaf to the sup- 
plications of a brother, were now left friendless and 
forlorn.’—Buatr. If poverty be added to forlornness, 
a man’s misery is aggravated by his becoming desti- 
tute; ‘Friendless and destitute, Dr. Goldsmith was 
exposed to all the miseries of indigence in a foreign 
country.’—JOHNSON. 


PROFLIGATE, ABANDONED, REPROBATE. 

Profligate, in Latin profligatus, participle of proflizo, 
compounded of the intensive pro and fligo to dash or 
beat, signifies completely ruined and lost to every thing ; 
abandoned signifies given up to one’s lusts and vicious 
indulgences; reprobate (v. To reprove) signifies one 
thoroughly rejected. 

These terms, in their proper acceptation, expresses 
che most wretched condition of fortune into which it is 
possible for any human being to be plunged, and conse- 
quently in their improper application they denote that 
state of moral desertion and ruin which cannot be ex- 
ceeded in wickedness or depravity. * A profligate man 
has lost all by his vices, consequently to his vices alone 
he looks for the regaining those goods of fortune which 
he has squandered; as he has nothing to lose, awd 
every thing to gain in his own estimation, by pursuing 
the career of his vices, he surpasses all others in his 
unprincipled conduct; ‘ Aged wisdom can check the 
most forward, and abash the most profligate.’—Buair. 
An abandoned man is altogether abandoned to his pas- 
sions, which, having the entire sway over him, natu- 
rally impel him to every excess; ‘To be negligent of 
what any one thinks of you, does not only show you ar- 
rogant put abandoned..—Hucues. Thereprobate man 
is one who has been reproved until he becomes in- 
sensible to reproof, and is given up to the malignity of 
his own passions ; 

And here let those who boast in mortal things, 

Learn how their greatest monuments of fame, 

And strength, and art, are easily outdone 

By reprobate spirits.—MILToN. 


The profligate man is the greatest enemy to society; 
the abandoned man is a still greater enemy to himself; 
the profligate man lives upon the publick, whom he 
plunders or defrauds ; the abanduned man Tives for the 
indulgence of his own unbridled passions; the repro- 
date man is little better than an outcast both by God 
and man: unprincipled debtors, gamesters, sharpers, 
swindlers, and the. like, are profligate characters ; 
whoremasters, drunkards, spendthrifts, seducers, and 
debauchees of all descriptions, are abandoned cha- 
racters; although the profigate and abandoned are 
commonly the same persons, yet the young are in ge- 
neral abandoned, and those more hackneyed in vice are 
profligate; none can be reprobate but those who have 
been long inured to profligate courses. 


HEINOUS, FLAGRANT, FLAGITIOUS, 
ATROCIOUS. 


Heinous, in French heinous, Greek alvos or dewds 
terrible ; flagrant, in Latin flagrans burning, is a figu- 
rative expression for what is excessive and violent in 
its nature; flagitious,in Latin flagitiosus, from flagi- 
tium infamy, signifies peculiarly infamous; atrocious, 
in Latin atroz cruel, from ater black, signifies exceed- 
ingly black. 

These epithets, which are applied to crimes, seem to 
rise indegree. A crime is heinous which seriously of- 
fends against the laws of men; asin is hetnows which 
seriously offends against the will of God; ‘ There are 
many authors who have shown wherein the malignity 
of a lie consists, and set forth in proper colours the hez- 
nousness of the offence.—Appison. An offence is 
flagrant which ie in direct defiance of established 
opinions and practice; ‘If any flagrant deed occur to 
smite a man’s conscience, on this he cannot avoid rest- 
ing with anxiety and terrour.’—Buarr. Anactis flagi- 

- tious if it be a gross violation of the moral law, or cou- 


249 


pled with any grossness; ‘It is reco.ded of Sir Matthew 
Hale, that he for a long time concealed the consecration 
of himself to the stricter duties of religion, lest by 
some flagitious action he should bring piety into dis- 
grace.—Jounson. A crime is atrociows which is at 
tended with any aggravating circumstances; ‘ The 
wickedness of a loose or profane author is more atro 
cious than that of the giddy libertine.,—Jounson. Lying 
is a heinous sin; gaming and drunkenness are flagrant 
breaches of the Divine law; the murder of a whole 
family is in the fullest sense atrocious. 


BARE, NAKED, UNCOVERED. 


Bare, in Saxon bare, German bar, Hebrew P55 
to lay bare; naked, in Saxon naced, German nacket or 
nakt, low German naakt, Swedish nakot, Danish no- 
gen, &c. comes from the Latin nudus, compounded of 
ne not, and dutus or indutus clothed, and the Greek dvw 
to clothe. ; 

Bare marks the condition of being without some ne- 
cessary appendage; ‘Though the lords used to be co- 
vered while the commons were bare, yet the commons 
would not be bare before the Scottish commissioners ; 
and so none were covered.’—CuaRENpDoN. JVaked de- 
notes the absence of an external covering or something 
essential; bare is therefore often substituted for naked 
although not vice versé: we speak of bareheaded, 
barefoot, to expose the bare arm; but a figure is said to 
be xaked, or the body is naked. ; 

When applied to other objects, bare conveys the idea 
of want in general; naked simply the want of some- 
thing exteriour: when we speak of sitting upon the 
bare ground, of laying any place bare, of bare walls, a 
bare house, the idea of want in essentials is strongly 
conveyed; but naked walls, naked fields, a naked ap 
pearance, all denote something wanting to the eye: 
bare in this sense is frequently followed by the object 
that is wanted; naked is mostly employed as an ad 
junct; a tree is bare of leaves; this constitutes it a 
naked tree; ‘The story of Aineas, on which Virgil 
founded his poem, was very bare of circumstances.’- 
ADDISON. 


Why turn’st thou from me ? I’m alone already ; 

Methinks I stand upon a naked beach, 

Sighing to winds and to the seas complaining. 
“OTWAY. 


They preserve the same analogy in their figurative 
application: a bare sufficiency is that which scarcely 
suffices ; ‘Christ and the Apostles did most earnestly 
inculcate the belief of his Godhead, and accepted mer 
upon the bare acknowledgement of this..—Souru. 
The naked truth is that which has nothing about it to 
intercept the view of it from the mind; 


The truth appears so naked on my side, 
That any purblind eye may find it out. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


Sometimes the word naked may be applied in the ex 
act sense of bare to imply the want of some necessary 
addition, when it expresses the idea more strongly thar. 
bare; ‘Not that God doth require nothing unto happi 
ness at the hands of men, saving only a naked belief, 
for hope and charity we may not exclude.’—Hooxgr. 
Naked and uncovered bear a strong resemblance to 

each other; to be naked is in fact to have the body un 
covered, but many things are uncovered which are not 
naked: nothing is said to be naked but what in the 
nature of things, or according to the usages of men, 
ought to be covered ; 

He pitying how they stood 

Before him naked to the air, that now 

Must suffer change ;— 

As father of his family, he clad 

Their nakedness with skins of beasts —Miron 


Every thing is uncovered from which the covering is 
removed ; ‘In the eye of that Supreme Being to whom 
our whole internal frame is uncovered, dispositions 
hold:the place of actions. —Buarr. According to our 
natural sentiments of decency, or our acquired senti- 
ments of propriety, we expect to see the naked bod 

covered with clothing, the naked tree covered wit 

leaves; the naked walls covered with paper or paint; 
and the naked country covered with verdure or ha- 
bitations: on the other hand, plants are left uncovered 


250 


to receive the benefit of the sun or rain: furniture or 
articles of use or necessity are left wneovered to suit 
the convenience of the user: or a person may be wn- 
covered, in the sense of bare-headed, on certain occa- 
sions. 


——— 


BARE, SCANTY, DESTITUTE. 


Bare (v. Bare, naked): scanty, from to scant, signi- 
fies the quality of scanting; scant is most probably 
changed from the Latin scindo to clip or cut ; destitute, 
in Latin destitutus, participle of destitwo, compounded 
of de privative and statuo to appoint or provide for, 
signifies unprovided for or wanting. ‘Pk 

‘All these terms denote the absence or deprivation of 
some necessary. Bare and scanty have a relative 
sense: bare respects what serves for ourselves; scanty 
that which is provided by others. A subsistence is 
bare; a supply is scanty. An imprudent person will 
estimate as a bare competence what would supply an 
economist with superfluities; ‘ Were it for the glory 
of God, that the clergy should be left as bare as the 
apostles when they had neither staff nor scrip, God 
would, I hope, endue them with the self-same affec- 
tion.—Hooxer. A hungry person will consider as a 
scanty allowance what would more than suffice for a 
moderate eater; ‘So scanty is our present allowance of 
happiness, that in many situations life could scarcely 
be supported, if hope were not allowed to relieve the 
present hour, by pleasures borrowed from the future.’— 
JOHNSON. 

Bare is said of those things which belong to the cor- 
poreal sustenance; destitute is said of one’s outward 
circumstances in general. A person is bare of clothes 
or money; he is destitute of friends, of resources, or 
of comforts; ‘ Destitute of that faithful guide, the com- 
pass, the ancients had no other method of reguiating 
their course than by observing the sun and stars.’—Ro- 
BERTSON. 


BARE, MERE. 


Bare (v. Bare, naked) ; mere, in Latin merus mere, 
properly solus alone, from the Greek pefpw to divide, 
signifies separated from others. 

Bare is used in a positive sense: mere, negatively. 
The bare recital of some events brings tears. The 
mere circumstance of receiving favours ought not to 
bind any person to the opinions of another. 

The bare idea of being in the company of a mur- 
derer is apt to awaken horrour in the mind; ‘ He who 
goes no farther than bare justice, stops at the begin- 
ning of virtue.—Buarr. The mere attendance at a 
place of worship is the smallest part of a Christian’s 
duty ; ‘I would advise every man, who would not ap- 
pear in the world a mere scholar or philosopher, to 
make himself master of the social virtue of complai- 
sance.’—ADDISON. 


SCARCITY, DEARTH. 


Scarcity (v. Rare) isa generick term to denote the 
tircumstance of a thing being scarce; dearth, which 
3S the same as dearness, is a mode of scarcity applied 
in the literal sense to provisions mostly, as provisions 
are mostly dear when they are scarce; the word 
dearth therefore denotes scarcity in a high degree: 
whatever men want, and find it difficult to procure, 
they complain of its scarcity; when a country has the 
misfortune to be visited with a famine, it experiences 
the frightfullest of all dearths. 


RARE, SCARCE, SINGULAR. 


Rare, in Latin rarus, comes from the Greek dpaids 
thin; scarce, in Dutch schaers sparing, comes from 
scheren to cut or clip, signifying cutclose; singular (v. 
Particular.) 

Rare and scarce both respect number and quantity, 
which admits of expansion or diminution: rare is a 
thinned number, a diminished quantity; scarce is a 
short quantity. 

Rare is applied to matters of convenience or luxury; 
scarce to matters of utility or necessity: that which is 
rare becomes valuable, and fetches a high price; that 
which is scarce becomes precious, and the loss of it is 
seriously felt. The best of every thing is in its nature 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


rare; there will never be a superfluity of such things; 
there are, however, some things, as particularly curious 
plants, or particular animals, which, owing to circum 
stances, are always rare; that which is most in use, 
will, in certain cases, be scarce ; when the supply of 
an article fails, and the demand for it continues, it 
naturally becomes scarce. An aloe in blossom is a 
rarity, for nature has prescribed such limits to its 
growth as to give but very few of such flowers; ‘A 
perfect union of wit and judgement is one of the 
rarest things in the world.’—Burxe. The paintings 
of Raphael, and other distinguished painters, are daily 
becoming more scarce, because time will diminish their 
quantity, although not their value; ‘ When any parti- 
cular piece of money grew very scarce, it was often 
recoined by a succeeding emperour.’—ADDISON.- 

What is rare will often be singular, and what, is 
singular will often, on that account, be rare; but 
they are not necessarily applied to the same object: 
fewness is the idea common to both; but rare is said 
of that of which there might be more; but singular 
is applied to that which is single, or nearly single, in 
its kind. The rare is that which is always sought 
for; the singular is not always that which one esteems: 
a thing is 7a7e which is difficult to be obtained; a thing 
is singular for its peculiar qualities, good or bad; ‘ We 
should learn, by reflecting on the misfortunes which 
have attended others, that there is nothing singular in 
those which befall ourselves.—MrLmotu (Letters 
of Cicero). Indian plants are many of them rare in 
England, because the climate will not agree with them; 
the sensitive plant is sengular, as its quality of yielding 
to the touch distinguishes it ‘from all other plants. 

Scarce is applied only in the proper sense to physical 
objects; rare and singular are applicable to moral 
objects. One speaks of a rare instance of fidelity of 
which many like examples cannot be found; of a sin- 
gular instance of depravity, when a parallel case can 
scarcely be found. 


SIMPLE, SINGLE, SINGULAR. 


Simple, in Latin simplex or sine plicd without a 
fold, is opposed to the complex, which has many folds, 
or to the compound which has several parts involved 
or connected with each other; ‘To make the com 
pound for the rich metal simple, is an adulteration or 
counterfeiting..—Bacon. Single and singular (v. One) 
are opposed, one to double, and the other to multifa 
rious; 

Mankind with other animals compare, 
Single Tiow weak and impotent they are 
JENYNS 


‘These busts of the emperours and empresses are all 
very scarce, and some of them almost singular in their 
kind.,—Appisen. We may speak of a s¢mple circum- 
stance as independent of any thing; of a single in 
stancevor circumstance as unaccompanied by any other: 
and a singular instance as one that rarely has its like 
In the moral application to the person, simplicity, as 
far as it is opposed to duplicity in the heart, can never 
be excessive; but when it lies in the head, so that it 
cannot penetrate the folds and doublings of other per- 
sons, it is a fault; ‘Nothing extraneous must cleave 
to the eye in the act of seeing; its bare object must be 
as naked as truth, as simple and unmixed as sincerity.’ 
—Soutu. Singleness of heart and intention is that 
species of simplicity which is altogether to be admired ; 
singularity may be either good or bad according to 
circumstances ; to be stngular in virtue is to be truly 
good; but to be singular in manner is affectation, 
which is at variance with genuine simplicity, if not 
directly opposed to it; ‘From the union of the crowns 
to the Revolution in 1688, Scotland was placed in a 
political situation the most singular and most unhappy ° 
—RoBERTSON. 


SOME, ANY. 


Same, probably contracted from so a one or such a 
one, is altogether restrictive in its sense: any, from a 
one, is altogether universal and indefinite. Some ap- 
plies to one particular part in distinction from the rest, 
any to every individual part without distinction. Some 
think this, and others that: any person might believe 
if he would; any one can conquer his passions who 
calls in the aid of religion. In consequence of this 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


tistinction in sense, some can on.y be used in particular 
affirmative propositions; but any, which is equivalent 
to all, may be either in negative, interrogative, or hy- 
pothetical propositiens: some say so: does any one 
believe it? He will not give to any. 


SOLITARY, SOLE, ONLY, SINGLE. 


Solitary and sole are both derived from solus alone 
er whole; only, that is onely, signifies the quality 
of unity; séngle is an abbreviation of singular (v. 
Szmple). 

All these terms are more or less opposed to several 
ormany. Solitary and sole signify one left by itself; 
the former mostly in application to particular sensible 
objects, the latter in regard mostly to moral objects: 
a solitary shrub expresses not only one shrub, but one 
that has been left to itself; 


The cattle in the fields and meadows green, 
Those rare and solitary, these in flocks.—M1LTon. 


The sole cause or reason signifies that reason or cause 
which stands unsupported by any thing else; ‘All 
things are but insipid to a man in comparison of that 
one, which is the sole minion of his fancy.’—Souru. 
Only does not include the idea of desertion or depriva- 
tion, but it comprehends that of want or deficiency : 
to say of a person that he has only one shilling in his 
pocket, means to imply, that he wants more or ought 
to have more. Single signifies simply one or more de- 
tached from others, without conveying any other col- 
lateral idea: a single sheet of paper may be sometimes 
more convenient than a double one; a single shilling 
may be all that is necessary for the present purpose: 
there may be single ones, as well as a single one; but 
the other terms exclude the idea of there being any 
thing else, 


Thy fear 
Will save us trial, what the least can do, 
Single against the wicked.—MILTon. 


A solitary act of generosity is not sufficient to charac- 
terize a man as generous: with most criminals the 
sole ground of their defence rests upon their not having 
learned to know and do better: harsh language and 
severe looks are not the only means of correcting the 
faults of others: sixgle instances of extraordinary 
talents now and then present themselves in the course 
of an age. 

In the adverbial form, solely, only, and singly are 
employed with a similar distinction. The disasters 
which attend an unsuccessful military enterprise are 
seldom to be attributed solely to the incapacity of th. 
general: there are many circumstances both in the 
natural and moral world which are to be accounted for 
only by admitting a providence as presented to us in 
Divine revelation: there are many things which men 
could not effect singly that might be effected by them 
conjointly 


ONE, SINGLE, ONLY. 


Unity is the common idea of all these terms; and at 
the same time the whole signification of one, which is 
opposed to none; single, in Latin singulus each or 
one by itself, probably contracted from sine angulo 
without an angle, because what is entirely by itself 
cannot form an angle, signifies that one which is ab- 
stracted from others, and is particularly opposed to 
two, or a double which may form a pair; only, con- 
tracted from onely, signifying in the form of unity, is 
employed for that of which there is no more. A 
person has one child, is a positive expression that be- 
speaks its own meaning: a person has a single child, 
conveys the idea that there ought to be or might be 
more, that more was expected, or that once there 


Were more: a person has an only child, implies that he 
never had more; 


For shame, Rutilians, can you bear the sight 
Of one exposed for all, in single fight 7—DrypeEn. 
y Homely but wholesome roots 


My daily food, and water from the nearest spring 
My only drink.—FILMEr. 


BESIDES, MOREOVER. 
Besides that is, by the stdé, next to, marks simply 


25% 


the connexion which subsists between what goes be- 
fore and what follows; moreover; that is, more than 
all else, marks the addition of something particular to 
what has already been said. 

Thus in enumerating the good qualities of an indi- 
vidual, we may say, “he is besides of a peaceable 
disposition.”” On concluding any subject of question 
we may introduce a farther clause by @ moreover: 
“« Moreover we must not forget the claims of those 
who will suffer by such a change ;”’ ‘ Now, the best 
way in the world for a man to seem to be any thing, 
is really to be what he would seem to be. Besides, 
that it is many times as troublesome to make good the 
pretence of a good quality as to have it..—TiLLoTson, 
‘It being granted that God governs the world, it will 
follow also that he does it by means suitable to the 
natures of the things that he governs; and moreover 
man being by nature a free, moral agent, and so ca- 
pable of deviating from his duty, as well as performing 
it, it is necessarv that he should be governed by laws‘ 
—Souru. 


-BESIDES, EXCEPT. 


Besides (v. Moreover), which is hére taken as a pre- 
position, expresses the idea of addition; except ex- 
presses that of exclusion. 

There were many there besides ourselves; no one 
except ourselves will be admitted ; ‘ Besides inpiety 
discontent carries along with it as its inseparable 
concomitants, several other sinful passions.’—BLa1R 
‘ Neither jealousy nor envy can dwell with the Su- 
preme Being. He is a rival to none, he is an enemy tc 
none, except to such as, by rebellion against his laws 
seek enmity with him.’—Buair. 


UNLESS, EXCEPT. 


Unless, which is equivalent to ¢f less, if not, or 1t 
one fail, is employed only for the particular case; but 
except has always a reference to some general rule, of 
which an exception is hereby signified: I shall not do 
it unless he ask me; no one can enter eacept those 
who are provided with tickets; ‘ Unless money can 
be borrowed, trade cannot be carried on.’—BuLack- 
sTone. ‘If a wife continues in the use of her jewels 
till her husband’s death, she shall afterward retain 
them against his executors and administrators, and all 
other persons except creditors. BLACKSTONE. 


HOWEVER, YET, NEVERTHELESS. 
NOTWITHSTANDING. 


These conjunctions are in grammar termed adversa 
tive, because they join. sentences together that stand 
more or less in opposition to each other. However is 
the most general and indefinite; it serves as a conclu- 
sive deduction drawn from the whole. 

The truth is however not yet all come out: by which 
is understood that much of the truth has been told, 
and much yet remains to be told: so likewise in simi- 
lar sentences; Iam not, however, of that opinion; 
where it is implied either that many hold the opinion, 
or much may be said of it; but be that as it may, I 
am not of that opinion: however you may rely on my 
assistance to that amount; that is, at all events, let 
whatever happen, you may rely on so much of my 
assistance : however, as is obvious from the above ex 
amples, connects not only one single proposition, but 
mauy propositions either expressed or understood; 
‘ However it is but just sometimes to give the world a 
representation of the bright side of human nature.’— 
Hucues. Yet, nevertheless, and notwithstanding, are 
mostly employed to set two specifick propositions 
either in contrast or direct opposition to eack other; 
the two latter are but species of the former, pointing 
out the opposition in a more specifick manner. 

There are cases in which yet is peculiarly proper’ 
others in which nevertheless, and others in which not 
withstanding, is preferable. Yet bespeaks a simple 
contrast; Addison was not a good speaker, yet he was 
an admirable writer; Johnson was a man of uncouth 
manners, yet he had a good heart and a sound head : 
‘He had not that reverence for the queen as might 
have been expected from a man of his wisdom and 
breed ng; yet he was impertinently solicitous to know 
what her Majesty said of him in private.’—CLargn 


252 


pon. Nevertheless and notwithstanding could not in 
these cases have been substituted. Vevertheless and 
notwithstanding are mostly used to imply effects or 
consequences opposite to what might naturally be 
expected to result. He has acted an unworthy part; 
nevertheless I will be a friend to him as far as.I can; 
that is, although he has acted an unworthy part, I will 
be no less his friend as far as liesinmy power; ‘ There 
will always be something that we shall wish to have 
finished, and be nevertheless unwilling to begin.’— 
Jounson. JVotwithstanding all I have said, he still 
persists in his own imprudent conduct, that is, all I 
have said notwithstanding or not restraining him from 
t, he still persists. He is still rich notwithstanding 
his loss; that is, his loss notwithstanding, or not 
standing in the way of it, he is still rich; ‘ Motwizth- 
standing there is such infinite room between man and 
his Maker for the creative power to exert itself in, it 
is impossible that it ever should be filled up.’—App1- 
son. From this resolution of the terms, more than 
from any specifick rule, we may judge of their distinct 
applications, and clearly perceive that in such cases as 
those above-cited the conjunctions nevertheless and 
notwithstanding could not be substituted for each other, 
nor yet for either: in other cases, however, where the 
objects are less definitely pointed out, they may be used 
indifferently. The Jesuits piqued themselves always 
upon their strict morality, and yet (notwithstanding, 
or nevertheless) they admitted of many things not 
altogether consonant with moral principle: you know 
that these are but tales, yet (notwithstanding, never- 
theless) you believe them. 


ALL, WHOLE. 


All and whole are derived from the same source, that 
is, in German all and hei! whole or sound, Dutch ail, 
hel, or heel, Saxon al, wal, Danish al, ald, Greek 6os, 


Hebrew b>, 

All respects anumber of individuals ; whole respects 
a single body with its components: we have not all, 
if we have not the whole number; we have not the 
whole, if we have not all the parts of which it is com- 
posed. Itis not within the limits of human capacity 
to take more than a partial survey of ald the interest- 
ing objects which the whole globe contains. 

When applied to spiritual objects in a general sense, 
all is preferred to whole; but when the object is spe- 
cifick, whole is preferable: thus we say, all hope was 
lost; but, our zhole hope rested in this; ‘It will be 
asked how the drama moves if it be not credited. It 
is credited with all the credit due to a drama.’—Joun- 
son. ‘The whole story of the transactions between 
Edward Harold and the Duke of Normandy is told so 
differently by ancient writers, that there are few im- 
portant passages of the English history liable to so 
great uncertainty.’—Hume. 


ALL, EVERY, EACH. 


All 1s collective; every single or individual; each 
distributive. 

All and every are universal in their signification : 
each is restrictive: the former are used in speaking of 
great numbers; the latter is applicable to small num- 
bers. _4ll men are not born with the same talent, 
either in degree or kind; but every man has a talent 
peculiar to himself: a parent divides his property 
among his children, and gives to each his due share; 
‘Harold by his marriage broke all measures with the 
Duke of Normandy.’.—Hume. ‘ Every man’s per- 
formances, to be rightly estimated, must be compared 
to the state of the age in which he lived..—Jounson. 
‘Taken singly and individually, it might be difficult 
to conceive how each event wrought for good. They 
must be viewed in their consequences and effects.’— 
BualR. 


NUMEROUS, NUMERAL, NUMERICAL. 


Numerous: signifies literally containing a number, 
and is taken to denote a great many ora great num- 
ber ;. nwmeral and numerical both imply belonging to 
number. Numeral is applied to a class of words in 
grammar, as a numeral adjective, or a numeral noun: 
numerical is applied to whatever other objects respect 
number: as a numerical difference, where the differ- 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES 


ence subsists between any two numbers, or is expressed 
by numbers. 


SPECIAL, SPECIFICK, PARTICULAR. 

Special, in Latin specialis, signifies belonging to the 
species ; particular, belonging to a particle or small 
part; specifick, in Latin specificus, from species a spe 
cies, and facio to make, signifies making a species. 
The special is that which comes under the general ; 
the particular is that which comes under the special . 
hence we speak of a special rule; but a particular 
case; ‘God claims it as a special part of his preroga- 
tive to have the entire disposal of riches.’--Sourn. 
Particular and specifick are both applied to the pro- 
perties of individuals; but particular is said of the 
contingent circumstances of things, specifick of their 
inherent properties ; every plant has something parti 
cular in itself different from others, it *s either longer 
or shorter, weaker or stronger; ‘Every state has a 
particular principle of happiness, ‘and this principle 
may in each be carried to a mischievous excess.’— 
GotpsmiTH. The specifick property of a plant is that 
which it has in common with its species ; ‘ The impu 
tation of being a fool is a thing which mankind, of all 
others,,is the most impatient of, it being a blot upon 
the prime and specifick perfection of human nature.’— 
Soutu. Particular is, therefore, a term adapted to 
loose discourse; specifick is a scientifick term which 
describes things minutely. 

Thesame may be said of particularize and specify : 
we particularize for the sake of information; we spe- 
cify for the sake of instruction: in describing a man’s 
person and dress we particularize if we mention every 
thing singly which can be said upon it; in delineating 
a plan it is necessary to specify time, place, distance, 
materials, and every thing else which may be con- 
nected with the carrying of it into execution. 


PARTICULAR, INDIVIDUAL. 


Particular (v. Peculiar) ; individual, in French in- 
dividuel, Latin individuus, signifies that which cannot 
be divided. 

Both these terms are employed to express one object; 
but particular is much more specifick than individual ; 
the particular confines us to one object only of many 
but zndividual may be said of any one object among, 
many. A particular object cannot be misunderstood 
for any other, while it remains particular; but the 
individual object can never be known from other zndiz- 
vidual objects, while it remains only individual. Par- 
ticular is 2 term used in regard to individuals, and is 
opposed to the general: individual is a term used in 
regard to collectives; and is opposed to the whole or 
that which is divisible into parts; ‘ Those particular 
speeches, which are commonly known by the name 
of rants, are blemishes in our English tragedy’ 
ADDISON. } 


To give thee being, I lent 
Out of my side to thee, nearest my heart, 
Substantial life, to have thee by my side, 
Henceforth an individual solace dear.—MiLToNn 


ALONE, SOLITARY, LONELY. 


Alone, compounded of ali and one, signifies alto- 
gether one, or single; that is, by one’s self; solitary, 
in French solitaire, Latin solitarius, from solus alone, 
signifies the quality of being alone; lonely signifies in 
the manner of alone. 

Alone marks the state of a person; solitary the 
quality of aperson or thing; lonely the quality of a 
thing only. A person walks alone, or takes a solitary 
walk ina lonely place. 

Whoever likes to be much alone is of a solitary 
turn ; 

Here we stand alone, 
As in our form distinct, pre-eminent.—Youne. 


Wherever aman can be most and oftenest alone, that ig 
a solitary or lonely place; ‘I would wish no man te 
deceive himself with opinions which he has no tho- 
roughly reflected upon in his solitary hours.’—Cum. 
BERLAND 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


Within an ancient furest’s ample verge 
There stands a lonely, but a healthful dwelling, 
Built for convenience and the use of life— Rowe. 


ALSO, LIKEWISE, TOO. 


Also, compounded of ald and so, signifies literally all 
in the same manner ; likewise, compounded of like and 
wise or manner, signifies in like manner ; too, a varia- 
tion of the numeral two, signifies what may be added 
or joined to another thing from its similarity. 

These adverbial expressions obviously convey the 
same idea of including or classing certain objects to- 
gether upon a supposed ground of affinity. dlsoisa 
more general term, and has a more comprehensive 
meaning, as it implies a sameness in the whole; ‘ Let 
us only think for a little of that reproach of modern 
times, that gulf of time and fortune, the passion for 
gaming, which is so often the refuge of the idle sons of 
pleasure, and often also the last resource of the ruined.’ 
—Buair. Likewise is more specifick and limited in its 
acceptation; ‘ All the duties of a daughter, a sister, a 
wife, and a mother, may be well performed, though a 
lady should net be the finest woman at an_ opera. 
They are likewise consistent with a moderate share of 
wit, a plain dress, and. a modest air.’ —STEELE. 

Too is still more limited than either, and refers only 
to a single object; ‘Long life is of all others the most 
general, and seemingly the most innocent object of 
desire. With respect to this, too, we so frequently err, 
that it would have been a blessing to many to have had 
their wish denied.’—Buair. 

“He also was among the number” may convey the 
idea of totality both as respects the person and the 
event: ‘he writes likewise a very fine hand’’ conveys 
the idea of similar perfection in his writing as in other 
qualifications: ‘“‘ he said so too,’ siynifies he said so in 
addition to the others; he said it /ikewise would imply 
that he said the same thing, or in the same manner. 


SOLITARY, DESERT, DESOLATE. 


Solitary is derived from the Latin solus alone; desert 
is the same as deserted; desolate, in Latin desolatus, 
signities made solitary. 

All these epithets are applied to places, but with 
different modifications of the common idea of solitude 
which belongs to them. . The solitary simply denotes 
the absence of all beings of the same kind: thus a place 
8 solitary to aman, where there is no human being but 
himself; and it is solitary to a brute, when there are 
no brutes with which it can hold society; ‘The first 
time we behold the hero (Ulysses), we find him discon- 
solately sitting on the solitary shore, sighing to return 
to Ithaca”—WuartTon. Desert conveys the idea of a 
place made solitary by being shunned, from its unfit- 
ness as a place of residence; all deserts are places of 
such wildness as seems to frighten away almost all 
inhabitants ; 

A peopled city made a desert place—DryYDEN. 


Desolate conveys the idea of a place made solitary, or 
bare_of inhabitants, and al{ traces of habitation, by 
violent’ means; every country may become desolate 
which is exposed to the inroads of a ravaging army; 


Supporting and supported, polish’d friends 
And dear, relations mingle into bliss ; 

But this the rugged savage never felt, 

E’n desolate in crowds.--THOMSON 


TO RECEDE, RETREAT, RETIRE, WITH- 
DRAW, SECEDE. 


To recede is to go back; to retreat is to draw back; 
the former is a simple action, suited to one’s conve- 
nience;‘ the latter is a particular action, dictated by 
necéssity : we recede by a direct backward movement; 
we retreat by an indirect backward movement: we 
recede a few steps in order to observe an object more 
distinctly ; we retreat from the position we have taken, 
in order to escape danger: whoever can advance can 
recede ; but in general those only retreat whose advance 
is not free: receding is the act of every one; retreating 
is peculiarly the act of soldiers, or those who make hos- 
tile movements. To retire and withdraw originally 
signify the same as retreat, that is, draw back or off; 
butsthey agree in application mostly with recede: to 


253 


recede is to go back from a given spot; but to retare and 
withdraw have respect to the place or the presence of 
the persons: we may recede on an open plain; but we 
retire or withdraw from a room, or from some company. 
In this application withdraw is the more’familiar term : 
retire may likewise be used for an army ; but it denotes 
a much more leisurely action than retreat: a general 
retreats, by compulsion, from an enemy; but he may 
retire from an enemy’s country when there is no enemy 
present. 

Recede, retire, withdraw, and retreat, are also used 
in a moral application; secede is used only in this sense : 
a person recedes from his engagement, which is seldom 
justifiable; or he may recede from his pretensions, 
which is mostly commendable; ‘ We were soon brought 
to the necessity of receding from our imagined equality 
with our cousins.’—Jounson. A person retires from 
busines* when he ceases to carry it on any longer; 
‘ Retirement from the world’s cares and pleasures has 
been often recommended as useful to repentance.’— 
JoHNnson. A person withdraws from a society either 
for a time or altogether; ‘A temptation may w7thdraw 
for awhile, and return again.’—-Souru. As life is reli- 
giously considered as a warfare with the world, they 
are said to retreat from the contest who do not enter 
into its pleasures; ‘How certain is our ruin, unless we 
sometimes retreat from this pestilential region (the 
world of pleasure).’—Biair. To secede is a public 
act: men secede from a religious or political body: 
withdraw is a private act; they withdraw themselves 
as individual members from any society ; ‘ Pisistratus 
and his sons maintained their usurpations during a 
period of sixty-eight years, including those of Pisis 
tratus’s secessions from Athens.’—CUMBERLAND. 


PRIVACY, RETIREMENT, SECLUSION, 


Privacy literally denotes the abstract quality of pre- 
vate ; but when taken by itself it signifies the state of 
being private : retirement literally signifies the abstract 
act of retiring: and seclusion that of secluding one’s 
self: but retirement by itself frequently denotes a state 
of being retired, or a place of retirement; seclusion, a 
state of being secluded : hence we say a person lives in 
privacy, in retirement, in seclusion : privacy is opposed 
to publicity; he who lives in privacy, therefore, is one 
who follows no publick line, who lives so as to be little 
known; 


Fly with me to some safe, some sacred privacy. 
Rowe 


Retirement is opposed to openness or freedom of access 

he, therefore, who lives in retirement, withdraws from 
the society of others, he lives by himself; ‘In our retire- 
ments every thing disposes us to be serious.’—-AppISON 

Seclusion is the excess of retirement ; he who lives i 
seclusion bars all access to himself; he shuts hinaself 
from the world; 


What can thy imag’ry of sorrow mean ? 

Secluded from the world, andvall its care, 

Hast thou to grieve or joy, to hope or fear ? 
PRIOR 


Privacy is most suitable for such as are in circum 
stances of humiliation, whether from their misfortune 
or their fault: retirement is peculiarly agreeable to those 
who are of a reflective turn; but seclusion is chosen 
only by those who labour under some strong affection 
of the mind, whether of a religious er physical nature. 


TO ABDICATE, DESERT 


The following celebrated speech of Lord Somers, 1t 
1688, on King James’s vacating the throne, may be 
admitted as a happy elucidation of these two important 
words; but I am not inclined to think that they come 
sufficiently close in signification to render any com- 
parison necessary. 

“ What is appointed me to speak to is your Lord 
ships’ first amendment by which the word abdicated in 
the Commons’ vote is changed into the word deserted, 
and Iam to acquaint your Lordships what some of the 
grounds are that induced the Commons to insist on the 
word abdicated, and not to agree to your amendment. 

“The first reason your Lordships are pleased to 
deliver for your changing the word is, that the word 


254 


abdicated your Lordships do not find is a word known 
to the common law of England, and therefore ought 
not to be used. The next is that the common appli- 
cation of the word amounts to a voluntary express 
renunciation, which is not in this case, nor will follow 
from the premises. ne 

‘‘ My Lords, as to the first of these reasons, if it be an 
pbjection that the word abdicated hath not a known 
sense in the common law of England, there is the same 
objection against the word deserted ; so that your Lord- 
ships’ first reason hath the same force against your 
own amendment, as against the term used by the Com- 
mons, 

“The words are both Latin words, and used in the 
best authors, and both of a known signification ; their 
meaning is very well understood, though it be true their 
meaning is not the same. The word abdicate doth 
naturally and properly signify, entirely to renounce, 
throw off, disown, relinquish any thing or person, so as 
to have no further to do with it; and that whether it be 
done by express words or in writing (which is the sense 
your Lordships put upon it, and which is properly 
called resignation or cession), or by doing such acts as 
are inconsistent with the holding and retaining of the 
thing, which the Commons take to be the present case, 
and therefore make choice of the werd abdicate, as that 
which they thought did above all others express that 
meaning. And in this latter sense it is taken by others ; 
and that this is the true signification of the word [shall 
show your Lordships out of the best authors. 

“ The first I shall mention is Grotius, De Jure Belli 
et Pacis, 1. 2,c. 4,§ 4. Venit enim hoc non ex jure 
civili, sed ex jure naturali, quo quisque suum potest 
abdicare, et ex naturali presumptione, qua voluisse quis 
creditur quod sufficienter significavit. And then he 
goes on: Recusari hereditas, non tantum verbis sed 
etiam re, potest, et quovis indicio voluntatis. 

‘‘ Another instance which [ shall mention, to show 
that for abdicating a thing it is sufficient to do an act 
which is inconsistent with retaining it, though there be 
nothing of express renunciation, is out of Calvin’s Lexi- 
con Juridicum, where he says, Generum abdicat qui 
sponsam repudiat. Here is an abdicateon without 
express words, but it is by doing such an act as doth 
sufficiently signify his purpose. 

“The next author I shall quote is Brissonius, De 
Verborum Signrficatione, who hath this passage: Homo 
liber qui seipsum vendit abdicat se statusuo. That is, 
he who sells himself hath thereby done such an act as 
cannot consist with his former state of freedom, and is 
thereby said properly se abdicasse statu suo. 

“ Budeus, in his Commentaries Ad Legem Secundam 
de Origine Juris, expounds the words in the same sense. 
Abdicare se magistratu est idem quod abire penitus 
magistratu. He that goes out of his office of magistracy, 
let it be in what manner he will, has abdicated the 
magistracy. 

‘And Grotius, in his Book de Jure Belli et Pacis, 
1. 1, c.4, § 9, seems to expound the word abdicare by 
manifeste habere pro derelicto; that is, he who hath 
abdicated any thing hath so far relinquished it, that he 
hath no rightof return to it. And thatis the sense the 
Commons put upon the word. It is an entire aliena- 
tion of the thing abdicated, and so stands in opposition 
to dicare. Dicat qui proprium aliquot facit, abdicat 
qui alienat; so says Pralejus in his Lexicon Juris. It 
is therefore insisted on as the proper word by the Com- 
mons. 

“ But the word deserted (which is the word used in 
the amendment made by your Lordships) hath not only 
a very doubtful signification, but in the common ac- 
ceptance both of the civil and canon law, doth signify 
only a bare withdrawing, a temporary quitting of a 
thing, and neglect only, which Jeaveth the party at 
liberty of returning to it again. Desertum pro ne- 
glecto, says Spigelius in his Lexicon. But the differ- 
ence between deserere and derelinquere is expressly 
laid down by Bartolus on the 8th law of the 58th title 
of the 11th book of the Code, and his words are these: 
Nota diligenter ex hac lege, quod aliud est agrum de- 
serere, aliud derelinquere ; qui enim derelinquit ipsum 
ex penitentid’ non revocare, sed qui deserit, intra bien- 
nium potest. 

“Whereby it appears, my lords, that is called de- 
sertion Which is temporary and relievable; that is 
called derelaction where there is no power or right to 
return. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


“So in the best Latin authors, and in the civii lew 
deserere exercitum is used to signify soldiers leaving 
their colours ; and in the canon law to desert a benefice 
signifies no more than to be a non-resident. ; 

‘In both cases the jparty hath not only a right of 
returning, but is bound to return again; which, my 
Lords, as the Commons do not take to be the present 
case, so they cannot think that your Lordships do, be- 
cause it is expressly said, in one of your reasons given 
in defence of the last amendment, that your Lordships 
have been and are willing to secure the nation against 
the return of King James, which your Lordships would 
in justice do, if you did look upon it to be no more than 
a negligent withdrawing, which leaveth a liberty to the 
party to return. 

‘‘ For which reasons, my Lords, the Commons cannot 
agree to the first amendment, to insert the word de- 
serted instead of abdicated; because it doth not in 
any sort come up to their sense of the thing, so they 
apprehend it doth not reach your Lordships’ meaning as 
it is expressed in your reasons, whereas they look upon 
the word abdicated to express properly what is to be 
inferred from that part of the vote to which your Lord- 
ships have agreed, viz. ‘ That King James IL., by going 
about to subvert the constitution, and by breaking the 
original contract between king and people, and by vyi- 
olating the fundamental laws, and withdrawing him- 
self out of the kingdom, hath thereby renounced to 
be a king according to the constitution.’ By avowing 
to govern according to a despotick power unknown 
to the constitution, and inconsistent therewith, he 
hath renounced to be a king according to the law; 
such a king as he swore to be at the coronation; such 
a king to whom the allegiance of an English subject is 
due; and hathset up another kind of dominion; which 
is to all intents an abdication or abandoning of his 
legal title as fully as if it had been done by express 
words. 

“And, my Lords, for these reasons the Commons do 
insist upon the word abdicated, and cannot agree to the 
word deserted.” 

Without all this learned verbosity it will be obvious 
to every person that the two words are widely distinct 
from each other; abdication being a pure act of discre 
tion for which a man is answerable to himself only: but 
desertion an act which involves more or less a breach 
of moral obligation. 


TO DISMISS, DISCHARGE, DISCARD. 

Dismiss, in Latin dimissus, participle of dzmitto, 
compounded of dz and mitto, signifies to send asunder 
or away ; discharge, signifies to release from a charge; 
discard, in Spanish descartar, compounded of des 
and cartar, signifies to lay cards out or aside, to cast 
them off. 

The idea of removing to a distance is included in all 
these terms; but with various collateral circumstances. 
Dismiss is the general term; discharge and discard 
are modes of dismissing: dismiss is applicable to per- 
sons of all stations, but is used more particularly for 
the higher orders: discharge on the other hand is con- 
fined to those in a subordinate station. A clerk, or an 
officer, or a minister, is désmissed ; ‘In order to an ac 
commodation, they agreed upon this preliminary, that 
each of them should immediately dismiss his privy 
counsellor..—Appison. A menial servant or a soldier 
is discharged ; ‘Mr. Pope’s errands were so frequent 
and frivolous that the footman in time avoided and ne- 
glected him, and the Earl of Oxford discharged some 
of his servants for their obstinate refusal of his mes- 
sages.’—.J OHNSON. 

Neither dismiss nor discharge define the motive of 
the action; they are used indifferently for that which 
is voluntary, or the.contrary : discard, on the contrary, 
always marks a dismissal that is not agreeable to the 
party discarded. Aperson may request to be dismissed 
or discharged, but never to be discarded. The dismissa, 
or discharge frees a person from the obligation or ne- 
cessity of performing a certain duty; _ 


Dismiss the people then, and give command 
With strong repast to hearten every band.—Poprz 


The discarding throws him out of a desirable rank or 
station: ‘I am so great a lover of whatever is French, 
that I lately discarded an humble admirer because he 
neither spoke that tongue nor drank c'eret.’-bupe@ ZL. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


Fey are all applied to things in the moral sense, and 
with the same distinction: we are said to dismiss our 
fears, to discharge a duty, and to discard a sentiment 
from the mind: 


Resume your courage, and dismiss your care. 
DRYDEN. 


if I am bound to pay money on a certain day, I dis- 
charge the obligation if I pay it before twelve o’clock at 
night. —BuiacksTong. ‘Justice discards party friend- 
ship and kindred.’-—ApDDISON. 


TO LET, LEAVE, SUFFER. 


Let, through the medium of the Gothick letan, and 
other changes in the French laisser, German lassen, 
&c. comes in all probability from the Latin lazo, to 
loosen, or set loose, free; leave (v. To leave) ; suffer, 
from the Latin suffero to bear with, signifies not to put 
a stop to. 

The removal of hindrance or constraint on the ac- 
tions of others, is implied by all these terms ; but Jet is 
a less formal action than leave, and this than suffer. I 
let a person pass in the road by getting out of his way : 
I leave a person to decide on a matter according to his 
uwn discretion, by declining to interfere: I suffer a 
person to go his own way, over whom I am expected 
to exercise a control. It is in general most prudent to 
let things take their own course; ‘Where there is a 
certainty and an uncertainty, Jet the uncertainty go, 
and hold to that which is certain’—SaunpeRson. In 
the education of youth, the greatest art lies in leaving 
them to follow the natural bent of their minds and turn 
of disposition without at the same time suffering them 
to do any thing prejudicial to their character or future 
interests ; 


This crime I could not Zeave unpunished. 
DENHAM. 


If Pope had suffered his hear: to be alienated from her, 
he could have found nothing that might fill her place.’ 
—JOHNSON. 


TO LEAVE, QUIT, RELINQUISH. 


Leave, in Saxon leafve, in old German laube, Latin 
tinquo, Greek \gizw, signifies either to leave or be want- 
ing, because one is wanting in the place which one 
leaves ; quit, in French quitter, from the Latin quietus 
rest, signifies to rest or remain, to give up the hold of; 
the sense of relinquish is given under the head of 
Abandon. 

We leave that to which we may intend to return; 
we guit that to which we return no more: we may 
leave a place voluntarily or otherwise ; but we relin- 
quish it unwillingly. We leave persons or things ; we 
quit and relinquish things only. I leave one person in 
order to speak to another ; I leave my house for a short 
lime; 


Why leave we not the fatal Trojan shore, 
And measure back the seas we cross’d before ? 
Pore. 

{ quit it not to return to it; ‘At last he (Savage) 
quitted the house of his friend.’—Jounson. 

‘They preserve the same distinction in the moral ap- 
plication. A prudent man leaves all questions about 
minor matters in religion and politics to men of busy, 
restless tempers; ‘We have no better materials to 
compound the priesthood of, than the mass of man- 
kind, which, corrupted as it is, those who receive 
orders, must have some vices to leave behind them.’— 
Swirt. Itisa source of great pleasure to a contem- 
plative mind to revisit the scenes of early childhood, 


which have been long guitted for the busy scenes of 
active life; 


The sacred wrestler, till a blessing’s giv’n, 
Quits not his hold, but halting, conquers heav’n. 
WALLER. 

A miser is loath to relinquish the gain which has 
added so greatly to his stores and his pleasures; ‘ Al- 
though Charles relinquished almost every power for 
the crown, he would neither give up his friends to 
punishment, nor desert what he esteemed his religious 
4uty..—Hume 


eR A 


255 


TO LEAVE, TAKE LEAVE, BID FAREWELL, 
OR ADIEU. 


Leave is here general as before (v. To leave) ; it ex 
presses simply the idea of separating one’s self from 
an object, whether for a time or otherwise ; to take 
leave and bid farewell imply a separation for a perpe- 
tuity. 

'To leave is an unqualified action, it is applied to ob- 
jects of indifference, or otherwise, but supposes in ge- 
neral no exercise of one’s feelings. We leave persons 
as convenience requires ; 


Self alone,in nature rooted fast, 
Attends us first and leaves us last.—SwirtT. 


We leave them on the road, in the field, in the house, 
or wherever circumstances direct; we leave them with 
or without speaking; to take leave is a parting cere- 
mony between friends, on their parting for a consider- 
able time; ‘Now I am to take leave of my readers, I 
am under greater anxiety than I have known for the 
work of any day since I undertook this province,’— 
Sreete. To bid farewell or adieu is a still mvure 
solemn ceremony, when the parting is expected to be 
final. When applied to things, we leave such as we do 
not wish to meddle with; we take leave of those things 
which were agreeable to us, but which we find it pru- 
dent to give up; and we bzd farewell to those for 
which we still retain a great attachment; ‘ Anticipate 
the awful moment of your bidding the world an eternal 


farewell”—Buatir. It is better to leave a question un 


decided, than to attempt to decide it by altercation or 
violence; it is greater virtue in a man to take leave of 
his vices, than to let them take leave of him; when a 
man engages in schemes of ambition, he must bid adieu 
to all the enjoyments of domestick life. 


LEAVE, LIBERTY, PERMISSION, LICENSE. 


Leave has here the sense of freedom granted, be. 
cause what is left to itself is left free; liberty, in Latin 
libertas, from liber free, denotes the state of being free 
from external restraint; permission signifies the act of 
permitting, or the thing permitted ; license, in Latin 
licentia, from licet to be lawful, signifies the state of 
beirg permitted by law, or the act of the law in per 
mitting. 

Leave and liberty are either given or taken: per 
mission is taken only; license is granted, and that in a 
special manner: leave is employed only on familian 
occasions ; ‘I must have leave to be grateful to any 
one who serves me, let him be ever so obnoxious to 
any party..—Porre. Liberty is given in more im- 
portant matters; ‘I am for the full léberty of diversion 
(for children), as much as you can be.’—Locxr. The 
master gives leave to his servant to go out for his plea 
sure ; a gentleman gives his friends the liberty of 
shooting on his grounds; leave is taken in indifferent 
matters, particularly as it respects leave of absence, 
liberty is taken by a greater, and in general an un 
authorized stretch of one’s powers, and is, therefore, 
an infringement on the rights of another. What is 
done without the leave may be done without the know- 
ledge, though not contrary to the will, of another; but 
liberties which are taken without offering an apology 
are always calculated to give offence. 

Leave is granted by private individuals, but license 
is granted by publick authority: a parent gives leave 
to a child to take a walk; the government grants 
licenses for selling different commodities. The word 
license is however sometinies used figuratively ; 


Leaving the wits the spacious air, 
With license to build castles there.—Swirt. 


Leave and permission are said to be asked for, but 
not liberty: we beg leave to offer our opinions; we 
request permission, but not liberty, to speak ; ‘ The re- 
peated permissions you give me of dealing freely with 
you will, 1 hope, excuse what I have done.’—Poprs. 


LEAVINGS, REMAINS, RELICKS. 


Leavings are the consequence of a voluntary ac 
they signify what is left: remains are what follow in 
the course of things; they are what remain; the 
former is therefore taken in the bad sense to signify 
what has been left as worthless; the latter is never 
taken in this bad sense. Wen many persons of good 


256 


taste have the liberty of choosing, it is fair to expect 
that the leavings will be worth little or nothing, after 
all have made their choice; 


Scales, fins, and bones, the leavings of the feast. 
SOMERVILLE. 


By the remains of beauty which are discoverable in 
the face of a female, we may be enabled to estimate 
what her personal charms had been; 


So midnight tapers waste their last remains. 
SoMERVILLE. 


Remains signify literally what remains: relicks, from 
the Latin relinqguo to leave, that which is left. The 
former is a term of general and familiar application ; 
the latter is specifick. What remains after the use or 
consumption of any thing is termed the remains ; what 
is left of any thing after a lapse of years is the relick 
orrelicks. There are remains of buildings mostly after 
a conflagration; there are relicks of antiquity in most 
monasteries and old churches. 

Remains are of value, or not, according to the cir- 
cumstances of the cases ; relicks always derive a value 
from the person to whom they were supposed originally 
10 belong. The remains of a person, that is, what cor- 
poreally remains of a person, after the extinction of 
life, will be respected by his friend ; 


Upon these friendly shores, and flow’ry plains, 
Which hide Anchises, and his blest remains. 
DRYDEN. 


A bit of a garment that belonged, or is supposed to 
have belonged, to some saint, will be a precious relick 
in the eyes of a superstitious Roman Catholick; ‘ All 
those arts, rarities, and inventions, which the ingenious 
pursue, and all admire, are but the relick of an in- 
tellect defaced with sin and time.’—Souru. All na- 
tions have agreed to respect the remains of the dead; 
religion, under most forms, has given a sacredness to 
relicks in the eyes of its most zealous votaries; the 
veneration of genius, or the devotedness of friendship, 
has in like manner transferred itself, from the indivi- 
dual himself, to some object which has been his pro- 
perty or in his possession, and thus fabricated for itself 
reicks equally precious. 


—— 


LOOSE, VAGUE, LAX, DISSOLUTE, 
LICENTIOUS. 


Loose, in German los, &c., Latin larus, Greek 


&Adecev, and Hebrew yor to make free; vague, in 
Latin vagus, signifies wandering; Jaz, in Latin lavus, 
has a similar origin with loose; dissolute, in Latin dis- 
solutus, participle of dissolwo, signifies dissolved or set 
free; licentious, i. e. having the license or power to do 
as one pleases (v. Leave, liberty). 

Loose is the generick, the rest are specifick terms; 
they are all opposed to that which is bound or adheres 
closely: Joose is employed either for moral or intel- 
lectual subjects; vague only for intellectual objects: 
lax sometimes for what is intellectual, but oftener for 
the moral; dissolute and licentious only in moral mat- 
ters: whatever wants a proper connexion, or linking 
together of the parts, is loose; whatever is scattered 
and remotely separated is vague: a style is loose where 
the words and sentences are not made to coalesce, so 
as to form a regularly connected series ; assertions are 
vague which have but a remote connexion with the 
subject referred to: by the same rule, loose hints 
thrown out at random may give rise to speculation and 
conjecture, but cannot serve as the ground of any con- 
clusion; ignorant people are apt to credit every vague 
rumour, and to communicate it as a certainty. 

Opinions are loose, either inasmuch as they want 
logical precision, or as they fail in moral strictness; 
‘ Because conscience and the fear of swerving from 
that which is right, maketh them diligent observers of 
circumstances, the loose regard whereof is the nurse 
of vulgar folly.—Hooxerr. Suggestions and surmises 
are in their nature vague, as they spring from a very 
remote channel, or are produced by the wanderings of 
the imagination ; ‘That action which is vague and in- 
determinate will at last settle into habit, and habitual 
peculiarities are quickly ridiculous. —Jounsun.  Opi- 
nions are laz, inasmuch as they have a tendency to 
Jessen the moral obligation, or to loosen moral ties; 
‘In this general depravity of manners and laxity of 
principles, pure religion is no where more strongly in- 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


culcated (than in our universities).,—Jounson. Loose 
notions arise from the unrestrained state of the will, 
from the influence of the unruly passions; lax notions 
from the errour of the judgement; loose principles 
affect the moral conduct of individuals; Jaz principles 
affect the speculative opinions of men, either as indi- 
viduals or in society; one is loose in practice, and lax 
in speculation or in discipline: the loose man sins 
against his conscience; he sets himself free from that 
to which he knows that he ought to submit; the lax 
man errs, but he affects to defend his errour. A loose 
man injures himself, but a Jaz man injures society at 
large. Dissoluteness is the excess of looseness; licen- 
tiousness is the consequence of laxity, or the freedom 
from external constraint. 

Looseness of character, if indulged, soon sinks into 
dissoluteness of morals; and laxity of discipline is 
quickly followed by licentiousness of manners. 

A young man of loose character makes light of 
moral obligations in general; ‘The most voluptuous 
and loose person breathing, were he but tied to follow 
his dice and his courtships every day, would find it the 
greatest torment that could befall him.’—Soutn. A 
man of dissolute character commits every excess, and 
totally disregards every restraint; ‘ As the life of Petro- 
nius Arbiter was altogether dissolute, the indifference 
which he showed at the close of it is to be looked upon 
as a piece of natural carelessness rather than fortitude.’ 
—Appison. In proportion as a commander is Jaz in 
the punishment of offences, an army will become 
licentious ; in proportion as the administration of law 
becomes lax, the age will become licentious ; ‘ Moral 
philosophy is very agreeable to the paradoxical and 
licentious spirit of the age..—BEaATTIE. 


SLACK, LOOSE. 


Slack, in Saxon slaec, low German slack, French 
lache, Latin laxus, and loose, in Saxon laes, both 


come from the Hebrew yon to make free or loose; 
they differ more in application than in sense: they are 
both opposed to that which is close bound; but slack 
is said only of that which is tied, or that with whick 
any thing is tied; while loose is said of any substances, 
the parts of which do not adhere closely: a rope is 
slack in opposition to the tight rope, which is stretched 
to its full extent; and in general cords or strings are 
said to be slack which fai! in the requisite degree of 
tightness; but they are said to be loose in an indefinite 
manner, Without conveying any collateral idea: thus 
the string’ of an instrument is denominated slack 
rather than loose; on the other hand, loose is said of 
many bodies to which the word stack cannot be ap- 
plied: a garment is loose, but not slack; the leg of a 
table is Zoose, but not slack. In the moral application 
that which admits of extension lengthways is deno- 
minated slack; and that which fails in consistency 
and close adherence is loose: trade in general is said 
to be slack, or the sale of a particular article to be 
slack; but an engagement is said to be loose, and prin 

ciples loose. 


Rebellion now began, for lack 
Of zeal and plunder, to grow slack.—HuDIBRAS 


Nor fear that he who sits so loose to life, 
Should too much shun its labours and its strife. 
DENHAM 


TO RELAX, REMIT. 


The general idea of diminution is that which allies 
these words to each other; but they differ very widely 
in their original meaning, aud somewhat in their ordi- 
nary application; relax, from the word laz or loose, 
signifies to make loose, and in its moral use to lessen 
any thing in its degree of tightness or rigour ; to rem@t, 
from re and mitto to send back, signifies to take off in 
part or entirely that which has been imposed ; that is, 
to lessen in quantity. In regard to our attempts to act, 
we may speak of relaxing in our endeavours, and re- 
mitting our labours or exertions ; 


No more the smith his dusky brow shall clear, 
Relaz his ponderous strength, and lean to hear. 
GoLDsMITH 
How often have I blessed the coming day, 
When toil remitting lent its turn to play. 
GoLDSMITFH 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


257% 


m regard to our dealings with others, we may speak | mittent. There is nothing in the world which doesnot 
of relaxing in discipline, relaxing in the severity or } cease to exist at one period or another ; 


atrictness of our conduct, of remitting a punishment 
or remitting a sentence. The discretionary power of 
showing mercy when placed in the hands of the sove- 
reign, serves to relaz the rigour of the law; ‘The 
statute of mortmain was at several times relaxed by 
the legislature’—Swirr. When the punishment seems 
to be disproportioned to the magnitude of the offence, 
it is but equitable to remzt it. ‘The magistrate can 
often, where the publick good demands not the execu- 
tion of the law, remit the punishment of criminal 
offences by his own authority.’—Lockeg. 


TO CEASE, LEAVE OFF, DISCONTINUE, 
DESIST. 

Cease, in French cesser, Latin cesso, from cessz per- 
fect of cedo to yield, signifies to give up or put an end 
to: to leave off is literally to separate one’s self from 
an action or course of conduct; discontinue, with the 
privative dis, expresses the opposite of continue: de- 
sist, from the Latin desisto, or de and sisto, signifies 
literally to take one’s self off from a thing. 

To cease is neuter; to leave off and discontinue are 
active: we cease from doing a thing ; we leave off or 
discontinue athing. Ceaseis used either for particular 
actions or general habits; leave off more usually and 
properly for particular actions; discontinue for general 
habits. A restless, spoiled child never ceases crying 
until it has obtained what it wants; it is a mark of 
impatience not to cease lamenting when oneis in pain; 
‘A successful author is equally in danger of the dimi- 
nution of his fame, whether he continues or ceases to 
write.—Jounson. A labourer leaves off his work at 
any given hour; ‘ As harsh and irregular sound is not 
harmony; so neither is banging a cushion, oratory ; 
therefore, in my humble opinion, a certain divine of 
the first order would do well to leave this off” —Swirt. 
A delicate person discontinues his visits when they are 
found not to be agreeable; ‘I would cheerfully have 
borne the whole expense of it, if my private establish- 
ment of native readers and writers, which I cannot 
with convenience discontinue at present, did not require 
more than half of the monthly expense, which the com- 

letion of a Digest would in my opinion demand.’— 
IR Wm. Jones. 

[t should be our first endeavour to cease to do evil. 
It is never good to leave off working while there is any 
thing to do, and timeto do itin. The discontinuing of 
a good practice without adequate grounds evinces great 
instability of character. 

To cease is said of that which flows out of the nature 
of things; to leave off, discontinue, and desist, are 
always the acts of conscious agents. To leave off and 
discontinue are voluntary acts, desist is involuntary; 
it is prudent to desist from using our endeavours when 
we find them ineffectual] ; it is natural for a person to 
leave off when he sees no farther occasion to continue 
his labour; ‘ The laird of Raarsa has sometimes dis- 
puted the chieftainry of the clan with Macleod of Skie; 
but being much inferiour in extent of possessions, has, 
i suppose, been forced to desist.’— JOHNSON. 


CESSATION, STOP, REST, INTERMISSION. 


Cessation, from the verb to cease, marks the condition 
of leaving off; stop, from to step, marks that of being 
stopped or prevented from going on; rest, fromto rest, 
marks the state of being quiet; and inte,mission, from 
mtermit, marks that of ceasing occasionally. 

To cease respects the course of things; whatever 
does not go on has ceased; things cease of themselves: 
stop respects some external action or influence; nothing 
stops but what is supposed to be stopped or hindered by 
another: rest is a species of cessation that regards 
sabour or exertion ; whatever does not move or exert 
itself is at rest: intermission is a species of cessation 
only for a time or at certain intervals. 

That which ceases or stops is supposed to be at an 
end; rest or entermission supposes a renewal. A ces- 
satien of hostilities is at all times desirable: to put a 
stop to evil practices is sometimes the most difficult and 
dangerous of all undertakings: rest after fatigue is 
indispensable, for labour without intermission exhausts 
the frame. The rain ceases, a person or a ball stops 
running, the labourer vests trom his toil, a fever is inter- 

17 


Who then would court the pomp of guilty power, 

When the mind sickens at the weary show, 

And flies to temporary death for ease ? 

When half our life’s cessation of our being. 
STEELE. 


Death stops every one sooner or later in his career; 
‘In all those motions and operations which are inces- 
santly going on throughout nature, there is no stop nor 
interruption..—Biair. Whoever is vexed with the 
cares of getting riches will find no rest for his mind or 
body ; ‘ The refreshing rest and peaceful night are the 
portion of him only who lies down weary with honest 
labour.’—Jounson. He will labour without intermis 
sion oftentimes only to heap troubles on himself; 
‘ Whether the time of intermission is spent in company 
or in solitude, in necessary business or involuntary 
levities, the understanding is equally abstracted from 
the object of inquiry.’—JoHNson. 


INTERVAL, RESPITE. 


Interval, in Latin intervallum, signifies literally the 
space between the stakes which formed a Roman 
intrenchment; and, by an extended application, it sig 
nifies any space; respite, probably contracted from 
respirit, signifies a breathing again. 

Every respite requires an interval; but there are 
many zntervais where there is no respite. The term 
interval respects time only; respite includes the idea 
of action within that time which may be more or less 
agreeable ; intervals of ease are a respite to one who 
is oppressed with labour; ‘Any uncommon exertion 
of strength, or perseverance in labour, is succeeded by 
a long interval of languor.’—Jounson. ‘The interval 
which is sometimes granted to a criminal before his 
execution is in the properest sense a respite ; ‘Giveme 
leave to allow myself no respite from labour.’—Srrc- 
TATOR. 


REPRIEVE, RESPITE. 


Reprieve comes in all probability from the French 
repris, participle of zeprendre, and the Latin repre- 
hendo, signifying to take back or take off that which 
has been laid on; respite signifies the same as in the 
preceding article. 

The idea of a release from any pressure or burden is 
common to these terms; but the reprieve is that which 
is granted; the respite sometimes cuines to us in the 
course of things: we gain a reprieve from any punish- 
ment or trouble which threatens us; we gain a respite 
from any labour or weight that presses upon us. A 
criminal gains a reprieve when the punishmeut of 
death is commuted for that of transportation ; a debtor 
may be said to obtain a reprieve when, with a prison 
before his eyes, he gets such indulgence from his credit 
ors as sets him free ; there is frequently no respite for 
persons in a subordinate station, when they fall into 
the hands of a hard taskmaster; Sisyphus is feigned 
by the poets to have been condemned to the toil of 
perpetually rolling a stone up a hill as fast as it rolled 
back, from which toil he had no respite ; 


All that I ask is but a short reprieve, 

Till I forget to love and learn to grieve, 

Some pause and respite only I require, 

Till with my tears I shall have quench’d my fire. 
DRYDEN. 


INCESSANTLY, UNCEASINGLY, UNINTER- 
RUPTEDLY, WITHOUT INTERMISSION. 


The want of continuity, not of duration, is denoted 
by these terms; incessantly is the most general and 
indefinite of all; it signifies without ceasing, but may 
be applied to things which admit of certain intervais: 
unceasingly is definite, and signifies never ceasing, it 
cannot therefore be applied to what has any cessation. 
In familiar discourse, incessantly is a hyperbolick 
mode of speech, by which one means to denote the ab- 
sence of those ordinary intervals which are to be ex- 
pected; as when one says a person is incessantly 
talking ; by which is understood, that he does not allow 
himself the ordinary intervals of rest from talking ; 


258 


Surfeat, misdiet, and unthrifty waste, 

Vaine feastes, and ydle superfluite, 

All those this sence’s fort assayle incessantly. 
SPENSER. 


Unceasingly, on the other hand, is more literally em- 
ployed for a positive want of cessation ; a noise is said 
to be unceasing which literally never ceases; or com- 
plaints are wnceasing which are made without any 
pauses or intervals; 


Impell’d with steps unceasing, to pursue ; 
Some fieeting good that mocks me with the view. 
GOLDSMITH. 


Incessantly and unceasingly are said of things which 
act of themselves ; uninterruptedly is said of that 
which depends upon other things: it rains incessantly 
marks a continued operation of nature, independent 
of every thing ; but to be wnintcrruptedly happy marks 
one’s freedom from every foreign influence which is 
unfriendly to one’s happiness ; 


She draws a close incumbent cloud of death, 
Uninterrupted by the living winds.—THomson. 


Incessantly and the other two words are employed 
either for persons or things; without intermission is 
however mostly employed for persons: things act and 
react incessantly upon one another; a man of a per- 
severing temper goes on labouring without intermis- 
sion, until he has effected his purpose; ‘ For any one 
to be always in a laborious, hazardous posture of 
defence, without intermission, must necds be intolera- 
ole.’—SourTH. 


ALWAYS, AT ALL TIMES, EVER. 


Always, compounded of all and ways, is the same 
as, under all circumstances, through all the ways of 
life, that is, uninterruptedly; at all times, means, 
Without distinction of time; ever implies, for a perpe- 
tuity, without end. 

A man must be always virtuous, that. is, whether in 
adversity or prosperity ; ‘Human life never stands still 
for any longtime. It is by no means a fixed and steady 
object, like the mountain or the rock, which you always 
find in the same situation.’—Buiarr. A man must be 
at all times virtuous, that is, in his going in and coming 
out, his rising wp and his lying down, by day and by 
night; ‘Among all the expressions of good nature, I 
shall single out that which goes under the general name 
of charity, as it consists in relieving the indigent; that 
being a trial of this kind which offers itself to us almost 
at all times, and in every place..—Appison. A virtuous 
man will be ever happy, that is, in this life, and the 
life to come; ‘Have you forgotten all the blessings you 
have continued to enjoy ever since the day that you 
came forth a helpless infant into the world.’—B.air. 


TO STAND, STOP, REST, STAGNATE. 
To stand, inGerman stehen, &c. Latin sto, Greek 


isnut to stand, Hebrew F\}Y to settle; stop, in Saxon 
stoppan, &c. conveys the ideas of pressing, thickening, 
like the Latin stipa, and the Greek cefBecv; whence it 
nas been made in English to express immoveability ; 
rest is contracted from the Latin resisto or re and sisto 
to place or stand back; stagnate, in Latin stagnatus, 
participle of stagno, comes from stagnum a pool, and 
that either from sto to stand, because waters stand 
perpetually ina pool, or from the Greek seyvés an enclo- 
Sure, because a pool is an enclosure for waters. 

“The absence of motion is expressed by all these 
terms; stand is the most general of all; to stand is 
simply not to move; to stop is to cease to move: we 
stand either for want of inclination or power to move; 
but we stop from a disinclination to goon: to rest is to 
stop from an express dislike to motion; we may stop 
for purposes of convenience, or because we have no 
farther to go, but we rest from fatigue; to stagnate is 
only a species of standing as respects liquids; water 
may both stand and stagnate; but the former implies 
a temporary, the latter a permanent state: water 
stands in a puddle, but it stagnates ina pond or in any 
confined space. 

All these terms admit of an extended application; 
business stands still, or there is a stand in business; 


Whither can we run, 
Where make a stand ?—DrypeEn. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


A mercantile house stops, or stops payment, or a per 
son stops in his career; ‘lam afraid should I put a 
stop now to this design, now thai it is so near being 
compleated, I shall find it difficult to resume it.’— 
MeumornH (Pliny). Anaffair rests undecided, or rests 
in the hands of a person ; 


Who rests of immortality assur’d 
Is safe, whatever ills are here endur’d.—Jenxyns. 


Trade stagnates; ‘This inundation of strangers, 
which used to be confined to the summer, will stag- 
nate allthe winter.’—GisBon. Stand, stop, and rest, 
are likewise employed transitively, but with a wide 
distinction in the sense; to stand in this case is to set 
one’s self up to resist; as to stand the trial, to stand 
the test: to stop has the sense of hinder; as to stop a 
person who is going on, that is, to make him stop: to 
rest isto make a thing rest or lean ; a person rests his 
argument upon the supposed innocence of another 


TO CHECK, STOP. 


Check, from the German Schach chess, derives its 
figurative signification of restraining the movements, 
from checkmate, a movement in that game whereby 
one stops one adversary from carrying his game any 
farther; to stop (v. Cessation) is to cause not to move 
at all: the growth of a plant is checked when it does 
not grow so fast as usual; its growth is stopped when 
it ceases altogether to grow: the water of a river is 
stopped by a dam; the rapidity of its course is checked 
by the intervention of rocks and sands. 

When applied to persons, to check is always con 
trary to the will of the sufferer ; but to stop is oftea a 
matter of indifference, if not directly serviceable : one 
is checked in his career of success by some untoward 
event; ‘Shall neither the admonitions which you re- 
ceive from the visible inconstancy of the world, nor 
the declarations of the Divine displeasure, be sufficient 
to check your thoughtless career?’/—Buair. One Is 
stopped on a journey by the meeting of a friend; 


Embosom’d in the deep where Holland lies, 
Methinks her patient sons before me stand, 

Where the broad ocean leans against the land, 

And sedulous to stop the coming tide, 

Lift the tall rampire’s artificial pride—GoLpsmirTH. 


In a moral application these terms bear a similar 
analogy ; check has the import of diminishing; stop 
that of destroying or causing to cease: many evils 
may be easily checked, to which it would not be easy 
to put an effectual stop. 


TO HINDER. STOP. 


Hinder, from hind or behind, signifies to hinder by 
going behind or pulling one behind; to stop is to make 
to stand. 

Hindering refers solely to the prosecution of an 
object: stop refers simply to the cessation of motion ; 
we may be hindered, therefore, by being stopped ; but 
we may also be hindered without being expressly 
stopped, and we may be stopped without being hin- 
dered. If the stoppage do not interfere with any 
other object in view, it is a stoppage, but not a hin- 
drance ; as when we are stopped by a friena while 
walking for pleasure ; 


A signal omen stopp’d the passing host, 
Their martial fury in their wonder lost.—Popr. 


But if stopped by an idler in the midst of urgent 
business, so as not to be able to proceed according to 
our business, this is both a stoppage and a hindrance. 
On the other hand, if we are interrupted in the regular 
course of our proceeding, but not compelled to stand 
still or give up our business for any time, this may he 
a hindrance, but not a stoppage: in this manner, the 
conversation of others, in the midst of our business, 
may considerably retard its progress, and so far hinder, 
but not expressly put a stop to the whole concern; ‘Is 
it not the height of wisdom and goodness too, to hinder 
the consummation of those soul-wasting sins, by 
obliging us to withstand them in their first infancy ?’— 
Sourn. 


TO HINDER, PREVENT, IMPEDE, OBSTRUCT 


Hinder signifies the same as in the preceding article , 
prevent, from pre before and venio to come, signifies ta 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


binder by coming before, or to cross another by the an- 
ticipation of his purpose; iznpede, in Latin from in 
and pedes the feet, signifies to come between his feet 
and entangle him in his progress; ‘ Impedire profec- 
tionem aut certe tardare.’—Cicrro. Odstruct, from 
ob and struo, signifies to set up something in one’s way, 
to block up the passage. 

Hinder is the most general of these terms, as it con- 
veys little more than the idea which is common to 
them all, namely, that of keeping one from his. pur- 
pose. To hinder is commouly said of that which is 
rendered impossible for the time being, or merely de- 
layed ; prevent is said of that which is rendered alto- 
gether impracticable. A person is hindered by the 
weather and his various engagements from reaching a 
place at the time he intended; he is prevented but not 
hindered by ill health from going thither at all. Ifa 
friend calls, he hinders me from finishing the letter 
which I was writing; if I wish to prevent my son 
from reading any book, I keep it out of his way; ‘Itis 
much easier to keep ourselves void of resentment, than 
to restrain it from excess when it has gained admission. 
To use the ilJustration of an excellent author, we can 
prevent the beginnings of some things, whose progress 
afterward we cannot hinder.’—HoLLanp. 

To hinder is an act of the moment, it supposes no 
design ; prevent is a premeditated act, deliberated upon, 
and adopted for general purposes: the former is applied 
only to the movements of any particular individual, 
the latter to events and circumstances. I hinder a 
person who is running, if I lay hold of his arm and 
make him walk; it is the object of every good govern- 
ment to prevent offences rather than to: punish offend- 
ers. Inordinary discourse these words fall very much 
into one another, when the circumstances of the case 
do not sufficiently define, whether the action in hand 
oe altogether suspended, or only suspended for a 
time; but the above explanation must make it very 
clear, that jinder, in its proper sense and application, 
is but a temporary act, and prevent is a decisive and 
permanent act. 

To impede and obstruct is a species of hindering 
which is said rather of things than of persons; hinder 
is said of both; but hinder is commonly employed in 
regard to trifling matters, or such as retard a person’s 
proceedings in the smallest degree; impede and eb- 
struct are acts of greater importance, or produce uw 
still greater degree of delay. A person is hindered in 
his work, although neither zmpeded nor obstructed; 
but the quantity of artillery and baggage which. 1s 
attached to an army will greatly ¢mpede itinits march; 
and the trees which are thrown across the roads will 
obstruct its march. 

Whatever causes a person to do a thing slower than 
he wishes is a hindrance ; whatever binds him so that 
he cannot move freely forward is an impediment ; 
whatever acts upon the path or passage so as to pre- 
vent him from moving forward is an obstruction. 
Every impediment and obstruction is a hindrance, 
though not vice versd. A_person is hindered in the 
thing he is aboutif he be called off to do something 
else; ill health empedes a person’s progress in learning ; 
any foreign body lodging in the vessels of the human 
body obstructs the course of the fluids, and con- 
sequently brings on serious diseases. Hindrances 
always suppose the agency of a person, either of the 
one who hinders, or the one who is hindered ; but im- 
pediments and obstructions may be employed with 
regard to the operations of nature on Inanimate ob- 
jects. Cold impedes the growth of plants; a dam ob- 
structs the course of water; ‘'Truth was provoked to 
see herself thus D.ffied and impeded by an enemy 
whom she looked on with contempt.’—JoHnson. 


This path you say is ind i endless night, 
"Tis self-conceit alone obstructs your sight. 
: JENYNS. 


DIFFICULTY, OBSTACLE, IMPEDIMENT. 


Difficulty, ia Latin dificultas and diffcilis, com- 
pounded of the privative dis and facilis easy, from 
facio to do, signifies the thing not easy to be done; 
odstacle, in Latin obstaculum, frem obsto to stand in 
the way, signifies the thing that stands in the way be- 
tween a person and the object he has in view ; impedi- 
meni, in Latin impedimentum, from impedio campound- 

\7* 


259 


ed of in and pedes, signifies something that entangles 
the feet. 

All these terms include in their signification that 
which interferes either with the actions or views of 
men: the-dificulty* lies most in the nature and circum- 
stances of the thing itself; the obstacle and impedi- 
ment consist of that which is external or foreign: a 
difficulty interferes with the completion of any work; 
an obstacle interferes with the attainment of any end ; 
an impediment interrupts the progress, and prevents the 
execution of one’s wishes: a difficulty embarrasses, it 
suspends the powers of acting or deciding ; an obstacle 
opposes itself, it is properly met in the way, and inter- 
venes between us and our object; an impediment 
shackles and puts a stop to our proceedings: we speak 
of encountering a difficulty, surmounting an obstacle, 
and removing an impediment: the disposition of the 
mind often occasions more dificulties in negociations 
than the subjects themselves; ‘Truth has less of 


.trouble and difficulty, of entanglement and perplexity, 


of danger and hazard in it..—Ti.LLotson. The elo-- 
quence of Demosthenes was the greatest obstacle 
which Philip of Macedon experienced in his political 
career; ‘One obstacle must have stood not a little in 
the way of that preferment after which Young seems 
to have panted. Though, he took orders, he never 
entirely shook off politicks.—Crorr. Ignorance of 
the language is the greatest impediment which a 
foreigner experiences in the pursuit of any object out 
of his own country , ‘The necessity of complying with 
times, and of sparing persons, is the great zmpedimen 

of biography.’—JouNson. 


TO PREVENT, ANTICIPATE. 


To prevent (v. To hinder) is literally to come before- 
hand, and anticipate, from ante and capio to take 
beforehand: the former is employed for actual occur- 
rences; the latter as much for calculations as for 
actions : prevent is the act of one being towards an- 
other; anticipate is the act of a being either towards 
himself or another. God is said to prevent us, if he 
interposes with his grace to divert our purposes towards 
that which is right; ‘ Prevent us, O Lord, in all our 
doings with thy most gracious favour.’.—Common 
Prayer. We anticipate the happiness which we are 
toenjoy in future; and so in like manner we may 
anticipate our pains; 

Why should we 
Anticipate our sorrows? ’T is like those 
Who die for fear of death Drnuam. 


We also anticipate what a person is going to say ny 
saying the same thing before him. The term prevent, 
when taken in this its strict and literal sense, is em 
ployed only as the act of the Divine Being; 


But I do think it most-cowardly and vile, 
For fear of what might fall, so to prevent 
The time of life-—SHAKsPEARE. 


Anticipate, on the contrary, is taken only as the act 
of human beings towards each other or themselves; 
‘He that has anticipated the conversation of a wit 
will wonder to what prejudice he owes his reputation.’ 
—Jonunson. These words may, however, be farther 
allied co each other, when under the term prevention 
in its vulgar acceptation is included the idea of hin- 
dering another in his proceedings; in which case to 
anticipate is a species of preventiun; that is, to pre- 
vent another from doing a thing by doing it one’s self, 
‘I am far from pretending to instruct the profession, or 
anticipating their directions to such as are under their 


| government.’—ARBUTHNOT. - 
4 


TO PREVENT, OBVIATE, PRECLUDE. 


To prevent (v. To hinder) is here as in the former 
case the generick term, the others are specifick. What 
one prevents does not happen at al!: what one oé- 
viates ceases to happen in future; we prevent those 
evils which we know will come to pass if not pre- 
vented ; we obviate those evils which we have already 
felt; that is, we prevent their repetition. Crimes and 
calamities are prevented; difficulties, objections, in 
conveniences, and troubles, are obviated. Wher 


*Vide Abbe Girard: “ Difficulté, obstacle, em 
péchement.”’ 


260 


crowds collect in vast numbers in any small spot, it is 
not easy to prevent mischief: wise precautions may 
be adopted ta obviate the inconvenience which neces- 
sarily attends a great crowd. 

Prevent and obviate are the acts of either conscious 
or unconscious agents: preclude is the act of uncon- 
scious agents only: one prevents or obviates a thing 
by the use of means, or else the things themselves 
prevent and obviate, as when we say, that a person 
prevents another from coming, or illness prevents him 
from coming; a person obviates a difficulty by a con- 
trivance, a certain arrangement or change obviates 
every difficulty. We intentionally prevent a person 
from doing that which we disapprove of; his circum- 
stances preclude him from enjoying certain privileges. 
Prevent respects that which is either good or bad; 
obviate respects that which is always bad; preclude 
respects that which is good or desirable: ill-health 
prevents a person from pursuing his business; exa- 
ployment prevents a young person from falling inte 
bad practices ; 

Ev’ry disease of age we may prevent, 
Like those of youth, by being diligent —Drnuam. 


Admonition often obviates the necessity of punish- 
ments; ‘The imputation of folly, if it is true, must 
be suffered without hope; but that of immorality may 
be obviated by removing the cause..—HawkKESWORTH. 
Want of learning or of a regular education often pre- 
cludes a man from many of the political advantages 
which he might otherwise enjoy ; ‘Has not man an 
inheritance to which all may return, who are not so 
foolish as to continue the pursuit afier pleasure till 
every hope is precluded ?’—HawkKksWoORTH. 


TO RETARD, HINDER. 


To retard, from the Latin tardus slow, signifying 
to make slow, is applied to the movements of any 
object forward: as in the Latin ‘Impetum inimici 
tardare.—Cicrro. To hinder (v. To hinder) is ap- 
plied to the person moving or acting: we retard or 
make slow the progress of any scheme towards com- 
pletion; ‘ Nothing has tended more to retard the ad- 
vancement of science than the disposition in vulgar 
minds to vilify what they cannot comprehend.’—Joun- 
son. We hinder or keep back the person who is 
completing the scheme; ‘The very nearness of an 
object sometimes handers the sight of it.—Souru. We 
retard a thing therefore often by hindering the per- 
son; but we frequently hinder a person without ex- 
[ressly retarding, and on the contrary the thing is 
retarded without the person being hindered. ‘The 
publication of a work is sometimes retarded by the 
bindrances which an author meets with in bringing 
it to a conclusion; but a work may be retarded 
through the idleness of printers and a variety of other 
causes which are independent of any hindrance. So 
in like manner a person may be hindered in going to 
his place of destination; but we do not say that he 
is retarded, because it is only the execution of an 
object, and not the simple movements of the person 
which are retarded. ¢ 


TO DELAY, DEFER, POSTPONE, PROCRASTI- 
NATE, PROLONG, PROTRACT, RETARD. 


Delay, compounded of de and lay, signifies to lay or 
Keep back; defer, compounded of de and fer, in Latin 
fero, signifies to put off; postpone, compounded of 
post and pone, from the Latin pono to place, signifies 
to place behind or after; procrastinate, from pro and 
eras to-morrow, signifies to put off till to-morrow; 
prolonging, answerving to the prolatio of the Latins, 
signifies the lengthening the period of time for begin- 
ning or ending a thing; protract, from traho to draw, 
signifies to draw out the time; and retard to make a 
thing hang ia hand. 

To delay is simply not to commence action; to defer 
and postpone are to fix its commencement at a more 
distant period: we may delay a thing for days, hours, 
and minutes; we defer or postpone it for months or 
weeks. Delays mostly arise from faults in the person 
delaying , they are seldom reasonable or advantageous; 
differing and postponing are discretionary acts, which 
aye justified by the circumstances: indolent people are 
most prone to delay ; 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


From thee both old and young with protit learn, 
The bounds of good and evil to discern ; 
Unhappy he who does this work adjourn, 

And to to-morrow would the search delay ; 

His lazy morrow will be like to-day —DrypeEn. 


When a plan is not maturely digested, it is prudent ta 
defer its execution until every thing is in an entire 
state of preparation. Procrastination is a culpable 
delay arising solely from the fault of the procrasti 
nator; ‘Cum plerisque in rebis gerendis tarditas et 
procrastinatio odiosa est, tum hoc bellum indiget cele- 
ritatis’—Cicero. Itisthe part of a dilatory man to 
procrastinate that which it is both his interest and 
duty to perform ; 


Procrastination is the thief of time.—Youne 


To defer is used without regard to any particular 
time or object; to postpone has always relation te 
something else: it is properly to defer until the com 
pletion of some period or event: a person may defer 
his visit from month to month; he postpones his visit 
until the commencement of a new year: a tardy debtor 
delays the settlement of his accounts; a merchant 
defers the shipment of any goods in consequence of the 
receipt of fresh intelligence; ‘ Never defer that till to- 
morrow which you can do to-day.’—BupeELL. A 
merchant postpones the shipment until after the arrival 
of the expected fleet; ‘When I postponed to another 
summer my journey to England, could I apprehend 
that I never should see her again !’"—Gipzon. 

We delay the execution of a thing; we prolong or 
protract the continuation of a thing: we retard the 
termination of a thing: we may delay answering a 
letter, prolong a contest, protract a lawsuit, and retard 
a publication; 

Perhaps great Hector then had found his fate, 
But Jove and destiny prolong’d his date.—Pops. 


To this Euryalus: “ You plead in vain, 
And but protract the cause you cannot gain.”’ 
VIRGIL 


I see the layers then 
Of mingled moulds of more retentive earths, 
That while the stealing moisture they transmit, 
Retard its motion and forbid its waste, 
THOMSON. 


TO PROROGUE, ADJOURN. 


Prorogue, from the Latin prorogo, signifies to put 
off, and is used in the general sense of deferring for 
an indefinite period; ‘A prorogation is the conti- 
nuance of Parliament from one session to another.’— 
BLACKSTONE. 

Adjourn, from journée the day, signifies only to put 
off for a day or some short period; ‘An adjourn- 
ment is no more than acontinuance of the session from 
one day to another.—BLacksTonE. Prorogueing it 
applied to national assemblies only; adjourning is 
applicable to any meeting. 


SLOW, DILATORY, TARDY, TEDIOUS. 


Slow is doubtless connected with sluther and slide, 

which kind of motion when walking is the slowest and 
the laziest; dilatory, from the Latin defero to defer, 
signifies prone to defer; tardy is but a variation of 
the Latin tardus slow; tedious, from the Latin tedit 
to he weary, signifies causing weariness. 
* Slow is a general and unqualified term applicable 
to the motion of any object or to the motions and ac- 
tions of persons in particular, and to their disposi 
tions also; dilatory relates to the temper only of per 
sons: we are slow in what we are about; 


The powers above are slow 
In punishing, and should not we resemble them ? 
DryDEN. 


We are dilatory in setting about a thing; ‘A dilatory 
temper is unfit for'a place of trust’—Appison. Slow 
is applied to corporeal or mental actions; a person 
may be slow in walking, or slow in conceiving: tardy 
applies more to what is mental than to what is cor- 
poreal; we are tardy in our proceedings or our pro 
gress; we are tardy in making up accounts or in cen 
cluding a treaty; 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


Death he has oft accus’d 
Of tardy execution, since denounc’d 
The day of his offence.—MILTon. 


vVe may be slow with propriety or not, to our own in- 
convenience or that of others; when we are tedious 
we are always so improperly: ‘* To be slow and sure” 
is a vulgar proverb, but a great truth; by this we do 
ourselves good, and inconvenience no one; but he who 
is tedious is slow to the annoyance of others; a prolix 
writer must always be tedious, for he keeps the reader 
long in suspense before he comes to the conclusion of 
a period ; 


Her sympathizing lover takes his stand 
High on th’ opponent bank, and ceaseless sings 
Vhe tediews time away.-—T'HOMSON. 


TO LINGER, jana: LOITER, LAG, SAUN 
T 


° 


Linger, from longer, signifies to make the time 
fonger in doing a thing; tarry, from tardus slow, is 
to make the thing slow; loiter may probably come 
from lentus slow; lag, from lie, signifies to lie back; 
saunter is derived from sancta terra the Holy Land; 
because, in the ume of the crusades, many idle per- 
sons were going backwards and forwards: hence idle, 
planless going, comes to be so denominated. 

Suspension of action or slow movement enters into 
the meaning of all these terms: to linger is to stop 
altogether, or to move but slowly forward, and to tarry 
-S properly to suspend one’s movement: the former 
proceeds from reluctance to leave the spot on which 
we stand; the latter from motives of discretion: he 
will naturally Jinger who is going to leave the place of 
his nativity for an indefinite period; in which sense it 
is figuratively applied to life and other objects; 


*T is long since I, for my celestial wife, 
Loath’d by the Gods, have dragg’d a ling’ ring life. 
DRYDEN. 


Those who have much business to transact will be led 
to tarry long in a place; ‘Herod having tarried only 
seven days at Rome for the dispatch of his business, 
returned to his ships at Brundusium.’—PripEavx. 
To loiter is to move slowly and reluctantly; but, from 
a bad cause, a child lotters who is unwilling to go to 
school; ‘Rapid wits loiter, or faint, and suffer them- 
selves to be surpassed by the even and regular perse- 
verance of slower understandings.’—Jounson. To 
lag is to move slower than others; to stop while they 
are going on; this is seldom done for a good purpose; 
those who lag have generally some sinister and pri- 
vate end to answer; 


I shall not lag behind, nor err 
The way, thou leading —MILTon. 


To saunter is altogether the act of an idler; those who 
have no object in moving either backward or forward, 
will saunter if they move at all; ‘She walks all the 
morning sauntering about the shop, with her arms 
through her pocket holes.’—Jounson. 


TO HASTEN, ACCELERATE, SPEED, 
EXPEDITE, DESPATCH. 


Hasten, in French hatir, and in the Northern lan- 


guages hasten, &c., is most probably connected with’ 


heiss hot, expressing what is vivid and active; acce- 
lerate, from celer quick, signifies literally to quicken 
for a specifick purpose ; speed, from the Greek orsddlw, 
signifies to carry on diligently; expedite, in Latin 
expedio, from ex and pes, signifies literally to remove 
obstacles; despatch, in French depecher, from pes a 
foot, signifies also putting off, or clearing away impedi- 
ments. 

Quickness in movement and action is the common 
idea in all these terms, which vary in the nature of 
the movement and the action. To hasten expresses 
little more than the general idea of quickness in 
moving towards a point; thus, he hastens who runs 
to get to the end of his journey: accelerate expresses 
moreover the idea of bringing something to a point; 
thus. every mechanical business is accelerated by the 


eee i D, 


261 


order and distribution of its several parts; ‘Let the 
aged consider well, that by every intemperate indul- 
gence they accelerate decay..— Bair. Accelerate may 
be employed, like the word hasten, for corporeal and 
familiar actions: the tailor accelerates any particular 
work that he has in hand by putting on additional 
hands, or a compositor accelerates the printing of a 
work by doing his part with correctness. The word 
speed includes not only quick but forward movement. 
He who goes with speed goes effectually forward, and 
comes to his journey’s end the soonest. This idea is: 
excluded from the term haste, which may often be a 
planless unsuitable quickness. Hence the proverb 

‘“The more haste, the worst speed ;” 


Where with like haste, though several ways they run, 
Some to undo, and some to be undone.—DENF AM. 


Expedite and despatch are terms of higher import, 
in application to the most serious concerns in life; but 
to expedite expresses a process, a bringing forward 
towards an end: despatch implies a putting an end to, 
a making a clearance. We do every thing in our 
power to expedite a business: we despatch a great deal 
of business within a given time. Expedition is requi- 
site for one who executes; ‘The coachman was or- 
dered to drive on, and they hurried with the utmost 
expedition to Hyde Park Corner.—Jounson. Des- 
patch is most important for one who determines and 
directs; ‘ And as, in races, it is not the large stride, or 
high iift, that makes the speed; so, in business, the 
keeping close to the matter, and not taking of it too 
much at once, procureth despatch. —Bacon. An infe- 
riour officer must proceed with expedition to fulfil the 
orders, or execute the purposes of his commander; a 
general or minister of state despatches the concerns of 
planning, directing, and instructing. Hence it is we 
speak only of expediting a thing; but we may speak 
of despatching a person, as well as a thing. 

Every man hastens to remove his property in case 
of fire. Those who are anxious to bring any thing te 
an end will do every thing in their power to accelerate 
its progress. Those who are sent on any pressing 
errand will do great service by using speed. The suc- 
cess of a military progress depends often on the ezpe- 
dition with which it is conducted. In the counting- 
house and the cabinet, despatch is equally important; 
as we cannot do more than one thing at a time, it is or 
importance to get that quickly concluded to make way 
for another 


TO HASTEN, HURRY. 


Hasten signifies the same as in the preceding article 
hurry, in old French harier, probably comes from the 


Hebrew ‘7f} to be inflamed, or be in a hurry. 

To hasten and hurry both imply to move forward 
with quickness in any matter; but the former may 
proceed with some design and good order, but the latter 
always supposes perturbation and irregularity. We 
hasten in the communication of good news, when we 
make efforts to convey it in the shortest time possible; 
‘Homer, to preserve the unity of action, hastens into 
the midst of things, as Horace has observed.’—Anpt1- 
son. Wehurry to get to an end, when we impatiently 
and inconsiderately press forward without making 
choice of our means; 


Now ’t is nought 
But restless hurry through the busy air, 
Beat by unnumber’d wings.—T Homson. 


To hasten is opposed to delay or a dilatory mode of 
proceeding; it is frequently indispensable to hasten in 
the affairs of human life: to hurry is opposed to deli 
berate and cautious proceeding; it must always be 
prejudicial and unwise to hurry: men may hasten ; 
children hurry. 

As epithets, hasty and hurried are both employed 1n 
the bad sense; but hasty implies merely an overquick 
ness of motion which outstrips consideration ; hurried 
implies a disorderly motion which springs from a dis- 
tempered state of mind. Irritable people usé hasty 
expressions; they speak before they think: deranged 
people walk with hurried steps; they follow the bling 
impulse of undirected feeling. 


262 


QUICKNESS, SWIFTNESS, FLEETNESS, 
CELERITY, RAPIDITY, VELOCITY. 


These terms are all applied to the motion of bodies, 
of which quickness, from quick, denotes the general 
and simple idea that characterizes all the rest.. Quick- 
ness is near akin to life, and is directly opposed to slow- 
ness; ‘Impatience of labour ceases those who are most 
distinguished for quickness of apprehension.’—Joun- 
son. Swiftness, in all probability from. the German 
schweifen to roam; and fleetness, from flee or fly; ex- 
press higher degrees of quickness. Celerity, probably 
from celer a horse; velocity, from volo to fly; and ra- 
pidity, from rapio, to seize or hurry along, differ more 
in application than in degree. Quick and swift are ap- 
plicable to any objects; men are guick in moving, 
swift in running: dogs hear quickly, and run swiftly: 
a mill goes quickly or swiftly round, according to the 
force of the wind; 


Above the bounding billows swift they flew, 
Till now the Grecian camp appear’d in view. 
Porr. 


Fleetness is the peculiar characteristick of winds or 
horses; a horse is fleet in the race, and is sometimes 
described to be as fleet as the winds; 


For fear, though fleeter than the wind, 
Believes ’tis always left behind.—BurLer. 


That which we wish to characterize as particularly 
quick in our ordinary operations, we say is done with 
celerity ; in this manner our thoughts are said to pass 
with celerzty from one object to another; ‘By moving 
the eye we gather up with great celerity the several 
parts of an object, so as to form one piece.’—-Burkx. 
whose things are said to move with rapidity which 
seem to hurry every thing away with them; a river or 
stream moves with rapidity; time goes on with a rapid 
flight ; 

Mean time the radiant sun, to mortal sight 

Descending swift, roll’d down the rapid light. 

PopE. 


Velocity signifies the swiftness of flight, which isa mo- 
tion that-exceeds all others in swiftness : hence, we 
speak of the velocity of a ball shot from a cannon, or 
of a celestial body moving in its orbit; sometimes 
these words rapidity and velocity, are applied in the 
improper sense by way of emphasis to the very swift 
movements of other bodies: in this manner the wheel of 
a carriage is said to move rapidly: and the flight of an 
animal or the progress of a vessel before the wind, is 
compared to the flight of a bird in point of velocity ; 

Lightning is productive of grandeur which it chiefly 
owes to the velocity of its motion.,.—BuRKE. 


DILIGENT, EXPEDITIOUS, PROMPT. 


All these terms mark the quality of quickness in a 
commendable degree; diligent (from diligo to love 
(wv. Active, diligent) marks the interest one takes in 
doing something ; he is * diligent who loses no time, 
who keeps close to the work; expeditious, from the 
Latin expedio to despatch, marks the desire one has to 
complete the thing begun. He who is expeditious ap- 
plies himself to no other thing that offers; he finishes 
every thing in its turn; prompt, from the Latin promo 
to draw out or make ready, marks one’s desire to get 
ready; he is prompt who works with spirit so as to 
make things ready. 

Idleness, dilatoriness, and slowness, are the three de- 
fects opposed to these three qualities. The diligent 
man has no reluctance in commencing or continuing 
the labour, the expeditious man never leaves it till it is 
finishei; the prompt man brings it quickly to an end. 
It is necessary to be diligent in the concerns which be- 
long to us; ‘We must be diligent in our particular 
calling and charge, in that province and station which 
God has appointed us, whatever it be..—TiLLotrson. 
We must be expeditious in any business that requires 
to be terminated ; ‘ The regent assembled an army with 
his usual expedition, and marched to Glasgow.’—Ro- 
BERTSON. We must be prompt in the execution of 
orders that are given to us; 


* Vide Abbe Girard: “ Diligent, expeditif, prompt.” 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


To him she hasted, in her face excuse 

Came prologue, and apology too prompt, 

Which, with bland words at will, she thus address @ 
Mitrox 


DIRECTLY, IMMEDIATELY, INSTANTLY, 
INSTANTANEOUSLY. 


Directly signifies in a direct or straight manner ; 
immediately without any medium or intervention; in- 
stantly and instantaneously, in the space of an instant. 

Directly is most applicable to the actions of men; 
immediately and instantly to either actions or events. 
Directly refers to the interruptions which may inten- 
tionally delay the commencement of any work: imme- 
diately in general refers to the space of time that inter- 
venes. A diligent person goes directly to his work; he 
suffers nothing to draw him aside: good news is imme- 
diately spread abroad upon its arrival; nothing inter- 
venes to retard it. Immediately and instantly, or 
instantaneously, both mark a quick succession of 
events, but the latter in a much stronger degree than 
the former. Immediately is negative ; it expresses sim- 
ply that nothing intervenes; znstantly is positive, signi- 
fying the very existing moment in which the thing hap 
pens. A person who is of a willing disposition goes or 
runs zmmediately to the assistance of another; but the 
ardour of affection impels him to fly instantly to his 
relief, as he sees the danger. A surgeon does not pro- 
ceed directly to dress a wound; he first examines it in 
order to ascertain its nature; ‘Besides those things 
which directly suggest the idea of danger, and those 
which produce a similar effect from a mechanical 
cause. I know of nothing sublime which is not some 
modification of power.—Burxe. Menof lively minds 
immediately see the source of their ownerrours; ‘Admi- 
ration is a short-lived passion, that immediately decays 
upon growing famifiar with the object..—Appison 
People of delicate feelings are instantly alive to the 
slightest breach of decorum ; 


Sleep instantly fell upon me.—MrTon. 


A course of proceeding is direct, the consequences are 
immediate, and the effects instantaneous ; ‘ A painter 
must have an action, not successive, but ¢rstantaneous ; 
for the time of a picture is a single moment ’—JoHNSON. 


SOON, BARLY, BETIMES. 


All these words are expressive of time; but soox 
respects some future period in general; early, or ere, 
before, and bezimes, or by the time, before a given time, 
respect some particular period at no great distance. A 
person may come soon or early ; in the former ease he 
may not be long in coming from the time that the words 
are spoken; in the latter case he comes before the time 
appointed. He who rises soon does nothing extraordi 
nary; but he who rises early or betimes exeeeds the 
usual hour considerably. Soon is said mostly of par- 
ticular acts, and is always dated from the time of the 
person speaking, if not otherwise expressed ; come soon 
signifies after the present moment; 


But soon, too sovun! the lover turns his eyes ; 
Again she falls—-again she dies—she dies.—Poprr 


Early and betimes, if not otherwise expressed, have 
always respect to some specifick time appointed; come 
early, will signify a visit, a meeting, and the like; a 
thing betimes will signify before the thing to be done is 
wanted: in this manner both are employed for the 
actionsof youth. An early attention to religious duties 
wiil render them habitual and pleasing; ‘ Pope, not being 
sent early to school, was taught to read by an aunt.’ 
Jounson. We must begin betimes to bring the stubborn 
will into subjection ; ‘ Happy is the man who betimes 
acquires a relish for holy solitude.’—Horgz. 


‘CURSORY, HASTY, SLIGHT, DESULTORY. 


Cursory, from the Latin cwrro, signifies run over or 
done in running; hasty applies to that done in haste ; 
slight is a variation of light; desultory, from deszlio te 
leap, signifies leaped over. je 

Cursory includes both hasty and stight; it includes 
hasty inasmuch as it expresses a quick motion; 1 
includes slight inasmuch as it conveys the idea of a 
partial action. A view may be either cursory or hasty, 

i as the former is taken by design, the latter from care 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


fessness. A view may be either cursory or slight; but 
the former is not so imperfect as the latter. An author 
will take a cursory view of those points which are not 
necessarily connected with his subject; ‘Savage min- 
gled in cursory conversation with the same steadiness 
of attention as others apply to a lecture..—JoHNsoNn. 
An author who takes a hasty view of a subject will 
mislead by his errours ; ‘The emperour Macrinus had 
ance resolved to abolish these rescripts (of the em- 
perors), and retain only the general edicts. He could 
not bear that the hasty and crude answers of such 
princes as Commodus and Caracalla should be re- 
verenced as laws.’—Buackxstongr. He who takes a 
slight view of a subject will disappoint by the shallow- 
ness of his information; ‘The wits of Charles’s time 
had seldom more than sitght and superficial views.’— 
Jounson. Between cursory and desultory there is the 
same difference as between running and leaping; we 
run in a line, but we leap from one part to another; 
so remarks that are cursery have still more or less con- 
nexion, but remarks that are desultory are without any 
coherence; ‘if compassion ever be felt from the brute 
instinct of uninstructed nature, it will only produce 
effects desuitory and transient.’—JoHNSON. 


RASHNESS, TEMERITY, HASTINESS, 
PRECIPITANCY. 


Rashness denotes the quality of being rash, which, 
like the German rasch, and our word rush, comes from 
the Latin rwo, expressing hurried and excessive mo- 
tion ; temerity, in Latin temeritas, from temerée, pos- 
sibly comes from the Greek tijpepoy at the moment, 
denoting the quality of acting by the impulse of the 
moment ; Aastiness denotes the quality of being hasty, 
or impelled by an impatient feeling ; precipitancy, 
from the Latin pre and capio, signifies the quality or 
disposition of taking things before they ought to be 
taken. 

Rashness and temerity have a close alliance with 
each other in sense ; but they have a slight difference, 
which is entitled to notice: rashness is a general and 
indefinite term, in the signification of which an im- 
proper celerity is the leading idea: this celerity may 
arise either from a vehemence of character, or a tem- 
porary ardour of the mind: in the signification of 
temerity, the leading idea is want of consideration, 
springing mostly from an overweening confidence, or 
a presumption of character. Rashness is, therefore, 
applied to our corporeal as well as moral actions, as 
the jumping into a river, without being able to swim, 
or the leaping over a hedge, without being an expert 
horseman ; 


Nature to youth hot vashness doth dispense, 
But with cold prudence age doth recompense. 
DENHAM. 

Temerity is applied to our moral actions only, particu- 
larly such as require deliberation, and a calculation of 
consequences; ‘ All mankind have a sufficient plea for 
some degree of restlessness, and the fault seems to be 
little more than too much temerity of conclusion in 
favour of something not experienced.’—Jounson. 
Hastiness and precipitancy are but modes or charac- 
teristicks of raskness, and consequently employed only 
‘in particular cases, as hastiness in regard to our move- 
ments, and precipitancy in regard to our measures; 
d hurry through the woods with hasty step, 
jing and fuil of hope.—SomERVILLE. 
ist, by catching at-it too soon, lost the 
philosophical elfxix, so precipitancy of our understand- 
ing i i .’—GLANVILLE. 


TO ABIDE, SOJOURN, DWELL, RESIDE, 
INHABIT. 


Abide, in Saxon abitan, old German beiten, comes 
frem the Arabick or Persian but, or bit, to pass the 
night, that is, to make a partial stay; sojourn, in 
French sejourner, from sub and diurnus in the day- 
time, signifies to pass the day, that is, a certain portion 
of one’s time, in a place; dwell, from the Danish 
dwelger to abide, and the Saxon dwelian, Dutch 
ewan to Wander, conveys the idea of a moveable 
. i tasion, such as was the practice of living former! 
in tents. At present it implies a perpetual stay, which 


263 


is expressed in common discourse by the word live, for 
passing one’s life; res¢de, from the Latin re and sidea 
to sit down, conveys the full idea of a settlement ; 
inhabit, from the Latin habito, a frequentative of 
habeo, signifies to have or occupy for a permanency. 

The length of stay implied in these terms is marked 
by a certain gradation. 

Abide denotes the shortest stay; to sojourn is of 
longer continuance; dweil comprehends the idea of 
perpetuity, but reside and inhabit are partial and 
local—we dwell only in one spot, but we may reside 
at or inhabit many places. i 

These words have likewise a reference to the state 
of society. 

Abide and sojourn relate more properly to the wan- 
dering habits of men in a primitive state of society. 
Dwell, as.implying a stay under a cover, is universal 
in its application ;. for we may dwell either in a palace, 
a house, a cottage, or any shelter. Live, reside, and 
inhabit are confined to a civilized state of society; the 
former applying to the abodes of the inferiour orders, 
the latter to those of the higher classes. The word 
inhabit is never used but in connexion with the place 
inhabited. 

The Easterns abode with each other, sojourned ina 
country, and dwelt in tents. The Angels abode with 
Lot one night; ‘From the first. to the last of man’s 
abode on earth, the discipline must never be relaxed of 
guarding the heart from the dominion of passion.— 
Buair. Abraham sojourned in the land of Canaan; 
‘By the Israelites’ sojourning in Egypt, God made way 
for their bondage there, and their bondage for a glorious 
deliverance through those prodigious manifestations 
of the Divine power.—Sourn. The Israelites dwelt 
in the land of Goshen; 


Hence from my sight! Thy father cannot bear thee; 

Fly with thy infamy to some dark cell, 

Where on the confines of eternal night, 

Mourning, misfortunes, cares, and anguish dwell. 
MASSINGER 


Savages either dwell in the cavities which nature 
has formed for them, or in some rude structure erected 
for a temporary purpose ; but as men increase in culti- 
vation they build places for themselves which they 
can inhabit ; ‘By good company, in the place which I 
have the misfortune to inhabit, we understand not 
always those from whom good can be learned.’— 
Jounson. The poor have their cottages in which they 
can live; the wealthy provide themselves with superb 
buildings in which they reside ; ‘ Being obliged to re- 
move my habitation, I was led by my evil genius toa 
convenient house in the street where the nobility re- 
side.’ —JOHNSON. 


TO CONTINUE, REMAIN, STAY. 


Continue, from the Latin contineo, or con and teneo 
to hold together, signifies to keep together without in- 
termission ; remain, in Latin remaneo, is compounded 


of re or retro and maneo, Greek pévw, Hebrew “7939 to 
tarry. JManeo signifies literally to tarry ina place during 
the night; whence the Latins called those places Man- 
siones, where travellers passed a night; ‘In Mamur- 
rharum urbe manemus.’—Horacr. Remaneo signified 
literally to tarry behind; ‘Ii qui per valetudinis causam 
remanserant ;’ stay is but a variation of the word 
stand. 

The idea of confining one’s self to something is com 
mon to all these terms; but continue applies often tc 
the sameness of action, and remain to sameness of 
place or situation; the former has most of the active 
sense in it, and expresses a state of action; the latter 
is altogether neuter, and expresses a state of rest. We 
speak of continuing a certain course, of continuing to 
do, or continuing to be any thing; but of remaining in 
a position, in a house, in a town, in a condition, and 
the like ; ‘Mr. Pryn was sent to a castle in the island 
of Jersey, Dr. Bastwick to Scilly, and Mr. Burton to 
Guernsey, where they remained unconsidered, and 
truly I thought unpitied, (for they were men of no 
virtue or merit) for the space of two years.’—C1ra- 
RENDON. 

There is more of will in continuing: more of ne- 
cessity and circumstances in remazning. A person 
continues in office as long as he can perform it with 
satisfaction to himself, and his employers; ‘I have 
seen some Roman Catholick authors who tell us, that 


264 


Vicious writers continue in purgatory so long as the in- 
fluence of their writings continues upon posterity.’— 
Appison. A sentinel remains at his post or station. 
Continue is opposed to cease; remain is opposed to go. 
Things continue in motion; they remain stationary. 
The females among the brutes will sometimes continue 
to feed their young, long after they are able to provide 
for themselves ; many persons are restored to life after 
having remained several hours in a state of suspended 
animation. 

Remain and stay are both perfectly neuter in their 
sense, but remain is employed for either persons or 
things; stay in this sense is used for persons only. It 
is necessary for some species of wood to remain long in 
the water in order to be seasoned ; 


I will be true to thee, preserve thee ever, 
The sad companion of this faithful breast : 
While life and thought remain.—RoweE. 


Some persons are of so restless a temper, that they can- 
not stay long in a place without giving symptoms of 
uneasiness ; 


Where’er I go, my soul shall stay with thee , 
*T is but my shadow that I take away.—DryDEN. 


When remain is employed for persons, it is often in- 
voluntary, if not compulsory; stay is altogether vo- 
luntary. Soldiers must remain where they are sta- 
tioned. Friends stay at each other’s houses as visiters. 
Former times afford many instances of servants con- 
tinuing faithful to their employers, even in the season 
of adversity: bat so much are times altered, that at 
present, domesticks never remain long enough in their 
, places to create any bond of attachment between 
master andservant. Their time of stay is now limited 
to weeks and months, instead of being extended to 
vears. 

To remain is frequently taken in the sense of being 
ft from other things, to stay in that of supporting, in 
which they are perfectly distinct from each other, and 
also from continue 


— 


TO CONTINUE, PERSEVERE, PERSIST, 
PURSUE, PROSECUTE. 


To continue signifies the same as in the preceding 
article ; to persevere, in French persevérer, Latin per- 
severare, compounded of per and severus strict and 
steady, signifies to be steady throughout or tothe end; 
‘ Ad ultimum perseverare.’—Livy. Persist, in French 
persister, Latin persisto, compounded of per and sisto 
or sto, signifies to stand by or to a thing ; ‘In proposito 
persistere.’—CicERO. Pursueand prosecute, in French, 
poursuivre, come from the Latin sequor to follow, that 
Is, prosequor and its participle prosecutus, correspond- 


ing with prosequor, signifying to follow after or keep | 


on with, 

The idea of not laying aside is common to these 
terms, which isthe sense of continue without any other 
addition; the other terms, which are all species of 
continuing, include likewise some collateral idea 
which distinguishes them from the first, as well as from 
each other. Continue is comparable with persevere 
and perstst in the neuter sense; with pursue and pro- 
secute in the.active sense. ‘To continue is simply to do 
as one has done hitherto; ‘ Abdallah continuing to ex- 
tend his former improvements, beautified this whole 
prospect with groves and fountains.—Appison. To 
persevere is to continue without wishing to change, or 
from a positive desire to attain an object; ‘If we per- 
severe instudying to do our duty towards God and man, 
we shall meet with the esteem, love, and confidence of 
those who are around us.’—Buair. To persist is to 
continue from a determination or will not to cease. 
The act of continuing, therefore, specifies no charac- 
teristick of the agent ; that of persevering or persisting 
marks a direct temper of mind; the former is always 
used in a good sense, the latter in an indifferent or bad 
sense ; ‘If they persist in pointing their batteries to 
particular persons, no laws of war forbid the making 
reprisals..—Appison. The Latins have not observed 
this last distinction between perseverare and persistere, 
for they say, ‘In errore perseverare.’—Cicrro. ‘In 
eAdem impudentia persistere..—Livy. And probably 
in imitation of them, examples are to be found in Eng- 
ish authors of persevere in a bad sense, and persist in 
a good sense; but modern writers have uniformly ob- 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES 


served the distinction. We continue from habit o1 
casualty: we persevere from reflection and the exer 
cise of one’s judgement: we persist from attachment. 
It is not the most exalted virtue to continue in a good 
course, merely because we have been in the habits of 
so doing ; what is done from habit, merely without any 
fixed principle, is always exposed to change from the 
influence of passion or evil counsel: there is real 
Virtue in the act of perseverance, without which many 
of our best intentions would remain unfulfilled, and 
our best plans would be defeated; those who do not 
persevere can do no essential good; and those who do 
persevere often effect what has appeared to be im- 
practicable; of this truth the discoverer of America 
is a remarkable proof, who in spite of every mortifi- 
cation, rebuff, and disappointment, persevered in calling 
the attention of monarchs to his project, until he at 
length obtained the assistance requisite for effecting the 
discovery of a new world. 

Persevere is employed only in matters of some mo- 
ment, in things of sufficient importance to demand a 
steady purpose of the mind; persist is employed in 
the ordinary business of life, as well as on more im- 
portant occasions; a learner perseveres in his studies, 
in order to arrive at the necessary degree of improve- 
ment; ‘Patience and perseverance overcome the 
greatest difficulties..--RicHaRDson. A child persists 
in making a request, until he has obtained the object 
of his desire; ‘The Arians themselves which were 
present, subscribed also (to the Nicene creed), not that 
they meant sincerely and in deed to forsake their 
errour; but only to escape deprivation and exile, which 
they saw they could not avoid, openly persisting in 
their former opinions, when the greater part had con- 
cluded against them, and that with the emperor’s royal 
assent.’—Hookrer. There is always wisdom in per- 
severance, even though unsuccessful; there is mostly _ 
folly, caprice, or obstinacy in persistance: how dif- 
ferent the man who perseveres in the cultivation of his 
talents, from him who only persists in maintaining 


| falsehoods or supporting errours! 


Continue, when compared with persevere or persist, 
is always coupled with modes of action ; but in com- 
parison with pursze or prosecute, itis always followed 
by some ohject: we continue to do, persevere, or per- 
sist in doing something: but we continue, pursue, or 
prosecute some object which we wish to bring to per- 
fection by additional labour. 

Continue is here equally indefinite, as in the former 
case: pursue and prosecute both comprehend collateral 
ideas respecting the disposition of the agent, and the 
nature of the .object: to continue is to go on with a 
thing as it has been begun; to purswe and prosecute is 
to continue by some prescribed rule, or in some parti- 
cular manner: a work is continued ; a plan, measure, 
or line of conduct is pursued; an undertaking or a 
design is prosecuted; we may continue the work of 
another in order to supply a deficiency ; we may pur- 
sue a plan that emanates either from ovrselves or an- 
other: we prosecute our own work only in order te 
obtain some peculiar object; continue, therefore, ex- 
presses less than pursue, and this less than presecute . 
the history of England has been continued down to the 
present period by different writers; Smollett has pu~ 
sued the same ;Jan as Hume, in the continuation of 
his history ; Captain Vook prosecuted his work of dis 
covery in three several voyages. 

We continue the conversation which has been inter 
rupted ; we pursue the subject which has engaged our 
attention; we pursue a journey after a certain length 
of stay; we prosecute any particular journey which 
is important either on account of its difficulties or its 
object. : 

To continue is in itself altogether an indifferent ac- 
tion; to pursue is always 4 commendable action; te 
prosecute rises still higher in value. it is a mark of 
great instability not to continue any thing that we 
begin ; ‘After having petitioned for power to resist 
temptation, there is so great an incongruity in not con- 
tinuing the struggle, that we blush at the thought, and 
persevere, lest we lose all reverence for ourselves.’— 
HAWKESWORTH. It betrays a great want of prudence 
and discernment not to pursue some plan on every oc 
casion which requires method: 


Look round the habitable world, how few 
Know their awn good, or, knowing it, pursus. 
DRYDEN « 


ENGLISH SXYNONYMES. 


Will ye not now the pair of sages praise, 
Who the same end pursw’d by several ways ? 
DRYDEN. 


It is the characteristick of a persevering mind to pro- 
secute whatever it has deemed worthy to enter upon ; 
There will be some study which every man more 
zealously prosecutes, some darling subject on which 
he is principally pleased to converse.’—JoHNSON. 


TO INSIST, PERSIST. 


Both these terms, being derived from the Latin sisto 
to stand, express the idsa of resting or keeping toa 
thing ; but insist signifies to rest on a point, and persist, 
from per through or by (v. To continue), signifies to 
keep on with a thing to carry it through. We insist 
on a matter by maintaining it; we persist ina thing by 
continuing to do it; we insist by the force of autho- 
rity or argument; We persist by the mere act of the 
will. A person insists on that which he conceives to 
be his right : or he insists on that which he conceives 
to be right: but he persists in that which he has no 
will to give up. To énsist is therefore an act of dis- 
cretion: to persist is mostly an act of folly or caprice ; 
the former is always taken in a good or indifferent 
sense ; the latter mostly in a bad sense, at least in col- 
Joquial discourse. A parent ought to insist on all mat- 
ters that are of essential importance to his children ; 
‘ This natural tendency of despotick power to ignorance 
and barbarity, though not inszsted upon by others, is, I 
think, an inconsiderable argument against that form of 
government.’—Appison. A spoiled child persists in 
its follies from perversity of humour; ‘So easy it is 
for every man living to err, and so hard to wrest from 
any man’s mouth the plain acknowledgment of errour, 
that what hath been once inconsiderately defended, 
the same is commonly persisted in as long as wit, by 
whetting itself, is able to find out any,shift, be it never 
so slight, whereby to escape out of the hands of pre- 
sent contradiction.’-—HookEr. 


TENACIOUS, PERTINACIOUS. 


To be tenacious is to hold a thing close, to let it go 
with reluctance; to be pertinacious is to hold it out in 
spite of what can be advanced against it, the prepositive 
syllable per having an intensive force. A man of te- 
nacious temper insists on trifles that are supposed to 
affect his importance ; a pertinacious temper insists on 
every thing which is apt to affect his opinions. Tena- 
city and pertinacity are both foibles, but the former is 
sometimes more excusable than the latter. — 

We may be tenacious of that which is good, as 
when a man is tenacious of whatever may affect his 
honour ; ‘ So tenacious are we of the old ecclesiastical 
modes, that very little alteration has been made in 
them since the fourteenth or fifteenth century ; adher- 
ing to our old settled maxim, never entirely, nor at 
once, to depart from antiquity. Burke. We cannot 
be pertinacious in any thing but our opinions, and 
that too in cases where they are Jeast defensible ; 
‘The most pertinacious and vehement demonstrator 
may be wearied in time. by continual negation.’— 
JoHnson. It commonly happens that people are 
most tenacious of being thought to possess that in 
which they are most deficient, and most pertinacious 
in maintaining that which is absurd. A liar is tena- 
cious of his reputation for truth; ‘Men are tenacious 
of the opinions that first possess them.’—Locxkx. So- 
phists, freethinkers, and skepticks, are the most _perti- 
nacious objectors to whatevér is established ; ‘ One of 
the dissenters appeared to Dr. Sanderson to be so bold, 
so troublesome, and illogical in the dispute, as forced 
him to say, that he had never met with a man of 
more pertinacious confidence and less abilities.’—-. 

WALTON. , 


CONTINUAL, PERPETUAL, CONSTANT. 


Continual, in French continuel, Latin continuus, 
from contineo to hold or keep together, signifies keep- 
ing together without intermission ; perpetual, in French 
perpetuel, Latin perpetualis, from perpeto, com- 
pounded of per and peto to seek thoroughly, signifies 
going on every where and at all times; constant, in 
watin constans, or con and sto, signifies the qualitv of 
standing to a thing, or standing close together. 


265 


What is continual admits of no interruption: what 
is perpetual admits of no termination. There may be 
an end to that which is continual and there may be 
intervals in that which is perpetua. Rains are con- 
tinual in the tropical climates at certain seasons; 
complaints among the lower orders are perpetual, but 
they are frequently without foundation. ‘There is a 
continual passing and repassing in the streets of the 
metropolis during the day ; 


Open your ears, for which of you will stop 

The vent of hearing when loud rumour speaks: 

Upon my tongue continual slanders ride, 

The which in every language I pronounce. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


The world, and all that it contains, are subject to per 
petual change; ‘If affluence of fortune unhappily 
concur to favour the inclinations of the youthful, 
amusements and diversions succeed in a perpetual 
round.’—B air. 

The continual is that which admits of no interrup- 
tion, the constant is that which admits of no change. 
The last twenty-five years have presented to the world 
a continual succession of events, that have exceeded 
in importance those going before; the French revo- 
lution and the atrocities attendant upon it have been 
the constant theme of execration with the well-dis- 
posed part of mankind. ‘To an intelligent parent it is 
a continual source of pleasure to watcn the progress of 
his child in the acquirement of knowledge, and the de- 
velopment of his faculties ; 


Tis all blank sadness, or continual tears.—Popr. 


It will be the constant endeavour of a parent to train 
him up in priszciples of religion and virtue, while he 
is cultivating his talents, and storing his mind with 
science ; 


The world’s a scene of changes, and to be 
Constant in nature were inconstancy.—CowLery. 


Continual is used in the proper sense only, constant 
is employed in the moral sense o denote the temper of 
the mind (wv. Constancy). 


CONTINUAL, CONTINUED. 


Both these terms mark length Of duration, but the 
former admits of a certain degree of interruption, 
which the latter does not. What is continual may have 
frequent pauses; what is continwed ceases only to ter- © 
minate. Rains are continwal; noises in a tumultuoug 
street are continual: the bass in musick is said to be 
continued ; the mirth of a drunken party is one con 
tinued noise. Continual interruptions abate the vigour 
of application and create disgust: *in countries situ- 
ated near the poles, there is one continued darkness for 
the space of five or six months; during which time the 
inhabitants are obliged to leave the place. 

Continual respects the duration of actions or circum- 
stances only ; continued is likewise applied to the extent 
or course of things: rumours are continual; talking, 
walking, running, and the like, are continual ; 


And gulphy Simois rolling to the main, 

Helmets and shields and godlike heroes slain: 
These turn’d by Phebus from their wonted ways, 
Delug’d the rampire nine continual days.—Popr. 


A line, a series, a scene, or a stream of water, é&c. ig 
continued : 


Our life is one continued toil for fame.’ —Martyn. 


‘By too intense and continued application, our feeble 
powers would soon be worn out.’—Buair. 


CONTINUANCE, CONTINUATION, DURA- 
TION 


Continuance is said of the time that a thing con- 
tinues (v. To continue) ; continuation expresses the 
act of continuing what has been begun. ‘The con- 
tinuance of any particular practice may be attended 
with serious consequence; ‘Their duty depending 
upon fear, the one was of no greater continuance than 
the other.—Haywarp. The continuation of a work 
depends on the abilities and will of the workmen, 
‘The Roman poem is but the second part of the Ilias, 
the continuation of the same story.—Ray. Authors 


* Vide Trussler: ‘‘ Continual, continued ” 


266 


have however not always observed this distinction ; 

Providence seems to have equally divided the whole 
mass of mankind into different sexes, that every woman 
may have her husband, and that both may equally 
contribute to the continuance of the species.’ STEELE. 
‘The Pythagorean transmigration, the sensual habita- 
tions of the Mahometan, and the shady realms of Pluto, 
do all agree in the main point, the continuation of our 
existence.’—BERKELEY. 

Continuance and duration, in Latin duratio, from 
duro to harden, or figuratively to last, are both em- 
ployed for time; things may be of long continuance, 
or ef long duration: but continuance is used only 
with regard to the action; duration with regard to 
the thing and its existence. Whatever is occasionally 
done, and soon to be ended, is not for a contixuance ; 
whatever is made, and soon destroyed, is not of long 
duration; there are many excellent institutions in 
England which promise to be of no less continuance 
than of utility; ‘That pleasure is not of greater con- 
tinwance, which arises from the prejudice or malice of 
its hearers. —Appison. Duration is with us a relative 
term; things are of long or short duration : by com- 
parison, the duration of the world and all sublunary 
objects is nothing in regard to eternity; ‘ Mr. Locke 
observes, ‘' that we get the idea of time and duration, 
by reflecting on that train of ideas which succeed one 
another in our minds.’’ ’—App1son. 


CONTINUATION, CONTINUITY. 


Continuation, as may be seen above (v. Conti- 
nuance), is the act of continuing ; continuity is the 
quality of continuing : the former is employed in the 
figurative sense for the duration of events and actions; 
the latter in the physical sense for the adhesion of the 
component parts of the bodies. The continuation of 
a history up to the existing period of the writer is the 
work of every age, if not of every year; ‘The sun 
ascending into the northern signs begetteth first a tem- 
perate heat, which by his approach unto the solstice he 
intendeth; and by continuation the same even upon 
declination.—Brown (Vulgar Errours). There are 
bodies of so little continuity that they will crumble to 
pieces on the slightest touch; ‘A body always per- 
ceives the passages by which it insinuates; feels the 
impulse of another body where it yields thereto: per- 
ceives the separation of its continuity, and for a time 
resists it; in fine, perception is diffused through all 
nature.’—Bacon. 


The sprightly breast demands 
Incessant rapture; life, a tedious load, 
Deny’d its continuity of joy SHENSTONE. 


DURABLE, LASTING, PERMANENT. 


Durable is said of things that are intended to remain 
a shorter time than those which are lasting ; and per- 
manent expresses less than durable; durable, from the 
Latin dwrus hard, respects the textures of bodies, and 
marks the capacity to hold out ; lasting, from the verb 
‘0 last, or the adjective last, signifies to remain the 
sast or longest, and is applicable only to that which 
is supposed of the longest duration. Permanent, from 
the Latin yermaneo, signifies remaining to the end. 

Durable is naturally said ci material substances; 
and lasting of those which are spiritual; although in 
ordinary discourse sometimes they exchange offices : 
permanent applies more to the affairs of men. 

That which perishes quickly is not durable: that 
which ceases quickly is not lastiz,g; tnat which is 
only for a time is not permanent Stone is more 
durable than iron, and iron than wood: in the feudal 
times animosities between families used 10 be lasting: 
a clerk has not a permanent situztion in an office. 
However we may boast of our progress, in the arts, we 
appear to have lost the art of making ch‘ngs as durable 
as they were made in former times: ‘If writings be 
thus durable, and may pass from aye .o age, through 
the whole course of time, how c.reful should an 
author be of not committing any tb‘ag to print that 
may corrupt posterity.—Appison. “he writings of 
the moderns will masy of them be 1s lasting monu- 
ments of human genius as those.of che ancients; ‘I 
must desire my fair readers to give 4 proper direction 
to their being admired; in order t which they must 


ee —ARTxT.TeNNWUCW*#*_T_T‘VY'"'_--?_—_————__—_— 


ENGLISH. SYNONYMES. 


endeavour to make themselves the objects of a rea 
sonable and lasting admiration.—Appison. One 
who is of a contented, moderate disposition will gene 
rally prefer a- permanent situation with small gains to 
one that is very lucrative but temporary and precarious; 
‘Land comprehends all things in law of a permanent, 
substantial nature.’"--BLACKSTONE. 


DURABLE, CONSTANT. 


Durability is the property of things; constancy (v. 
Constancy) is the property of either persons or things. 
The durable is that which lasts long. The constant is 
that which continues without interruption. No du- 
rable connexions can be formed which are founded 
on vicious principles; ‘Some states have suddenly 
emerged, and even in the depths of their calamity have 
laid the foundation of a towering and durable great- 
ness.’.—BuRKE. Some persons are never happy but in 
a constant round of pleasures; ‘ Since we cannot pro- 
mise ourselves constant health, Jet us endeavour as 
such a temper, as may be our best support in the decay 
of it’—Sree.e. What is durable is so from its inhe- 
rent property, but what is constant, inregard to persons 
or things, arises from the temper of the mind; ‘He 
showed his firm adherence to religion as modelled by 
our national constitution, and was constant to its 
offices in devotion, both in publick and in his family.” 
—ADDISON. 


DURATION, TIME. 


In the philosophical sense, according to Mr. Locke, 
time is that mode of duration which is formed in the 
mind by its own power of observing and measuring 
passing objects. 

Inthe vulgar sense in which duration is synonymous 
with time, it stands for the time of duration, and is 
more particularly applicable to the objects which are 
said to last; time being employed in general for what- 
ever passes in the world. 

Duration comprehends the beginning and end of 
any portion of time, that is the how long of a thing; 
time is employed more frequently for the particuiar 
portion itself, namely, the t7me when: we mark the 
duration of asound from the time of its commence- 
ment to the time that it ceases: the duration of a 
prince’s reign is an object of particular concern to his 
subjects if he be either very good or the reverse; the 
time in which he reigns is marked by extraordinary 
events. An historian computes the duration of. reigns 
and of events in order to determine the antiquity of a 
nation; ‘I think another probable conjecture (respect- 
ing the soul’s immortality) may be raised from our ap- 
petite to duration itself.—StTreLe. Anhistorian fixes 
the exact time when each person begins to reign and 
when he dies, in order to determine the number of 
years that each reigned ; ‘ The time of the fool is long 
because he does not know what to do with it; that of 
the wise man, because he distinguishes every moment 
of it with useful or amusing thoughts —Appison, 


TIME, SEASON, TIMELY, SEASONABLE. 


Time is here the generick term ; it is taken either for 
the whole or the part: season is any given portion of 
time. Wespeak of time when the simple idea of time 
only is to be expressed, as the time of the day, or the 
time of the year; the season is spoken in reference to 
some circumstances; tbe year is divided into four 
parts, called the seasons, according to the nature of 
the weather: hence, in general, that time is called the 
season which is suitable for any particular purpose , 
youth is the season for improvement. It is a matter 
of necessity to chodse the t2me; it is an affair of wis 
dom to choose the season; ‘ You will often want re- 
ligion in times of most danger.’—CuHaTuam. ‘ Piso’s 
behaviour towards us in this season of affliction has 
endeared him to us..—Mrntmoru (Letters of Cicero). 

The same distinction exists between the epitheis 
timely and seasonable as their primitives. The former 
signifies within the time, that is, before the time is 
past; the latter according to the season or what the 
season requires. <A timely notice prevents that which 
would otherwise happen; ‘It imports all men, ezpe- 
cially bad men, to think on the judgement, that by a 
timely repentance they may prevent the woful eftects 
of it’—Soutn. A seasonabdle hint seldom fails of ita 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


effect because it is seasonable ; What you call a bold, 
ts not only the kindest, but the most seasonable pro- 
posal you could have made.’.—Lockxre. We must not 
expect to have a timely notice of death, but must be 
prepared to die at any time; an admonition to one 
who is on a sick-bed is very seasonable, when given 
by a minister of religion or a friend. The opposites 
of these terms are untimely or ill-timed and unseason- 
able: untimely is directly opposed to timely, signifying 
before the time appointed ; as an untimely death; but 
ell-timed is indirectly opposed, signifying in the wrong 
time; as an all-timed remark. 


. TIME, PERIOD, AGE, DATE, RA, EPOCHA. 


Time (v. Time) is, as before, taken either from time 
in general, or t2me in particular; all the other terms 
are taken for particular portions of time. Time, in 
the sense of a particular portion of time, is used inde- 
finitely, and in cases where the other terms are not so 
proper; ‘There is a t2me when we should not only 
number our days, but our hours.’-—Youne. 

Time included within any given points is termed a 
period, from the Greek zepiodos, signifying a course, 
round, or any revolution: thus, the period of day, or 
of night, is the space of time comprehended between 
the rising and setting, or setting and rising of the sun; 
the period of a year comprehends the space which the 
earth requires for its annual revolution. So, in an ex- 
tended and moral application, we have stated periods 
in our life for particular things: during the period of 
infancy a child is in a state of total dependence on its 
parents; a period of apprenticeship has been appointed 
for youth to learn different trades ; ‘Some experiment 
would be made how by art to make plants more last- 
ing than their ordinary period; as to make a stalk of 
wheat last a whole year.’—Bacon. This term is em- 
ployed not only to denote the whole intervening space 
of time, but also the particular concluding point, which 
makes it equivalent in sense to the termination of the 
existence of any body, as to put a period to one’s ex- 
istence, for to kill one’s self, or be killed; 


But the last period, and the fatal hour, 
Of Troy is come.—DrnuamM. 


The age is a species of period comprehending the 
life of a man, and consequently referring to what is 
done by men: living within that period: hence we 
speak of the different ages that have existed since the 
commencement of the world, and characterize this or 
that age by the particular degrees of vice or virtue, 
genius, and the like, for which it is. distinguished ; 
‘The story of Haman only shows us what human na- 
ture has too generally appeared to be in every age.’— 
BLAIR. 

The date is that period of time which is reckoned 
from the date or commencement of a thing to the izme 
that it is spoken of: hence we speak of a thing as 
being of along or a short date, that is, of being of 
long or short duration ; ‘Plantations have one advan- 
tage in them which is not to be found in most other 
works, as they give a pleasure of a more lasting date.’-- 
ADDISON. 

JEra, in Latin era, probably from es brass, signi 
fying coin with which one computes; and epocha, 
from the Greek érox7}, from éréyw to stop, signifying a 
resting place; both refer to points of time rendered 
remarkable by events: but the term ea is more com- 
monly employed in the litera] sense for points of com- 
putation in chronology, as the Christian era; ‘ That 
period of the Athenian history which is included within 
the era of Pisistratus, and the death of Menander the 
comic poet, may justly be styled the literary age of 
Greece. —CuMBERLAND. The term epocha is inde- 
finitely employed for any gsriod distinguished by 
remarkable events: the grand rebellion is an epocha 
in the history of England; ‘The institution of this 
library (by Pisistratus) forms a signal epocha in the an- 
nals of literature..—-CumMBERLAND. 


TIMESERVING, TEMPORIZING. 


Timeserving and temporizing are both applied to 
the conduct of one who adapts himself servilely to the 
time and season; but a timeserver is rather active, 
and a temporizer passive. A timeserver avows those 
opinions which will serve his purpose : the temporizer 


267 


forbears to avow those which are likely for the time 
being to hurt him. The former acts from a desire of 
gain, the latter from a fear of loss. Timeservers are 
of all parties, as they come in the way ; ‘Ward had 
complied duwing the late times, and held in by taking 
the covenant: so he was hated by the high menasa 
timeserver..—BURNETT. Temporizers are of no party, 
as occasion requires; ‘Feeble and temporizing mea- 
sures will always be the result, when men assemble to 
deliberate in a situation where they ought to act.’— 
Rozgertson. Sycophant courtiers must always be 
timeservers ; ministers of state are frequently tempo- 
rizers. 


INSTANT, MOMENT. 


Instant, from sto to stand, signifies the point of time 
that stands over us, or as it were over our heads; mo 
men* from the Latin momentum, is any small particle, 
particularly a small particle of time. 

The instant is always taken for the time present; 
the mement is taken generally for either past, present, 
or future. A dutiful child comes the instant he is 


called ; a prudent person embraces the favourable mo- 


ment. When they are both taken for the present time, 
the znstant expresses a much shorter space than the 
moment ; when we desire a person to do a thing this 
instant, it requires haste; if we desire him to do it 
this moment, it only admits of no delay. _ Instanta 
neous relief is necessary on some occasions to preserve 
life; ‘Some circumstances of misery are so powerfully 
ridiculous, that neither kindness nor duty can with 
stand them; they force the friend, the dependant, or 
the child,to give way to instantaneous motions of 
merriment.’—Jounson. A moment’s thought will fur- 
nish a ready wit with a suitable reply; ‘I can easily 
overlook any present momentary sorrow, when { reflect 
that it is in my power to be happy a thousand years 
hence.’—BERKELEY. 


TEMPORARY, TRANSIENT, TRANSITORY 
FLEETING, 


Temporary, from tempus time, characterizes that 
which is intended to last only for a time, in distinction 
from that which is permanent; offices depending upon 
a state of war are temporary, in distinction from those 
which are connected with internal policy; ‘ By the 
force of superiour principles the temporary prevalence 
of passions may, be. restrained.”—JoHNson. Tran- 
sient, that is, passing, or in the act of passing, cha- 
racterizes what inits nature exists only for the mo- 
ment; a glance is transient ; ‘ Any sudden diversion 
of the spirits, or the justling in of a transient thought, 
is able to deface the little images of things (in the 
memory).’—SoutH. Transitory, that is, apt to pass 
away, characterizes every thing in the world which is 
formed only to exist for a time, and then to pass away ; 
thus our pleasures, and our pains, and our very being, 
are denominated transitory; ‘Man is a transitory 
being..—Jounson. Fleeting, which is derived from 
the verb to fly and flight, is but a stronger term to ex 
press the same idea as transitory ; 


Thus when my fleeting days at last, 
Unheeded, silently are past, 

Calmly I shall resign my breath, 

In life unknown, forgot in death. SprctTator 


COEVAL, COTEMPORARY. 


Coeval, from the Latin goum an age, signifies of the 
same age; cotemporary, from tempus, signifies of the 
same time. 

An age is a specifically long space of time; a tizne 
is indefinite; hence the application of the terms to 
things in the first case, and to persons in the second : 
the dispersion. of mankind and the confusion of lan- 
guages were coeval with the building of the tower of 
Babel; ‘The passion of fear seems coeval with our 
nature.—CuUMBERLAND. Addison was cotemporary 
with Swift and Pope; ‘If the elder Orpheus was the 
disciple of Linus, he must have been of too early an 
age to have been cotemporary with Hercules; for 
Orpheus is placed eleven ages before the siege of 
Troy.’ —CumMBERLAND. 


468 


DAILY, DIURNAL. 


Daily, from day and like, signifies after the manner 
or in the time of the day; diurnal, from dies day, sig- 
nifies belonging to the day. ; 

Daily is the colloquial term, which is applicable to 
whatever passes in the day time; diwrnal is the scien- 
tifick term, which applies to what passes within or be- 
Jongs to the astronomical day: the physician makes 
daily visits to his patients; 

All creatures else forget their dazly care, 
And sleep, the common gift of nature, share. 
DRYDEN. 


The earth has a diurnal motion on its own axis; 


Half yet remains unsung, but narrow bound 
Within the visible diurnal sphere.—MILToN. 


NIGHTLY, NOCTURNAL. 


Nighily, immediately from the word night, and 
nocturnal, from nox night, signify belonging to the 
night, or the night season; the former is therefore 
more familiar than the latter: we speak of nightly 
depredations to express what passes every night, or 
nightly disturbances, nocturnal dreams, nocturnal 
visits ; 

Yet not alone, while thou 
Visit’st my slumbers nightly, or when morn 
Purples the east.—MILToNn. 


Or save the sun his labour, and that swift 
Nocturnal and diurnal rhomb suppos’d 
Invisible else above all stars, the wheel 
Of day and night.—Mi.Ton. 


OFTEN, FREQUENTLY. 


Often, or in its contracted form oft, comes in all 
probability through the medium of the northern lan- 
guages, from the Greek ay again, and signifies properly 
repetition of action; frequently, from frequent crowded 
or numerous, respects a plurality or number of objects. 

An ignorant man often uses a word without know- 
ing what it means; ignorant people frequently mis- 
take the meaning of the words they hear. A person 
goes out very often in the course of a week; he has 
frequently six or seven persons to visit him in the 
course of that time. * By doing a thing oftex it be- 
comes habitual; we frequently meet the same persons 
im the route which we often take ; 


Often from the careless back 
Of herds and flocks a thousand tugging bills 
Pluck hair and wool.—Tuomson. 


Here frequent at the visionary hour, 

When musing midnight reigns or silent noon, 

Angelick harps are in full concert heard. 
THOMSON. 


QLD, ANCIENT, ANTIQUE, ANTIQUATED, 
OLD-FASHIONED, OBSOLETE. 


Oid, in German alt, Low German old, &c., comes 
from the Greek @w)os of yesterday; ancient, in French 
ancien, and antique, antiquated, all come from the 
Latin antiquus, and antea before, signifying in general 
before our time; old-fashioned signifies after an old 
fashion; obsolete, in Latin obsoletus, participle of 
obsoleo, signifies literally out of use. 

Old respects what has long existed and still exists; 
ancient what existed at a distant period, but does not 
necessarily exist at present; antique, that which has 
been long ancient, and of which there remain but faint 
traces: antiquated, old-fashioned, and obsolete that 
which has ceased to be any longer used or esteemed. 
A fashion is old when it has been Jong in use; ‘ The 
Venetians are tenacious of old laws and customs to 
their great prejudice.—Appison. A custom is ancient 
when its use has long been passed ; 


But sev’n wise men the ancient world did know, 
We scarce know sev’n who think themselves not so. 
DrnuHam. 


A bust or statue is antique which is the work of the 
ancients, or made after the manner of the ancient 
works of art; 


* Vide Trusler: ‘ Often, frequently.” 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


Under an oak, whose antzque root peeps out 
Under the brook that brawls along this wood, 
A poor sequester’d stag, 

That from the hunters’ aim had ta’en a hurt, 
Did come to languish. SHAKsPEARE. 


A person is antiquated whose appearance is grown out 
of date; ‘ Whoever thinks it necessary to regulate his 
conversation by antiquated rules, will be rather de- 
spised for his futility than caressed for his politeness. 
—Jounson. Manners which are gone quite out of 
fashion are old-fashioned ; ‘ The swords in the arsenal 
of Venice are old-fashioned and unwieldy.’—Appt- 
son. A word or custom is obsolete which is grown out 
of use; ‘ Obsolete words may be laudably revived, 
when they are more sounding or more significant than 
those in practice.’—DrybDEn. 

The old is opposed to the new: some things are the 
worse for being old; other things are the better 
Ancient and antique are opposed to modern: all things 
are valued the more for being ancient or antigue; 
hence we esteem the writings of the ancients above 
those of the moderns. The antiquated is opposed to 
the customary and established; it is that which we 
cannot like, because we cannot esteem it: the old- 
fashioned is opposed to the fashionable: there is much 
in the old-fashioned to like and esteem; there is much 
that is ridiculous in the fashionable; the obsolete is op- 
posed to the current; the obsolete may be good; the 
culrent may be vulgar and mean. 


FRESH, NEW, NOVEL, RECENT, MODERN. 


Adelung supposes the German word frisch to be de- 
rived from frieren to freeze, as the idea of coolness is 
prevalent in its application to the air; it is therefore 
figuratively applied to that which is in its first pure and 
best state ; new, in German neu, comes from the Latin 
novus, and the Greek yeos; recent, in Latin recens, is 
supposed to come from 7 and candeo to whiten or give 
a fair colour to, because what is new looks so much 
fairer than what is old. 

The fresh is properly opposed to the stale, as the new 
is to the old: the fresh has undergone no change; the 
new has not been long in being. Meat, beer, and pro- 
visions in general, are said to be fresh; so likewise a 
person is said to befresh who is in his full vigour; 

Lo! great Eneas rushes to the fight, 

Sprung from a god, and more than mortal bold; 

He fresh in youth, and I in arms grown old. 
Pore 


That which is substantial and durable, as houses, 
ciothes, books, or, in the moral sense, pleasures, &c. are 
said to be new ; 


Seasons but change new pleasures to produce, 
And elements contend to serve our use.—JENYNS. 


Novel is to new as the species to the genus: every . 
thing novel is new; but all that is new is not novel: 
what is novel is mostly strange and unexpected; but 
what is new is usual and expected: the freezing of the 
river ‘Thames is a novelty ; the frost in every winter ig 
something new when it first comes: that is a novel 
sight which was either never seen before, or seen but 
seldom ; that is a new sight which is scen for the first 
time: the entrance of the French king into the British 
capital was a sight as novel as it was interesting; 
‘We are naturally delighted with novelty.’-—J onnson. 
The entrance of a king into the capital of France was 
a new sight, after the revolution which had so long 
existed; ’ 

*T is on some evening, sunny, grateful, mild, 

When nought but balm is beaming through the woods, 
With yellow lustre bright, that the nez tribes 

Visit the spacious heav’ns.—THomson. 


Recent is taken only in the improper application ; 
the other two admit of both applications in this case! 
the fresh is said in relation to what has lately pre- 
ceded; new is said in relation to what has not long 
subsisted ; recent is used for what has just passed in 
distinction from that which has long gone by. A per 
son is said to give fresh cause of offence who hay 
already offended ; 


That love which first was set, will first decay , 
Mine of a fresher date will longer stay — DrypDEN 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


A thing receives a new name in lieu of the one which 
it has long had; ‘Do not all men complain how little 
we know, and how mutch is still unknown? And can 
We ever know more, unless something nez be disco- 
vered ?’—Burnet. A recent transaction excites an 
interest which cannot be excited by one of earlier 
date ; ‘The courage of the Parliament was increased 
by two recent events which had happened in their 
favour.’—Humer. Fresh intelligence arrives every day ; 
it quickly succeeds the events: that intelligence which 
is recent to a person at a distance is already old to one 
who is on the spot. Fresh circumstances continually 
arise to confirm reports ; nez changes continually take 
place to supersede the things that were established. 

New is said of every thing which has not before 
existed, or not im the same form as before; modern, 
from the low Latin modernus, changed as is supposed 
from hodiernus belonging to the day, is said of that 
which is new or springs up in the present day or age. 
A book is new which has never been used; it is modern 
if it has never been published before; so in like man- 
ner principles are nezw which have not been broached 
before ; but they are modern inasmuch as they are first 
offered in the day in which we live; ‘Some of the 
ancient and likewise divers of the modern writers, 
that have laboured in natural magick, have noted a 
sympathy between the sun and certain herbs.’— 
Bacon. 


TO REVIVE, REFRESH, RENOVATE, 
RENEW. 


Revive, from the Latin vivo to live, signifies to bring 
to life again; to refresh, to make fresh again; to renew 
and renovate, to make new again. ‘The restoration of 
things to their primitive state is the common idea in- 
cluded in these terms; the difference consists in their 
application. Revive, refresh, and renovate are applied 
to animal bodies; revzve expressing the return of mo- 
tion and spirits to one who was for the time lifeless; 
refresh expressing the return of vigour to one in whom 
it has been diminished; the air revives one who is 
faint’ a cool breeze refreshes one who flags from the 
neat. Revive and refresh respect only the temporary 
state of the body; renovate respectS its permanent 


269 


should see the whole line of his progenitors pass in 
review before him; with how many varying passions 
would he behold shepherds, soldiers, princes, and 
beggars, walk in the procession of five thousand years ? 
—Appison. Forefathers and progenitors, but parti 
cularly the latter, are said mostly of individuals, and 
respect the regular line of succession in a family; an- 
cestors is employed collectively as well as indivi- 
dually and regards simply the order of succession: we 
miay speak of the ancestors of a nation as well as of 
any particular person; ‘It is highly laudable to pay 
respect to men who are descended from worthy ances 
tors.—AppIsoN. This term may also be applied figu 
ratively ; 
O majestick night! 
Nature’s great ancestor !—Youna. 


SENIOR, ELDER, OLDER. 


These are all comparatives expressive of the same 
quality, and differ therefore less in sense than in ap 
plication. 

Senior is employed not only in regard to the extent 
of age, but also to duration either in office or any given 
situation ; elder is employed only in regard to age: 
an officer in the army is a senior by virtue of having 
served longer than another; a boy is a senior in a 
school either by virtue of his age, his standing in the 
school, or his situation in the class; ‘Cratinus was 
senior in age to both his competitors Eupolis and Aris 
tophanes.’—CumMBERLAND. When age alone is to be 
expressed, elder is more suitable than senior ; the elder 
children or the elder branches of a family are clearly 
understood to include those who have priority of age. 

Senior and elder are both employed as substantives ; 
older only as an adjective: hence we speak of the 
seniors in aschool, or the elders in an assembly ; bu; 
an older inhabitant, an older family ; 


The Spartans to their highest magistrate 
The name of elder did appropriate.—DmnHAM. 


Since oft 
Man must compute that age he cannot feel, 
He scarce believes he’s older for his years.—Youne 


Elder has only a partial use; older is employed in 


state, that is, the health of the body; one is revived | general cases: in speaking of children in the same 


and refreshed after a partial exhaustion; one’s health 
is renovated after having been considerably impaired. 
Revive is applied likewise in the moral sense; 
*Herod’s rage being quenched by the blood of Ma- 
Yiamne, his love to her again revived..—PRIDEAUX. 
Refresh and renovate mostly in the proper sense ; 


Nor less thy world, Columbus! drinks, refresh’d, 
The lavish moisture of the melting year. 
THOMSON. 


All nature feels the renovating force 
Of winter.—THomson. 


Bene only in the moral sense; 


The last great age, foretold by sacred rhymes, 
Renews its finished course.—THoMSON. 


A discussion is said to be revived, or a report to be 
revived; aclamour is said to be renewed, or entreaties 
to be renewed : customs are revived which have lain 
long dormant, and as it were dead; practices are re- 
xewed that have ceased for a time. 


FOREFATHERS, PROGENITORS, ANCESTORS. 


Forefathers signifies our fathers before us, and in- 
tludes our immediate parents; progenitors, from pro 
and gigno, signifies those begotten before us, exclusive 
of our immediate parents; ancestors, contracted from 
antecessors or those going before, is said of those from 
whom we are remotely descended. 

Forefathers is a partial and familiar term for the 
preceding branches of any family; ‘ We passed slightly 
over three or four of our immediate forefathers whom 
we knew by tradition”—Apptson. Progenitors is a 
higher term in the same sense, applied to families of 
distinction: we speak of the forefathers of a peasant, 
but the progenitors of a nobleman; 


Each in his narrow cell for ever laid, 
The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep.—Gray. 


Suppose a gentleman, full of his illustrious family, 


family we may say, the eldcr =on is heir to the estate : 
he is older than his brother by ten years. 


ELDERLY, AGED, OLD. 


These three words rise by gradation in their sense , 
aged denotes a greater degree of age than elderly ; 
and old still more than either. 

The elderly man has passed the meridian of life; ‘1 
have a race of orderly, elderly, persons of both sexes, 
at my command.’—Swirr. The aged man is fast ap 
proaching the term of human existence ; 


A godlike race of heroes once I knew, 
Such as no more these aged eyes shall view.—Popr. 


The old man has already reached this term, or has 
exceeded it ; 


The field of combat fills the young and bold, 
The solemn council best becomes the old.—Popr. 


In conformity, however, to the vulgar prepossession 
against age and its concomitant infirmities, the term 
elderly or aged is always more respectful than old, 
which latter word is often used by way of reproach, 
and can seldom be used free from such an association, 
unless qualified by an epithet of praise as good or 
venerable. 


FORMERLY, IN TIMES PAST, OR OLD TIMES, 
DAYS OF YORE, ANCIENTLY,OR ANCIENT 
TIMES. 

Formerly supposes a less remote period than 7m times 
past ; and that less remote than in days of yore and 
anciently. The first two may be said of what happens 
within the age of man; the last two are extended to 
many generations and ages. Any individual may use 
the word formerly with regard to himself: thus we en 
joyed our health better formerly than now ; ‘ Men were 
formerly disputed out of their doubts..—Appison. An 
old man may speak of times past, as when he says 
he does not enjoy himself as he didi times past Old 


270 


eames, days of yore, ana anciently,are more applicable 
to nations than to individuals; and all these express 
different degrees of remoteness. As to our present pe- 
riod, the age of Queen Elizabeth may be called old 
times ; 

In times of old, when time was young, 

And poets their own verses sung, 

A verse could draw a stone or beam.—Swirt. 


The days of Alfred, and still later, the days of yore; 


Thus Edgar proud in days of yore, 
Held monarchs labouring at the oar.—Swirt. 


The earliest period in which Britain is mentioned may 
be called ancient times ; 


In ancient times the sacred plough employ’d 
The kings and awful fathers of mankind. 
THOMSON. 


es 


GENERATION, AGE. 


Generation is said of the persons who live during any 
particular period ; and age is said of the period itself, 

Those who are born at the same time constitute the 
generation; that period of time which comprehends 
the age of man is the age: there may therefore be 
many generations spring up in the course of an age: 
a fresh generation is springing up every day, which in 
the course of an age pass away, and are succeeded by 
fresh generations. ; 

We consider man in his generation as the part which 
he has to perform; ‘I often lamented that I was not 
one of that happy generation who demolished the con- 
vents.—Jounson. We consider the age in which we 
live as to the manners of men and the events of na- 
tions; ‘Throughout every age, God hath pointed his 
peculiar displeasure against the confidence of presump- 
tion, and the arrogance of prosperity.’—Buair. 


LAST, LATEST, FINAL, ULTIMATE. 


Last and latest, both from late, in German letze, 
come from the Greek \dio8o0s and AetTw to leave, signi- 
fying left or remaining; final, (v. Final); ultimate 
comes from ultimus the last. 

Last and ultemate respect the order of succession : 
latest respects the order of time; inal respects the 
comp.etion of an object. What is last or witimate is 
succeeded by nothing else: what is latest is not suc- 
ceeded by any great interval of time; what is final re- 
quires to be succeeded by nothing else. The last is 
opposed to the first; the ultimate is distinguished from 
that which might follow; the Jatest is opposed to the 
earliest ; the final is opposed to the igtroductory or be- 
ginning. A person’s last words are those by which 
one is guided ; ‘ The supreme Author of our being has 
so formed the soul of man that nothing but himself can 
be its Zast, adequate, and proper happiness.’—Appison, 
A man’s ultimate object is distinguished from that more 
remote one which may possibly be in his mind: ‘ The 
ultimate end of man is the enjoyment of God, beyond 
which he cannot form a wish.’--Grovr. <A conscien- 
tious man remains firm to his principles to his catest 
breath; a pleasant comedy which paints the manners 
of the age is a durable work, and is transmitted to the 
latest posterity. Hume. The final determination of 
difficult matters requires caution; ‘ Final causes lie 
more bare and open to our observation, as there are 
often a greater variety that belong to the same effect.’ 
—Appison. Jealous people strive not to be the last in 
any thing; the latest intelligence which a man gets of 
his country is acceptable to one who is in distant quar- 
ters of the globe; it requires resolution to take a jinal 
leave of those whom one holds near and dear. 


LASTLY, AT LAST, AT LENGTH. 


Lastly, like last (v. Last), respects the order of suc- 
cession; at last or at length refer to what has pre- 
ceded. When a sermon is divided into many heads, 
the term lastly comprehends the last division. When 
an affair is settled after much difficulty ‘t is said to be at 
last settled ; and if it be settled after a protracted con- 
tinuance, it is said to be setttled at length ; ‘ Lastly, 
opportunities do sometimes offer in which a man may 
wickedly make his fortune without fear of temporal 
damage. In suchcases what restraintdo they lie under 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


who have no regard beyond the grave ?—Buair. ‘27 
last being satisfied they had nothing to fear they brought 
out all their corn every day.’—Anppison. ‘A neigh- 
bouring king made war upon this female republick 
several years with various success, and at length over 
threw them in a very great battle. —Anppison. 


ETERNAL, ENDLESS, EVERLASTING. 


The eternal is set above time, the endless lies within 
time, it is therefore by a strong figure that we apply 
eternal to any thing sublunary; although endless may 
with propriety be applied to that which is heavenly. 
That is properly eternal which has neither beginning 
nor end; that is endless which has a beginning, but no 
end. God is, therefore, an eternal, but not an endless 
being ; 

Distance immense between the pow’rs that shine 
Above, eternal, deathless, and divine, 
And mortal man !—Poprr. 


There is an eternal state of happiness or misery, which 
awaits all men, according to their deeds in thislife ; the 
joys or sorrows of men may be said to be endless as 
regards this life ; 


The faithful Mydon, ashe turn’d from fight 
His flying coursers, sunk to endless night.—PopPr. 


That which is endless has no cessation; that which is 
everlasting has neither interruption or cessation. The 
endless may be said of existing things; the everlasting 
naturally extends itself into futurity: hence we speak 
of endless disputes, an endless warfare, an everlasting 
memorial, an everlasting crown of glory; 


Back from the car he tumbles to the ground, 
And everlasting shades his eyes surround.—Pops. 


D 
REST, REMAINDER, REMNANT, RESCUE. 


Rest evidently comes from the Latin resto, which is. 
compounded of re and sto, signifying to stand or re 
main back; remaznder literally signifies what remains 
after the first part is gone; 7emnant is but a variation 
of remainder ; and residue, from resideo, signifies what 
keeps back by settling. 

All these terms express that part which is separated 
from the other and left distinct: vest is the most general, 
both in sense and application ; the others have a more 
specifick meaning and use: the vest may be either that 
which is left behind by itseif or that which is set apart 
as a distinct portion: the remainder, remnant, and -re- 
sidue are the quantities which remain when the other 
parts are gone. The rest is said of any part indefi- 
nitely without regard to what has been taken or is gone; 


A last farewell! ‘ 

Forsince a last must come, the resé are vain, 

Like gasps in death which but prolong our pain. 
DRYDEN. 


, But the remainder commonly regards the part which 


has been left after a part has been taken: ‘If he te 
whom ten talents have been committed, has squan- 
dered away five, he. is concerned to make a double 
improvement ofthe remainder..—Rocrrs. A person 
may be said to sell some and give away the rest; when 
a number of hearty persons sit down to a meal, the 
remainder of the provisions, after all have heen satisfied, 
will not be considerable. Rest is applied either to per- 
sons or things; remainder only to things: some were of 
that opinion, but the rest did not agree to it: the remain- 
der of the paper was not worth preserving. Remnant, 
from remanens in Latin, is a species of remainder, 
applicable in the proper sense only to cloth or what- 
ever remains unsold out of whole pieces: as a rem- 
nant of cotton, linen, and the like ; but it may be taken 
figuratively. Residue is another species of remainder, 
employed in less familiar matters; the remainder is 
applied to that which remains after a consumption or 
removal has taken place: the residue is applied to that 
which remains after a division has taken place: hence 
we speak of the remainder of the corn, the remainder 
of the books, and the like: but the res¢due of the pro- 
perty, the residue (if the effects, and the like. The re- 
mainder, remnant, and residue may all be applied either 
to moral or less familiar objects with a similar distine 

tion: ‘Whatever you take from amusements or inde 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. ail 


tence * 11] be repaid you a hundred fold for all the re- 
mainder of your days.’—CHaTHAM. 


For this, faz distant from the Latian coast, 
She drove the remnant of the Trojan host. 
DRYDEN. 


The rising deluge is not stupp’d with dams, 

But wisely managed, its divided strength 

Is sluiced in channels, and securely drained ; 

And while its force is spent, and unsupply’d, 

The residue,with mounds may be restrain’d. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


TO SUBSIDE, ABATE, INTERMIT. 


A settlement after agitation is the peculiar meaning 
of subside, from the Latin sub and sedeo, signifying to 
settle to the bottom. . That which has been put into 
commotion subsides ; heavy particles subside in a fluid 
that is at rest, and tumults are said to subside; ‘It was 
not long before this joy subsided in the remembrance 
of that dignity from which I had fallen.—Hawkes- 
wortH. A diminution of strength characterizes the 
meaning of abate, which, from the French abatire, 
signifies to come down in quantity: that which has 
been high in action may adate; the rain abates after it 
has been heavy ; and a man’s anger abates ; 


But first to heav’n thy due devotions pay, 
And annual gifts on Ceres’ altar lay, 
When winter’s rage abates.—DRyDEN. 


Alternate action and rest is implied in the word inter- 
mit, from the Latin inter between, and mitto to put, 
signifying to leave a space or interval of rest between 
labour or action; ‘Certain Indians, when a horse is 
running in his full career, leap down, gather any thing 
from the ground, and immediately leap up again, the 
horse not zatermitting his course.’— WILKINS. 


TO FOLLOW, SUCCEED, ENSUE. 


Follow comes probably through the medium of the 
northern languages from the Greek 6Axés a trace, or 
£\xw to draw; succeed, in Latin succedo, compounded 
of sub and cedo to walk after; ensue, in French ensutvre, 
Latin insequor, signifies to follow close upon the back 
or at the heels. 

Follow and succeed are said of persons and things ; 
ensue of things only : follow denotes the going in order, 
in a trace or line; succeed denotes the going or being in 
the same place immediately after another: many per- 
sons may follow each other at the same time; but valy 
one individual properly succeeds another. Follow is 
taken literally for the motion of one physical body in 
relation to another; succeed is taken in the moral sense 
for taking the situation or office of another: people 
follow each other in a procession, or one follows ano- 
ther to the grave; a king succeeds toa throne, or ason 
succeeds to the inheritance of his father. 

To follow in relation to things is said either simply of 
the order in which they go, or of such as go according 
to a éonnexion between them; to succeed implies sim- 
ply to take the place after another ; to ensue is to follow 
by a necessary connexion: people who die quickly one 
after the other are said to follow each other tothe grave; 
a youth of debauchery is followed by a diseased old 
age; ‘If a manof a good genius for fable were to re- 
present the nature of pleasure and pain in that way of 
writing, he would probably join them together after 
such a manner that it would be impossible for the one to 
come into any place without being followed by the 
other.—Appison. As ina natural tempest one wave 
of the sea follows another in rapid succession, so in 

the moral tempest of political revolutions one mad cone 
' yulsion is quickly succeeded by another ; 


Uiysses hastens with a trembling heart, 

Befor2 him steps, and bending draws the dart: 
Forth flows the blood; an eager pang succeeds, 
Tydides mounts, and to the navy speeds.——PorPe. 


Nothing can ensue from popular commotions but blood- 
shed and misery ; 


Nor deem this day, this battle, all you lose ; 

A day more black, a fate more vile ensues ; 
Impetuous Hector thunders at the wall, 

The hour, the spot, to conquer or to fall._—Porr. 


Follow is used in abstract propositions: ensue is used 


in specifick cases: sin and misery follow each other ag 
cause and effect ; quarrels too often ensue from the con- 
versations of violent men who differ either in religion 
or politicks. 


TO FOLLOW, PURSUE. 


The idea of going after any thing in order to reach or 
obtain it is common te these terms, but under different 
circumstances: one follows (v. To follow) a person 


| mostly with a friendly intention; one pursues (v. To 


continue) with a hostile intention: a person follows 
his fellowt-raveller whom he wishes to overtake; 


“ Now, now,” said he, “* my son, no more delay, 
I yield, I follow where Heav’n shows the way.” 
DRYDEN. 


The officers of justice pursue the criminal whom they 
wish to apprehend; 


The same Rutilians who with arms pursue 
The Trojan race are equal foes to you.—DryprEn, 


So likewise the huntsmen and hunters follow the dogs 
in the chase; the dogs pursue the hare. In application 
to things, follow is taken more in the passive, and pur- 
sue more in the active sense: aman follows the plan 
of another, and pursues his own plan; he follows his 
inclination, and pursues an object; ‘The felicity is 
when any one is so happy as to find out and follow 
what is the proper bent of his genius,’--STEELE. 


Look round the habitual world, how few 
Know their own good, or, knowing it, pursue. 
; DRYDEN. 


HUNT, CHASE. 


The leading idea in the word hunt is that of search- 
ing after; the leading idea in the word chase is that of 
driving away, or before one. In the strict sense, the 
hunt is made for objects not within sight; the chase is 
made after such objects only as are within sight: we 
may hunt, therefore, without chasing ; we may chase 
Without hunting: a person hunts after, but does not 
chase, that which is lost; a boy chases, rather than 
hunts a butterfly ; 


Come hither, boy ! we "ll hunt to-day 

The bookworm, ravening beast of prey 
PARNELL 

Greatness of mind and fortune too 

Th’ Olympic trophies show ; 

Both their several parts must do 

In the noble chase of fame.--CowLey. 


When applied to field sports, the hunt commences as 
soon asthe huntsman begins to look for the game; the 
chase commences as soon as it is found: on this ground, 


perhaps it is, that hunt is used in familiar discourse, 


to designate the specifick act of taking thisamusement ; 
and chase is used only in particular cases where the 
peculiar idea is to be expressed: a fox hunt, or a stag 
hunt, is said to take place on a particular day; or that 
there has been no hunting this season, or that the hunt 
has been very bad: but we speak, on the other hand, of 
the pleasures of the chase: or say that the chase lasted 
very long; the animal gavea long chase. 


FOREST, CHASE, PARK, 


# Are all habitations for animals of venery: but the 
forest is of the fairest magnitude and importance, it 
being a franchise and the property of the king; the 
chase and park may be either publick or private pro- 
perty. The forest isso formed of wood, and covers 
such an extent of ground, that it may be the haunt of 
wild beasts; of this description are the forests in Ger- 
many: the chase is an indefinite and open space that is 
allotted expressly for the chase of particular animals, 
such as deer; the park is an enclosed space that serves 
for the preservation of domestick animals. 


SUCCESSION, SERIES, ORDER. 
Succession signifies the act or state of succeeding (v. 
To follow) ; series, (v. Series) ; order (v. To place). 
Succession (v. To follow) is a matter of necessity or 
casualty : things swcceed each other, or they are taken 


Vide Trusler: “ Forest, chase, park.” 


272 


in succession eithor arbitrarily or by design: the serzes 
(v. Series) is a connected succession ; the order is the 
ordered or arranged succession. We observe the suc 
cession of events as a matter of curiosity; ‘We can 
conceive of time only by the succession of ideas one 
o another..—HawkrswortuH. We trace the series 
of events as a matter of intelligence; ‘A number of 
distinct fables may contain all the topicks of moral 
instruction; yet each must be remembered by a distinct 
effort of the mind, and will not recur in a series, be- 
cause they have no connexion with each other.’— 
HawkeswortH. We follow the order which the his- 
torian has pursued as a matter of judgement; ‘ In all 
verse, however familiar and easy, tle words are ne- 
eessarily thrown out of the order in which they are 
commonly used..—HawkrswortH. The succession 
may be slow or quick ; the series may be long or short; 
the order may be correct or incorrect. The present 
age has afforded a quick succession of events, and pre- 
sented us with a serdes of atrocious attempts to disturb 
the peace of society under the name of liberty. The 
historian of these times needs only pursue the order 
which the events themselves point out. 


SUCCESSIVE, ALTERNATE. 


What is successive follows directly; what is alter- 
nate follows indirectly. A minister preaches succes- 
sively who preaches every Sunday uninterruptedly at 
the same hour; but he preaches alternately if he 
preaches on one Sunday in the morning, and the other 
Sunday in the afternoon at the same place. The suc- 
cessive may be accidental or intentional; the alternate 
is mostly intentional: it may rain for three successive 
days, or a fair may be held for three successive days; 
‘Think ofa hundred solitary streams peacefully gliding 
between amazing cliffs on one side and rich meadows 
on the other, gradually swelling into noble rivers, suc- 
cessively losing themselves in each other, and all at 
length terminating in the harbour of Plymouth.’— 
Giszon. Trees are placed sometimes in alternate 
order, when every other tree is of the same size and 
kind; ‘Suffer me to point out one great essential 
towards acquiring facility in composition; viz. the 
Writing alternately in different measures.’--SEWARD. 


NATURALLY, IN COURSE, CONSEQUENTLY, 
OF COURSE. 


The connexion between events, actions, and things, 
is expressed by all these terms. JVaturally signifies 
according to the nature of things, and applies there- 
fore to the connexion which subsists between events 
according to the original constitution or inherent pro- 
perties of things: in course signifies in the course of 
things, that is, in the regular order that things ought 
to follow: consequently signifies by a_ consequence, 
that is, by a necessary law of dependence, which 
makes one thing follow another. of course signifies on 
account of the course which things most commonly or 
even necessarily take. Whatever happens naturally, 
happens as we expect it; whatever happens in course, 
happens as we pprove of it; whatever follows conse- 
quently, follows as we judge it right; whatever follows 
of course, follows as we see it necessarily. Children 
naturally imitate their parents: people naturally fall 
into the habits of those they associate with: both these 
circumstances result from the nature of things: who- 
ever is made a peer of the realm, takes his seat in the 
upper house in couree; he requires no cther qualifica- 
tion to entitle him ¢o this privilege, he goes thither 
according to the estsblishcd course of things; conse- 
quently, as a peer, he is admitted without question ; 
this is a decision of the judgement by which the ques- 
tion is at once deterinined: of course none are ad- 
mitted who are not peers; this flows necessarily out 
of the constituted law of the land. 

Naturally and in eourse describe things as they 
are; consequently and of course represent them as 
they must be; naturally and in course state facts or 
realities; consequently and of course state the in- 
ferences drawn from those facts, or consequences result- 
ing from them; a mob is naturally disposeé to riot, 
and consequently it is dangerous to appeal to a mob for 
its judgement; the nobility attend at court in course, 
that is, by virtue of their rank, soldicvs ‘avs the 
town of ceurse at assize cr election times, tpt is, be- 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


cause the law forbids them to remain. Naturally is 
opposed to the artificial or forced ; ix course is opposed 
to the irregular: naturally excludes the idea of esign 
or purpose ; im course includes the idea of arrange- 
ment and social order: the former is applicable to every 
thing that has an independent existence; the latter is 
applied to the constituted order of society: the former 
is, therefore, said of every object, animate or inani 

mate, having natural properties, and performing natu- 
ral operations; the latter only of persons and their 
establishment. Plants that require much air naturally 
thrive most in an open country ; ‘ Egotists are generally 
the vain and shallow part of mankind; people being 
naturally full of themselves when they have nothing 
else in them.’—-Appison. Members of a society, who 
do not forfeit their title by the breach of any rule or 
law, are readmitted in course, after ever so long an 
absence; ‘ Our Lord foresaw, that all the Mosaic orders 
would cease in course upon his death.—Brveriper. 

_ Consequently is either a speculative or a practical 
inference; of course is always practical. We know 
tnat all men must die, and consequently we expect to 
share the common lot of humanity: we see that our 
friends are particularly engaged at a certain time: 
consequently we do not interrupt them by calling upom 
them; ‘The forty-seventh proposition of the first 
book of Euclid is the foundation of trigonometry, anu 
consequently of navigation.—-BaRTLETT. When a 
man does not fulfil his engagements, he cannot cf 
course expect to he rewarded, as if he had done his 
duty; ‘What do trust and confidence signify in a 
matter of course and formality ?—STiLLinerLerr. 
In course applies to what one does or may do;. of 
course applies to what one must do or leave undone 
Children take possession of their patrimony in course 
at the death of their parents: while the parents are 
living, children of course derive support or assistance 
from them. 


SUBSEQUENT, CONSEQUENT, POSTERIOUR 


Subsequent, in Latin subsequens, 1rom sub and sequor. 
signifies following next in order ; consequent, in Latin 
consequens, from con and sequor, i. e. following in 
connexion; postertour, from postea afterward, sig 
nifies literally that which is after. 

These terms are all applied to events as they follow 
one another, but subsequent and consequent respect 
the order of events. Subsequent simply denotes thia 
order without any collateral idea: one event is said to 
be subsequent to another at any given time; ‘Thia 
article is introduced as subsequent to the treaty of 
Munster, made about 1648, when England was in the 
utmost confusion.’—Swirt. Consequent denotes the 
connexion between two events, one of which follows 
the other as the effect of a cause; ‘This satisfaction 
or dissatisfaction, consequent upon a man’s acting 
suitably or unsuitably to conscience, is a principle not 
easily to be worn out.’—Souru. Postertour respects 
the time of events; Hesiod was posteriour to Homer: 
and also the place of things; ‘Where the anteriour 
body giveth way as fast as the postertour cometh on, 
it maketh no noise, be the motion never so great ?- 


Bacon. 


ANTECEDENT, PRECEDING, FOREGOING. 
PREVIOUS ANTERIOUR, PRIOR, j 
FORMER. 


Antecedent, in Latin antecedens, that is, ante and 
cedens going before; preceding, in Latin precedeng 
going before; foregoing, literally going before; pre- 
vious, in Latin previus, that is, pre and via making a 
way before; anteriour, the comparative of the Latin 
ante before; prior, in Latin prior, comparative of 
pee first; former, in English the comparative of 

rst. 

Antecedent, preceding, foregoing, previous, are 
employed for what goes or happens before; anteriour, 


prior, former, for what is, or exists before. 


* Antecedent marks priority of order, place, and 
position, with this peculiar circumstance, that it de- 
notes the relation of influence, dependence and con- 
nexion established between two objects: thus, in logic 
the premises are called the antecedent, and the conclu- 


* Vide Roubaud: “ Antérieur, antécédent, précédent ”* 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


stom the consequent; in theology or politicks, the an- 
tecedent is any decree or resolution which influences 
another decree or action; in mathematicks, it is that 
term from which any induction can be drawn to 
another; in grammar, the antecedent is that which 
requires a particular regimen from its consequent. 

Antecedent and preceding both denote priority of 
‘ime, or the order of events; but the former in a more 
vague and indeterminate manner than the latter. A 
preceding event is that which happens immediately 
before the one of which we are speaking; whereas 
antecedent may have events or circumstances inter- 
vening; ‘The seventeen centuries since the birth of 
Christ are antecedent to the eighteenth, or the one we 
‘ive in; but it is the seventeenth only which we call 

he preceding one.’--TRusLER. ‘Little attention was 

paid to literature by the Romans in the early and more 
martial ages. I read of no collections of books ante- 
eedent to those made by Aumilius Paulus, and Lu- 
cullus.--CUMBERLAND. ‘Ietters from Rome, dated 
the thirteenth instant, say, that on the preceding 
Sunday, his Holiness was carried in an open chair 
from St. Peter’s to St. Mary’s.—STegLe. An ante- 
ecdent proposition may be separated from its conse- 
quent by other propositions; but a preceding proposi- 
tion is closely followed by another. In this sense 
antecedent is opposed to posteriour; preceding to suc- 
seeding. 

Preceding respects simply the succession of times 
and things; but previous denotes the succession of 
actions and events, with the collateral idea of their 
connexion with and influence upon each other: we 
speak of the preceding day, or the preceding chapter, 
merely as the day or chapter that goes before; but 
when we speak of a previous engagement or a previous 
inquiry, it supposes an engagement or inquiry prepa- 
ratory to something that is to follow. Previous is op- 
posed to subsequent: 


A boding silence reigns 
Dead through the dun expanse, save the dull sound 
That from the mountain, previous to the storm, 
Rolls o’er the muttering earth.—T Homson. 


Foregoing is employed to mark the order of things 
narrated or stated; as when we speak of the fore- 
going statement, the foregoing objections, or the 
foregoing calculation, &c.; foregoing is opposed to 
following; ‘Consistently with the foregoing principles 
we may define original and native poetry to be the 
language of the violent passions, expressed in exact 
measure.’—Sir W. Jonus. 

Anteriour, prior, and former have all a relative 
sense, and are used for things that are more before 
than others: anteriour is a technical term to denote 
forwardness of position, as in anatomy; the anteriour 
or fore part of the skull, in contradistinction to the 
hind part; so likewise the antertour or fore front of a 
building, in opposition to the back front; ‘If that be 
the anteriour or upper part wherein the senses are 
placed, and that the posteriour and lower part, which 
is Opposite thereunto, there is no inferiour or former 
part in this animal: for the senses being placed at 
both extremes make both ends anterdour, which is 
impossible.’—-Brown. Prior is used in the sense of 
previous when speaking of comparatively two or more 
things, when it implies anticipation ; a prior claim in- 
validates the one that is set up; a prior engagement 
prevents the forming of any other that is proposed; 
‘Some accounts make Thamyris the eighth epick poet 
prior to Homer, an authority to which no credit seems 
due.’,—CUMBERLAND. Former is employed either with 
regard to times, as former times, in contradistinction 
to later periods, or with regard to propositions, when 
the former or first thing mentioned is opposed to the 
latter or last mentioned ; ‘ Former follies pass away 
and are forgotten. Those which are present strike ob- 
servation and sharpen censure.’—B Lair. 


’ 


PRIORITY, PRECEDENCE, PRE-EMINENCE, 
PREFERENCE. 


Priority denotes the abstract quality of being before 
others; precedence, from pre and cedo, signifies the state 
of going before, pre-eminence signifies being more emi- 
nent or elevated than others; preference signifies being 
put before others. Priority respects simply the order of 
guccession, and is applied to objects either in a state of. 
motion or rest: precedence sivnifies prisrity in going, 

( 18 


7 


Qi 


and depends upon a right or privilege; pre-eminence 
signifies priority in being, and depends upon merit, 
preference signifies priority in placing, and depends 
upon favour. The priority is applicable rather to the 
thing than the person; it is not that which is sought 
for, but that which is to be had: age frequently gives 
priority where every other claim is wanting; ‘ A better 
place, aamore commodious seat, priority in being helped 
at table, &c., what is it but sacrificing ourselves in 
such trifles to the convenience and pleasures of others ?” 
—Faru Cuaruam. The immoderate desire for pre- 
cedence is often nothing but a childish vanity; it is a 
distinction that flows out of rank and power: a noble- 
man claims a precedence on all occasions of ceremony ; 
‘ Ranks will then (in the next world) be adjusted, ané 
precedency set aright..-Appison. The love of pre 
eminence is laudable, inasmuch as it requires a degree 
of moral worth which exceeds that of others; a general 
aims at pre-eminence in his profession; ‘It is the con- 
cern of mankind, that the destruction of order snould 
not be a claim to rank; that crimes should not be 
the only title to pre-eminence and honour.’—BuRKE. 
Those who are anxious to obtain the best for them- 
selves, are eager to have the preference: we seek for 
the preference in matters of choice; ‘ You will agree 
with me in viving the preference to a sincere and sen 
sible friend.’—Gipzon. 


TO EXCEED, SURPASS, EXCEL, 
TRANSCEND, OUTDO. 


Exceed, from the Latin excedo, compounded of ez 
and cedo to pass out of, or beyond the line, is the 
general term. Surpass, compounded of sur over, 
and pass, is one species of exceeding. Excel, com- 
pounded of ex and cello to lift, or move over, is another 
species. 

Exceed, in its limited acceptation, conveys no itlea 
of moral desert; surpass and excel are always taken 
in a good sense. Jt is not so much persons as things 
which exceed; both persons and things surpass; per- 
sons only excel. One thing exceeds another, as the 
success of an undertaking exceeds the expectations 
of the undertaker, or a man’s exertions eaceed his 
strength ; 

Man’s boundless avarice exceeds, 
And on his neighbours round about him feeds. 
WatLLER. 


One person surpasses another, as the English have 
surpassed all other nations in the extent of their naval 
power; or one thing surpasses another, as poetry sur- 
passes painting in its effects on the imagination: 
‘Dryden often surpasses expectation, and Pope never 
falls below it—Jonnson. One person excels an 
other; thus formerly the Dutch and Italians eacellea 
the English in painting; 

To him the king: How much thy years excel 

In arts of counsel, and in speaking well.—Porr. 


We may surpass without any direct or immediate 
effort; we cannot excel without effort: Nations as 
well as individuals will surpass each other in particu 
lar arts and sciences, as much from local and adven 
titious circumstances, as from natural genius and steady 
application; no one can expect to excel in learning, 
whose indolence gets the better of his ambition. The 
derivatives excessive and excellent have this obvious 
distinction between them, that the former always sig- 
nifies exceeding in that which ought not to be exceeded , 
and the latter exceeding in that where it is honourable 
to exceed: he whois habitually excesszve in any of his 
indulgencies, must be insensible to the excellence of a 
temperate life. 

Transcend, from trans beyond, and scendo or scando 
to climb, signifies climbing beyond; and outdo signi- 
fies doing out of the ordinary course: the former, like 
surpass, refers rather to the state of things: and outde, 
like excel, to the exertions of persons: the former rises 
in sense above surpass; but the latter is only em 
ployed in particular cases, that is, to excel in action: 
excel is however confined to that which is good ; owtde 
to that which is good or bad. The genius of Homer 
transcends that of almost every other poet; 


Auspicious prince, in arms a mighty name, ) 
But yet whose actions far transcend your fame. 
DRYDEN 


Heliogabalus outdid every other emperor in extrava 


274 


gance; ‘The last and crowning instance of our love 
to our enemies is to pray forthem. For by this a man 
would fain to outdo himself.’—SouTnH. 


EXCELLENCE, SUPERIORITY. 


Excellence is an absolute term; superiority is a rela- 
tive term: many may have excellence in the same de- 
gree, but they must have superiority in different de- 
grees ; superiority is often superiour excellence, but in 
many cases they are applied to different objects. 

There ts a moral excellence attainable by all who 
have the will to strive after it; 


Base envy withers at another’s joy, 
And hates that excellence it cannot reach. 
THOMSON. 


There is an intellectual and physical superiority which 
is above the reach of our wishes, and is granted toa 
few only; ‘ To be able to benefit others is a condition 
of freedom and superiority” —TiILLOTSON- 


PRIMARY, PRIMITIVE, PRISTINE, 
ORIGINAL. 


Primary, from primus, signifies belonging to or like 
the first ; primitive, from the same, signifies according 
to the first; pristine, in Latin pristinus, from prius, 
signifies in former times ; original signifies containing 
the origin. 

The primary denotes simply the order of succession, 
and is therefore the generick term ; primitive, pristine, 
and original include also the idea of some other re- 
lation to the thing that succeeds, and are therefore 
modes of the primary. The primary has nothing to 
come before it; in this manner we speak of the prz- 
mary cause as the cause which precedes secondary 
causes: the primitive is that after which other things 
are formed; in this manner a primitive word is that 
after which, or from which, the derivatives are formed: 
the pristine is that which follows the primitive, so as 
to become customary; there are but few specimens of 
the pristine purity of life among the professors of 
Christianity: the original is that which either gives 
birth to the thing or belongs to that Which gives birth 
to the thing ; the or¢ginal meaning of a word is that 
which was given to it by the makers of the word. 
The primary subject of consideration is that which 
should precede all others; ‘Memory is the primary 
and fundamental power, without which there could be 
no other intellectual operation..—Jounson. The pri- 
mitive state of society is that which was formed 
without a model, but might serve as a model; 


Meanwhile our primitive great sire to meet 
His godlike guest walks forth. MILTon. 


The pristine simplicity of manners may serve as a 
just pattern for the imitation of present times; 


While with her friendly clay he deign’d to dwell, 
Shall she with safety reach her pristine seat. 
PRioR. 


The original state of things is that which is coeval 

with the things themselves; ‘ As to the share of power 

each individual ought to have in the state, that I must 

deny to ve among the direct original rights of man.’ 
-Bor iE. 


SECOND, SECONDARY, INFERIOUR. 


Second and secondary both come from the Latin 
secundus, changed from sequundus and sequor to fol- 
low, signifying the order of succession. The former 
simply expresses this order; but the latter includes 
the accessory idea of comparative demerit ; a person 
stands second in a list, or a letter is second which im- 
mediately succeeds the first ; : 


Fond, foolish man! With fear of death surpris’d, 
Which either should be wish’d for or despis’d ; 
This, if our souls with bodies death destroy, 
That, if our souls a second life enjoy —Drnuam. 


A consideration is secondary, or of secondary import- 
ance, which is opposed to that which holds the first 
rank; ‘ Many, instead of endeavouring to form their 
own opinions, content themselves with the secondary 
knowledge which a convenient bench in a coffee-house 


ee 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


* 


can supply.’—Jounson. Secondaryand inferiour both 
designate some lower degree of a quality: but se- 
condary is only applied to the importance or value of 
things; zxfertour is applied generally to all qualities: 
a man of business reckons every thing as secondary 
which does not forward the object he has in view; 
‘ Whe.esoever there is moral right on the one hand, 
no secendary right can discharge it.’—L’EstTranes. 
Men of inferiour abilities are disqualified by nature 
for high and important stations, although they may be 
more fitted for lower stations than those of greater 
abilities ; 

Hast thou not made me here thy substitute, 

And these inferiour far beneath me set ? 

MILTON. 


Sometimes second is taken in the sense of inferiour 
when applied to any particular object compared wit 
another ; 
Who am alone 
From all eternity; for none I know 
Second to me, or like.—MitTon. 


THEREFORE, CONSEQUENTLY, 
ACCORDINGLY. 


Therefore, that is, for this reason, marks a deduc- 
tion; consequently, that is, in consequence, marks a 
consequence ; accordingly, that is, according to some 
thing, implies an agreement or adaptation. Therefore 
is employed particularly in abstract reasoning; conse- 
quently is employed either in reasoning or in the nar- 
rative style; accordingly is used principally in the 
narrative style. Young persons are perpetually liable 
to fall into errour through inexperience; they ought 
therefore the more willingly to submit themselves to 
the guidance of those who can direct them; ‘If you 
cut off the top branches of a tree, it will not therefore 
cease to grow.’—Hueues. The French nation was 
reduced to a state of moral anarchy during the revolu- 
tion; consequently nothing but time and good govern- 
ment could bring the people back to the use of their 
sober senses; ‘Reputation is power; consequently to 
despise is to weaken.’—SourH. Every preparation 
was made, and every precaution was taken; accord- 
ingly at the fixed hour they proceeded to the place of 
destination; ‘The pathetick, as Longinus observes 
may animate the sublime; but is not essential to it. 
Accordingly, as he further remarks, we very often find 
that those who excel most in stirring up the passions, 
very often want the talent of writing in the sublime 
manner.’—ADDISON. 


——oos 


PREVIOUS, PRELIMINARY, PREPARATORY 
INTRODUCTORY. 


Previous, in Latin previus, compounded of. pre and 
via, signifies leading the way or going before; prelimi- 
nary, from pre and limen a threshold, signifies be 
longing to the threshold or entrance; preparatery and 
wmtroductory signify belonging to a preparation or in- 
troduction. 

Previous denotes simply the order of succession: the 
other terms, in addition to this, convey the idea of con- 
nexion between the objects which succeed each other 
Previous applies to actions and proceedings in general ; 
asa previous question, a precious inquiry, a previous 
determination; ‘One step by which a temptation ap- 
proaches to its crisisis a previous growing familiarity 
of the mind with the sin which a man is tempted to,’—- 
Souru. Preliminary is employed only for matters of 
contract; a preliminary article, a preliminary condi- 
tion, are what precede the final settlement of any ques- 
tion; ‘I have discussed the nuptial prelzminaries so 
often, that I canrepeat the forms in which jointures are 
settled and pin-money secured.’—JoHNSON. Prepara 
tory isemployed for matters of arrangements ; the dis- 
posing of men in battle is preparatory to an engage- 
ment; the making of marriage deeds and contracts is 
preparatory to the final solemnization of the marriage: 
‘7eschylus is in the practice of holding the spectator in 
suspense by a preparatory silence in his chief person.’ 
—CuMBERLAND. Jniroductory isemployed for matters 
of science or discussion; as remarks ate introductory 
to the main subject in question; compendiums of gram 
mar, geography, and the like, as introductory to larger 
works, are useful fur young people; ‘Considex yeur 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


selves as acting now, under the eye of God, an introduc- 
tory part to a more important scene..—Buair. Pru- 
dent people are careful to make every previous inquiry 
before they scriously enter into engagements with 
strangers: it is impolitick to enter into details until all 
preliminary matters are fully adjusted: one ought 
never to undertake any important matter without first 
adopting every preparatory measure that can facilitate 
its prosecution: in complicated matters it is necessary 
to have something introductory by way of explanation, 


SERIES, COURSE. 


Series, which is also series in Latin, comes from sero 
or necto to knit together, and the Greek sepa a chain, 
and signifies the order and connexion, in which things 
follow each other; course, in Latin cursus, from the 
verb curro, signifies here the direction in which things 
run one after another. 

There is always a course where there is a serzes, but 
not vice versd. Things must have some sort of con- 
nexion with each other in order to form a series, but 
they need simply to follow in order to form a course; 
thus a series of events respects those which flow out of 
each other, a course of events, on the contrary, respects 
those which happen unconnectedly within a certain 
space: so in like manner, the numbers of a book, which 
serve to form a whole, are a series ; and a number of 
lectures following each other at a given time are a 
course : hence, likewise, the technical phrase infinite 
series in algebra. 


COURSE, RACE, PASSAGE. 


Course, from curro to run, signifies either the act of 
running, or the space run over; race, from run, signifies 
the same; passage, from to pass, signifies either the 
act of passing or the space passed over. 

With regard to the act of going, course is taken ab- 
folutely and indefinitely ; race relates to the object for 
which we run; passage relates to the place passed 
over: thus a person may be swift in course, obtain a 
race, and have an easy passage ; 


Him neither rocks can crush, nor steel can wound 
When Ajax fell not on th’ ensanguined ground; 
In standing fight he mates Achilles’ force, 
Excell’d alone in swiftness in the course.—Porr. 


Unhappy man whose death our hands shall grace, 
Fate calls thee hence, and finish’d is thy race. 
Porn. 


Between his shoulders pierced the following dart, 
And held its passage through the panting heart. 
Pore. 


We pursue whatever course we think proper: we 
run the race that is set before us. Course is taken 
absolutely by itself; race is considered in relation to 
others: a man pursues a certain course according to 
discretion ; he runs a race with another by way of com- 
petition. Course has a more particular reference to 
the space that is gone over; race includes in it more 
particularly the idea of the mode of going: we speak 
of going in, or pursuing a particular course ; but al- 
ways of running a race, 

Course is as often used in the improper as the proper 
sense; race is seldom used figuratively, except in a 
spiritual application: man’s success and respectability 
in life depend much upon the course of moral conduct 
which he pursues; 


So Mars omnipotent invades the plain 

(The wide destroyer of the race of man) ; 

Terrour, his best loved son, attends his course, 

Arm’d with stern boldness, and enormous force. 
Popr. 


The Christian’s course in this world is represented in 
Scripture as a race which is set before him; 


Remote from towns he ran his godly race, 
Nor e’er had changed, nor wish’d to change, his place. 
GoLpsMITH. 
Course may be used in connexion with the object passed 
pver or not; passage isseldom employed but in the 
direct connexion; we speak of a person’s course ina 
place, or simply of his course; but we always speak 
of a person’s passage through a place; 
12% 


278 


Direct against which open’d from beneath, 

Just o’er the blissful seat of paradise, 

A passage down to earth, a passage wide. 
MILTON 


Course and passage are used for inanimate as well as 
animate objects; race is used for those only which are 
animate: a river has its course, and sometimes it isa 


‘dangerous passage for vessels ; the horse or man runs 


the race. 


WAY, ROAD, ROUT OR ROUTE, COURSE. 


Way has the same signification as given under the 
head of way; road comes no doubt from ride, signify- 
ing the place where one rides; route or rout comes in 
all probability from rotundus round, signifying the 
round which one goes ; course, from the Latin cursus, 
signifies the piace where one walks or runs. Way is 
here the generick term; it is the path which a person 
chooses at pleasure for himself; 


He stood in the gate, and asked of ev’ry one 
Which way she took, and whither she was gone 
DrypDEn. 


The.road is the regular and beaten way, whether taken 
in a proper or improper sense ; ‘ At our first sally into 
the intellectual world, we all march together along one 
straight and open road.’-—Jounson. The route is any 
way or road chosen for a particular purpose, either of 
pleasure or business. An army or a company go a cer- 
tain route ; ‘ Cortes (after his defeat at Mexico) was 
engaged in deep consultation with his officers con- 
cerning the route which they ought to take in their xe- 
treat..—RosbeErtson. The course is chosen in the un- 
beaten track: foot passengers are seen to take a certain 
course over fields ; 


Then to the stream when neither friends nor force, 
Nor speed, nor art avail, he shapes his course. 
DENHAM. 


WAY, MANNER, METHOD, MODE, COURSE, 
MEANS. 


All these words denote the steps which are pursued 
from the beginning to the completion of any work. 
The way is both general and indefinite; it is either 
taken by accident or chosen by design. Whoever at- 
tempts to do that which is strange to him, will at first 
do itin an awkward way ; ‘ His way of expressing and 
applying them, not his invention of them we must ad- 
mire..—Appison. The manner and the method are 
both species of the way. The manner is that which a 
person chooses for a particular occasion; the manner of 
conferring a favour is often more than the favour itself; 
‘ My mind is taken up in a more melancholy manner.’— 
ArreRBury. The method is that which a person con 
ceives in hisown mind; experience supplies men in the 
end with a suitable method of carrying on their busi- 
ness. |The method is said of that which requires con- 
trivance; the mode, of that which requires practice aud 
habitual attention ; the former being applied to matters 
of art, and the latter to mechanical actions: the master 
has a good method of teaching to write ; the scholar has 
a good or bad mode of holding his pen; ‘ Modes of 
speech, which owe their prevalence to modish folly, die 
away with their inventors.’.—Jounson. The course 
and the means are the way which we pursue in our 
moral couduct: the course is the course of measures 
which are adopted to produce a certain result; ‘ All 
your sophisters cannot produce any thing better adapted 
to preserve a rational and manly freedom than the course 
that we have pursued.’—Burxke. The means collect- 
ively for the course which lead to a certain end; ‘ The 
most wonderful things are brought about in many 
instances by means the most absurd and ridiculous.’— 
Burke. In order to obtain legal redress, we must pur- 
sue a certain course in law ; law is one means of gaining 
redress, which must be adopted when all other means 
fail. 


“ 


SYSTEM, METHOD. 


System, in Latin systema, Greek odsypa, from cuvisnps 
or ody and fenue to stand together, signifies that which 
is put together so as to form a whole; method, in Latin 
methodus, from the Greek pera and 6dd¢ a way, signifies 
by distinction the way by which any thing is effected 


276 


System expresses more than method, which is but a 
part of system: system is an arrangement of many 
single or individual objects according to some given 
rule, so as to make them coalesce. Method is the 
manner of this arrangement, or the principle upon 
which this arrangement takes place. The term system 
however applies to a complexity of objects, but arrange- 
ment, and consequently method, may be applied to every 
thing thatis to be put into execution. All sciences must 
be reduced to system; for without system there is no 
science ; : 

If a better system’s thine, 
Impart it frankly, or make use of mine.—FRancis. 


All business requires method ; and without method little 
can be done to any good purpose; “The great defect of 
the Seasons is the want of method, but for this I know 
not that there was any remedy.’—JOHNSON. 


ORDER, METHOD, RULE. 


Order is applied in general to every thing that is dis 
posed (v. To dispose); method (v. System) and rule 
(y. Guide) are applied only to that which is done; the 
order lies in consulting the time, the place, and the 
object, so as to make them accord ; the method consists 
in the right choice of meansto anend; the rule consists 
in that which will keep us in the right way. Where 
there is a number of objects there must be order in the 
disposition of them: there must be order in a school as 
to the arrangement both of the pupils and of the busi- 
ness: where there is work to carry on, or any object 
to obtain, or any art to follow, there must be method 
in the pursuit; a tradesman or merchant must have 
method in keeping his accounts; a teacher must have 
a method for the communication of instruction ; ‘It 
will be in vain to talk to you concerning the method I 
think best to be observed in schools.’—Locke. The 
rule is the part of the method ; it is that on which the 
method rests; there cannot be method without rule, 
but there may be rule without method; the method 
varies with the thing that is to be done; the rule is 
that which is permanent and serves as a guide under 
all circumstances. We adopt the method and follow 
the rule. A painter adopts a certain method of pre- 
paring his colours according to the rules laid down by 
his art; ‘ A rule that relates even to the smallest part 
of our life, is of great benefit to us, merely as it is a 
rule.—Law. 

Order is said of every complicated machine, either 
of a physical or a moral kind: the order of the uni- 
verse, by which every part is made to harmonize to 
the other part, and all individually to the whole col- 
lectively, is that which constitutes its principal beauty: 
as rational beings we aim at introducing the same 
order into the moral scheme of society: o7de7 is there- 
fore that which is founded upon the nature of things, 
and seems in its extensive sense to comprehend all the 
rest; ‘The order and method of nature is generally 
very different from our measures and proportions.’— 
Burke. Method is the work of the understanding, 
mostly as it is employed in the mechanical process ; 
sometimes, however, as respects intellectual objects; 
rule is said either as it respects mechanical and phy- 
sical actions or moral conduct. 

The order of society is preserved by means of go- 
vernment, or authority: laws or rules are employed 
by authority as instruments in the preservation of 
order: no work should be performed, whether it be 
the building a house, or the writing a book, without 
method ; this method will be more or less correct, as it 
is formed according to definite rules. 

The term rule is, however, as before observed, em- 
ployed distinctly from either order or method, for it ap- 
plies to the moral conduct of the individual. The 
Christian religion contains rules for the guidance of 
our conduct in all the relations of human society; 


Their story I revolv’d; and reverent own’d m 
Their polish’d arts of rule, their human virtues. 
Mater. 


As epithets, orderly, methodical, and regular, are 
applied to persons and even to things, according to the 
above distinction of the nouns: an orderlyman, or an 
orderly society, is one that adheres to the establistied 
order of things: the former in his domestick Pabits, 
the latter in their publick capacity, their social meet- 
ings, and their social measures ; 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


| 


oa 


Then to their dams 
Lets in their young, and wondrous orderly, 
With manly haste, dispatch this house-wiiery. 
CuaPMay, 


A methodical man is one who adopts methods in all he 
sets about; such a one may sometimes run into the 
extreme of formality, by being precise where precision 
is not necessary. We cannot however speak of a 
methodical society, for method is altogether a personal 
quality. A man is regular, inasmuch as he follows 
a certain 7ule in his moral actions, and thereby pre 
serves a uniformity of conduct: a regular society is 
one founded by certain prescribed rules. 

A disorderly person in a family discomposes its do 
mestick economy: a man who is disorderly in his 
business throws every thing into confusion. It is of 
peculiar importance for a person to be methodical who 
has the superintendence of other people’s labour: 
much time is lost and much fruitless trouble occa 
sioned by the wantof method ; ‘ lo begin methedicully, 
I should enjoin you travel; for absence doth remove 
the cause, removing the object.—Suckxiine. Regu- 
larity of life is of as much more importance than order 
and method, as a man’s durable happiness is of more 
importance than the happiness of the moment: the 
orderly and methodical respect only the transitory 
modes of things; but the regudar concerns a man both 
for body and soul; ‘He was a mighty lover of regu- 
larity and order, and managed his affairs with the ut 
most exactness..—ATTERBURY. 

These terms are in Jike manner applied to that 
which is personal; we say, an orderly proceeding, or 
an orderly course for what is done in due order: a ve- 
gular proceeding, or a regular course, which goes on 
according to a prescribed rule; a methodical grammar, 
a methodical delineation, and the like, for what is done 
according to a given method. 


CLASS, ORDER, RANK, DEGREE. 


Class, in French classe, Latin classis, very probably 
from the Greek xAdots, a fraction, division, or class; 
order, in French ordre, Latin ordo, comes from the 
Greek doyos a row, which is a species of order; rank, 
in German rang, is connected with row, &c.; degree, 
in French degré¢, comes from the Latin gradus a 
step. 

Class is more general than order; degree is more 
specifick than rank. 

Class and order are said of the body who are dis< 
tinguished; rank and degree of the distinction itself: 


men belong to a certain class or order; they hold a 


certain rank; they are of a certain degree: among 
the Romans all the citizens were distinctly divided into 
classes according to their property; but in the modern 
constitution of society, classes are distinguished from 
each other on general, moral, or civil grounds; there 
are reputable or disreputable classes; the labouring 
class, the class of merchants, mechanicks, &c.; ‘We 
are by our occupations, education, and habits of life, 
divided almost into different species. Each of these 
classes of the human race. has desires, fears, and con 
versation, vexations and merriment, peculiar to itself.’ 
—Jounson. Order has a more particular significa- 
tion; it is founded upon some positive civil privilege 
or distinction; the general orders are divided into 
higher, lower, or middle, arising from the unequal 4is- 
tribution of wealth and power; the particular orders 
are those of the nobility, of the clergy, of freemasonry, 
and the like; ‘Learning and knowledge are perfec- 
tions in us, not as we are men, but as we are reasonable 
creatures, in which order of beings the female world 
is npon the same level with the male.’—Appison. 
Rank; distinguishes one individual from another; it is 
peculiarly applied to the nobility and the gentry: al 
thongh every man in the community holds a certain 
rank in relation to those who are above or below him; 
‘Young women of humble rank, and small preten- 
sions, snould be particularly cautious how a vain am- 
bition of being noticed by their superiours betrays 
them into an attempt at displaying their unprotected 
persons on a stage.’—CuMBERLAND. Degree like rank 
is applicable to the individ<l, but only in particular 
cases; literary and scientifick degrees are conferred 
upon superiour merit in different departments of 
science; there are likewise degrees in the same rank, 
whence we speak of men of high and low degree 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


Ihen learn, ye fair! to soften splendour’s ray, 
Endure the swain, the youth of low degree. 
SHENSTONE. 


PDuring the French revolution the most worthless class, 
from all orders, obtained the supremacy only to de- 
suoy all rank and degree, and sacrifice such as pos- 
sessed any wealth, power, rank, or degree. 


TO CLASS, ARRANGE, RANGE. 


To class, from the noun class, signifies to put in a 
class; arrange and range are both derived froin the 
pee rank, signifying to put in a certain rank or 
order. 

The general qualities and attributes of things are to 
be considered in classing; their fitness to stand by 
each other must be considered in arranging them; 
their capacity for forming a line is the only thing to be 
attended to in ranging them. 

Classification serves the purposes of science; ar- 
rangement those of decoration and ornament; ranging 
those of general convenience; men are classed into 
different bodies, according to some certain standard of 
property, power, education, occupation, &c.; ‘ We are 
all ranked and classed by him who seeth into every 
heart. —Buatr. Furniture is arranged in a room 
according as it answers either in colour, shade, conve- 
nience of situation, &c.; ‘In vain you attempt to re- 
culate your expense, if into your amusements, or your 
society, disorder has crept. You have admitted a 
principle of confusion which will defeat ali your plans, 
and perplex and entangle what you sought to arrange.’ 
—Buair. Men are ranged in order whenever they 
make a procession, or our ideas are ranged in the 
mind; ‘A noble writer should be born with this 
Yaculty, (a strong imagination) so as to be well able 
vo receive lively ideas from outward objects, to retain 
them long, and to range them together in such figures 
and representations as are most likely to hit the fancy 
of the reader.,.—Anpison. Classification is concerned 
with mental objects; arrangement with either physical 
or mental objects; ranging mostly with physical ob- 
Jects: knowledge, experience, and judgement are re- 
quisite in classing; taste and practice are indispen- 
sable in arranging ; care only is wanted in ranging. 
When applied to spiritual objects, arrangement is the 
ordinary operation of the mind, requiring only me- 
thodical habits: classification is a branch of philosophy 
which is not attainable by art only; it requires a mind 
peculiarly methodical by nature, that is capable of 
distinguishing things by their generick and specifick 
differences; not separating things that are alike; nor 
blending things that are different: books are classed in 
a catalogue according to their contents; they are ar- 
ranged in a shop according to their size or price; they 
are ranged on a counter for convenience: ideas are 
classed by the logician into simple and complex, ab- 
stract and concrete: they are arranged by the power 
of reflection in the mind of the thinker: words are 
classed by the grammarian into different parts of 
speech; they are suitably arranged by the writer in 
different parts of a sentence; a man of business ar- 
ranges his affairs so as to suit the time and season for 
every thing; a shopkeeper arranges his goods so as to 
have a place for every thing, and to know its place, 
he ranges those things before him, of which he wishes 
to command a view: a general arranges his men for 
the battle; a drill sergeant ranges his men when he 
makes them exercise. 


TO DISPOSE, ARRANGE, DIGEST. 


To dispose signifies the same here as in the preced- 
ing article; to arrange, from ar or ad and range is to 
put in a certain range or order; to digest, in Latin di- 
gestus, participle of digero or dis and gero, signifies 
to gather apart with design. 

The idea of a systematick laying apart is common to 
ail and proper to the word dispose. 

We dispose when we arrange and digest; but we 
do not always arrange and digest when we dispose: 
they differ in the circumstances and object of the ac- 
tion. There is less thought employed in disposing 
than in arranging and digesting ; we may dispose or- 
dinary matters by simply assigning a place to each ; in 
this manner trees are disposed in a row, but we ar- 

ange and digest by an intellectual effort ; in the first 


277 


case by putting those .ogether which ought to go toge- 
ther; and in the latter case Ly both separating that 
which is dissimilar, and bringing together that which 
is similar; in this manner books are arranged in a 
library according to their size or their subject; the ma- 
terials for a literary production are digested; or the 
laws of the land are digested. What is not wanted 
should be neatly disposed in a suitable place ; 


Then near the altar of the darting king, 
Dispos’d in rank their hecatomb they oe 
OPE. 


Nothing contributes so much to beauty and conve- 
nience as the arrangement of every thing according to 
the way ‘and manner in which they should follow; 
‘ There is a proper arrangement of the parts in elastick 
bodies, which may be facilitated by use..—CEEYNE. 
When writings are involved in great intricacy and con 
fusion, it is difficult to digest them; ‘The marks and 
impressions of diseases, and the changes and devasta- 
tions they bring upon the internal parts, should be very 
carefully examined and orderly digested in the compa- 
rative anatomy we speak of.’—Bacon. 

In an extended and moral application of these words, 
we speak of a person’s time, talent, and the like, being 
disposed to a good purpose ; 

Thus while she did her various power dispose, 

The world was free from tyrants, wars, and woes. 

PRIOR. 


We speak of a man’s ideas being properly arranged , 
‘When a number of distinct images are collected by 
these erratick and hasty surveys, the fancy is busied 
in arranging them.’—Jounson. Wespeak of a work 
being digested into a form; 


Chosen friends, with sense refin’d 
Learning digested well.—THomson. 


On the disposition of a man’s time and property will 
depend in a great measure his success in life; on the 
arrangement of accounts greatly depends his facility 
in conducting business ; on the habit of digest¢ng our 
thoughts depends in a great measure the correctness of 
thinking. 


DISPOSAL, DISPOSITION. 


These words derive their different meanings from 
the verb to dispose (v. To dispose), to which they owe 
their common origin. 

Disposal is a personal act; it depends upon the will 
of the individual: disposition is an act of the judge 
ment ; it depends upon the nature of the things. 

The removal of a thing from one’s self is involved 
in a disposal; the good order of the things is compre- 
hended in their disposition. The disposal of property 
is in the hands of the rightful owner; the success of a 
battle often depends upon the right disposition of an 
army; ‘In the reign of Henry the Second, if a man 
died without wife or issue, the whole of his property 
was at his own disposal..—BuackstTong. ‘In case a 
person made no disposition of such of his goods as 
were testable, he was and is said to die intestate”— 
BLACKSTONE. 


APPAREL, ATTIRE, ARRAY. 


Apparel, in French appareil, like the word appa 
ratus, comes from the Latin apparatus or adparatus, 
signifying the thing fitted or adapted for another; at 
tire, compounded of at or ad and tire, in French tzrer, 
Latin traio to draw, signifies the thing drawn or put 
on; array is compounded of ar or ad and ray or row, 
signifying the state of being in a row, or being in order. 

These terms are all applicable to dress or exterior 
decoration. Apparel is the dress of every one; attire 
is the dress of the great; array is the dress of parti- 
cular persons on particular occasions: it is the first 
object of every man to provide himself with apparel 
suitable to his station; ‘It is much, that this depraved 
custom of painting the face should so long escape the 
penal laws, both of the church and state, which have 
been very severe against luxury in apparel.’—Bacon 
The desire of shining forth in gaudy attire is the pro 
perty of little minds ; 

A robe of tissue, stiff with golden wire, 


An upper vest, once Helen’s rich attire. 
Dryprev 


278 ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


On festivals and solemn occasions, it may be proper | only of inanimate objects. a person chooses a place, 
for those who are to be aynspicuous to set themselves | a thing occupies a place, or has a place set apart for it’ 
out with a comely array; a station or stated place must always be assigned to 


; oi oh each person who has to act in concert with others ; 
orks ha Pig ita SY chien’ se ‘The seditious remained within their station, which, 
Wer Thracian be bral DRYDEN. by reason of the nastiness of the beastly multitude, 


i i y might more fitly be termed a kennel than a camp,’— 
Apparel and attire respect the quality and fashion} Haywarp. A person chooses a situation according to 
of the thing; but array has regard to the disposition | his convenience; ‘A situation in which I am as un- 
of the things with their neatness and decorum: ap-| known to all the world as | am ignorant of all that 
parel may be costly or mean; attire may be gay Or | passes in it would exactly suit me.’—Cowrerr. A situa- 
shabby; but array will never be otherwise than neat | j9z or position is chosen for a thing to suit the conve- 
or comely. nience of anindividual; the former is.said of things as 
they stand with regard to others; the latter of things 
as they stand with regard to themselves. The situa- 
tion of a house comprehends the nature of the place, 
whether on high or low ground ; and also its relation 
to other objects, that is, whether higher or lower, 
nearer Or more distant: the position of a window in @ 
house is considered as to whether it is by the side or in 
front; the position of a book is considered as to whe 
ther it stands leaning or upright, with its face or back 
forward. Situation is moreover said of things that 
come thither of themselves; position mostly of those 
things that have been put there at will. The situation 
of some tree or rock, on some elevated place, is agree- 
able to be looked at, or to be looked from, ‘ Prince 
Cesarini has a palace in a pleasant situation, and set 
off with many beautiful walks.’--Appison. The 
faulty position of a letter in writing sometimes spoils 
the whole performance; ‘ By varying the position of my 
eye, and moving it nearer to or farther from the direct 
beam of the sun’s light, the colour of the sun’s re- 
flected light constantly varied upon the speculum as it 
did upon my eye.’—NeEwrTon. 

Place, situation, and station have an improper sig ~ 
nification in respect to men in civil society, that is, 
either to their circumstances or actions. Post has no 
other sense when applied to persons. Place is as in- 
definite as before ; it may be taken for that share which 
We personally have in society either generally, as when 
every one is said to fill a place in society; or particu- 
larly for a specifick share of its business, so as to fill a 
place under government: situation is that kind of 
place which specifies either our share in ils business, 
but with a higher import than the general term place, 
or a share in its gains and losses, as the prosperous or 
adverse situation of a man: a station is that kind of 
place which denotes a share in its relative consequence, 
power, and honour; in which sense every man holds 
a certain station; the post is that kind of place in 
which he has a specifick share in the duties of society : 
the sttuation comprehends many duties; but the post 
includes properly one duty only; the word being 
figuratively employed from the post, or particular spot 
which a soldier is said to occupy. A clerk in a count- 
ing-house fills a place: a clergyman holds a situation 
by virtue of his office ; ‘Though this is a situation of 
the greatest ease and tranquillity in human life, yet 
this is by no means fit to be the subject of all men’s 
comes from the same source as sztus. petitions to God.’—RoexrRs. A clergyman is in the 

Place is the abstract or general term that compre- | s¢ation of a gentleman by reason of his education, as 
hends the idea of any given space that may be occu- | well as his setwation; ‘It has been my fate to be en- 
pied: station is the place where one stands or is fixed: | gaged in business much and often, by the stations in 
situation and position respect the object as well as the | which I have been placed.’—-ATrrRBuRY. A faithful 
place, that is, they signify how the object is put, as | minister will always consider that his post where good 
well as where it is put. A place or a station may be | js to be done; ‘I will never, while I have health, be 


either vacant or otherwise; a sitwation and a position | wanting to my duty in my post.’--ATTERBURY. 
necessarily suppose some occupied place. A place is 


either assigned or not assigned, known or unknown, 
real or supposed; ‘Surely the church is a place where PLACE, SPOT, SITE. 
one day’s iruce ought to be allowed to the dissensions . ‘ f ; 
mid intmdaities of muankind.’-BuEke "A sahOhieh ta ere a8 we ee 


TO PLACE, DISPOSE, ORDER. 


To place is to assign a place (v. Place) to a thing: to 
dispose is to place according to a certain rule; to order 
is to place in a certain order. : 

Things are often placed from the necessity of being 
placed in some way or another: they are disposed 80 
as to appear to the best advantage. 

Books are placed on a shelf or in a cupboard to be 
out of the way; they are disposed on shelves accord- 
ing to their size: chairs are placed in different parts of 
aroom; prints are tastefully disposed round a room. 

Material objects only are placed, in the proper sense 
of the term. Sticks are placed at certain distances for 
purposes of convenience ; persons or things are placed 
in particular situations ; 


Our two first parents, yet the only two 
Of mankind in the happy garden plac’d.—MILToN. 


If I have a wish that is prominent above the rest, it 
is to see you placed to your satisfaction near me.’— 
Suenstons. It may also be applied in the improper 
sense to spiritual objects. 

Material or spiritual objects are dispos’d ; 


And last the reliques by themselves dispose, 
Which in a brazen urn the priests enclose. 
DRYDEN. 


Spiritual objects only are ordered. j 

To dispose in the improper sense is a more partial 
action than to order: one disposes for particular occa- 
sions ; one orders for a permanency and in complicated 
matters: our thoughts may be disposed to seriousness 
in certain cases; our thoughts and wills ought to be 
ordered aright at all times. An author disposes his 
work agreeably to the nature of his subject; a trades- 
man oréers his busivess so as to do every thing in good 
time. 


PLACE, SITUATION, STATION, POSITION, 
POST. 


Place, in German platz, comes from platt even or 
open ; situation, in Latin situs, comes from the Hebrew 
Nw to put; station, from the Latin status and sto to 


stand, signifies the manner or place in which an object 
stands or is put; position, in Latin positio or positus, 


; : i these terms; but the former is general and indefinite 
specifically assigned bv Bee gear the latter specifick. Place is limited to no size nor 
The planets in their station listening stood. quantity, it may be large: but spot implies a very 


MILTON. | small place, such as by a figure of speech is supposed 
We choose a place according to our convenience, and | to be no larger than a spot : the term place is employed 
we leave it again at pleasure; but we take up our sta- | Upon Cvery occasion ; the term spot is confined to very 
tion, and hold it for a given period. One inquires for particular cases: we may often know the place in a 
a place which is known only by name; the station is | general way where a thing is, but it is not easy after a 
appointed for us, and is therefore easily found out. | course of years to find out the exact spot on which it 
Travellers wander from place to place; soldiers have | has happened. The place where our Saviour was 
always some station. buried is to be seen and pointed out, but not the very 

The terms place and situation are said of objects | spot whore he lay; 


animate or inanimate ; station qnly of animate objects, O, how unlike the place from whence they fell! 
or objects figuratively considered as such; position MILTON 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


My fortune leads to traverse realms alone, 
And find no spot of all the world my own. 
GOLDSMITH. 


The séie is the spot on which any thing stands or is 
situated ; it is more commonly applied to a building or 
any place marked out for a specifick purpose; as the 
site on which a camp had been formed ; 


Before my view appear’d a structure fair, 
Its siée uncertain if on earth or air.—Poprx. 


BACK, BACKWARD, BEHIND. 


Back and backward are wsed only as adverbs; be- 
kind either as an adverb or a preposition. Hence we 
say to go back or backward, to go behind or behind the 
wail. 

Back denotes the situation of being, and the direc- 
tion ef going; backward, simply the manner of going: 
a person stands back, who does not wish to be in the 
way; he goes backward, when he does not wish to 
turn his back to an object ; 


So rag’d Tydides, boundless in his ire, / 
Drove armies back, and made all Troy ine 
OPE. 


Whence many wearied e’er they had o’erpast 

The middle stream (for they in vain have tried) 

Again return’d astounded and aghast, 

No one regardful lock would ever backward cast. 
GILBERT West. 


Bock marks simply the situation of a place, behind 
the situation of one cbject with regard to another: a 
person stands back, who stands in the back part of any 
place; he stands bekind, who has any one in the front 
of him: the back is opposed to the front, behind to be- 
fore ; 

Ferth flew this hated fiend, the child of Rome, 

Driv’n to the verge of Albion, lingered there. 

Then, with her James receding, cast behind 

One angry frown, and sought more servile climes. 
SHENSTONE (on Cruelty). 


AFTER, BEHIND. 


After respects order ; behind respects position. One 
runs after a person, or stands dehind his chair; after is 
used either figuratively or literally: behind is used only 
literally. Men hunt after amusements; misfortunes 
come after one another: a garden lies behind a house ; 
a thing is concealed behind a bush; 

Good after ill, and after pain delight, 
Alternate, like the scenes of day and night. 
DRYDEN. 


He first, and close behind him followed she, 
for such was Preserpine’s severe decree.—DRyYDEN. 


UNDER, BELOW, BENEATH. 


Onder, like hind in behind, and the German unter, 
hinter, &c., are all connected with the preposition zn 
implying the relation of enclosure ; below denotes the 
state of being low; and beneath from the German 
nieder, and the Greek veoGc or évepGe downwards, has 
the same original signification. It is evident, there- 
fore, from the above, that the preposition wnder de- 
notes any situation of retirement or concealment; be- 
Yow any sitwation of inferiority or lowness; and de- 
neath, the same, only in a still greater degree. We are 
covered or sheltered by that which we stand under ; 
we excel or rise above that which is below us; we look 
down upen that which is beneath us: we live under the 
protection of government; the sun disappears when 
it is below *he horizon; we are apt to tread upon that 
which is altogether beneath us; ‘The Jewish writers 
in their chronological computations often shoot wnder 
or over the truth at their pleasure. —Pripraux. ‘ All 
sublunary comforts imitate the changeableness, as well 
as feel the influence, of the planet they are under.’— 
Sours. 

Our minds are here and there, below, above; 
Nothing that's mortal can so quickly move. 
DENHAM. 
‘How can any thing better be expected than rust and 
canker when men will rather dig their treasure from 
beneath than fetch it from above.’—Sovurn. 


279 


ABOVE, OVER, UPON, BEYOND 


When an object is above another, it excecds it in 
height ; when it is over another, it extends along its 
superiour surface; when it is wpon another, it comer 
in contact with its superiour surface; wien it is be- 
yond another, it lies at a greater distance. . ‘Trees fre- 
quently grow above a wall, and sometimes the branches 
hang over the wall or rest upon it, but they seldom 
stretch much beyond it ; 


So when with crackling flames a caldron fries, 
The bubbling waters from the bottom rise, 
Above the brim they force their fiery way; 
Black vapours climb aloft and cloud the day. 
DRYDEN. 


The geese fly o’er the barn, the bees in arms 
Drive headlong from their waxen cells in swarms. 
DRYDEN. 


As I did stand my watch upon the hill 
I look’d toward Birnam, and anon methought 
The wood began to move.—SHAKSPEARE 


He that sees a dark and shady grove 
Stays ir0t, but looks beyond it on the sky. 
HERBERT 


In the figurative sense the first is mostly employed 
to convey the idea of superiority, the second of au- 
thority, the third of immediate influence, and the 
fourth of extent. Every one should be above false- 
hood, but particularly those who are set over others, 
who may have an influence on their minds beyond all 
calculation. 


SITUATION, CONDITION, STATE, PREDICA- 
MENT, PLIGHT, CASE. 


Situation (v. Place) is said generally of objects as 
they respect others ; condition (v. Condition) as they 
respect themselves. Whatever affects our property 
our honour, our liberty, and the like, constitutes our 
situation ; ‘'The man who has a character of his own 
is little changed by varying his situation.—Mrs. Mon- 
Tacug. Whatever affects our person immediately ig 
our condition ; a person who is unable to pay a sum 
of money to save himself from a prison is in a bad 
situation. a traveller who is left in a ditch robbed and 
wounded is in a bad condition ; ‘It is indeed not easy 
to prescribe a successful manner of approach to the 
distressed or necessitous, whose condition subjects 
every kind of behaviour equally to miscarriage.’— 
Jounson. The situation and condition are said of 
that which is contingent and changeable ; the state, 
from the Latin sto to stand, signifying the point that is 
stood upon, is said of that which is comparatively 
stable or established. A tradesman is in a good situa 
tion who is in the way of carrying on a good trade: 
his affairs are in a good state if he is enabled to 
answer every demand and to keep up his credit. 
Hence it is that we speak of the state of health, an¢ 
the state of the mind; not the sitwation or condition, 
because the body and mind are considered as to their 
general frame, and not as to any relative or particular 
circumstances; so likewise we say a state of infancy, a 
state of guilt, a state of innocence, and the like; but 
not either a situation or a condition; ‘ Patience itself 
is one virtue by which we are prepared for that state 
in which evil shall be no more.’—Jounson. 

When speaking of bodies there is the same distinc 
tion in the terms, as in regard to individuals. An 
army may be either in a situation, a condition, or a 
state. An army that is on service may be in a critical 
situation, with respeot to the enemy and its own com- 
parative weakness ; it may be in a deplorable condi- 
tion if it stand in need of provisions and necessaries . 
an army that is at home will be in a good or bad state, 
according to the regulations of the commander-in 
chief. Of a prince who is threatened with invasion 
from foreign enemies, and with a rebellion from his 
subjects, we should not say that his condition, but his 
situation, Was Critical. Of a prince, however, who 
like Alfred was obliged to fly, and to seek safety in dis- 
guise and poverty, we should speak of his hard conds- 
tion: the state of a prince cannot be spoken of, but 
the state of his affairs and government may; hence, 
likewise, state may with most propriety be said of a 
nation: but sitwation seldom, unless in respect to other 
nations, and condition never. On the other hand, 


280 


when speaking of the poor, we seldom employ the 
term situation, because they are seldom considered as 
a body in relation to other bodies: we mostly speak of 
their condition as better or worse, according as they 
have more or less of the comforts of life; and of their 
state as regards their moral habits. 

These terms may likewise be applied to inanimate 
objects ; and upon the same grounds, a house is in a 
good situation as respects the surrounding objects ; it is 
in a good or bad condition as respects the painting, 
cleaning, and exteriour, altogether ; it is in a bad state, 
as respects the beams, plaster, roof, and interiour 
structure, altogether. The hand of a watch is in a 
different situation every hour; the watch itself may 
be in a bad condition if the wheels are clogged with 
dirt; but in a good state if the works are altogether 
sound and fit for service. 

Situation and condition are either permanent or 
temporary. The predicament, from the Latin pre- 
dico to assert or declare, signifies to commit one’s self 
by an assertion; and when applied to circumstances, 
it expresses a temporary embarrassed situation occa- 
sioned by an act of one’s own: hence we always 
speak of bringing ourselves into a predicament ; 


The offender’s life lies in the mercy 

Of the duke only ’gainst all other voice, 

In which predicament I say thou stand’st. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


Plight, contracted from the Latin plicatus, participle 
of plico to fold, signifies any circumstance in which 
one is disagreeably entangled ; and case (uv. Case) sig- 
nifies any thing which may befall us, or into which we 
fall mostly, though not necessarily contrary to our in- 
clination. Those two latter terms therefore denote a 
species of temporary condition ; for they both express 
that which happens to the object itself, without refer- 
ence to any other. A person is in an unpleasant sztua- 
tion who is shut up in a stage coach with disagreeable 
company. He is in an awkward predicament when 
attempting to please one friend he displeases another. 
He may be in a wretched plight if he is overturned in 
a stage at night, and at a distance from any habita- 
tion ; 
Satan beheld their plight 
And to his mates thus in derision call’d.—Mitron. 


He will be in evil case if he is compelled to put up 
with a spare and poor diet; ‘ Our case is like that of 
a traveller upon the Alps, who should fancy that the 
top of the next hill must end his journey, because it 
terminates his prospect.’—Appison. 


CASE, CAUSE. 


Case, in Latin casus, from cado to fall, chance, 
happen, signifies the thing falling out; cause,in French 
cause, Latin causa, is probably changed from case, and 
the Latin casus. 

The case is matter of fact; the cause is matter of 
question: a case involves circumstances and con- 
sequences; a cause involves reasons and arguments: 
acaseis something to be learned; a cause is something 
to be decided. 

A case needs only to be stated ; a cause must be de- 
fended: a cause may include cases, but not vice versa : 
in all causes that are to be tried, there are many legal 
cases that must be cited: ‘'There is a double praise 
due to virtue when it is lodged in a body that seems to 
have been prepared for the reception of vice: in many 
such cases the soul and body do not seem to be fel- 
lows..—Appison. Whoever is interested in the cause 
of humanity will not be heedless of those cases of dis- 
tress which are perpetually presenting themselves; ‘I 
was myself an advocate so long, that I never mind 
what advocates say, but what they prove, and I can 
only examine proofs in causes brought before me.’— 
Sir Wituram Jones 


—_—_- 


CONDITION, STATION. 


Condition, in French condition, Latin conditio, from 
condo to build or form, signifies properly the thing 
formed; and in an extended sense, the manner and 
circumstances under which a thing is formed; station, 
in French station, Latin statio, from sto to stand, sig- 
nifies the standing place or point. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


Condition has most relation to the circumstances, 
education, birth, and the like ; station refers rather te 
the rank, occupation, or mode of life which one pur 
sues. Riches suddenly acquired are calculated to make 
a man forget his original condition; ‘The common 
charge against those who rise above their original con- 
dition, is that of pride..—Jounson. ‘There is nothin 
which men are more apt to forget than the duties o 
their station ; ‘ The last day will assign to every one 
a station suitable to the dignity of his character.’—- 
ADDISON 

The condition of menin reality is often so different 
fron: what it appears, that it is extremely difficult to 
form an estimate of what they are, or what they have 
been. I. is the folly of the present day, that every 
man is unwilling to keep the statéon which has been 
assigned to him by Providence. The rage for equality 
destroys every just distinction in society; the low 
aspire to be, in appearance, at least, equal with their 
superiours ; and those in elevated stations do not hesi- 
tate to put themselves on. a level with their inferiours 


TO PUT, PLACE, LAY, SET. 


Put is in all probability contracted from posittus, 
participle of pono to place; place signifies the same 
as in the preceding articles; Jay, in Saxon legan, 
German legen, Latin loco, and Greek éyopa, signifies 
to cause to lie; set, in German setzen, Latin sisto, 
from sto to stand, signifies to cause to stand. 

Put is the most general of all these terms ; 


The labourer cuts 
Young slips, and in the soil securely puts.— DRYDEN. 


Place, lay, and set are but modes of putting ; one 
puts, but the way of putting itis not defined ; we may 
put a thing into one’s room, one’s desk, one’s pocket, 
and the like; but to place is to put in a specifick man- 
ner, and for a specifick purpose ; one places a book on 
a shelf as a fixed place for it, and in a position most 
suitable to it ; 


Then youths and virgins, twice as many, join 
To place the dishes, and to serve the wine. 
DryDEN. 


To lay and set are still more specifick than place ; the 
former being applied only to such things as can be 
made to lie; 


Here some design a mole, while others there 
Lay deep foundations for a theatre.—Dryprn. 


And set only to such as can be made to stand: a book 
may be said to be Zaid on the table when placed in a 
downward position ; and set ona shelf when placed on 
one end; we lay ourselves down on the ground; we 
sez a trunk upon the ground ; 


Ere I could 
Give him that parting kiss, which I had set 
Between two charming words, comes in my father. 
SHAKSPEARE 


TO LIE, LAY. 


By a vulgar errour these words have been so con 
founded as tu deserve some notice. To le is neuter, 
and designates a state: to lay is active, and denotes an 
action on an object; it is properly to cause to lie: a 
thing Zies on the table; some one /ays it on the table’ 
he lies with his fathers; they Zazd him with his fathers. 
In the same manner, when used idiomatically, we 
say, a thing lies by us until we bring it into use: we 
lay it by for some future purpose: we lie down in order 
to repose ourselves; we lay money down by way of 
deposite: the disorder ies in the constitution; we lay 
the ill treatment of others to heart: we hie with the 
person with whom we sleep; we lay a wager witha 
person when we stake our money against his; ‘ Anta 
bite off all the buds before they lay it up, and, there- 
fore, the corn that has Zazn in their nests will produce 
nothing..—Appison. ‘The church admits none to 
holy orders without laying upon them the highest ob- 
ligations imaginable.’--BEVERIDGE. 


TO DISORDER, DERANGE, DISCONCERT, 
DISCOMPOSE. 
Disorder signifies to put outof order, derange, from 
de and range or rank, signifies to put out ef the rank ia 


, 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


which it was placed ; disconcert, to put out of the con- 
cert or harmony ; discompose, to put out of a state of 
composure. 

All these terms express the idea of putting out of 
order; but the three latter vary as to the mode or ob- 
ject of the action. The term disorder is used in a 
perfectly indefinite form, and might be applied to any 
object. As every thing may be in order, so may every 
thing be disordered; yet it is seldom used except in 
regard to such things as have been in a natural order. 
Derange and disconcert are employed in speaking of 
such things as have been put into an artificial order. 
To derange is to disorder that which has been systema- 
tically arranged, or put in a certain range; and to dis- 
concert is to disorder that which has been put together 
by concert or contrivance: thus the body may be dis- 
ordered ; aman’s affairs or papers deranged ; a scheme 
disconcerted. To discompose is a species of derange- 
men in regard to trivial matters: thus a tucker, a frill, 
or acap may be discomposed. ‘The slightest change 
of diet will disorder people of tender constitutions: 
misfortunes are apt to derange the affairs of the most 
prosperous: the unexpected return of a master to his 
home disconcerts the schemes which have been formed 
by the domesticks: those who are particular as to their 
appearance are careful not to have any part of their 
dress discomposed. 

When applied to the mind disorder and derange are 
said of the intellect; disconcert and discompose of the 
ideas or spirits : the former denoting a permanent state; 
the latter a temporary or transient state. The mind is 
said to be disordered when the faculty of ratiocination 
is in any degree interrupted; ‘Since devotion itself 
may disorder the mind, unless its heats are tempered 
with caution or prudence, we should be particularly 
careful to keep our reason as cool as possible..—Appi- 
son. The intellect is said to be deranged when it is 
brought into a positive state of incapacity for action: 
persons are sometimes disordered in their minds for a 
time by particular occurrences, who do not become 
actually deranged; ‘ All passion implies a violent emo- 
tion of mind; of course it is aptto derange the regular 
course of our ideas.,—Btarr. A person is said to be 
disconcerted who suddenly loses his collectedness of 
thinking; ‘ There are men whose powers operate only 
at leisure and in retirement; and whose intellectual 
vigour deserts them in conversation ; whom merriment 
confuses, and objection disconcerts.—JouHnson. A 
person is said to be discomposed who loses his regu- 
larity of feeling ; 


But with the changeful temper of the skies, 

As rains condense, and sunshine rarefies, 

So turn the species in their alter’d minds, 

Compos’d by célms, and discompos’d by winds. 
DryYDEN. 


Asenseof shame is the most apt to disconcert: the 
more irritable the temper the more easily one is dis- 
composed. 


DERANGEMENT, INSANITY, LUNACY, 
MADNESS, MANIA. 


Derangement, from the verb to derange, implies the 
first stage of disorder in the intellect; insanity, or un- 
soundness, implies positive disease, which is more or 
less permanent; lunacy is a violent sort of insanity, 
which was supposed to be influenced by the moon; 
madness and mania, from the Greek patvouat to rage, 
implies insanity or lunacy in its most furious and con- 
firmed stage. Deranged persons may sometimes be 
perfectly sensible in every thing but particular subjects. 
Fnsane persons are sometimes entirely restored. Lu- 
naticks have their lucid intervals, and maniacks their 
intervais.of repose. 

Derangement may sometimes be applied to the tem- 
porary confusion of a disturbed mind, which is not in 
full possession of ail its faculties: madness may some- 
times be the result of violently inflamed passions: 
and mania may be applied to any vehement attachment 
which takes possession of the mind; ‘ The locomotive 
mania of an Englishman circulates his person, and of 
course his cash, into every quarter of the kingdom.’— 
SUMBERLAND 


28} 


MADNESS, PHRENSY, RAGE, FURY. 


Madness (v. Derangement) ; phrensy, in Latin phre 
nesis, Greek gpeviris from gpny the mind, signifies a 
disordered mind ; rage, in French rage, Latin rabies ; 
fury, in Latin furor, comes in all probability from 
feror to be carried, because fury carries a person 
away. 

Mainegs and phrensy are used in the physical and 
moral sense; rage and fury only in the morai sense : 
in the first case, madness is a confirmed derangement 
in the organ of thought; phrensy is only a temporary 
derangement from the violence of fever: the former 
lies in the system, and is, in general, incurable; the 
latter is only occasional, and yields to the power of 
medicine. 

In the moral sense of these terms the cause is put 
for the effect, that is, madness and phrensy are put for 
that excessive violence of passion by which they are 
caused; and as rage and fury are species of this 
passion, namely, the angry passion, they are therefore 
to madness and phrensy sometimes as the cause is to 
the effect: the former, however, are so much more 
violent than the latter, as they altogether destroy the 
reasoning faculty, which is not expressly implied in the 
signification of the latter terms. Moral madness dif- 
fers both in degree and duration from phrensy: if it 
spring from the extravagance of rage, it bursts out into 
every conceivable extravagance, but is only transitory ; 
if it spring from disappointed love, or any other disap 
pointed passion, it is as permanent as direct physical 
madness ; 

”T was no false heraldry when madness drew 

Her pedigree from those who too much knew. 

DENHAM. 
Phrensy is always temporary, but even more impe 
tuous than madness ; in the phrensy of despair men 
commit acts of suicide: in the phrensy of distress and 
grief, people are hurried into many actions fatal to 
themselves or others; 


What phrensy, shepherd, has thy soul possessed ? 
DRYDEN. 


Rage refers more immediately to the agitation that 
exists within the mind; fury refers to that which 
shows itself outwardly: a person contains or stifles his 
rage; but his fury breaks out into some external mark 
of violence: rage will subside of itself; fury spends 
itself: a person may be choked with rage; but his 
fury finds a vent: an enraged man may be pacified; a 
furious one is deaf to every remonstrance , 


Desire not 
To allay my rages and revenges with 
Your colder reasons.—SHAKSPEARE. 


Rage, when applied to persons, commonly signifies 
highly inflamed anger; but it may be employed for in- 
flamed passion towards any object which is specified, 
as a rage for musick, a rage for theatrical perform- 
ances, a fashionable rage for any whim of the day 
Fury, though commonly signifying rage bursting out, 
yet may be any impetuous feeling displaying itself in 
extravagant action: as the Divine fury supposed to be 
produced upon the priestess of Apollo, by the inspi 
ration of the god, and the Bacchanalian fury, which 
expression depicts the influence of wine upon the body 
and mind ; 


Confin’d their fury to those dark abodes.—DrypENn 


In the improper application, to inanimate objects, 
the words rage and fury preserve asimilar distinction 
the rage of the heat denotes the excessive height to 
which it is risen; the fury of the winds indicates their 
violent commotion and turbulence: so in like mannet 
the raging of the tempest characterizes figuratively 
its burning anger; and the fury of the flames marks 
their impetuous movements, their wild and rapid 
spread. 


TO CONFOUND, TO CONFUSE. 


Confound and confuse are both derived from different 
parts of the same verb, namely, confundo and its par 
ticiple confusus, signifying to pour or mix together 
without design that which ought to be distinct. 

Confound has an active sense; confuse a neuter or 
reflective sense: a person confounds one thing with 
another ; 


282 


I to the tempest make the poles resound, 
And the conflicting elements confuund.—DRYDEN. 


Ubjects become confused, or a person confuses him- 
seif: itis acommon errour among ignorant people to 
confound names, and amoung children to have their 
ideas confused on commencing a new study ; 


A confus’d report passed through my ears; 
But full of hurry, like a morning dream, 
It vanished in the bus’ness of the day.—Lrx. 


The present age 1s distinguished by nothing so much 
as by confounding all distinctiows, which is a great 
source of confusion in men’s intercourse with each 
other, both in publick and private life. 


CONFUSION, DISORDER. 


Confusion signifies the state of being confounded 
or confused (v. To confound) ; disorder, compounded 
of the privative dis and order, signifies the reverse of 
order. 

Confusion is to disorder as the species to the genus: 
confuston supposes the absence of all order; disorder 
the derangement of order: there is always disorder in 
confusion, but not always confusion in disorder: a 
routed army, or atumultuous mob, will be in confusion 
and will create confusion : | 


Now seas and earth were in confusion lost, 
A world of waters, and without a coast. 
DRYDEN. 


A whisper or an ill-timed motion of an individual con- 
stitutes disorder in a school, or in an army that is 
drawn up; ‘When you behold a man’s affairs through 
negligence and misconduct involved in disorder, you 
naturally conclude that his ruin approaches.’—Buarr. 


DIFFERENCE, VARIETY, DIVERSITY, 
MEDLEY. 


Difference signifies the cause or the act of differing: 
variety, from various or vary, in Latin varius, pro- 
bably comes from varus a speck or speckle, because 
this is the best emblem of variety ; diversity, in Latin 
diversitas, comes from diverto, compounded of di and 
verto, signifying the quality of being asunder; medley 
comes from the word meddle, which is but a change 
from mingle, mix, &c. 

Difference and variety seem to lie in the things them- 
selves; diversity and medley are created either by ac- 
cident or design: a difference may lie in two objects 
only; a variety cannot exist without an assemblage: a 
difference is discovered by means of a comparison 
which the mind forms of objects to prevent confusion ; 
variety strikes onthe mind, and pleases the imagination 
with many agreeable images; it is opposed to dull uni- 
formity: the acute observer traces differences, how- 
ever minute, in the objects of his research, and by this 
means is enabled to class them under their general or 
particular heads; ‘ Where the faith of the Holy Church 
is one, a difference between customs of the church doth 
no harm.’—Hooxer. * Nature affords such an infinite 
variety in every thing which exists, that if we do not 
perceive it, the fault is in ourselves; ‘ Homer does not 
onty outshine all other poets in the variety, but also in 
the novelty, of hischaracters..—Appison. Diversity 
arises from an assemblage of objects naturally con- 
trasted ; ‘The goodness of the Supreme Being is no 
tess seen in the diversity, than in the multitude of liv- 
ing creatures..—Appison. A medley is produced by 
an assemblage of objects so ill suited as to produce a 
ludicrous effect; ‘ What unnaturat motions and coun- 
ter-ferments must such a medley of intemperance pro- 
duce in the body ?—Anpison. 

Diversity exists in the tastes or opinions of men; a 
medley is produced by the concurrence of such tastes 
or opinions as can in no wise coalesce: where the 
minds of men are disengaged from the control of au- 
thority, there will be a great diversity of opinions; 
where a number of men come together with different 
habits, we may expect to find a medley of characters; 
good taste may render a diversity of colour agreeable 
to the eye ; caprice or bad taste will be apt to form a 


* Vide Abbe Girard : “ Difference, diversité, varieté, 
bigarrure.”’ 


aos 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


ridiculous medley of colours and ornaments. A arver 
sity of sounds heard at a suitable distance in the still- 
ness of the evening, will have an agreeable effect on 
the ear; a medley of noises, whether heard near or # 
a distance, must always be harsh and offensive. 


DIFFERENCE, DISTINCTION. 


Difference (v. Difference) lies in the thing; distene 
tion (v. To abstract) is the act of the person; the 
former is, therefore, to the latter as the cause to the 
effect; the distinction rests on the difference; those 
are equally bad logicians who make a distinction 
without a difference, or who make no distinction where 
there is a difference. Sometimes distinction is put for 
the ground of distinction, which brings it nearer in 
sense to difference, in which case the former is a spe- 
cies of the latter: a difference is either external or 
internal; a distinction is always external: we have 
differences in character, and distinctions in dress: the 
difference between profession and practice, though very 
considerable, is oiten lost sight of by the professors of 
Christianity ; in the sight of God, there is no rank or 
distinction that will screen a man from the con 
sequences of unrepented sins; 


O son of Tydeus, cease! be wise, and see 
How vast the diff’rence of the gods and thee. 
Pore. 


‘When I was got into this way of thinking, I presently 
grew conceited of the argument, and was just prepar- 
ing to write a letter of advice to a member of parlia- 
ment, for opening the freedom of our towns and trades 
for taking away all manner of distinctions between 
the natives and foreigners.’— STEELE. 


DIFFERENT, DISTINCT, SEPARATE, 


Difference (v. To differ, vary) is opposed to simi 
litude; there is no dzfference between objects abso- 
lutely alike: distinctness (v. To abstract) is opposed 
to identity; there can be no distinction where there 
is only one and the same being: separation is opposed 
to unity; there can be no separation between objects 
that coalesce or adhere: things may be different and 
not distinct, or distinct and not different: different is 
said altogether of the internal properties of things; 
distinct is said of things as objects of vision, or as they 
appear either to the eye or the mind: when two or 
more things are seen only as one, they may be differ 
ent, but they are not distinct ; but whatever is seen as 
two or more things, each complete in itself, is distinct, 
although it may not be different: two roads are said 
to be different which run in different directions, but 
they may not be distinct when seen on a map: on the 
other hand, two roads are said to be distinct when 
they are observed as two roads to run in the same 
direction, but they need not in any particular to be 
different : two stars of different magnitudes may, in 
certain directions, appear as one, in which case they 
are different, but not distinct ; two books on the same 
subject, and by the same author, but not written in 
continuation of each other, are distinct books, but not 
different ; 


No hostile arms approach your happy ground; 
Far dif’rent is my fate.—-DRypEn. 


What is separate must in its nature be generally 
distinct; but every thing is not separate which is 
distinct ; when houses are separate they are obviously 
distinct; but they may frequently be distinct when 
they are not positively separated : the distinct is mark- 
ed out by some external sign, which determines its 
beginning and its end; the separate is that which is 
set apart, and to be seen by itself: distinct is a term 
used only in determining the singularity or plurality of 
objects; the separate only in regard to their proximity 
or to distance from each other; we speak of having a 
distinct household, but of living in separate apart: 
ments; of dividing one’s subject into distinct heads 
or of making things into separate parcels: the body 
and soul are different, inasmuch as they have dif 
ferent properties ; they are distinct inasmuch as they, 
have marks by which they may be distinguished, ani 
at death they will be sevarate s 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


His sep’rate troops let every leader call, 

Each strengthen each, and all encourage all ; 

What chief or soldier of the num’rous band, 

Or bravely fights or ill obeys command, 

When thus distinct they war, soon shall be oa wn, 
OPE. 


DIFFERENT, SEVERAL, DIVERS, SUNDRY, 
VARIOUS. . 


All these terms are employed to mark a number 
(v. To differ, vary): but different is the most indeti- 
nite of all these terms, as its office is rather to define 
the quality than the number, and is equally applicable 
to few and many; it is opposed to singularity, but the 
other terms are employed positively to express many. 
Several, from to sever, signifies split or made into 
many; they may be either different or alike: there 
may be several different things, or several things alike ; 
but there cannot be several divers things, for the word 
divers signifies properly many different. Sundry, from 
asunder or apart, signifies many things scattered or at 
a distance, whether as it regards time or space. Va- 
rious expresses not only a greater number, but a greater 
diversity than all the rest. 

The same thing often affects different persons differ- 
ently : an individual may be affected several times in 
the same way; or particular persons may be affected 
at sundry times and in divers manners; the ways in 
which men are affected are so various as not to admit 
of enumeration: it is not so much to understand dif- 
ferent languages as to understand several different 
languages ; ‘It is astonishing to consider the different 
degrees of care that descend from the parent to the 
young, so far as is absolutely necessary for the leaving 
a posterity..—Appison. ‘ The bishop has several courts 
under him, and may visit at pleasure every part of his 
diocess.—BuackstTong. Divers modes have been 


suggested and tried for the good education of youth, | 


but most of too theoretical a nature to admit of being 
reduced successfully to practice; ‘In the frame and 
constitution of the ecclesiastical polity, there are divers 
ranks and degrees..—ButacxsTronge. An_ incorrect 
writer omits sundry articles that belong to a state- 
ment; 


Fat olives of sundry sorts appear, 
Of sundry shapes their unctuous berries bear. 
Drypsn. 


We need not wonder at the misery which is introduced 
into families by extravagance and luxury, when we 
notice the infinitely various allurements for spending 
money which are held out to the young and the 
thoughtless; ‘ As land is improved by sowing it with 
various seeds, so is the mind by exercising it with dif- 
ferent studies. —Mr.LMoTH (Letters of Pliny). 


DIFFERENT, UNLIKE. 


Different is positive, wnlike is negative: we look at 
what is different, and draw a comparison; but that 
which is unlike needs no comparison: a thing is said 
to be different from every other thing, or unlike to any 
thing seen before; which latter mode of expression 
obviously conveys less to the mind than the former ; 
‘How different is the view of past life in the man who 
is grown old in knowledge and wisdom from that of 
him who is grown old in ignorance and folly.,.—Ap- 
DISON. 

How far unlike those chiefs of race divine, 


How vast the diff’rence of their deeds and mine. 
Porr. 


TO CHANGE, ALTER, VARY. 


Change, in French changer, is probably derived from 
the middle Latin cambio to exchange, signifying to 
take one thing for another; alter, from the Latin alter 
another, signifies to make a thing otherwise; vary, in 
Latin vario to make various, comes in all probability 
from varus @ spot or speckle, which destroys uni- 
formity of appearance in any surface. 

We change a thing by putting another in its place; 
we alter a thing by making it different from what it 
was before; we vary it by altering it in different 
manners and at different times. We ckange our 
clothes whenever we put on others: the tailor alters 


283 


clothes which are found not to fit; and he varies the 
fashion of making them whenever he makes new. A 
man changes his habits, alters his conduct, and varies 
his manner of speaking and thinking, according to cir- 
cumstances; ‘The general remedy of those who are 
uneasy without knowing the cause is change of place ° 
—JOHNSON. 


All things are but alter’d, nothing dies: 

And here and there th’ unbodied spirit flies ; 

By time, or force, or sickness, dispossess’d, 

And lodges, where it lights, in man cr beast. 
DrypDeEn. 


‘In every work of the imagination, the disposition of 
parts, the insertion of incidents, and use of deccra- 
tions, may be varied a thousand ways with equal pro 
priety.’—JoHNSON. 

A thing is changed without altering its kind; it is 
altered without destroying its identity; and it 1s varied 
without destroying the similarity. We change our 
habitation, but it still remains a habitation; we alter 
our house, but it still remains the same house; we 
vary the manner of painting and decoration, but it 
may strongly resemble the manner in which it has 
been before executed. 


CHANGE, VARIATION, VICISSITUDE. 


Change (v. To change, alter) is both to vicissitude 
and variation as the genus to the species. Every 
variation or vicissitude is a change, but every change 
is hot a variation or vicissitude ; vicissitude, in French 
victssitude, Latin vicissitudo, from vicissim by turns, 
signifies changing alternately. 

Change consists simply in ceasing to be the same; 
variation consists in being different at different times; 
vicissitude in being alternately or reciprocally different 
and the same. All created things are liable to change ; 
old things pass away, all things become new: the 
humours of men, like the elements, are exposed to 
perpetual variations: human affairs, like the seasons, 
are subject to frequent vicissitudes. 

Changes in governments or families are seldom at- 
tended with any good effect ; ‘ How strangely are the 
opinions of men altered by a change in their condi 
tion.”—Buair. Variations in the state of the atmos- 
phere are indicated by the barometer or thermometer ; 
‘One of the company affirmed to us he had actually 
enclosed the liquor, found in a coquette’s heart, in a 
small tube made after the manner of a weather-glass ; 
but that instead of acquainting him with the varia 
tions of the atmosphere, it showed him the qualities 
of those persons who entered the room where it stood.’ 
—Appison. Vicissitudes of a painful nature are less 
dangerous than those which elevate men to an unusual 
state of grandeur. By the former they are brought to 
a sense of themselves; by the latter they are carried 
beyond themselves ; ; 


It makes through heaven 
Grateful vicissitude, like day and night. 


VARIATION, VARIETY. 


Variation denotes the act of varying (v. To change) ; 
variety denotes the quality of varying, or the thing 
varied. The astronomer observes the variations in 
the heavens ; the philosopher observes the variations 
in the climate from year to year; ‘ The idea of varia- 
tion (as a constituent in beauty), without attending se 
accurately to the manner of variation, has led Mr. 
Hogarth to consider angular figures as beautiful.’— 
Burke. /Yarvetyis pleasing to all persons, but to none 
so much as the young and the fickle: there is an in- 
finite variety in every species of objects animate or 
inanimate; ‘ As to the colours usually found in beau- 
tiful bodies, it may be difficult to ascertain them, be- 
cause in the several parts of nature there is an infinite 
variety.—BURKE. 


INDISTINCT, CONFUSED 


Indistinct is negative; it marks simply the want of 
distinctness ; confused is positive; it marks a posi- 
tive degree of indistinctness. A thing may be indis- 
tinct without being confused ; but it cannot be con- 
fused without being indistinct : two things may be in- 
distinct, or not easily distinguished from each other} . 


284 


but many things, or parts of the same things, are con- 
fused: two Jetters in a word may be indistinct ; but 
the whole writings or many words are confused ; 
sounds are indistinct which reach our ears only in 
part; but they are confused if they come in great 
numbers and out of all order. We see objects indis- 
tinctly when we cannot see all the features by which 
they would be distinguished from all objects ; ‘ When 
a volume of travels is opened, nothing is found but 
such general accounts as leave no distinct idea behind 
them.’—Jounson. Wesee an object confusedly when 
every part is so blended with the other that no one fea- 
ture can be distinguished ; ‘He that enters a town at 
night and surveys it in the morning, then hastens to 
another place, may please himself for a time with a 
hasty change of scene and a confused remembrance 
of palaces and churches.’—Jounson. By means of 
great distance objects become indistinct; from a de- 
fect in sight objects become more confused. 


TO MIX, MINGLE, BLEND, CONFOUND. 

Mix is in German mischen, Latin misceo, Greek 
ployw, Hebrew 333 mingle, in Greek peyviw, is but 
a variation of mix; blend, in German blenden to daz- 
zle, comes from blind, signifying to see confusedly, or 
confuse objects in a general way; confound, (v. Con- 
found). 

Miz is here a general and indefinite term, signifying 
simply to put together: but we may miz two or several 
things; we mingle several objects: things are mized 
so as to lose all distinction; but they may be mingled 
and yet retain a distinction: liquids mzz so as to be- 
come one, and individuals mix in a crowd so as to be 
lost ; 

: Can imagination boast, 
Amid its gay creation, hues like hers, 
Or can it mix them with that matchless skill, 
And lose them in each other ?—THoMson 


Things are mingled together of different sizes if they 
lie in the same spot, but they may still be distin- 
guished ; 
There as I pass’d with careless steps and slow, 
The mingling notes came soften’d from below. 
GOLDSMITH. 


To blend is only partially to miz, as colours blend 
which fall into each other: to confound is to miz ina 
wrong way, as objects of sight are confounded when 
they are erroneously taken to be joined. 

To miz and mingle are mostly applied to material 
objects, except in poetry; to blend and confound are 
mental operations, and principally employed on spi- 
ritual subjects: thus, events and circumstances are 
blended together in a narrative ; 


But happy they! the happiest of their kind, | 

Whom gentler stars unite, and in one fate 

Their hearts, their fortunes, and their beings blend. 
THOMSON. 


The ideas of the ignorant are confounded in most 
cases, but particularly when they attempt to think for 
themselves ; 


And long the gods, we know, 
Have grudg’d thee, Cesar, to the world below, 
Where. fraud and rapine, right and wrong, confound. 
; DRYDEN. 


MIXTURE, MEDLEY, MISCELLANY. 


Mixture is the thing mized (v. To miz); medley, 
from meddle or middle, signifies what comes between 
another; miscellany, in Latin miscellaneus, from 
misceo to miz, signifies also a mixture. 

The mixture is general; whatever objects can be 
mized will form a mixture ; a medley is a mixture of 
things not lit to be mized: and a miscellany is a mizx- 
ture of many-different things. Flour, water, and eggs 
may form a mixture, in the proper sense; but if to 
these were added all sorts of spices, it would form a 
medley; ‘In great villanies, there is often such a miz- 
ture of the fool, as quite spoils the whole project of 
the knave.’—Souru. 


More oft in fools’ and madmen’s hands than sages, 
She seems a medley of all ages.—Swirt. 


Miscellany is a species of mixture applicable only to 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


intellectual] subjects: the miscellaneous is opposeu 
that which is systematically arranged: essays are mis- 
cellaneous in distinction from works on one particular 
subject; ‘ A writer, whose design is so comprehensive 
and miscellaneous as that of an essayist, may accom- 
modate himself with a topick from every scene of life. 
—JOHNSON. 


PROMISCUOUS, INDISCRIMINATE. 


Promiscuous, in Latin promiscuus, from promisceo 
or pro and misceo to mingle, signifies thoroughly min 
gled; indiscriminate, from the Latin zn privative and 
discrimen a difference, signifies without any difference. 

Promiscuous is applied to any number of different 
objects mixed together ; 


Victors and vanquish’d join promiscuous cries 
Pope. 


Indiscriminate is only applied to the action in which 
one does not discriminate different objects: a multi 
tude is termed promiscuous, as characterizing the 
thing; the use of different things for the same pur 
pose, or of the same things for different purposes, is 
termed indiscriminate, as characterizing the person: 
things become promiscuous by the want of design in 
any one; they are indiscriminate by the fault of any 
one: plants of all descriptions are to be found pro- 
miscuously situated in the beds of a garden : it is folly 
to level any charge indiscriminately against all the 
members of any community or profession ; ‘From this 
indiscriminate distribution of misery, moralists have 
always derived one of their strongest moral arguments 
for a future state.’—JouHNSoN. 


IRREGULAR, DISORDERLY, INORDINATE, 
INTEMPERATE. 


Irregular, that is literally not regular, marks merely 
the absence of a good quality; disorderly, that is 
literally out of order, marks the presence of a posi- 
tively bad quality. What is irregular may be so from 
the nature of the thing; what is disorderly is rendered 
so by some external circumstance. Things are planted 
irregularly for want of design: the best troops are 
apt to be disorderly in a long march. Jrregular and 
disorderly are taken in a moral as well as a natural 
sense; inordinate, which signifies also put out of 
order, is employed only in the moral sense. What is 
irregular is contrary to the rule that is established, or 
ought to be; what is disorderly is contrary to the 
order that has existed ; what is inordinate is contrary 
to the order that is prescribed ; what is intemperate is 
contrary to the temper or spirit that ought to be en- 
couraged. Our habits are irregular which are not 
conformable to the laws of social society; ‘In youth 
there is a certain irregularity and agitation by no 
means unbecoming.’—MELMoTH (Letters of Pliny). 
Our practices will be disorderly when we follow the 
blind impulse of passion; ‘ The minds of bad men are 
disorderly. —Buair. Our desires will be inordinate 
when they are not under the control of reason guided 
by religion; ‘Inordinate passions are the great dis- 
turbers of life..—Biarr. Our indulgencies will be zn 
temperate when we consult nothing but our appetites ; 
‘Persuade but the covetous man not to deify his money, 
the intemperate man to abandon his revels, and I dare 
undertake all their giant-like objections shall vanish.’ 
—Sourn. Young people are apt to contract irregular 
habits if not placed under the care of discreet and 
sober people, and made to conform to the regulations 
of domestick life: children are naturally prone to be- 
come disorderly, if not perpetually under the eye of a 
master: it is the lot of human beings in all ages and 
stations to have inordinate desires, which require a 
constant check so as to prevent intemperate conduct 
of any kind. 


SEQUEL, CLOSE. 


Sequel is a species of close; it is that which follows 
by way of termination; but the close is simply that 
which closes, or puts an end to any thing. There can- 
not be a sequel without a close, but there may be a 
close without a sequel. A story may have either a 
sequel or a close; when the end is detached from the 
beginning so as to follow, it is a sequel; if the begin- 
ning and end are uninterrupted, it is simply a close, 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


When « work is published in distinct parts, those 
which follow at the end may be termed the sequel: if 
it appears all at once, the concluding pages are the 
close. The same distinction between these words is 
preserved in their figurative application ; 


If black scandal or foul-fae’d reproach 

Attend the sequel of your imposition, 

Your meer enforcement shall acquittance me. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


Speedy death, 


The close of all my miseries, and the balm. 
Miron. 


TO END, CLOSE, TERMINATE. 


To bring any thing to its last point is the common 
idea in the signification of these terms. 

To end is the simple action of putting an end to, 
without any collateral idea; it is therefore the generick 
term. ‘To close is to end gradually, or by shutting in, 
hence we speak of closing the rear, or of a scene 
closing ; 

Orestes, Acamas, in front appear, 
And CEnomaus and Thoon close the rear.—Popr. 


To terminate is to end in a specifick manner, hence 
we speak with propriety of a road or a line termt- 
nating ; ‘ As I had a mind to know how each of these 
roads terminated, I joined myself with the assembly 
that were in the flower and vigour of their age, and 
called themselves the band of lovers.,—Appison. 
They preserve this distinction in the moral application. 
There are persons even in civilized countries so igno- 
rant as, like the brutes, to end their lives as they began 
them, without one rational reflection ; 


Greece in her single heroes strove in vain, 

Now hosts oppose thee, and thou must be slain: 
So shall my days in one sad tenour run, 

And end with sorrows as they first begun.—Porr. 


The Christian closes his career of active duty only 
with the failure of his bodily powers ; 

One frugal supper did our studies close—Drypgn. 
A person ends a dispute, or puts an end to it, by yield- 
ing the subject of contest; he terminates the dispute 
by entering into a compromise ; ‘ The wisdom of this 
world, its designs and efficacy, terminate on this side 
heaven.’—SouTu. 


END, EXTREMITY. 


Both these words imply the last of those parts which 
constitute a thing; but the end designates that part 
generally; the extremity marks the particular point. 
The extremity is from the Latin extremus the very last 
end, that which is outermost. Hence the end may be 
said of that which bounds any thing; but extremity 
of that which extends farthest from us: we may speak 
of the ends of that which is circular in its form, or of 
that which has no specifick form; 


Now with full force the yielding horn he bends, 
Drawn to an arch, and joins the doubling ends.—Porpr. 


We.speak of the extremities of that only which is 
supposed to project lengthwise ; ‘Our female pro- 
jectors were all the last summer so taken up with the 
improvement of their petticoats, that they had not 
time to attend to any thing else; but having at length 
sufficiently adorned their lower parts, they now begin 
to turn their thoughts upon the other extremity.’—-ApD 
DISON. 

The end is opposed to the beginning; the extremity 
to the centre or point from which we reckon. When 
a man is said to go to the end of a journey or to the 
end of the world, the expression is in both cases inde- 
firite and general; but when he is said to go to the 
extremities of the earth or the extremities of a king- 
dom, the idea of relative distance is manifestly im- 

lied. 

4 He who goes to the end of a path may possibly have 
a little farther to go in order to reach the extremity. 
In the figurative application end and extremity differ 
so widely as not to render any comparison needful. 


EXTREMITY, EXTREME. 


Extremity is used in the proper or the improper 
sense; eztreme in the improper sense: we speak of 


285 


the extrematy of a line or an avenue, the extremity of 
distress, but the extreme of the fashion. 

In the moral sense, extremity is applicable to the 
outward circumstances ; extreme to the opinions and 
conduct of men: in matters of dispute between indi- 
viduals it is a happy thing to guard against coming to 
extremities ; ‘Savage suffered the utmost extremities 
of poverty, and often fasted so long that he was seized 
with faintness.—Jonnson. It is the characteristick 
of volatile tempers to be always in extremes, either 
the extreme of joy or the extreme of sorrow; ‘ The 
two extremes to be guarded against are despotism 
where all are slaves, and anarchy, where all would 
rule and none obey.’—Bwair. 


CLOSE, COMPACT. 


Close, in French clos, comes from the Latin clausus 
participle of clawdo to shut; compact, in Latin com- 
pactus, participle of compingo to fix or join, signifies 
jointed close together. 

Proximity is expressed by both these terms; the 
former in a general and the latter in a restricted sense. 
Two bodies may be close to each other, but a body is 
compact with regard to itself. 

Contact is not essential to constitute closeness ; but a 
perfect adhesion of all the parts of a body is essential 
to produce compactness. Lines are close to each othe 
that are separated but by a small space; 


Toright and left the martial wings display 
Their shining arms, and stand in close array ; 
Though weak their spears, though dwarfish be then 
height, 
Compact they move, the bulwark of the fight. 
Sir Wo. Jonzs. 


Things are rolled together in a compact form that are 
brought within the smallest possible space ; ‘ Without 
attraction the dissevered particles of the chaos could 
hever convene into such great compact masses as the 
planets.’—BENTLEY. 


CLOSE, NEAR, NIGH. 


Close signifies the same as in the preceding article ; 
near and nigh are in Saxon near, neah, German, 
nah, &c. 

Close is more definite than near : houses stand close 
to each other which are almost joined; men stand 
close when they touch each other ; 


Th’ unwearied watch their listening leaders keep, 
And couching close, repel invading sleep.—Porr. 


Objects are near which are within sight; persons are 
near each other when they can converse together 
Near and nigh, which are but variations of each other, 
in etymology, admit of little or no difference in their 
use; the former however is the most general. People 
live near each other who are in the same street ; they 
live close to each other when their houses are ad- 
joining ; 

O friend! Ulysses’ shouts invade my ear; 

Distress’d he seems, and no assistance near.—Porr. 


From the red field their scatter’d bodies bear, 
And nigh the fleet a funeral structure rear.—Popr. 
Close is annexed as an adjective; near is employed 


only as an adverb or preposition. We speak of close 
ranks or close lines; but not near ranks or near lines 


STRAIT, NARROW. 


Strait, which is otherwise spelled straight, from the 
Latin strictus bound, signifies bound tight, that is, 
brought into a small compass: narrow, which is a 
variation of near, expresses a mode of nearness or 
closeness. Strait is a particular term; narrov is 
general: straitness is an artificial mode of narrow- 
ness; a coat is strait which is made to compress the 
body within a small compass: narrow is either the 
artificial or the natural property of a body; as a nar- 
row ribbon, or a narrow leaf. 

That which is strait is so by the meansof other 
bodies; that which is so of itself, as a piece of water 
confined close on each side by land, is called a stravt ; 
‘ They are afraid to meet her if they have missed the 
church; but then they are more afraid to see her if 
they are laced 25 *frait as they can nossiblv he ” 


286 


Law. Whatever is bounded by sides that are near 
each other is narrow; thus a piece of land whose pro- 
onged sides are at a small distance from each other is 
narrow ; 
No narrow frith 
He had to pass.—MILTON. 


The same distinction applies to these terms in their 
moral use: a person in straitened circumstances is 
kept, by means of his circumstances, from incurring 
even necessary expenses; a person who is in narrow 
circumstances is represented as having but a small ex- 
tent of property. 


DISTANT, FAR, REMOTE. 


Distant is employed as an adjunct or otherwise; 
far is used only as an adverb. We speak of distant 
objects, or objects being distant; but we speak of 
things only as being far. 

Distant, in Latin distans compounded of di and 
stans standing asunder, is employed only for bodies at 
rest; far,in German fern, most probably from gefah- 
ren, participle of fahren, in Greek wépety to go, signifies 
gone or removed away, and is employed for bodies 
either stationary or otherwise; hence we say that a 
thing is déstant, or it goes, runs, or flies far. 

Distant is used to designate great space; far only 
that which is ordinary: the sun is ninety-four millions 
of miles distant from the earth; a person lives not 
very far off, or a person is far from the spot. 

Distant is used absolutely to express an intervening 
space. Remote, in Latin remotus, participle of re- 
moveo to remove, rather expresses the relative idea of 
being gone out of sight. A person is said to live ina 
distant country or ina remote corner of any country. 

These terms bear a similar analogy in the figurative 
application; when we speak of a remote idea it desig- 
nates that which is less liable to strike the mind than 
a distant idea. A distant relationship between indivi- 
duals is never altogether lost sight of; when the con- 
nexion between objects is very remote it easily escapes 
observation ; ‘It is a pretty saying of Thales, ‘ False- 
hood is just as far distant from truth as the ears from 
the eyes,” by which he would intimate that a wise man 
would not easily give credit to the reports of actions 
which he has not seen.’—SprrcrTaTor. 


O might a parent’s careful wish prevail, 

Far, far irom Ilion should thy vessels sail, 

And thou from camps remote the danger shun, 

W hich now, alas! too nearly threats my son. 
PopE. 


SHORT, BRIEF, CONCISE, SUCCINOT, 
SUMMARY. 


Short, in French court, German kurz, Latin curtus, 
Greek xuprds ; brief, in Latin brevis, in Greek Boayds: 
concise, in Latin conctsus, signifies cut into a small 
body ; succinct, in Latin succtnctus, participle of suc- 
cingo, signifies brought within a small compass; sum- 
mary, v. Abridgement. 

Short is the generick, the rest are specifick terms: 
every thing which admits of dimensions may be short, 
as opposed to the long, that is, either naturally or arti- 
ficially; the rest are species of artificial shortness, or 
that which is the work of art: hence it is that mate- 
rial, as well as spiritual, objects may be termed short ; 
but the brief, concise, succinct, and summary, are in- 
tellectual or spiritual only. We may term a stick, a 
letter, or a discourse, short ; ‘The widest excursions 
of the mind are made by short flights frequently re- 
peated.’—Jounson. We speak of brevity only in re- 
gard tothe mode of speech; ‘ Premeditation of thought, 
and brevity of expression, are the great ingredients of 
that reverence that is required to a pious and accept- 
able prayer.’—Souru. Conciseness and succinctness 
apply to the matter of speech; ‘ Aristotle has a dry 
conciseness, that makes one imagine one is perusing a 
table of contents.’—Gray. 

Let all your precepts be swucconct and clear, 

That ready wits may comprehend them soon. 

Roscommon. 
Summary regards the mode either of speaking or 
action; 

Nor spend their time to show their reading, 

She ’d have a summary proceeding.—Swirt 


a 9 ee 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


The brief is opposed to the prolix; the concise and 
succinct to the diffuse; the summary to the circum- 
stantial or ceremonious. It is a matter of compara- 
tively little importance whether a man’s life be long or 
short; but it deeply concerns him that every moment 
be well spent.. Brevity of expression ought to be con- 
sulted by speakers, even more than by writers; con 
ciseness is of peculiar advantage in the formation of 
rules fur young persons: and succinctness is a requi 
site in every writer, who has extensive materials tc 
digest: a summary mode of proceeding may have the 
advantage of saving time, but it has the disadvantage 
of incorrectness, and often of injustice. 


TO CLOSE, SHUT. 
Close is to make close; shut is in Saxon scuttan, 


Dutch schutten, Hebrew L-3f\D to stop up. 

Close is to shut, frequently as the means to the end. 
To close signifies simply to put together; to shut sig 
nifies to put together so close that no opening is left. 
The eyes are shut by closing the eyelids; the mouth 
is shut by closing the lips. The idea of bringing neat 
or joining is prominent in the signification of close ; 
that of fastening or preventing admittance in the word 
shut. By the figure of metonymy, close may be often 
substituted for shut; as we may speak of closing the 
eyes or the mouth; closing a book or a door in the 
sense of shutting, particularly in poetry ; 


Soon shall the sire Seraglio’s horrid gates 
Close like the eternal bars of death upon thee. 
JOHNSON 


On the other hand, the poets may sometimes use 
shut where close would be more appropriate ; 


Behold, fond man! 
See here thy pictur’d life: pass some few years 
Thy flowering spring, thy summer’s ardent strength, 
Thy sober autumn fading into age, 
And pale conluding winter comes at last, 
And shuts the scene.—THomson. 


In ordinary discourse, however, these words are very 
distinct. 

Many things are closed which are not to be shut, and 
are shut which cannot be closed. Nothing can be 
closed but what consists of more than one part; no- 
thing can be shut but what has or is supposed to have 
acavity. A wound is closed, but cannot be shut; a 
window or a box is shut, but not closed. 

When both are applied to hollow bodies, close im- 
plies a stopping up of the whole, shut an occasional 
stoppage at the entrance. What is closed remains 
closed; what is shut may be opened. A hole in a 
road, or a passage through any place is closed; a gate, 
a window, or a door, is shut. 


TO CLOSE, FINISH, CONCLUDE. 


To close signifies literally to make close, or bring as 
near together as they ought to be, and in an extended 
sense, to bring things to the point where they ought te 
end; to finish, from the Latin finis an end, and con- 
clude, from con and cludo or claudo to shut, have the 
same general and literal meaning as close. 

To close is to bring to an end; to finish isto make 
anend: we close a thing by ceasing to have any thing 
more to do with it; we finish it by really having no 
more to do toit. We cluse an account with a person 
with whom we mean to have no farther transactions ; 
we finish the business which we have begun. 

It is sometimes necessary to close without finishing, 
but we cannot finish without closing. ‘The want of 
time will compel a person to close his letter before he 
has finished saying all he wishes. It is a laudable 
desire in every one to wish to close his career in life 
honourably, and to finish whatever he undertakes to 
the satisfaction of himself and others. 

To conclude is a species of finishing, that is to say, 
jinishing in a certain manner ; we always finish when 
we conclude, but we do not always conclude when we 
jinish. A history is closed at a certain reign; it 
is jinished when brought to the period proposed ; it 
is concluded with a recapitulation of the leading 
events. 

Close and finish are employed generally, and in the 
ordinary transactions of life; the former in speaking 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


e{ times, seasons, periods, &c. the latter with regard 
to occupations and pursuits; conclusion is used parti- 
cularly in speaking of moral and intellectual operations. 
A reign, an entertainment, an age, ayear, may have its 
close ; a drawing, an exercise, a piece of work, may be 
jimished ; a discourse, a story, an affair, a negotiation 
may be concluded. The close of Alfred’s reign was 
more peaceful than the commencement: those who 
are careful as to what they begin will be careful to 
jinisk what they have begun: some preachers seldom 
awaken attention in their hearers until they come to 
the conclusion of their discourse ; 


Destruction hangs on every word we speak, 

On every thought, till the concluding stroke 

Determines all, and closes our design. 
ADDISON. 


The great work of which Justinian has the credit, 
although it comprehends the whole system of juris- 
prudence, was finished, we are told, in three years.’— 
Sir Wm. Jongs. 


———— 


COMPLETE, PERFECT, FINISHED. 


Complete, in French complet, Latin completus, par- 
ticiple of compleo to fill up, signifies the quality of 
being filled, or having all that is necessary ; perfect, in 
Latin perfectus, participle of perficto to perform or do 
thoroughly, signifies the state of being done thoroughly ; 
finished marks the state of being finished (v. To close). 

That is complete which has no deficiency: that is 
perfect which has positive excellence; and that is 
finished which has no omission in it. 

That to which any thing can be added is incom- 
plete; when it can be improved it is imperfect ; when 
more labour ought to be bestowed upon it it is wn- 
finished. A thing is complete in all its parts; ‘With 
us the reading of the Scripture is a part of our church 
liturgy, a special portion of the service which we do 
to God, and not an exercise to spend the time, when 
one doth wait for another coming, till the assembly of 
them that shall afterward worship him be complete.’ 
—Hooker. A thing is perfect as to the beauty and 
design of the construction; ‘It has been observed of 
children, that they are longer before they can pro- 
nounce perfect sounds, because perfect sounds are not 
pronounced to them.’—HawkeEeswortn. We count 
those things perfect which want nothing requisite for 
the end, whereto they are instituted.—Hooxkrr. A 
thing is finished as it comes from the hand of the 
workman, and answers his intention. A set of books 
is not complete when a volume is wanting: there is 
nothing in the proper sense perfect which is the work 
of man; but the term is used relatively for whatever 
makes the greatest approach to perfection: a finished 
performance evinces care and diligence on the part of 
the workman ; 'I would make what bears your name 
as finished as my last work ought to be; that is more 
finished than the rest.’—-Porz. A taste is said to be 
perfect to denote its intrinsick excellence, but it is said 
.0 be finished to denote its acquired excellence: ‘It is 
necessary for a man who would form to himself a 
finished taste of good writing, to be well versed in the 
works of the best criticks, ancient and modern.’—Ab- 
DISON. 

A thing may be complete or finished without being 
perfect: and it may be perfect without being either 
complete or finished. A sound is said to be perfect, 
but not complete or finished. 'The works of the an- 
cients are, as they have been handed down to us, in- 
complete, and some probably unjinished ; and yet the 
greater part are perfect in their way: the works of the 
moderns are mostly complete and finished; yet buta 
sinall part have any claims even to human perfection. 
The term complete may be applied in a bad as well as 
good sense: a complete knave implies one who is 
versed in every part of knavery; 


None better guard against a cheat, 
Than he who is a knave complete.—LeEwls. 


TO COMPLETE, FINISH, TERMINATE. 


Complete is to make complete; finish and termi- 
mate have been explained in the preceaing article 
‘» Toend). 


287 


We complete* what is undertaken by continuing to 
labour at it; we finish what is begun in a state of 
forwardness by putting the last hand to it », we termz- 
nate what ought not to last by bringing it to a close. 
So that the characteristick idea of completing is the 
conducting of a thing to its final period ; thatof finish 
ing, the arrival at that period; and that of termz- 
nating, the cessation of a thing. 

Completing has properly relation to permanent 
works only, whether mechanical or intellectual, we 
desire a thing to be completed from a curiosity to see 
it in its entire state ; ‘It is perhaps kindly provided by 
nature, that as the feathers and strength of a bird grow 
together, and her wings are not completed till she is 
able to fly, so some proportion should be preserved in 
the human kind between judgement and courage.’— 
Jounson. To finish is employed for passing occupa- 
tions; we wish a thing finished from an anxiety to pro- 
ceed to something else, or a dislike to the thing in 
which we are engaged ; ‘ The artificer, for the manu- 
facture which he finishes in a day, receives a certain 
sum; but the wit frequently gains no advantage from 
a performance at which he has toiled many months.’ 
—-HAWKESWORTH. Terminating respects discussions, 
differences, and ‘disputes. Light minds undertake 
many things without completing any. Children and 
unsteady people set about many things without finish- 
ing any. Litigious people terminate one dispute only 
to commence another. 


CONSUMMATION, COMPLETION. 


Consummation, Latin consummatio, compounded 
of con and summa the sum, signifies the summing or 
winding up of the whole—the putting a final period to 
any concern; completion signifies either the act of 
completing, or the state of being completed (v. To 
complete). 

The arrival at a conclusion is comprehended in both 
these terms, but they differ principally in application; 
wishes are consummated ; plans are completed: we 
often flatter ourselves that the completion, of all our 
plans will be the consummation of all our wishes, and 
thus expose ourselves to grievous disappointments: 
the consummation of the nuptial ceremony is not 
always the consummation of hopes and joys: it is fre- 
quently the beginning of misery and disappointment ; 
‘Tt is not to be doubted but it was a constant practice 
of all that is praiseworthy, which made her capable 
of beholding death, not as the dissolution but the 
consummation of life’—StxreLx. We often sacrifice 
much to the completion of a purpose which we after- 
ward find not worth the labour of attaining ; ‘ He 
makes it the utmost completion of an ill character to 
bear a malevolence to the best of men.’—Porpr. 

As epithets, consummate is employed only in a bad 
sense, and complete either in a good or bad sense 
those who are regarded as complete fools are not un- 
frequently consummate knaves: the theatre is not the 
only place for witnessing a farce; human life affords 
many of various descriptions; among the number of 
which we may reckon those as complete in their kind 
which are acted at elections, where consummate folly 
and consummate hypocrisy are practised by turns. 


RIPE, MATURE. 


Ripe is the English, mature the Latin word; the 
former has a universal application, both proper and 
improper; the latter has mostly an improper applica- 
tion. The idea of completion in growth is simply 
designated by the former term; the idea of moral per 
fection, as far at least as it is attainable, is marked by 
the latter: fruit is ripe when it requires no more sus 
tenance from the parent stock ; a judgement is mature 
which requires no more time and knowledge to render 
it perfect or fitted for exercise: in the same manner a 
project may be said to be ripe for execution, or a peo- 
ple ripe for revolt; 


So to his crowne, she him restor’d againe, 
In which he dyde, made ripe for deatn by eld 
SPENSER 


On the contrary, reflection may be said to be mature 
to which sufficiency of time has been given, and age 


* Vide Girard; “ Achever, finir, terminer ”’ 


2388 


may be said to be mature which has attained the 
highest pitch of perfection ; 


Th’ Athenian sage, revolving in his mind 

This weakness, blindness, madness of mankind, 
Foretold that in maturer days, though late 
When time should ripen the decrees of fate, 
Some god would light us.—JENYNs, 


Ripeness is however not always a good quality ; but 
maturity is always a perfection: the ripeness of 
some fruit diminishes the excellence of its flavour ; 
there are some fruits which have no flavour until 
they come to maturity. 


WHOLE, ENTIRE, COMPLETE, TOTAL, 
INTEGRAL. 


Whole excludes subtraction ; entire excludes divi- 
sion ; complete excludes deficiency: a whole orange 
has had nothing taken fromit ; an entzre orange is not 
yet cut; and a complete orange is grown to its full 
size. It is possible, therefore, for a thing to be who-.e 
and not entire ; and to be both, and yet not complete : 
an orange cut into parts is whole while all the parts 
remain together, butit is not entire. Hence we speak 
of a whole house, an entire set, and a complete book. 
The wholeness or integrity of a thing is destroyed at 
one’s pleasure ; the completeness depends upon cir- 
cumstances. 

Total denotes the aggregate of the parts; whole the 
junction of all the parts: the former is, therefore, em- 
ployed more in the moral sense to convey the idea of 
extent, and the latter mostly in the proper sense. 
Hence we speak of the total destruction of the whole 
city, or of some particular houses; the total amount 
of expenses; the whole expense of the war. Whole 
and total may in this manner be employed to denote 
things as well as qualities: in regard to material sub- 
stances wholes are always opposed to the parts 
which they are composed; the total is the collected 
sum of the parts: and the integral is the same as the 
integral number. 

The first four may likewise be employed as adverbs ; 
but wholly is a more familiar term than totally in ex- 
pressing the idea of extent; entirely is the same as 
undividedly; completely is the same as perfectly, with- 
out any thing wanting. We are wholly or totally ig- 
norant of the affair; we are entirely at the disposal or 
service of another; we are completely at variance in 
ur accounts. 

All these terms, except the last, are applied to moral 
objects with a similar distinction ; 


And all so forming an harmonious whole. 
THOMSON. 


‘The entire conquest of the passions is so difficult a 
work, that they who despair of it should think of a 
less difficult task, and only attempt to regulate them.’ 
—STEELE. 
And oft, when unobserv’d, 
Steal from the barn a straw, till soft and warm, 
Clean and complete, their habitation grows. 
THOMSON. 


Nothing under a total thorough change in the con- 
vert will suffice.’—SouTx. 


GROSS, TOTAL. 


Gross is connected with the word great: from the 
‘dea of size which enters into the original meaning of 
this term is derived that of quantity: total, from the 
Latin totus, signifies literally the whole. The gross 
implies that from which nothing has been taken: the 
total signifies that to which nothing need be added: 
the gross sum includes every thing without regard to 
what it may be: the total includes every thing which 
one wishes to include: we may, therefore, deduct from 
the gross that which does not immediately belong to 
it; but the total is that which admits of no deduction. 
The gross weight in trade is applicable to any article, 
the whole of which, good or bad, pure or dross, is 
included in opposition to the neat weight; the total 
amount supposes all to be included which ought to 
form a part, in opposition to any smaller amounts or 
subdivisions; when employed in the improper sense, 
they preserve the same distinction’ things are said to 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES 


be taken or considered in the gross, that is, in the Jatge 
and comprehensive way, one with another. ‘I have 
more than once found fault with those general reflec- 
tions which strike at kingdoms or commonwealths 
in the gross.’--Appison. Things are said to undergo 
a total change; ‘ Nature is either collected into one 
total, or diffused and distributed.’—Bacon. 


TO ACCOMPLISH, EFFECT, EXECUTE, 
ACHIEVE. 


Accomplish, in French accomplir, is compounded o1 
the intensive syllable ac or ad and complir, in Latiz 
compleo to complete, signifying to complete to the end ' 
effect, in Latin effectus, participle of efficio, compound 
ed of ef aud ex out of or up, and facto to make, sig 
nifies to make up until nothing remains to be done 
execute, in Latin executus, participle of exeguor, com 
pounded of ex and equor or sequor to follow, signifies 
to follow up or carry through to the end; achieve, in 
French achever, from chef a chief, signifies to perform 
as a chief, or perfectly. 

We accomplish an object, effect a purpose, execute 
A project, achieve an enterprise, Perseverance is re- 
quisite for accomplishing, means for effecting, abilities 
for executing, and spirit for achieving. Some persons 
are always striving to attain an end without ever ac- 
complishing what they propose; ‘It is the first rule in 
oratory that a man must appear such as he would 
persuade others to be; and that can be accomplished 
only by the force of his life.—Swirr. It is the part 
of wisdom to suit the means to the end when we have 
any scheme to effect ; ‘Reason considers the motive, | 
the means, and the end; and honours courage only 
when it is employed to effect the purpose of virtue.’-— 
Hawkeswortu. Those who are readiest in forming 
projects are not always the fittest for carrying them 
into execution ; ‘We are not to indulge our corporeal 
appetites with pleasures. that impair our intellectual 
vigour, nor gratify our minds with schemes which we 
know our lives must fail in attempting to execute.’— 
Jounson. That ardour of character which impels to 
the achievement of arduous undertakings belongs but 
to very few; ‘It is more than probable, that in case 
our freethinkers could once achieve their giorious de- 
sign of sinking the credit of the Christian religion, 
and causing the revenues to be withdrawn which their 
wiser forefathers had appointed to the support and 
encouragement of its teachers, in a little time the 
Shaster would be as intelligible as the Greek Testa- 
ment.’—BERKELEY. 

We should never give up what we have the least 
chance of. accomplishing, if it be worth the labour; 
nor pursue any plan which affords us no prospect of 
effecting what we wish; nor undertake what we do 
not feel ourselves competent to execute, particularly 
when there is any thing extraordinary to achieve. The 
friends of humanity exerted their utmost endeavours 
in behalf of the enslaved Africans, and after many 
years’ noble struggle at length accomplished their 
wishes as far as respects Great Britain, by obtaining 
a legislative enactment against the slave trade; but 
they have not yet been able to effect the total abolition 
of this nefarious traffick: the vices of individuals stir. 
interfere with the due execution of the laws of their 
country: yet this triumphof humanity, as far as it has 
been successful, exceeds in greatness the boldest 
achievements of antiquity. 


—— 


ACCOMPLISHED,* PERFECT. 


These epithets express an assemblage of all the qua- 
lities suitable to the subject ; and mark the qualifica 
tion in the highest degree. Accomplished refers only 
to the artificial refinements of the mind ; perfect is said 
of things in general, whether natural or artificial 
mental and corporeal 

An acquaintance with modern languages and tia 
ornamental branches of the arts and sciences consti- 
tutes a person accomplished ; ‘ For who expects that, 
under a tutor, a young gentleman should be an accom 

lished publick orator or logician.—Locxr. The 
highest possible degree of skill in any art constitutes 
man a peryect artist ; ; 


* Vide Abbe Girard: “ Accompli, parfait.” 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


Within a ken our army lies, 
Our men more perfect in the use of arms. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


An accomplished man needs no moral endowment to 
entitle him to the name; ‘The English nation in the 
time of Shakspeare was yet struggling to emerge from 
barbarity ; and to be able to read and write was an 
accomplishmext still valued for its rarity’ —JoHnson. 
A perfect man, if such a one there could be, must 
oe free from every moral imperfection, and endowed 
with every virtue; ‘A man endowed with great per- 
‘ections, without good breeding, is like one who has 
his pocket full of gold, but always wants change for 
bis ordinary eccasions.—STEELE. Accomplished is 
6dpiied only to persons ; perfect is applicable not only 
to persons but to works, and every thing else as occa- 
sion recuires; it may likewise be employed in a bad 
sense to magnify any unfavourable quality. 


QUALIFICATION, ACCOMPLISHMENT. 


The qualification serves the purpose of utility; the 
accomplishment serves to adorn: by the first we are 
emab!ed to make ourselves useful; by the second we 
are enabled to make ourselves agreeable. 

The qualifications of a man who has an office to 
perform must be considered: of a man who has only 
pleasure to pursue the accomplishments are to be con- 
sidered. A readiness with one’s pen, and a facility at 
eecuunts, are necessary qualifications either for a 
school or a counting-house; ‘The companion of an 
evening, and the companion for life, require very dif- 
ferent gualifications.—Jounson. Drawing is one of 
the most agreeable and suitable accomplishments that 
can be given to a young person; ‘ Where nature be- 
stows genius, education will give accomplishments.’— 
CUMBERLAND. 


—— 


TC FULFIL, ACCOMPLISH, REALIZE, 


To fuifl is literally to fill quite full, that is, to bring 
about ful! to the wishes of a person; accomplish (v. 
To accomplish) is to bring to perfection, but without 
reference to the wishes of any one; to realize is to 
make real, namely, whatever has been aimed at. The 
application of these terms is evident from their expli- 
cations: the wishes, the expectations, the intentions, 
and promises of an individual, are appropriately said 
to be fulfilled ; national projects, or undertakings, pro- 
phecies, and whatever is of general interest, are said 
to be accomplished: the fortune, or the prospects of an 
individual, or whatever results successfully from spe- 
cifick efforts, is said to be realized: the fulfilment of 
wishes may be as much the effect of good fortune as 
of design; ‘The palsied dotard looks round him, per- 
ceives himself to be alone ; he has survived his friends, 
and he wishes to follow them; his wish is fulfilled ; 
he drops torpid and insensible into that gulf which is 
deeper than the grave..—HawkeEswortH. The ac- 
complishment of projects mostly results from extraor- 
dinary exertion, as the accomplishment of prophecies 
results from a miraculous exertion of power: ‘God 
bless you, sweet boy! and accomplish the joyful hope { 
conceived of you.’-—Sir Puivir Sipney. . The reali- 
zation of hopes results more commonly from the slow 
process of moderate well-combined efforts than from 
any thing extraordinary; ‘ After my fancy had been 
busied in attempting to realize the scenes that Shaks- 
peare drew, I regretted that the labour was ineffectual. 

HAWKESWORTH. 


TO KEEP, OBSERVE, FULFIL. 


These terms are synonymous in the moral sense of 
abiding by, and carrying into execution, what is pre- 
scribed or set before one for his rule of conduct: to 
keep (v. To keep) is simply to have by one in such 
manner that it shall not depart; to observe, from the 
Latin observo, i. e. ob and servo to keep in one’s view, 
is to keep with a steady attention; to fulfil (v. To ac- 
complish) is to keep to the end or to the full intent. A 
day is either kept or observed; yet the former is not 
only a more familiar term, but it likewise implies a 
much less solemn act than the latter; one must add, 
therefore, the mode in which it is kept, by saying that 
itis kept holy, kept sacred or kept as a day of pleasure; 

19 


283 


| the term observe, however, implies always that it is 


pc ey ne 


kept religiously: we may keep, but we do not observea 
birth-day ; we keep or observe the Sabbath. 

To keep marks simply perseverance or continuance 
in a thing; a man keeps his word if he do not depart 
from it; 


It is a great sin to swear unto a sin, 
But greater sin to keep a sinful oath SHAKSPEARE 


To observe marks fidelity and consideration ; we ob- 
serve a rule when we are careful to be guided by it; 
‘T doubt whether any of our authors have yet been 
able for twenty lines together, nicely to observe the true 
definition of easy poetry.—Jounson. To fulfil marks 
the perfection and consummation of that which one 
has kept ; we fulfil a promise by acting in strict con- 
formity to it; ‘You might have seen this poor child 
arrived at an age to fulfil all your hopes, and then you 
might have lost him.’—Gray.  - 

A person is said to keep the Jaw when he does not 
commit any violent breach of it; he observes every 
minutia in the law, if he is anxious to show himself a 
good citizen; by this conduct he fulfils the intentions 
of the legislator: St. Paul recommends to Christians 
to keep the faith, which they can never do effectually, 
unless they observe all the precepts of our Saviour, and 
thereby fuljil the law: children may keep silence wher 
they are desired; but it is seldom in their power to 0d 
serve it as arule, because they have not “sufficient 
understanding. 


TO EXECUTE, FULFIL, PERFORM 


To execute (v. To accomplish) is more than to fulf 
and to fulfil than to perform, which signifies to form 
thoroughly or make complete. To execute is to bring 
about an end; itinvolves active measures, and is pecu- 
liarly applicable to that which is extraordinary, or that 
which requires particular spirit and talents; schemes 
of ambition are executed, and great designs are exe- 
cuted ; 

Why delays 
His hand to execute what his decree 
Fix’d on this day 7~—Mi.Ton. 


To fuljil is to satisfy a moral obligation; it is appli 
cable to those duties in which rectitude and equity are 
involved; we fulfil the duties of citizens, but one may 
also fulfil purposes good or bad ; 


To whom the white-arm’d goddess thus replies 
Enough thou know’st the tyrant of the skies, 
Severely bent his purpose to fudfil, 

Unmov’d his mind, and unrestrain’d his will.—Porz 


To perform is to carry through by simple action ov 
labour; itis more particularly applicable to the ordi 
nary and regular business of life; we perform a work 
or an office: 


When those who round the wasted fires remain, 
Perform the last sad office to the slain.—Drypxn. 


One exécutes according to the intentions of others; the 
soldier executes the orders of his general; the mer- 
chant executes the commissions of his correspondent; 
‘ He casts into the balance the promise of a reward to 
such as should execute, and of punishment to such as 
should neglect, their commission.’--Souts. One fui- 
jils according to the wishes and expectations of others; 
it is the part of an honest man to enter into no engage- 
ments which he cannot fulfil ; it is the part of a duti- 
ful son, by diligence and assiduity, to endeavour to 
fulfil the expectations of an anxious parent; 


If on my wounded breast thou drop’st a tear, 

Think for whose sake my breast that wound did bear, 
And faithfully my last desires fulfil, 

As I perform my cruel father’s will. 


One performs according to circumstances, what suits 
one’s own convenience and purposes ; every good man 
is anxious to perform his part in life with credit and 
advantage to himself and others; ‘He effectually per- 
formed his part with great integrity, learning, and 
acuteness; with the exactness of a scholar, and the 
judgement of a complete divine.’--WaTERLAND. 


TO EFFECT, PRODUCE, PERFORM. 


The two latter are in reality included in the former ; 
what is effected is both produced and performed; but 


. 


290 


what is produced or performed is not always effected ; 
effect (v. Accomplish) signifies to make out any thing ; 
produce, from the Latin produco, signifies literally to 
draw forth; perform, compounded of per and form, 
signifies to form thoroughly or carry through. 

To produce signifies to bring something forth or 
into existence ; to perform, to do something to the end: 
to effect is to produce by performing : whatever is 
effected is the consequence of a specifick design; it 
always requires therefore a conscious agent to effect; 

The united powers of hell are joined together for the 
destruction of mankind, which they effected in part.’— 
Appison. What is produced may follow incidentally, 
or arise from the action of an irrational agent or an 
inanimate object; ‘ Though prudence does in a great 
measure produce our good or ill fortune, there are 
many unforeseen occurrences which pervert the finest 
schemes that can be laid by human wisdom.’—A ppI- 
son. What is performed is done by specifick efforts ; 
it is therefore like what is effected, the consequence of 
design, and requires a rationalagent; ‘ Where there 
isa power to perform, God does not accept the will.’ 
—SouTs. 

Effect respects both the end and the means by which 
it is brought about; we speak of the object to be 
effected, and the way of effecting it: produce has a 
particular reference to the end cr the thing produced ; 
perform to the means or to the course pursued. No 
person ought to calculate on effecting a reformation in 
the morals of men, without the aid of religion. Small 
changes in society often produce great evils. Ths per- 
formance of a person’s duty is estimated according as 
it is faithful or otherwise. 

To effect is said of that which emanates from the 
mind of the agent himself; to perform, of that which 
is marked out by rule, or prescribed by another. We 
effect a purpose ; we perform a part, a duty, or office. 
A true Christian is always happy when he can effect a 
reconciliation between parties who are at variance: it 
is a laudable ambition to strive to perform one’s part 
creditably in society. 


EFFECTIVE, EFFICIENT, EFFECTUAL, 
EFFICACIOUS. 


Effective signifies capable of effecting ; efficient sig- 
nifies literally effecting ; effectual and efficacious sig- 
nify having the effect, or possessing the power to effect. 
The former two are used only in regard to physical 
objects, the latter two in regard to moral objects. An 
army or a military force is effective; ‘ I should suspend 
my congratulations on the new liberties of France, 
until I was informed how it had been combined with 
government, with the discipline of the armies, and the 
collection of an effective revenue.—Burxke. A cause 
is efficient ; ‘No searcher has yet found the efficient 
cause of sleep..—Jounson. A remedy or cure is 
effectual ; ‘ Nothing so effectually deadens the taste of 
the sublime, as that which is light and radiant.’— 
Burke. A medicine is efficacious, and in the moral 
sense motives or measures are termed efficacious. 

The end or result is effectual, the means are effica- 
cious. No effectual stop can be put to the vices of the 
lower orders, while they have a vicious example from 
their superiours; ‘Sometimes the sight of the altar, 
and decent preparations for devotion, may compose 
and recover the wandering mind more effectwally than 
asermon.’—Souru. A seasonable exercise of severity 
on an offender is often very efficacious in quelling a 
spirit of insubordination. When a thing is not found 
effectual, it is requisite to have recourse to farther 
measures; that which has been proved to be ineffica- 
cious should never be adopted; ‘He who labours to 
lessen the dignity of human nature, destroys many 
efficacious motives for practising worthy actions.’— 
WarRTON. 


VAIN, INEFFECTUAL, FRUITLESS. 


Vain, v. Idle; ineffectual, that is, not effectual 
‘o. Effective) ; fruitless, that is, without fruzt, signi- 
fies not producing the desired fruit of one’s labour. 

These epithets are all applied to our endeavours; 
but the term vain is the most general and indefinite; 
the other terms are particular and definite. What we 
aim at, as well as what we strive for, may be vazn ; 
but ineffectual and fruitless refer only to the termina- 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


tion of our Jabours. When the object aimed at ts 


general in its import, it is common to term the endea 


vour vain when it cannot attain this object it is van 


to attempt to reform a person’s character until he is 
convinced that he stands in need of reformation ; 


Vain is the force of man 
To crush the pillars which the piles sustain. 
’ DRYDEN. 
Nature aloud calls out for balmy rest, 
But all in vaint.—GENTLEMAN. 


When the means employed are inadequate for the at 
tainment of the particular end, it is usual to call the 
endeavour ineffectual ; cool arguments will be inef 


fectual in convincing any one inflamed with a parti 


cular passion ; 
Thou thyself with scorn 
And anger would resent the offer’d wrong, 
Though ineffectual found.—MiTon. 


When labour is specifically employed for the attain 
ment of a particular object, it is usual to term it fruzt- 
less if it fail: peace-makers will often find themselves 
in this condition, that their labours will be rendered 


fruitless by the violent passions of angry opponents ; 


‘After many fruitless overtures, the Inca, despairing 
of any cordial union with a Spaniard, attacked him by 


surprise with a numerous body.’—ROBERTSON. 


EFFECT, CONSEQUENCE, RESULT, ISSUE, 
EVENT. 


Effect signifies that which is effected or produced by 
an operating cause; consequence, in French conse- 
quence, Latin consequentia, from consequor to follow, 
signifies that which follows in connexion with some- 
thing else; result, in French resulie, Latin resulto or 
resultus and resilio to rebound, signifies that which 
springs or bounds back from another thing; event has 
the same signification as given under the head of 
Accident ; issue signifies that which issues or flows 
out of another thing. 

Effect and consequence agree in expressing that 
which follows any thing, but the former marks what 
follows from a connexion between the two objects; 
the term consequence is not thus limited: an effect is 
that which necessarily flows out of the cause, between 
which the connexion is so intimate that we cannot 
think of the one without the other. In the nature of 
things, causes will have effects ; and for every effect 
there will be a cause: a consequence, on the other 
hand, may be either casual or natural; it is that on 
which we cannot calculate. Effect applies either to 
physical or moral objects, consequence only to moral 
subjects. 

There are many diseases which are the effects of 
mere intemperance: an imprudent step in one’s first 
setting out in life is often attended with fatal conse- 
quences. A mild answer has the effect of turning 
away wrath; ‘A passion for praise produces very 
good effects..--Appison. The loss of character is the 
general consequence of an irregular life; ‘ Were it pos- 
sible for any thing in the Christian faith to be erro- 
neous, I can find no ill consequences in adhering to it.’ 
—ADDISON. 

Consequences flow of themselves from the nature of 
things; results are drawn. Consequences proceed 
from actions in general; results proceed from parti- 
cular efforts and attempts. Consequences are good or 
bad; ‘Jealousy often draws after it a fatal train of 
consequences.’ ADDISON. Results are successful or 
unsuccessful; ‘The state of the world is continually 
changing, and none can tell the result of the next 
vicissitude.’—Juanson. 

We endeavour to avert consequences which threaten 
to be bad; we endeavour to produce results that are 
according to our wishes. Not to foresee the conse- 
quences Which are foreseen by others, evinces a more 
than ordinary share of indiscretion and infatuation 
To calculate on a favourable result from an i!!-indgea 
and ill-executed enterprise, only proves a consisten’ 
blindness in the projector. 

The term event respects great undertakings; zssue 
particular efforts; consequence respects every thing 
which can produce a consequence. Hence we speak 
of the event of a war: the issue of a negotiation 
and the consequences of either. ‘The measures of 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES 


government are often unjustly praised or blamed ac- 
cording to the event ; ‘It has always been the practice 
of mankind to judge of actions by the events.’--JoHN- 
son. The fate of a nation sometimes hangs on the 
-isswe of a battle; ‘A mild, unruffled, selfpossessing 
mind is a blessing more important to real felicity than 
all that can be gained by the triumphant issue of some 
violent contest..—-Briarr. The conquest of a nation 
is one cf the consequences which follow the defeat of 
{ts armies; ‘Henley in one of his advertisements had 
mentioned Pope’s treatment of Savage; this was sup- 
posed by Pope to be the consequence of a complaint 
made by Savage to Henley, and was therefore men- 
tioned by him with much resentment.’--JoHNson. 
We must be prepared for events, which are frequently 
above our control: we must exert ourselves to bring 
about a favourable issue; address and activity will 
go far towards ensuring success: but if after all our 
efforts we still fail, it is our duty to submit with patient 
resignation to the consequences. 


TO ARISE, PROCEED, ISSUE, SPRING, 
FLOW, EMANATE. 


rise in its original meaning signifies to go upwards 
(v. To arise), but is here taken in the sense of coming 
out from; proceed, in Latin procedo, that is pro and 
cedo to go, signifies to go forth ; zssue, in French issze, 
comes from the Latin isse or ivisse, infinite of eo, 
and the Hebrew SY” to go out; spring, in German 
springen, comes from rinnen to run like water, and is 
connected with the Greek Boverv to pour out; flor, in 
Saxon fleowan, Low German flogan, High German 
fliessen, Latin fluo, &c., all from the Greek Bbw or 
BAvGw, which is an onomatopeia expressing the mur- 
mur of waters; emanate, in Latin emanatus, participle 
of emano, compounded of mano to flow, from the 


Hebrew 73") and Chaldee } ‘3 waters, expressing 
the motion of waters. 

The idea of one object coming out of another is ex- 
pressed by all these terms, but they differ in the cir- 
cumstances of the action. What comes up out of a 
body and rises into existence is said to arise, as the 
mist which rises or arises out of the sea; 


From roots hard hkazels, and from scions rise 
Tall ash, and taller oak that mates the skies. 
DRYDEN. 


What comes forth as it were gradually into observation 
is said to proceed ; 


Teach me the various labours of the moon, 
And whence proceed the eclipses of the sun. 
- DRYDEN. 


Thus the light proceeds from a certain quarter of the 
heavens, or from a certain part of a house: what 
comes out from a small aperture is said to zssue; thus 
perspiration issues through the pores of the skin; 
water issues sometimes from the sides of rocks: what 
comes out ina sudden or quick manner, or comes from 
some remote source, is said to spring; thus blood 
springs from an. artery which is pricked; water 
springs up out of the earth: what comes out in quan- 
tities or in a stream is said to flow; thus blood flows 
from a wound; to emanate is a species of flowing by a 
natural operation, when bodies send forth, or seem to 
send forth, particles of their own composition from 
themselves; thus light emanates from the sun. 

This distinction in the signification of these terms 
8 kept up in their moral acceptation, where the idea 
of one thing originating from another is common to 
them all; but in this case arise is a general term, 
which simply implies the coming into existence; but 
proceed conveys ajso the idea of a progressive move- 
ment into existence. «Every object therefore may be 
said to arise out of whatever produces it; but it pro- 
ceeds trom it only when it is gradually produced: evils 
are continually arising in human society for which 
there is no specifick remedy ; ‘The greatest misfortunes 
men fall into arise from themseives”—Srrrite. In 
complicated disorders it is not always possible to say 
precisely from what the complaint of the patient 
proceeds ; / 


But whence proceed these hopes, or whence this dread; 
If nothing really can affect the dead ?—Jrnyns. 


yesue is seldom used but in application to sensible 
nek 


s 


291 


objects; yet we may say, in conformity to the original 
meaning, that words issue from the mouth ; 


As when some huntsman with a flying spear 

From the blind thicket wounds a stately deer, 

Down his cleft side while fresh the blood distils, 

He bounds aloft and scuds from hills to hills, 

Til! life’s warm vapour issuing through the wound 

Wild mountain wolves the fainting beast pirate 
‘ OPE. 


‘ Providence is the great sanctuary to the afflicted who 
maintain their integrity: and often there has zssued 
from this sanctuary the most seasonable relief.’—BLarr. 
The idea of the distant source or origin is kept up 
in the moral application of the term spring, when 
we say that actions spring from a generous or corrupt 
principle ; 

All from utility this law approve, 

As every private bliss must spring from social love. 

JENYNS. 


The idea of a quantity and a stream is preserved in 
the moral use of the terms flew and emanate; but the 
former may be said of that which is not inherent in 
the body: the latter respects that only which forms a 
component part of the body: God is the spring whence 
all our blessings flow: all authority emanates from 
God, who is the supreme source of all things: theolo- 
gians, when speaking of God, say that the Son 
emanates from the Father, and the Holy Ghost from 
the Father and the Son, and that grace flows upon us 
incessantiy from the inexhaustible treasures of Divine 
mercy; ‘As light and heat flow from the sun as their 
centre, so bliss and joy jlow from the Deity.’.—Buair. 
‘ As in the next world so in this, the only solid bless- 
ings are owing to the goodness of the mind, not the 
extent of the capacity; friendship here is an ema- 
pagen from the same source as beatitude there ’- 
OPE. 


TO RISE, ISSUE, EMERGE. 


To rise (v. To arise) may either refer to open or 
enclosed spaces; issue (v. To arise) and emerge, in 
Latin emergo to rise out of, have both a reference to 
some confined body: a thing may either rise in a body, 
without a body, or out of a body; but they zsswe and 
emerge out of a body. A thing may either rise ina 
plain or a wood; it isswes out of a wood: it may 
either vise in water or out of the water; it emerges 
from the water; that which rzses out of a thing comes 
into view by becoming higher: in this manner an air 
balloon might 7%se out of a wood; 


Ye mists and exhalations that now 77se, 
In honour to the world’s great author rise. 
MILTon. 


That which issues comes out in a line with the object; 
horsemen 7ss#¢ from a wood; that which issues comes 
from the very depths of it, and comes as it were out 
as a part of it; ‘Does not the earth quit scores with 
all the elements in the noble fruits and productions 
that issue from it?—Sourn. That which emerges 
proceeds from the thing in which it has been, as it 
were, concealed ; 


Let earth dissolve, yon ponderous orbs descend, 
And grind us into dust, the soul is safe, 
The man emerges.—YounG. 


Hence in a moral or extended application, a person is 
said to rise in life without a reference to his former 
condition ; but he emerges from obscurity : colour rises 
in the face; but words zssue from the mouth 


OFFSPRING, PROGENY, ISSUE. 


Offspring is that which springs off or from: progeny 
that which is brought forth or out of ; zsswe that which 
issues or proceeds from; and all in relation to the 
family or generation of the human species. Offspring 
is a familiar term applicable to one or many children, 
progeny is employed only as a collective noun for a 
number; issue is used in an indefinite manner without 
particular regard to number. When we speak of the 
children themselves, we denominate them the off- 
spring ; ‘The same cause that has drawn the hatred 
of God and man upon the father of liars may justly 
entail it upon his offspring toc ’—Sourn. When we 


292 


epeak of the parents, we denominate the children 
their progeny ; 
The base, degen’rate iron offspring ends, 
A golden progeny from Heav’n descends. 
DRYDEN. 


A child is said to be the only offspring of his parents, 
or he is said to be the offspring of low parents; a man 
is said to have a numerous or a healthy progeny, or to 
leave his progeny in circumstances of "honour and 
prosperity. The zssue issaid only in regard to a man 
that is deceased: he dies with male or female issue ; 
with or without issue; his property descends to his 
male issue in a direct line; 


Next him King Leyr, in happy place long reigned, , 
But had no issue male him to succeed.—SPENSER. 


ORIGIN ORIGINAL, BEGINNING, RISE, 
SOURCE. 


Origin or original both come from the Latin ortor 
to rise: the former designating the abstract property of 
rising ; the latter the thing that is risen. The origin 
is said only of things that rise; the original is said of 
those which give an origin to another: the origin 
serves to date the existence of a thing; the original 
serves to show the author of a thing, and is opposed to 
the copy. The origin of the world is described in the 
first chapter of Genesis; Adam was the original from 
whom all the human race has sprung; 


And had his better half, his bride, 
Carv’d from th’ original, his side.—BuTLER. 


The origin has respect to the cause; the beginning 
to the period of existence: every thing owes its exist- 
ence to the origin; it dates its existence from the be- 
ginning; there cannot be an origin without a begin- 
ning ; but there may be a beginning where we do not 
speak of an origin. We look to the origin of a thing 
in order to learn its nature; ‘ Christianity explains the 
origin of all the disorders which at present take place 
on earth.,—Brair. Welook'to the beginning in order 
to learn its duration or other circumstances ; 


But wit and weaving had the same beginning, 
Pallas first taught in poetry and spinning.—SwirFtT. 


When we have discovered the origin of a quarrel, we 
are in a fair way of becoming acquainted with the 
aggressors; when we trace a quarrel to the beginning, 
we may easily ascertain how long it has lasted. 

The origin and the rise are both employed for the 
primary state of existence; but the latter is a much 
more familiar term than the former: we speak of the 
origin of an empire, the origin of a family, the origin 
of a dispute, and the like; but we say that a river 
takes its vise from a certain mountain, that certain 
disorders take their rise from particular circumstances 
which happen in early life: it is more@wer observable 
that the orz?gin is confined solely to the first commence- 
ment of a thing’s existence ; but the rise comprehends 
its gradual progress in the first stages of its existence; 
‘The friendship which is to be practised or expected 
by commen mortals must take its:7ise from mutual 
pleasure.—Jounson. The origin of the noblest fami- 
lies is in the first instance sometimes ignoble; the 
largest rivers take their rise in small streams. We 
iook to the origin as to the cause of existence: we 
look to the rise as to the situation in which the thing 
commences to exist, or the process by which it grows 
up into existence. It is in vain to attempt to search 
the origin of evil, unless as we find it explained in 
the word of God. Evil diseases take their rise in 
certain parts of the body, and after lying for some time 
dormant, break out in after-life. 

The origin and rise are said of only one subject; 
the source is said of that which produces a succession 
of objects: the origin of evil in general has given rise 
to much speculation; the love of pleasure is the source 
ef incalculable mischiefs to individuals, as well as to 
society at large; 

Famous Greece, 
That source of art and cultivated thought 
Which they to Rome, and Romans hither brought. 
WALuER. 
The origin exists but once; the source is lasting; 
One source of the sublime is infinity..—--BurKr. The 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


origin of every family is to be traced to our first parent, 
Adam: we have a never-failing source of consolation 
in religion. 


TO BEGIN, COMMENCE, ENTER UPON. 


Begin, in German beginnen, is compounded of 5 
and ginnen, probably a frequentative of gehen to go, 
signifying to go first to a thing; commence, in French 
commencer, is not improbably derived from the Latin 
commendo, signifying to betake one’s self to a thing; 
enter, in Latin zntro within, signifies, with the prepo- 
sition upon, to go into a thing. 

Begin and commence are so strictly allied in signi- 
nification, that it is not easy to discover the difference 
in their application ; although a minute differcace does 
exist. To begin respects the order of lime; ‘ When 
beginning to act your part, what can be of greater 
moment than to regulate your plan of conduct with 
the most serious attention ?’/—Buarir.- To commence 
implies the exertion of setting about a thing; ‘By the 
destination of his Creator, and the necessities of his 
nature, man commences at once an active, not merely 
a contemplative, being.—Buarr. Whoever begins a 
dispute is termed the aggressor ; no one should com- 
mence a dispute unless he can calculate the conse- 
quences, and as this is impracticable, it is better never 
to commence disputes, particularly such as are to be 
decided by law. _ Begin is opposed to end: commence 
to. complete: a person begins a thing with a view of 
ending it; he commences a thing with a view of com 
pleting it. 

To degin is either transitive or intransitive; to com 
mence is mostly transitive: a speaker begins by apo- 
logizing; he commences his speech with an apology: 
happiness frequently ends where prosperity begins ; 
whoever commences any undertaking, without. esti- 
mating his own power, must not expect to succeed. 

To begin is used either for things or persons; to 
commence for persons ouly: all things have their be 
ginning ; in order to effect any thing, we must make a 
commencement : a word begins with a particular letter, 
or a line begins with a particular word; a person com- 
mences his career. Lastly, begin is more colloquial 
than commence: thus we say, to begin the work ; te 
commence the operation: to begin one’s "play; to com- 
mence the pursuit: to begin to write; to commence the 
letter. 

To commence and enter upon are as closely allied in 
sense as the former words; they differ principally in 
application : to commence seems rather to denote thi 
making an experiment; 


If wit so much from ign’rance undergo, 
Ah! let not learning too commence its foe ! 
PopE. 


To enter upon, that of first doing what has not been 
tried before:.we commence an undertaking; ‘If any — 
man has a mind to enter upon such a voluntary absti- 
nence, it might not be improper to give him the cau- 
tion of Pythagoras, in particular: Adstine a fabis, 
that is, say the interpreters, ‘‘meddle not with elec- 
tions.” ’--App1son. ‘We enter upon an employment; 
speculating people are very ready to commence schemes , 
considerate people are always averse to entering upon 
any office, until they feel themselves fully adequate to 
discharge its duties. 


TO MAKE, FORM, PRODUCH, CREATE. 


The idea of giving birth to a thing is common to all 
these terms, which vary in the circumstances ‘of the 
action: to make (v. To make) is the most general and 
unqualified term ; to form signifies to give a form toe 
thing, that is, to make it after a given form (v. Form); 
to produce (v. To effect) is to bring forth into the light 
to call into existence; to create (v. To cause) is te 
bring into existence by an ahsolute exercise of power 
to make is the simplest action of all, and comprehend 
a simple combination by the smallest efforts; to fori 
requires care and attention, and greater efforts; te 
produce requires time, and also labour: whatever is 
put together so as to become another thing, is made: a 
chair or a table is made ; whatever is put into any dis- 
tinct form is formed ; the potter forms the clay into ar 
earthen vessel: whatever emanates from a thing, so 
as to become a distinct object, is produced ; fire is often 
produced by the violent friction of two p’eces of wood 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 293 


“with each other. The process of making is always 
perfoimed by some conscious agent, who employs 
either mechanical means, or the simple exercise of 
power. a bird makes its nest; man makes various 
things, by the exercise of his understanding and his 
limbs; the Almighty Maker has made every thing by 
his word. The process of forming does not always 
require a conscious agent; things are likewise formed 
of themselves; or they are formed by the active opera- 
tions of other bodies; melted lead, when thrown into 
water, will form itself into globules and masses of 
various shapes; hard substances are formed in the 
numan body which give rise to the disease termed the 
gravel. What is produced is oftener produced by the 
process of nature, than by any express design; the 
earth produces all kinds of vegetables from seed ; 
animals, by a similar process, produce their young. 
Create, in this natural sense of the term, is employed 
as the act of an intelligent being, and that of the 
Supreme Being only; it is the act of making by a 
simple effort of power, without the use of materials, 
and without any process. 

They are all employed in the moral sense, and with 
a similar distinction: make is indefinite; we may 
make a thing that is difficult or easy, simple or com- 
plex; we may make a letter, or make a poem ; we may 
make a word, or make a contract; ‘In every treaty 
those concessions which he (Charles I.) thought he 
could not maintain, he never could by any motive or 
persuasion be induced to make..—Humr. To form is 
the work either of intelligence, or of circumstances : 
education has much to do in forming the habits, but 
nature has more to do in forming the disposition and 
the mind altogether ; sentiments are frequently formed 
by young people before they have sufficient maturity 
of thought and knowledge to justify them in coming 
to any decision; ‘Homer’s and Virgil’s heroes do not 
form a resolution without the conduct and direction of 
some deity..—Appison. To produce is the effect of 
great mertal exertion; or it is the natural operation 
of things: no industry could ever produce a poem ora 
work of the imagination: but a history or a work of 
science may be produced by the force of mere labour. 
All things, both in the moral and intellectual world, 
are linked together upon the simple principle of cause 
and effect, by which one thing is the producer, and the 
other the thing produced: quarrels produce hatred, 
and kindness produces love; as heat produces inflam- 
mation and fever, or disease produces death; ‘A su- 
pernatural effect is that which is above any natural 
power, that we know of, to produce.’—TiLLoTson. 
Since genius is a spark of the Divine power that acts 
py its own independent agency, the property of crea- 
tion has been figuratively ascribed to it: the creative 
power of the human mind is a faint emblem of that 
power which brought every thing into existence out of 
nothing. 


A wondrous hieroglyphic robe she wore, 
In which all colours and all figures were, 
That nature or that fancy can create.—CowLeEy. 


FORM, FIGURE, CONFORMATION. 


Form, in French forme, Latin forma, most probably 
from déonua and gopéw to bear, signifies properly the 
image borne or stamped; figure (v. Figure) signifies 
the image feigned or conceived; conformation, in 
French conformation, in Latin conformatio, from con- 
form, signifies the image disposed or put together. 

* Form is the generick term; figure and conforma- 
tion are special terms. The form is the work either 
of nature or art; it results from the arrangement of 
the parts; the figure is the work of design: it includes 
the general contour or outline: the conformation in- 
cludes such a disposition of the parts of a body as is 
adapted for performing certain functions. Form is 
the property of every substance; and the artificial 
“orm approaches nearest to perfection, as it is most 
natural ; 


Matter, as wise logicians say, 

Cannot without a form subsist, 

And form, say I as well as they, 

Must fail if matter brings no grist.—Swirr. 


* Vide Girard: ‘Facon, figure, forme, conforma- 
Yon.” 


The figure is the fruit of the imagiation; it is the re 
presentation of the actual form that belongs to things ; 
it is more or less just as it approaches to the form of 
the thing itself ; ‘ When Cesar was one of the masters 
of the Roman mint, he placed the figure of an ele- 
phant upon the reverse of the publick money; the 
word Cesar signifying an elephant in the Punick 
language.’—Appison. Conformation is said only with 
regard to animal bodies; nature renders it more or less 
suitable according to the accidental occurrence of phy 
sical causes; ‘As the conformation of their organs 
are nearly the same in all men, so the manner of per- 
ceiving external objects is in all men the same.’— 
Burks. The erect form of man is one of the distin- 
guishing marks of his superiority over every other ter- 
restrial being : the human figure when well painted is 
an object. of admiration: the turn of the mind is 
doubtless influenced by the conformation of the bodily 
organs. A person’s form is said to be handsome or 
ugly, common or uncommon; his figure to be correct 
or incorrect; a conformation to be good or bad. 


* Heathens have worshipped the Deity under various 


forms ; mathe’ natical figures are the only true figures 
with which ve are acquainted: the craniologist af- 
aed to judg.: of characters by the conformation of the 
skull. 

Form “id figure are used in a moral application, 
although conformation is not. 

We speak of adopting a form of faith, a form of 
words, a form of godliness; 


O ceremony! show me but thy worth, 

Art thou aught else but place, degree, and form, 

Creating fear and awe in other men ? 
SHAKSPRARE, 


We speak of cutting a showy, a dismal, or ridiculous 
figure ; ‘Those who make the greatest figure in most 
arts and sciences are universally allowed to be of the 
British nation,—Appison. Form may also some- 
times be taken for the person who presents the form ; 


Lo, in the deep recesses of the wood, 

Before my eyes a beauteous form appears ; 

A virgin’s dress, and modest looks, she wears. 
WYNNE. 


The word figure is also used in a similar manner. 


TO FORM, FASHION, MOULD, SHAPE. 


To form is to put into a form, which is here as be 
fore (v. Form) the generick term: to fashion is to put 
into a particular or distinct form. to mould is to put 
into a set form: to shape is to form simply as it re 
spects the exteriour. As every thing receives a form 
when it receives existence, to form conveys the idea 
of producing ; ‘ Horace was intimate with a prince of 
the greatest goodness and humanity imaginable; and 
his court was formed after his example.’—StTre.e. 
When we wish to represent a thing as formed in any 
distinct or remarkable way, we may speak of it as 
fashioned : ‘ By the best information that I could get 
of this matter, lam apt to think that this prodigious 
pile was fashioned into the shape it now bears by 
several tools and instruments, of which they have a 
wonderful. variety in this country..—Appison. God 
formed man out of the dust of the ground; he fa- 
shioned him after his own image. When we wish to 
represent a thing as formed according to a precise rule, 
we should say it was moulded ; thus the habits of a 
man are moulded at the will of a superiour ; 


How dare you, mother, endless date demand, 
For vessels moulded by a mortal hand ?—Dryprn. 


When we wish to represent a thing as receiving the 
accidental qualities which distinguish it from others, 
we talk of shaping it: the potter shapes the clay; 
the milliner shapes the bonnet; a man shapes his 
actions to the humours of another; ‘Those nature 
hath skaped with a great head, narrow breast, and 
shoulders sticking out, seem niuch inclined to a con- 
sumption.’—Harvey. 

Nature has formed all animated beings with an in 
stinctive desire of self-preservation. Creatures fa 
shioned like ourselves with flesh and blood cannot at- 
tain to the perfection of spiritual beings. It is sup- 
posed by some that the human mind may be mouldea 
upon the principles of art at the will of the instructer, 
with the same ease that wax may be shaped into the 


294 


figure of a bird, a beast, or a man, at the pleasure of 
the artist. This is however true only in part. 


TO FORM, COMPOSE, CONSTITUTE. 


Form (v. Form, figure) signifies to give a form; 
compose has the same signification as given under the 
head Jo compose, settle; and constitute that given 
under the head of To constitute. 

Form is a generick and indefinite term. To com- 
pose and constitute are modes of forming. These 
words may be employed either to designate modes of 
action, or to characterize things. Things may be 
formed either by persons or things; they are composed 
and constituted only by conscious agents: thus per- 
sons form things, or things form one another: thus we 
form a circle, or the reflection of the light after rain 
forms a rainbow. Persons compose and constitute: 
thus a musician composes a piece of musick, or men 
constitute laws. Form in regard to persons is the act 
of the will and determination ; 


The liquid ore he drained 
Into fit molds prepar’d ; from which he form’d 
First his own tools.—MILTOoN. 


Compose is a work of the intellect ; ‘ Words so pleasing 
to God as those which the Son of God himself hath 
composed, were not possible for men to frame.'— 
Hooxer. Constitute is an act of power, which men 
must submit to. We forma party; we form a plan; 
Wwe compose a book; men constitute governments, 
offices, &c. 

When employed to characterize things, form signi- 
fies simply to have a form, be it either simple or com- 
plex; compose and constitute are said only of those 
things which have cemplex forms: the former as re- 
specting the material, the latter the essential parts of 
an object: thus we may say that an object forms a 
circle, or a semicircle, or the segment of a circle; ‘ All 
animals of the same kind which form a society are 
more knowing than others.’—Appison. A society is 
composed of individuals ; 


Nor did Israel ’scape 
Tl” infection, when their borrow’d gold composed 
The calf in Oriel—MitTon. 


Law and order constitute the essence of society; ‘To 
receive and to communicate assistance constitutes the 
happiness of human life.’—Jounson. So letters and 
syllables compose a word; but sense is essential to con- 
stitute a word. 


FORMAL, CEREMONIOUS. 


Formal and ceremonious, from form and ceremony 
(v. Form, ceremony), are either taken in an indifferent 
sense with respect to what contains form and cere- 
mony, or in a bad sense, as expressing the excess of 
form and ceremony. A person expects to have a 
formal dismissal before he considers himself as dis- 
missed; people of fashion pay each other ceremonious 
visits, by way of keeping up a distant intercourse. 
Whatever communications are made from one govern- 
ment to another must be made in a formal manner ; 
‘As there are formal and written leagues, respective 
to certain enemies; so there is a natural and tacit con- 
federation among all men against the common enemies 
of human society.,—Bacon. It is the business of the 
church to regulate the ceremonious part of religion. 
‘Under a different economy of religion, God was more 
tender of the shell and ceremonious part of his wor- 
ship.’—Souru. 

Formal, in the bad sense, is opposed to easy: cere- 
montous to the cordial. A formal carriage prevents a 
person from indulging himself in the innocent fami- 
liarities of friendly intercourse ; 


Formal in apparel, 
In gait and countenance surely like a father. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


A ceremonious carriage puts a stop to all hospitality 
and kindness. Princes, in their formal intercourse 
with each other, know nothing of the pleasures of so- 
ciety; ceremonious visitants give and receive enter- 
tainments, without tasting any of the enjoyments 
which flow from the reciprocity of kind offices ; ‘ From 
the moment one sets up for an author, one must be 
treated as ceremoniously, that is, as unfaithfully, “ as 
a king’s favourite, or as a king.” ’__-PopE. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


TO CAUSE, OCCASION, CREATE. 


To cause, from the substantive cause, naturally sig 
nifies to be the cause of ; occasion, from the noun o¢ 
caston, signifies to be the occasion of ; create, in Latin 
creatus, participle of creo, comes from the Greek xpéw 
to command, and xepatyw to perform. 

What is caused seems to follow naturally; what is 
occasioned follows incidentally; what is created re- 
ceives its existence arbitrarily... A wound causes pain; 
accidents occasion delay; busy-bodies.create mischief. 

The misfortunes of the children cawse great afilic 
tion to the parents; 


Scarcely an ill to human life belongs, 
But what our follies cause, or mutual wrongs. 
JENYNS. 


Business occasions a person’s late attendance at a 
place; ‘The good Psalmist condemns the foolish 
thoughts which a reflection on the prosperous state 
of his affairs had sometimes occasioned in him.’—AT 
TERBURY. Disputes and misunderstandings create ani- 
mosity and ill-will; ‘ As long as the powers or abilities 
which are ascribed to others are exerted in a sphere 
of action remote from ours, and not brought into com- 
petition with talents of the same kind to wliich we 
have pretensions, they create no jealousy.’—Buair. 
The cause of a person’s misfortunes may often be 
traced to his own misconduct; the improper beha- 
viour of one person may occaszon an ther to ask for 
an explanation: jealousies are created in the minds of 
relatives by an unnecessary reserve and distance. 


TO MAKE, DO, ACT. 


Make, in Dutch maken, Saxon macan, &c., comes 
from the Greek yynxavq art, signifying to put together 
with art; do, in German thun, comes probably from 
the Greek Osiva: to put, signifying to put, or put in 
order, to bring to pass; act, in Latin actus, from ago 
to direct, signifies literally to put in motion. 

We cannot make without doing, but we may do 
(v. To act) without making: to do is simply to move 
for acertain end; to make is to do, so as to bring some- 
thing into being, which was not before: we make a 
thing what it was not before; we do a thing in the 
same manner as we did it before: what is made is 
either better or worse, or the same as another ; 


Empire! thou poor and despicable thing ! 
When such as these make and unmake a king. 
DRYDEN 


What is done, is done either wisely or unwisely ; 


What shall I do to be for ever known, 
And make the age to come my own.—CowLey. 


We act whenever we do any thing, but we may act 
without doing any thing. ‘The verb act is always in- 
transitive; and do transitive; we do something, but 
not act something. The act approaches nearest to the 
idea of move; it is properly the exertion of power 
corporeal or mental: do is closely allied to effect ; it 1s 
the producing an effect by such an exertion. They 
act very unwisely who attempt to do more than their 
abilities will enable them to complete: whatever we 
do, \et us be careful to act considerately ; ‘ We have 
made this a maxim, ‘That a man who is commonly 
called good-natured is hardly to be thanked for what 
he does, because half that is acted about him is done 
rather by hissufferance than approbation.” ’—STsxLe ~ 


ACTION, ACT, DEED. 


The words action, act, and deed, though derived 
from the preceding verbs, have an obvious distinction 
in their meaning. 

* We mark the degrees of actzon which indicate 
energy; we mark the number of acts which may serve 
to designate a habit or character: we speak of a lively, 
vehement, or impetuous action; a man of action, in 
distinction from a mere talker or an idler; whatever 
rests without influence or movement has lost its ac- 
tion: we speak of many acts of a particular kind; 
we call him a fool who commits continued acts of 
folly; and him a niggafd who commits nothing but 
acts of meanness. 

Action is a continued exertion of power: act is ® 


Boubaud: ‘ Acte, action ” 


« 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


single exertion of power; ths physical movement; the 
simple acting. Our actions are our works in the 
strict sense of the word; our acts are the operations 
of our faculties. The character of a man must be 
judged by his actions; the merit of actions depends 
on the motives that give rise to them: the act of 
speaking is peculiar to man; but the acts of walking, 
running, eating, &c. are common to all animals. 

Actions may be considered either singly or col- 
lectively; acts are regarded only individually and 
specifically: we speak of all a man’s actions, but not 
all his acts; we say a good action, a virtuous action, a 
charitable action ; but an act, not an acticn of good- 
ness, an act of virtue, an act of faith, an act of cha- 
rity, and the like. It is a good action to conceal the 
faults of our neighbours; but a rare act of charity 
among men. Many noble actions are done in private, 
the consciousness of which is the only reward of the 
doer; the wisest of men may occasionally commit 
acts of folly which are not imputable to their general 
character; ‘Many of those actions which are apt to 
procure fame are not in their nature conducive to our 
ultimate happiness.—Appison. Nothing can be a 
greater act of imprudence than not to take an occa- 
sional review of our past actions; ‘I desire that the 
same rule may be extended to the whole fraternity of 
heathen gods; it being my design to condemn every 
poem to the flames, in which Jupiter thunders or 
exercises any act of authority which does not belong 
to him.’—Appison. 

Action* is a term applied to whatever is done in 
general; aet to that which is remarkable or that re- 
quires to be distinguished. The sentiments of the 
heart are easier to be discovered by one’s actions than by 
one’s words : it is an heroick act to forgive our enemy, 
when we are in a condition to be revenged on him. 
The good man is cautious in all his actions to avoid 
even the appearance of evil: a great prince is anxious 
to mark every year by some distinguished act of wis- 
dom or virtue. 

Act and deed are both employed for what is re- 
markable; but aet denotes only one single thing done ; 


Who forth from nothing call’d this comely frame, 
His will and act, his word and work the same. 
PRIOR. 


Deed implies some complicated performance, some- 
thing achieved: we display but one quality or power 
in performing an act; we display many, both phy- 
sical and mental, in performing a deed. A prince dis- 
tinguishes himself by acts of mercy; the commander 
of an army by martial deeds ; 
I on the other side 
Us’d no ambition te commend my deeds ; 
The deeds themselves, though mute, spoke loud the 
doer.—MILTon. 

ficts of disobedience in youth frequently lead to the 
Pa ao of the foulest deeds in more advanced 
ife. 


DEED, EXPLOIT, ACHIEVEMENT, FEAT. 


Deed, from do, expresses the thing done; explott, in 
French exploit, most probably changed from expiica- 
tus, signifies the thing unfolded or displayed; achieve- 
ment, from achieve, signifies the thing achieved ; feat, 
in French fazt, Latin factum, from faczo, signifies the 
thing done. 

The first three words rise progressively on each 
other: deeds, compared with the others, is employed 
for that which is ordinary or extraordinary ; exploit 
and achievement are used only for the extraordinary ; 
the latter in a higher sense than the former. 

Deeds roust always be characterized as good or bad, 
magnanimous or atrocious, and the like, except in 
poetry, where the term becomes elevated ; 


Great Pollio! thou for whom thy Rome prepares 

The ready triamph of thy finish’d wars ; 

Is there in fate an hour reserv’d for me 

To sing thy deeds in numbers worthy thee ? 
DryDEN. 


Exploit and achievement do not necessarily require 
any epithets; they are always taken in the proper 
sense for something great. Exploit, when compared 


* Girard “ Action, acte.” 


295 


with achievement, is a term used in plain prose; it 
designates not so much what is great as what is real : 
achievement is most adapted to poetry and romance ; 
it soars above what the eye sees, and the ear hears, and 
affords scope for the imagination. Martial deeds are 
as interesting to the reader as to the performer: the 
pages of modern history will be crowded with the 
exploits of Englishmen both by sea and land, as those 
of ancient and fabulous history are with the achieve- 
ments of their heroes and demi-gods. An ezploit 
marks only personal bravery in action; an achieve- 
ment denotes elevation of character in every respect 
grandeur of design, promptitude in execution, an 
valour in action. 

An exploit may be executed by the design and at the 
will of another; a common soldier or an army may 
perform exploits ; 


High matter thou enjoin’st me, O prime of men! 
Sad task and hard; for how shall I relate 
To human sense th’ invisible exploits 
Of warring spirits —MILTonN. 
An achievement is designed and executed by the 
achiever ; Hercules is distinguished for his achieve- 
; ments: and in the same manner we speak of the 
debian cman of knights-errant or of great comman- 
ers; 


| 
Great spoils and trophies gain’d by thee they bear, 
Then let thy own achievements be thy share. 
DRYDEN. 


Feat approaches nearest to ezplozt in signification ; 
the former marks skill, and the latter resolution. The 
feats of chivalry displayed in justs and tournaments 
were in former times as much esteemed as warlike 
exploits ; 

Much I have heard 
Of thy prodigious might, and feats perform’d. 
Mitton. 


Exploit and feat are often used in derision, to mark 
the absence of those qualities in the actions of indivi- 
duals. The soldier who affects to be foremost in situa- 
tions where there is no danger cannot be more pro- 
perly derided than by terming his action an exploit. 
he who prides himself on the display of skill in the 
performance of a paltry trick may be laughed at for 
having performed a feat. 


— 


ACTION, GESTURE, GESTICULATION, POS 
TURE, ATTITUDE, POSITION. 


Action is either the act of acting, or the manner of 
acting ; gesture, in French geste, Latin gestus, par 
ticiple of gero to carry one’s self, signifies the manner 
of carrying one’s body ; gesticutation, in Latin ges- 
ticulatto, comes from gesticulor to make many ges- 
tures ; posture, in French posture, Latin positura a 
position, comes from positus, participle of pono, signi- 
fying the manner of placing one’s self; attitude, in 
French attitude, Italian attitudine, is changed from 
aptitude, signifying a propriety as to disposition. 

All these terms are applied to the state of the body ; 
the former three indicating a state of motion; the 
latter two a state of rest. Action respects the move- 
ments of the body in general; gesture is an action 
indicative of some particular state of mind; gesticu- 
lation is a species of artificial gesture. 
arm is an action ; bowing is a gesture. 

Actions may be ungraceful; gestures indecent A 
suitable action sometimes gives great force to the words 
that are uttered; ‘Cicero concludes his celebrated 
book “de Cratore” with some precepts for pronun- 
ciation and action, without which part he affirms that 
the best orator in the world can never succeed.’— 
Hueues. Gestures often supply the place of lan- 
guage between people of different nations; ‘ Our best 
actors are somewhat at a loss to support themselves 
with proper gesture, as they move from any considera- 
ble distance to the front of the stage.—Srrrx. 4e- 
tions characterize a man as vulgar or well-bred ; ges- 
tures mark the temper of the mind. There are many 
actions which it is ‘the object of education to prevent 
from growing into habits: savages express the vehe- 
ment passions of the mind, by vehement gestures or 
every occasion, even in their amusements. An extra- 
vagant or unnatural gesture is termed a gesticulation ; 
a svcophant, who wishes to cringe into favour with 


Raising the 


296 


the great, deals largely in gesticulation to mark his 
devotion ; a buffoon who attempts to imitate the ges- 
tures of another will use gesticulation ; and the mon- 
key who apes the actions of human beings does so by 
means of gesticulations ; ‘ Neither the judges of our 
laws, nor the representatives of the people, would be 
much affected by laboured gesticulation, or believe 
any man the more, because he rolled his eyes, or 
puffed his cheeks.’ —JOHNSON. 

Posture * is a mode of placing the body more or 
less differing from the ordinary habits; attitude is the 
manner of keeping the body more or less suitable to 
the existing circumstances. A posture, however con- 
venient, is never assumed without exertion; it is there- 
fore willingly changed: an attitude, though not usual, 
is still according to the nature of things; it is therefore 
readily preserved. A posture is singular; it has some- 
thing in it which departs from the ordinary carriage 
of the body, and makes it remarkable; ‘Falsehood in 
a short time found by experience, that her superiority 
consisted only in the celerity of her course, and the 
change of her posture.—Jounson. An _ attitude is 
striking; it is the natural expression of character or 
impression ; ‘Falsehood always endeavoured to copy 
the mien and attitudes of truth.—Jounson. A brave 
man will put himself into a posture of defence, with- 
out assuming an attitude of defiance. 

Strange and furced positions of the body are termed 
postures ; noble, agreeable, and expressive forms of 
carriage, are called attitudes ; mountebanks and clowns 
put themselves into ridiculous postures in order to 
excite laughter; actors assume graceful attitudes to 
represent their characters. Postuwres are to the body 
what grimaces are to the face; attitudes are to, the 
body what air is to the figure: he who in attempting 
to walk assumes the aétitude of a dancer, puts himself 
into a ridiculous posture; a graceful and elegant attz- 
vude in dancing becomes an affected and laughable 
posture in another case. 

Postures are sometimes usefully employed in stage 
dancing; the attitudes are necessarily employed by 
painters, sculptors, dancing masters, and other artists. 
Posture is said of the whole body ; the rest, of parti- 
cular limbs or parts. Attitude and posture are figu- 
ratively applied to other objects besides the body: 
armies assume a menacing attitude; in a critical pos- 
ture of affairs, extraordinary skill is required on the 
part of the government; ‘Milton has presented this 
violent spirit (Moloch) as the first that rises in that 
assembly to give his opinion upon their present pos- 
ture of affairs..—ADDISON. 

Position, when compared with posture, is taken only 
in regard to persons, in which vase the posture, as ob- 
served above, is a species of position, namely, an arti- 
ficial position: if a person stands tiptoe, in order to 
see to a greater distance, he may be said to put him- 
self into that position; but if a dancer do the same, 
as a part of his performance, it becomes a posture : So, 
likewise, when one Jeans against the wall it is a lean- 
ing position ; ‘ Every step, in the progression of exist- 
ence, changes our position with respect to the things 
about us.’—Jounson. But when one theatrically bends 
his body backward or forward, it is a posture: one 
may, in the same manner, sit in an erect position, or 
in a reclining posture; ‘When I entered his room, he 
was sitting in a contemplative posture, with his eyes 
fixed upon the ground; after he had continued in his 
reverie near a quarter of an hour, he rose up and 
seemed by his gestures to take leave of some invisible 
guest. —-HAWKESWORTH. 


ACTION, AGENCY, OPERATION. 


Action (v. To act) is the effect, agency the cause. 
_ Action is inherent in the subject ; 


noble English, that could entertain 

With half their forces the full power of France, 

And let another half stand laughing by, 

All out of work, and cold for action. SHakKsPEARE. 
Agency is something exteriour ; it is, in fact, putting a 
thing into action: in this manney, the whole world is 
in action through the agency of the Divine Being, 
+A few advances there are in the following papers 
tending to assert the superintendence and agency of 
Providence in the natural world.’--W oopwarp. Some- 


* Roubaud ; st Posture, attitude.” 


a ec 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


times the word action is taken in the sense of acting 
upon, when it approaches still nearer to agency ; ‘ It 
is better therefore that the earth should move about its 
own centre, and make those useful vicissitudes of night 
and day, than expose always the same side to the action 
of the sun.—BENTLEY. Operation, from the Latin 
operatio, and opera labour or opus need, signifying the 
work that is needful, is action for a specifick end, and 
according to arule; as the operation of nature in the 
article of vegetation ; 


The tree whose operation brings 
Knowledge of good and ill, shun thos to taste. 
MILTon. 


ACTIVE, DILIGENT, INDUSTRIOUS, ASSIDU 
OUS, LABORIOUS. 


Active, from the verb to act, implies a propensity to 
act, to be doing something without regard to the nature 
of the object; diligent, in French diligent, Latin dili- 
gens, participle of diligo to choose or like, implies an 
attachment to an object, and consequent attention to 
it; ¢ndustrious, in Freneh industriewz, Latin indus- 
trius, is probably formed from éniro within and struo 
to build, make, or do, signifying an inward or tho- 
rough inclination to be engaged in some serious work ; 
assiduous, in French assidu, in Latin assiduus, is 
compounded of as or ad and siduus from sedeo to sit, 
signifying to sit close to a thing ; laborious, in French 
laborieux, Latin laboriosus, from labour, implies be- 
longing to labour, or the inclination to labour. 

We are active if we are only ready to exert our 
powers, whether to any end or not; ‘Providence has 
made the human soul an active being.’—JoHNsoN. 
We are diligent when we are active for some specifick 
end; ‘ A constant and unfailing obedience is above the 
reach of terrestrial diligence.’ JouHNson. - We are zn- 
dustrious when no time is left unemployed in some 
serious. pursuit; ‘It has been observed by writers of 
morality, that in order to quicken human industry, 
Providence has so contrived that our daily food is not 
to be procured without much pains and labour.’— 
Appison.. We are assiduous if we do not leave a 
thing until it is finished; ‘If ever a cure is performed 
on a patient, where quacks are concerned, they can 
claim no greater share in it than Virgil’s Iapis in the 
curing of A@neas; he tried his skill, was very ass7- 
duous about the wound, and indeed was the only 
visible means that relieved the hero; but the poet 
assures us it was the particular assistance of a deity 
that speeded the operation.—Prarcre. We are labo- 
rious When the bodily or mental powers are regularly 
employed in some hard labour; ‘If we look into the 
brute creation, we find all its individuals engaged in a 
painful and laborious way of life to procure a neces- 
sary subsistence for themselves..—ADDISON. 

A man may be active without being diligent, since 
he may employ himself in what is of no importance; 
but he can scarcely be diligent without being active, 
since diligence supposes some degree of activity in 
one’s application to a useful object. A man may be 
diligent without being industrious, for he may dili- 
gently employ himself about a particular favourite 
object without empleying himself constantly in the 
same way; and he may be industrious without being 
diligent, since diligence impties a free exercise of the 
mental as well as corporeal powers, but zndustry ap- 
plies principally to manual labour. Activity and dile~ 
gence are therefore commonly the property of lively or 
strong minds, but irmdustry may be associated with 
moderate talents. A man may be ditigent without 
being assiduous ; but he cannot be assiduous without 
being diligent, for assiduity is a sort of persevering 
diligence. A man may be industrious, without being 
laborious, but not vice versé; for laboriousness is & 
severer kind of zxdustry. 

The active man is never easy without an employ- 
ment; the diligent man is contented with the employ- 
ment he has; the industriows man goes from one em 
ployment to the other; the assidwews man seeks to 
attain the end of his employment; the Zaborious man 
spares no pains or labour in following his employment, 

Activity is of great importance for those who have 
the management of public concerns: diligence in busi- 
ness contributes greatly to success: industry is of great 
value in obtaining a livelihood: without assiduity no 
advances can be made in science or literature; and 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES, 


withour laborzous exertions, considerable attainments 
are not to be expected in many literary pursuits. 
Active minds set on foot inquiries to which the in- 
dustrious, by assiduous application, and diligent if not 
laborious research, often aftord satisfactory answers. 


ACTIVE, BRISK, AGILE, NIMBLE. 


Active signifies the same as in the preceding article; 
brisk has a common origin with fresh, which is in 
Saxon fersh, Dutch frisch or bersk, Danish frisk, 
fersk, &c.; agile, in Latin agilis, comes from the same 
verb as active, signifying a fitness, a readiness to act or 
move; nimble is probably derived from the Saxon 
nemen to take, implying a fitness or capacity to take 
any thing by a celerity of movement. 

Activity respects one’s transactions ; briskness, one’s 
sports: men are active in carrying on business ; chil- 
dren are brisk in their play. Agzlty refers to the light 
and easy carriage of the body in springing ; nimble- 
ness to its quick and gliding movements in running. 
A rope-dancer is agile ; a female moves nimbly. 

Activity results from ardour of mind; ‘ There is not 
a more painful action of the mind than invention ; yet 
in dreams it works with that ease and activity, that 
we are not sensible when the faculty is employed.’— 
Appison. Briskness springs from vivacity of feeling ; 
‘T made my next application to a widow, and attacked 
her so briskly that 1 thought myself within a fortnight 
of her..—BupbGELL. Agility is produced by corporeal 
vigour, and habitual strong exertion; ‘When the 
Prince touched his stirrup, and was going to speak, 
the officer, with an incredible agility, threw himself on 
the earth and kissed his feet. —STEELE. Nimbleness 
results from an effort to move lightly ; 


O friends, I hear the.tread of nimble feet 
Hasting this way.—Mi.Ton. 


ACTIVE, BUSY, OFFICIOUS. 


Active signifies the same as before; busy, in Saxon 
gebisged, from bisgian, in German beschafftigt, from 
beschadfftigen to occupy, and schaffen to make or do, 
implies a propensity to be occupied ; officious, in French 
officiewx, Latin officiosus, from offictum duty or service, 
signifies a propensity to perform some service or office. 

Active respects the habit or disposition of the mind; 
busy and officious, either the disposition of the mind, 
or the employment of the moment: the former regards 
every species of employment; the latter only particular 
kinds of employment. An active person is ever ready 
to be employed; a person is busy, when he is actually 
employed in any object; he is oficious, when he is 
employed for others. 

Active is always taken in a good, or at least an in- 
different sense ; it is opposed to lazy; ‘ The pursuits of 
the active part of mankind are either in the paths of 
religion and virtue, or, on the other hand, in the roads 
to wealth, honour, or pleasures. Appison. Busy, 
as it respects occupation, is mostly in a good sense; 
‘We see multitudes busy in the pursuit of riches, at 
the expense of wisdom and virtue.—Jounson. Itis 
opposed to being at leisure ; as it respects disposition, 
it is always in a bad sense; ‘ The air-pump, the baro- 
meter, the quadrant, and the like inventions, were 


thrown out to those busy spirits (politicians), as tubs | 


and barrels are to a whale, that he may let the ship 
sail on without disturbance.’—App1son. Officious is 
never taken in a good sense; it implies being busy 
without discretion. To an active disposition, nothing 
is more irksome than inaction ; but it is not concerned 
to inquire into the utility of the action. It is better for 
a person to be busy than quite unemployed; but a 
busy person will employ himself about the concerns of 
others, when he has none of his own sufficiently im- 
portant to engage his attention: an officiows person is 
as unfortunate as he is troublesome; when he strives 
to serve he has the misfortune to annoy ; ‘I was forced 
to quit my first lodgings by reason of an offictous land- 
lady, that would be asking me every morning how I 
had slept.’—AppIson. 


SEDULOUS, DILIGENT, ASSIDUOUS. 
Sedulous, from the Latin sedulus and sedeo, signifies 
sitting close to a thing ; diligent, v. Active, diligent ; 
tssiduous, v. Active, diligent. 


297 


The idea of application is expressed by these epi 
thets, but sedulous isa particular, diligent is a general 
term: one is sedulous by habits ; one is diligent either 
habitually or occasionally: a sedulous scholar pursues 
his studies with a regular and close application; a 
scholar may be diligent ata certain period, though not 
invariably so. Sedulity seems to mark the very essen- 
tial property of application, that is, adhering closely to 
an object; but diligence expresses one’s attachment to 
a thing, as evinced by an eager pursuit of it: the 
former, therefore, bespeaks the steadiness of the cha- 
racter; the latter merely the turn of one’s inclination : 
one is sedulous from a conviction of the importence 
of the thing: one may be diligent by fits and starts, 
according to the humour of the moment. 

Assiduous and sedulous both express the quality of 
sitting or sticking close to a thing, but the former may, 
like diligent, be employed on a partial occasion; the 
latter is always permanent: we may be assiduous in 
our attentions to a person; but we are sedulous in the 
important concerns of life. _ Sedulous peculiarly re- 
spects the quiet employments of life; ateacher may 
be entitled sedulous ; ‘One thing I would offer is that 
he would constantly and sedulously read Tully, which 
will insensibly work him into a good Latin style.’— 
Locks. Diligent respects the active employments; 
‘I would recommend a diligent attendance on the 
courts of justice (to a student for the bar).’-—Dunnine. 
One is diligent at work: assiduity holds a middle 
rank; it may be employed equally for that which 
requires active exertion, or otherwise: we may be 
assiduous in the pursuits of literature, or we may be 
assiduous in our attendance upon a person, or the per 
formance of any office ; ‘ 


And thus the patient dam assiduous sits, 
Not to be tempted from her tender task. 
THOMSON. 


READY, APT, PROMPT. 


Ready, from the German bereiten to prepare, signi 
fies prepared; apt, in Latin aptus, signifies literally 
fit; prompt, in Latin promptus, from promo to draw 
forth, signifies literally drawn to a point. 

Ready is in general applied to that which has been 
intentionally prepared for a given purpose ; 


The god himself with ready trident stands 
And opes the deep, and spreads the moving sands. 
DrypxEn. 


Promptness and aptness are species of readiness, 
which lie in the personal endowments or disposition: 
hence we speak of things being ready for a journey ; 
persons being apt to learn, or prompt to obey or to 
reply. Ready, when applied to persons, characterizes 
the talent; as a ready wit. Apt characterizes the 
habits; as apt to judge by appearance, or apt to 
decide hastily ; and is also employed in the same sense 
figuratively; ‘Poverty is apt to betray a man into 
envy, riches into arrogance.’—Appison. Prompt cha- 
racterizes more commonly the particular action, and 
denotes the willingness of the agent, and the quickness 
with which he performs the action; as prompt in ex- 
ecuting a command, or prompt to listen to what is said ; 
so likewise when applied to things personal ; 


Let not the fervent tongue, 
Prompt to deceive, with adulation smooth 
Gain on your purpos’d will.—THomson. 


ALERTNESS, ALACRITY. 


Alertness, from ales a wing, designates corporeal 
activity or readiness for action; alacrity, from acer 
sharp, brisk, designates mental activity. : 

We proceed with alertness, when the body is in its 
full vigour ; 


The wings that waft our riches out of sight 

Grow on the gamester’s elbows; and the alert 

And nimble motion of those restless joints 

That never tire, soon fans them all away. 

CowPER 

We proceed with alacrity when the mind is in ful 
pursuit of an object; ‘In dreams it is wonderful to 
observe with what sprightliness an1 olacrity the soul 
exerts herself.’—ADDISON. 


298 


ACTOR, AGENT. 


These terms vary according to the different senses 
of the verb from which they are drawn; actor is used 
for one who does any thing or acts a part; ‘Of all the 
patriarchal histories, that of Joseph and his brethren 
is the most remarkable, for the characters of the actors, 
and the instructive nature of the events.’—Buair. An 
agent is one who puts other things in action, particu- 
larly as distinguished from the patient or thing acted 
upon ; ‘They produced wonderful effects, by the pro- 
per application of agents to patients.—Trmpie. The 
agent is also an active being, or one possessing the 
faculty of action ; 


Heav’n made us agents free to good or ill, 
And fore’d it not, tho’ he foresaw the will. . 
DRYDEN. 


An agent in a piece of fiction is the being who per- 
forms the actions narrated; ‘I expect that no Pagan 
agent shall be introduced into the poem, or any fact 
related which a man cannot give credit to with a good 
conscience.’—Appison. Hence it is that the word 
actor is taken in the sense of a player, and an agent 
in the mercantile sense of a factor, or one who acts in 
another’s stead. 


— 


ACTOR, PLAYER, PERFORMER. 


The actor and player both perform on a stage; but 
the former is said in relation to the part that is acted, 
the latter to the profession that is followed. We may 
be actors occasionally without being players profes- 
sionally, but we may be players without deserving the 
name of actors. Those who personate characters for 
their amusement are actors but not players: those 
who do the same for a livelihood are players as well as 
actors ; hence we speak of a company of players, not 
actors. So likewise in the figurative sense, whoever 
acts a part, real or fictitious, that is, on the stage of 
life, or the stage of a theatre, is an actor; ‘Our 
orators (says Cicero) are as it were the actors of 
truth itself; and the players the imitators of truth.’— 
Hugues. But he only is a player who performs the 
fictitious part ; hence the former is taken* in a bad or 
good sense, according to circumstances; ‘ Cicero is 
known to have been the intimate friend of Roscius the 
actor.—Hueues. Player is always taken in a less 
favourable sense, from the artificiality which attaches 
to his profession ; 

All the world’s a stage, 
And all the men and women merely players. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


The term performer is now used in the sense of one 
who performs a part in a theatrical exhibition, and for 
the most part in application to the individual in esti- 
mating the merits of his performance, as a good or bad 
performer. 


ACTUAL, REAL, POSITIVE. 


Actual, in French actuel, Latin actualis, from actio 
a deed, signifies belonging to the thing done; real, in 
French reel, Latin realis, from res, signifies belonging 
to the thing as it is; positive, in French positif, Latin 
positivus, from pono to place or fix, signifies the state 
or quality of being fixed, established. 

What is actual has proof of its existence within 
itself, and may be exposed to the eye ; what is real may 
be satisfactorily proved to exist; and what is positive 
precludes the necessity of a proof. Actual is opposed 
to the supposititious, conceived or reported; real to 
the feigned, imaginary; positive to the uncertain, 
doubtful. 

Whatever is the condition of a thing for the time 
being is the actwal condition; sorrows are real which 
flow from a substantial cause; proofs are positive 
which leave the mind in no uncertainty. The actual 
state of a nation is not to be ascertained by individual 
instances of poverty, or the reverse; there are but 
few, if any, real objects of compassion among com- 
mon beggars; many positive facts have been related 
of the deception which they have practised. By an 
actual survey of human life, we are alone enabled to 
form just opinions of mankind; ‘The very notion of 


* Vide Girard: ‘ Acteuy comedien.’ 


rr ree ee SSS Se SS SSS hs sts 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


any duration being past implies that it was once pre 
sent; for the idea of being once present is actually in- 
cluded in the idea of its being past..—Appigon. It ia 
but too frequent for men to disguise their real senti 
ments, although it is not always possible to obtain 
positive evidence of their insincerity; ‘We may and 
do converse with God in person really, and ‘o all the 
purposes of giving and receiving, though not visibly.’ 
—Sovuru. ‘ Dissimulation is taken for a man’s posi- 
tive professing himself to be what he is not.’—Soutu 


TO PERPETRAT®, COMMIT. 


The idea of doing something wrong is common te 
these terms ; but perpetrate, from the Latin perpetro, 
compounded of per and petro, in Greek rpdrrw, signi- 
fying thoroughly to compass or bring about, is a much 
more determined proceeding than that of committing 
One may commit offences of various degree and mag- 
nitude; but one perpetrates crimes only, and those of 
the more heinous kind. A lawless banditti, who 
spend their lives in the perpetration of the most horrid 
crimes, are not to be restrained by the ordinary course 
of justice ; 

Then shows the forest which, in after-times, 
Fierce Romulus, for perpetrated crimes, 
A refuge made.’—DryYDEN. 


He who commits any offence against the good order of 
society exposes himself to the censure of others, who 
may be his inferiours in certain respects; ‘ The mis- 
carriages of the great designs of princes are of little 
use to the bulk of mankind, who seem very little inter- 
ested in admonitions against errours which they can- 
not commit.’—JOHNSON. 


INACTIVE, INERT, LAZY, SLOTHFUL, 
SLUGGISH. 


A reluctance to bodily exertion is common to all 
these terms. Jnactive is the most general and un- 
qualified term of all; it expresses simply the want of 
a stimulus to exertion; inert is something more posi- 
tive, from the Latin iners or sine arte without art or 
mind; it denotes a specifick deficiency either in body 
or mind; lazy, which has the same signification as 
given under the head of Jdle ; slothful, from slow, that 
is, full of slowness; and sluggish from slug, that is, 
like a slug, drowsy and heavy, ali rise upon one an- 
other to denote an expressly defective temperament of 
the body. which directly impedes action. 

To be inactive is to be indisposed to action; that is, 
to the performance of any office, to the doing any spe 
cifick business: to be inert is somewhat more; it is to 
be indisposed to movement: to be lazyis to move with 
pain to one’s self: to be slothful is never to move 
otherwise than slowly: to be sluggish is to move in a 
sleepy and heavy manner. 

A person may be cnactive from a variety of inci- 
dental causes, as timidity, ignorance, modesty, and the 
like, which combine to make him averse to enter upon 
any business, or take any serious step; a person may 
be inert from temporary indisposition; but laziness, 
slothfulness, and sluggishness are inherent physical 
defects: laziness is however not altogether inde- 
pendent of the mind or the will; but slothfulness and 
sluggisiness are purely the offspring of nature, or, 
which is the same thing, habit superinduced upon na- 
ture. A man of amild character is frequently inactive ; 
he wants that ardour which impels perpetually to ac 
tion; he wishes for nothing with sufficient warmth to 
make action agreeable; he is therefore inactive by a 
natural consequence ; 


Virtue conceal’d within our breast 
Is inactivity at best.—Swirr. 


Hence the term inactive is properly applied to matter; 


What laws are these ? instruct us if you can ; 

There’s one design’d for brutes and one for man, 

Another guides inactive matter’s course. 
JENYNS. 


Some diseases, particularly of the melancholy kind, 
are accompanied with a strong degree of inertness ; 
since they seem to deprive the frame of its ordinary 
powers to action, and to produce a certain degree of 
torpor. Hence the term is employed to express a 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


want of the power of action in the strongest possible 
degree, as displayed in the inanimate part of the crea- 
tion , 


Informer of the planetary train, 
Without whose quickening glance their cumbrous 
orbs : 
Were brute, unlovely mass, inert and dead. 
THOMSON. 


Lazy people move as if their bodies were a burden to 
themselves; they are fond of rest, and particularly 
averse to be put in action; but they will sometimes 
move quickly, and perform much when once impelled 
to move; ‘ The first canto (in Thomson’s Castle of In- 
dolence) opens a scene of lazy luxury that fills the ima- 
gination.’—-Jcannson. Slothful people never vary their 
pace; they have a physical impediment in themselves 
to quick motion; 

Falsely luxurious, will not man awake, 

And, springing from the bed of sloth, enjoy 

The cool, the fragrant, and the silent hour ? 

THOMSON. 


Sluggish people are with difficulty brought into ac- 
tion; it is their nature to be in a state of stupor; 
* Conversation would become dull and vapid, if negli- 
gence were not sometimes roused, and sluggishness 
quickened by due severity of reprehension.’—Joun- 
SON. 


IDLE, LAZY, INDOLENT. 


Idle is in German eitel vain; lazy, in German ldssitg, 
comes from the Latin lassus weary, because weari- 
ness naturally engenders laziness; indolent, in Latin 
indelens, signifies without feeling, having apathy or 
unconcern. 

A propensity to inaction is the common idea by 
which these words are connected; they differ in the 
cause and degree of the quality: idle expresses less 
than lazy, and lazy less than indolent; one is termed 
zdle who will do nothing useful; one is Jazy who will 
do nothing at all without great reluctance; one is in- 
dolent who does not care to do any thing or set about 
any thing. There is no direct inaction in the zdler ; 
for a child is idle who will not learn his lesson, but he 
is active enough in that which pleases himself: there 
is an aversion to corporeal action in a lazy man, but 
not always to mental action; he is lazy at work, lazy 
in walking, or lazy in sitting; but he may not object 
to any efiffoyment, such as reading or thinking, which 
leaves his body entirely at rest: an zndolent man, on 
the contrary, fails in activity from a defect both in the 
mind and the body; he will not only not move, but he 
will not even think, if it give him trouble; and trifling 
exertions of any kind are sufficient, even in prospect, 
to deter him from attempting to move. 

Idleness is common to the young and the thought- 
less, to such as have not steadiness of mind to set a 
value on any thing which may be acquired by exer- 
sion and regular employment; the zdle man is opposed 
so one that is diligent; ‘As pride is sometimes hid 
under humility, idleness is often covered by turbulence 
and hurry.—JoHNSON. Laziness is frequent among 
those who are compelled to work for others; it is a 
habit of body superinduced upon one’s condition; 
those who should labour are often the most unwilling 
to move at all, and since the spring of the mind which 
should impel them to action is wanting, and as they 
are continually under the necessity of moving at the 
will of another, they acquire an habitual reluctance to 
any motion, and find their comfort in entire inaction. 
hence laziness is almost confined to servants and the 
labouring classes: laziness is opposed to industry; 
‘Wicked condemned men will ever live like rogues, 
and not fall to work, but be lazy and spend victuals.’ 


—Bacon. Lazy may however be applied figuratively 
to other objects ; 


The daw, 

The rook, and magpie, to the gray-grown oaks, 

That the calm village in their verdant arms 

Sheltering embrace, direct their lazy flight. 

THOMSON. 

Indoience is a physical property of the mind, a want 
of motive or purpose to action: the indolent man is 
not so fond of his bodily ease as the lazy man, but he 
shrinks from every species of exertion still more than 


298 


the latter; zndolence is a disease most observable in 
the higher classes, and even in persons of the highest 
intellectual endowments, in whom there should be the 
most powerful motives to exertion ; the indolent stands 
in direct opposition to nothing but the general term 
active ; ‘Nothing is so opposite to the true enjoyment 
of life as the relaxed and feeble state of an indolent 
mind.’—B.aIrR. 

The life of a common player is most apt to breed an 
habitual idleness ; as they have no serious employ- 
ment to occupy their hands or their heads, they grow 
averse to every thing which would require the exercise 
of either: the life of a common soldier is apt to breed 
laziness: he who can sit or lie for twelve hours out 
of the twenty-four, will.soon acquire a disgust to any 
kind of labour, unless he be naturally of an active 
tum: the life of a rich man is most favourable to indo- 
lence; he who has every thing piovided at his hand, 
not only for the necessities, but the comforts of life, 
may soon become averse to every thing that wears the 
face of exertion; he may become indolent, if he be nct 
unfortunately so by nature. 


IDLE, LEISURE, VACANT. 


Idle signifies here emptiness or the absence of that 
which is solid; lecswre, otherwise spelled leasuz-e, comes 
from lease, as in the compound release, and the Latin 
lazo to make lax or loose, that is, loosed or set free; 
vacant, in Latin vacans, from vaco to free or be empty, 
signifies the same. 

Idle is opposed here to busy; at leisure simply to 
employed: he therefore who is idle, instead of being 
busy, commits a fault; which is not always the case 
with him who is at leisure or free from his employ- 
ment. Idle is therefore always taken in a sense more 
or less unfavourable ; Jeiswre in a sense perfectly in- 
different: if a man says of himself that he has spent 
an zdle hour in this or that place in amusement, com- 
pany, and the like, he means to signify he would have 
spent it better if any thing had offered; on the other 
hand, he would say that he spends his leisure mo- 
ments in a suitable relaxation: he who values his 
time will take care to have as few zdle hours as pos- 
sible; ‘ Life is sustained with so little labour, that the 
tediousness of idle time cannot otherwise be supported 
(than by artificial desires)..—Jounson. But since no 
one can always be employed in severe labour, he will 
occupy his Jetsure hours in that which best suits his 
taste ; 


Here pause, my Gothick lyre, a little while: 
The leisure hour is all that thou canst claim. 
BEATTIE. 
Idle and leisure are said in particular reference to 
the time that is employed; vacant is a more general 
term, that simply qualifies the thing: an idle hour is 
without any employment; a vacant hour is in general 
free from the employments with which it might be 
filled up; a person has lezsure time according to his 
wishes ; but he may have vacant time from necessity, 
that is, when he is in want of employment; ‘ Idleness 
dictates expedients, by which life may be passed unpro- 
fitably, without the tediousness of many vacant hours’ 
—JOHNSON. 


IDLE, VAIN. 


Idle, v. Idle, lazy ; vain, in Latin vanus, is proba- 
bly changed from vacaneus, signifying empty. 

These epithets are both opposed to the solid or sub- 
stantial; but idle has a more particular reference to 
what ought or ought not to engage the time or atten- 
tion; vazn seems to qualify the thing without any 
such reference. A pursuit may be termed either idle 
or vain: in the former case, it reflects immediately on 
the agent for not employing his time on something 
more serious ; but in the latter case, it simply charac- 
terizes the pursuit as one that will be attended with no 
good consequences: when we consider ourselves as 
beings who have but a short time to live, and tha 
every moment of that time ought to be thoroughly well 
spent, we shall be careful to avoid all zdle concerns ; 
when we consider ourselves as rational beings, who 
are responsible for the use of those powers with which 
we have been invested by our Almighty Maker, we 
shall be careful to reject all vain concerns: an idle 


300 


effort is made by one who does not care to exert him 
self for any useful purpose, who works only to please 
himself; a vain effort may be made by one who is in 
a state of desperation. These terms preserve the same 
distinction when applied to other objects ; 


And let no spot of idle earth be found, 

But cultivate the genius of the ground.—_DrYDEN. 
‘Deluded by vain opinions, we look to the advantages 
of fortune as our ultimate goods.’—Buair. 


HEAVY, DULL, DROWSY. 


Heavy is allied to both dull and drowsy, but the lat- 
ter have no close connexion with each other. 

Heavy and dull are employed as epithets both for 
persons and things; heavy characterizes the corporeal 
state of a person; dull qualifies the spirits or the un- 
derstanding of the subject. A person has a heavy 
look whose:temperament seems composed of gross and 
weighty materials which weigh him down and impede 
his movements; he has a dull countenance in whom 
the ordinary brightness-and vivacity of the mind is 
wanting : heavy is either a characteristick of the con- 
stitution, or only a particular state arising from exter- 
nal or,internal causes; 


Heavy with age, Entellus stands his ground, 
But with his warping body wards the wound. 
DRYDEN. 


Dullness as it respects the frame of the spirits, is a 
partial state ; as it respects the mental vigour, it is a 
characteristick of the individual ; 


O thou dull god! why liest thou with the vile 

In loathsome beds: and leav’st the kingly couch, 

A watch-ease to a common larum bell 3 
SHAKSPEARE. 


It is a misfortune frequently attached to those of a 
corpulent habit to be very heavy: there is no one who 
from the changes of the atmosphere may not be occa- 
sionally heavy. Those who have no resources in 
themselves are always dull in solitude: those who are 
not properly instructed, or have a deficiency of capa- 
city, will appear dull in all matters of learning. 

Heavy is either properly or improperly applied to 
things which are conceived to have an undue tendency 
to press or lean downwards: dull is in like manner 
employed for whatever fails in the necessary degree of 
brightness or vivacity ; the weather is heavy when the 
air is full of thick and weighty materials; it may be 
dull from the intervention of clouds. 

Heavy and drowsy are both employed in the sense 
of sleepy; but the former is only a particular state, 
the latter particular or general; all persons may be 
occasionally heavy or drowsy ; some are habitually 
drewsy from disease; they likewise differ in degree; 
the latter being much the greater of the two; and 
occasionally they are applied to such things as produce 
sleepiness ; 


And drowsy tinklings lull the distant fold—Gray. 


TO SLEEP, SLUMBER, DOZE, DROWSE, NAP. 


Sleep, in Saxon slepan, Low German slap, German 
schlaf, is supposed to come from the Low German slap 
or slack slack, because sleep denotes an entire relaxa- 
tion of the physical frame; slumber, in Saxon slume- 
van, é&c. is but an intensive verb of schlummern, which 
is a variation from the preceding slepan, &c.; doze, 
in Low German dusen, is in all probability a variation 
from the French dors, and the Latin dormio to sleep, 
which was anciently dermio, and comes from the Greek 
dépma askin, because people lay on skins when they 
slept ; drowse is a variation of doze; nap is in all pro- 
bability a variation of nob and nod. 

Sleep is the general term, which designates in an 
indefinite manner that state of the body to which all 
animated beings are subject at certain seasons in the 
course of nature; to slumber is to sleep lightly and 
softly ; to doze is to incline to sleep, or to begin sleep- 
mg; to nap is to sleep for a time: every one who is 
not indisposed sleeps during the night ; those who are 
accustomed to wake at a certain hour of the morning 
commonly svumber only after that time; there are 
many who, though they cannot sleep in a carriage 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


will yet be obliged to doze if they travel in the night 
in hot. climates the middle of the day is commonly 
chosen for a nap. 


SLEEPY, DROWSY, LETHARGICK. 


Sleepy (v. T'o sleep) expresses either a temporary or 
a permanent state: drowsy, which comes from the 
Low German drusen, and is a variation of doze (v. To 
sleep) expresses mostly a temporary state: lethargick, 
from lethargy, in Latin lethargia, Greek AnOapyia, 
compounded of dn forgetfulness, and dpyds swift, sig 
nifying a proneness to forgetfulness or sleep, describes 
a permanent or habitual state. 

Sleepy, as a temporary state, expresses also what is 
natural or seasonable ; drowsiness expresses an incli- 
nation to sleep at unseasonable hours: it is natural to 
be sleepy at the hour when we are accustomed to retire 
to rest; it is common to be drowsy when sitting still 
after dinner. Sleepiness, as a permanent state, is an 
infirmity to which some persons are subject constitu- 
tionally; lethargy is a disease with which people, 
ee the most wakeful, may be occasionally at- 
tacked. 


INDOLENT, SUPINE, LISTLESS, CARELESS. 


Indolent, v. Idle, lazy; supine, in Latin supinus, 
from super above, signifies lying on one’s back, or with 
one’s face upward, which, as it is the action of a lazy 
or idle person, has been made to represent the quali- 
ties themselves ; léstless, without list, in German lust 
desire, signifies without desire; careless signifies with- 
out care or concern. 

These terms represent a diseased or unnatural state 
of the mind, when its desires, which are the spring 
of action, are in a relaxed and torpid state, so as to 
prevent the necessary degree of exertion. Jndolence 
has a more comprehensive meaning than supineness, 
and this signifies more than listlessness or careless- 
ness; indolence is a general indisposition of a person 
to exert either his mind or his body ; supineness is a 
similar indisposition that shows itself on particular 
occasions: there is a corporeal as well as a mental 
cause for indolence; but supineness lies principally in 
the mind: corpulent and large-made people are apt to 
be indolent ; but timid and gentle dispositions are apt 
to be supine. An indolent person sets all labour, both 
corporeal and mental,,at a distance from him; it is 
irksome to him; 


Hence reasoners more refined but not more wise 
Their whole existence fabulous suspect, 
And truth and falsehood in a lump reject ; 
Too indolent to learn what may be known, 
Or else too proud that ignorance to own. 


JENYNS. 


A supine person objects to undertake any thing which 
threatens to give him trouble; 


With what unequal tempers are we fram’d! 


One day the soul, supine with ease and fulness, 
Reyels secure. Rowe. 


The indolent person is so for a permanency ; he al- 
ways seeks to be waited upon rather than wait on him- 
self ; and as far as itis possible he is glad for another to 
think for him, rather than to burden himself with 
thought; the supzne person is so only in matters that 
require more than an ordinary portion of his exertion ; 
he will defer such business, and sacrifice his interest to 
his ease. The indolent and supine are not, however, 
like the listless, expressly without desire: an indo 
lent or supine man has desire enough to enjoy what is 
within his reach, although not always sufficient desire 
to surmount the aversion to labour in trying to obtain 
it; the distless man, on the contrary, is altogether 
without the desire, and is in factin a state of moral tor 
por, which is however but a temporary or partial state 
arising from particular circumstances; after the mind 
has been wrought up to the highest pitch, it will some- 
times sink into a state of relaxation in which it ap 
parently ceases to have any active principle within 
itself. Indolence is a habit of both body and mind; su- 
pineness is sometimes only a mode of inaction flowing 
out of a particular frame of mind ; listlessness is only 
acertain frame of mind: an active person may some 
tines be supine in setting about a business which runs 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


counter to his feelings; a listless person, on the other 
hand, if he be habitually so, will never be active in any 
thing, because he will have no impulse to action ; 


Sullen, methinks, and slow the morning breaks, 
As if thesun were listless to appear.—DRYDEN. 


Carelessness expresses less than any of the above ; 
for though a man who is indolent, supine, and listless, 
is naturally careless, yet carelessness is properly ap- 
plicable to such as have no such positive disease of 
mind or body. The careless person is neither averse 
to labour or thought, nor devoid of desire, but wants 
in reality that cave or thought which is requisite for 
his state or condition. Carelessness is rather an errour 
of the understanding, or of the conduct, than the 
will; since the careless would care, be concerned for, 
or interested about things, if he could be brought to 
reflect on their importance, or if he did not for a time 
forget himself ; 


Fert love with her by joint commission rules, 

Who by false arts and popular deceits, 

The careless, fond, unthinking mortal cheats. 
PoMFRET. 


TO STIR, MOVE. 


Stir, in German storen, old German stiren or steren, 
Latin turbo, Greek répBn or OdpuBos trouble or tumult ; 
move, v. Motion. 

Stiris here a specifick, move a generick term; to stir is 
to move so as to disturb the rest and composure either 
of the body or mind; 


I've read that things inanimate have mov’d, 

And as with living souls have been inform’d, 

By magic numbers and persuasive sounds. 
CONGREVE. 


At first the groves are scarcely seen to stir. 
THOMSON. 


Hence the term stir is employed to designate an im- 
proper or unauthorized motion ; children are notallow- 
ed to stir from their seats in school hours; a soldier 
must not stir from the post which he has to defend. 
Atrocious criminals or persons raving mad are bound 
hand and foot, that they may not stir. 


MOTION, MOVEMENT. 


These are both abstract terms to denote the act of 
moving, but motion is taken generally and abstractedly 
from the thing that moves : movement, on the cther 
hand, is taken in connexion with the agent or thing 
that moves ; hence we speak of a state of motion as 
opposed toa state of rest, of perpetual motion, the laws 
of. motion, and the like ; on the othex hand, to make a 
movement When speaking of an army, a general move- 
ment when speaking of an assembly. 

When motzon is qualified by the thing that moves, it 
denotes a continued motion; but movement implies 
only a particular motion: hence we say, the motion of 
the heavenly bodies, the motion of the earth ; a person 
is in continual motion, or an army is in motion; but a 
person makes a movement who rises or sits down, or 
goes from one chair to another; the different move- 
ments of the springs and wheels of any instrument ; 
‘It is not easy toa mind accustomed to the inroads of 
troublesome thoughts to expel them immediately by 
putting better images into motion.’-—Jounson. 


Nature I thought perform’d too mean a part, 
Forming her movements to the rules of art.—Prior. 


MOVING, AFFECTING, PATHETICK. 


The moving is in general whatever moves the affec- 
tions or the passions; the affecting and pathetick are 
what move the affections in different degrees. The 
good or bad feelings may be moved; the tender feel- 
ings only are affected. A field of‘battle is a moving 
spectacle; ‘ There is something so moving in the very 
image of weeping beauty.\.—Sruexte.. The death of 
King Charles was an affecting spectacle; ‘I do not 
remember to have seen any ancient or modern story 
more affecting than aletter of Anne of Boulogne.’—Ap- 
pison. -The affecting acts by means of the senses, as 
well as the understanding. 'The pathetick applies only 
~ what is addressed to the heart ; hence, a sight or 
a description is affecting: but an address is pathetick ; 


301 


What think you of the baid’s enchanfing art, | 
Which whether he attempts to warm the heart 
With fabled scenes, or charm the ear with rhyme, 
Breathes all pathetick, lovely, and sublime ? 
JENYNSe 


TO COME, ARRIVE. 


Come is general; arrive is particular. 

Persons or things come; persons only, or what is 
personified, arrive. 

To come specifies neither time nor manner; arrival is 
employed with regard to some particular period or cir- 
cumstances. The coming of our Saviour was pre- 
dicted by the prophets: the arrival of a messenger is 
expected at acertain hour. We know that evils must 
come, but we do wisely not to meet them by anticipa- 
tion; the arrival of a vessel in the haven, after a long 
and dangerous voyage, is a circumstance of general 
interest in the neighbourhood where it happens; 


Hail, rev’rend priest! to Phebus’ awful dome, 

A suppliant t from great Atrides come.—Popx. 

Old men love novelties ; the last arriv’d 

Still pleases best, the youngest steals their smiles 
Younc, 


TO ADVANCE, PROCEED. 


To advance (v. Advance) is to go towards some 
point; to proceed, from the Latin procedo, is to go 
onward in acertain course. The same distinction is 
preserved between them in their figurative acceptation 

A person advances in the world, who succeeds in his 
transactions and raises himself in society; he pro- 
ceeds in his business, when he carries it on as he has 
done before; ‘It is wonderful to observe by what a 
gradual progress the world of life.advances through a 
prodigious variety of species, before a creature is 
formed that is complete in all its senses..—Appison. 
‘If the scale of being rises by such a regular progress 
so high as man, we may by aparity of reason suppose 
that it still proceeds gradually through those beings 
which are of a superiour nature to him.’ Appisox 

One advances by proceeding, and one proceeds in 
order to advance. 

Some people pass their lives in the same situation 
without advancing. Some are always doing without 
proceeding. 

-Those who make considerable progress in learning 
stand the fairest chance of being advanced to dignity 
and honour. ' 


PACE, STEP. 
Pace, in French pas, Latin passus, comes from the 


Hebrew pw to pass, and signifies the act of passing, 
or the ground passed over ; step, which comes through 
the medium of the northern languages, from the Greek 
selBety, signifies the act of stepping, or the ground 
stepped over. 

As respects the act, pace expresses the general man 
ner of passing on, or moving the body ; step implies the 
manner of treading with the foot ; the pace is distin- 
guished by being either a walk or arun; and in regard 
to horses, a trot or a gallop; the step is distinguished 
by the right or the left, the forward or the backward. 
The same pace may be modified so as to be more or 
less easy, more or less quick; the step may vaiy as it 
is light or heavy, graceful or ungraceful, long or short. 
We may goa slow pace with long steps, or we may gc 
a quick pace with short steps. A siow pace is best 
suited to the solemnity of a funeral; 2 long step must 
be taken by soldiers in a slow march. 

As respects the space passed or stepped over, the 
pace is a measured distance, formed by a jong step; 
the step, on the other hand, is indefinitely employed for 
any space stepped over, but particularly that ordinary 
space which one‘ steps over without an effort. A 
thousand paces was the Roman measurement for a 
mile. A step or two designates almost the shortest 
possible distance ; 


To-morrow, to-morrow, and to-morrow. 
Creeps in a stealing pace from day to day. 
SHAKSPEARE 


Grace was in all her steps, heaven in her eye, 
Tn everv gesture dienity and love, —Mir-ron 


302 


ONWARD, FORWARD, PROGRESSIVE. 


Onward is taken in the literal sense of going nearer 
to an object: forward is taken in the sense of going 
from an object, or going farther in the line before one: 

rogressive has the sense of going gradually or step 
yy step before one. : 

A person goes onward who does not stand still; he 
goes forward who does not recede; he goes progres- 
sively who goes forward at certain intervals. _ 

Onward is taken only in the proper acceptation of 
travelling ; the traveller who has lost his way feels it 
necessary to go onward with the hope of arriving at 
some point; 

Remote, unfriended, melancholy, slow, 

Or by the lazy Scheld, or wandering Po, 

Or onward where the rude Carinthian boor 

Against the houseless stranger shuts the door, 

Where’er I roam, whatever realms to see, 

My heart untravell’d fondly turns to thee. 
GoLDSsMITH. 


Forward is employed in the impreper as well as the 
proper application ; a traveller goes forward in order 
to reach his point of destination as quickly as. possi- 
ble; a learner uses his utmost endeavours in order to 
get forward in his learning ; ‘ Harbood the chairman 
was much blamed for his rashness; he said the duty 
of the chair was always to set things forward.’—Bur- 
NETT. Progressively is employed only in the impro- 
per application to what requires time and labour in 
order to bring it to a conclusion: every man goes on 
progressively in his art, until he arrives at the point 
of perfection attainable by him; 


Reason progressive, instinct is complete.—Y ounce. 


EXCURSION, RAMBLE, TOUR, TRIP, JAUNT. 


Excursion signifies going out of one’s course, from 
the Latin ez and cursus a course or prescribed path: 
a ramble, from roam, of which it is a frequentative, 
is a going without any course or regular path; tour, 
from the word turn or return, is a circuitous course: a 
trip, from the Latin tripudio to go on the toes like a 
dancer, is properly a pedestrian excursion or tour, or 
any short journey that might be made on foot: jaunt, 
is from the French jante the felly of a wheel, and 
janter to put the felly in motion. 

To go abroad in a carriage is an idle excursion, or 
one taken for mere pleasure: travellers who are not 
contented with what is not to be seen from a high 
road make frequent excursions into the interiour of the 
country; ‘f am now so rus-in-urbeish, I believe I 
shall stay here, except little excursions and vagaries, 
for a year to come.’—Gray. Those who are fond of 
rural scenery, and pleaseé io follow the bent of their 
inclinations, make frequent rambles ; ‘I am going on 
a short ramble to my Lord Oxford’s..—Porr. Those 
who set out upon a sober scheme of enjoyment from 
travelling, are satisfied with making the tour of some 
one country or more; ‘My last summer’s tour was 
through Worcestershire, Gloucestershire, Monmouth- 
shire, and Shropshire..—Gray. Those who have not 
much time for pleasure take trips; ‘I hold the reso- 
lution I told you in my last of seeing you if you 
cannot take a trip hither before I go..—Popr. Those 
who have no better means of spending their time make 
jaunts ; ‘If you are for a merry jaunt, Vil try for 
once who can foot it farthest.,-—DRypDEN. 


JOURNEY, TRAVEL, VOYAGE. 


Journey, from the French journée a day’s work, 
and Latin diurnus daily, signifies the course that is 
taken in the space of a day, or in general any com- 
paratively short passage from one place to another: 
travel, from the French travauiller to labour, signifies 
such a course or passage as requires labour, and causes 
fatigue; in general any long course: voyage is most 
probably changed from the Latin vta a way, and ori- 
ginally signified any course or passage to a distance, 
but is now confined to passages by sea. 

We take journeys in different parts of the same 
country ; we make voyages by sea, and travel by land. 

Journeys are taken in different parts ot the same 
country for a specifick business - 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


To Paradise, the happy seat of man, 
His journey’s end, and our beginning wo.—MiLton. 


Travels are made by land for amusement or informa- 
tion; ‘In my travels I had been near their setting 
out in Thessaly, and at the place of their landing in 
Carniola.—Brown. Voyages are made by captains 
or merchants for purposes of commerce; ‘Our ships 
went sundry voyages as well to the pillars of Hercules 
as to other parts in the Atlantick and Mediterranean 
seas.’—Bacon. 

We estimate journeys by the day, as one or two 
days’ journey ; j 

Scarce the sun 
Hath finished half his journey. 


We estimate travels and voyages by the months and 
years that are employed ; 


Cease mourners ; cease complaint, and weepno more, 

Your lost friends are not dead, but gone before, 

Advane’d a stage or two upon that road 

Which you must travel m the steps they trede. 
CUMBERLAND. 


Calm and serene, he sees approaching death, 

As the safe port, th’ peaceful silent shore, 

Where he may rest, life’s tedious voyage o’er. 
JENYNS. 


The Israelites are said to have journeyed in the 
wilderness forty years, because they went but short 
distances at atime. It is a part of polite education 
for young men of fortune to travel into those countries 
of Europe which comprehend the ‘ grand tour’ as it is 
termed. A voyage round the world, which was at first 
a formidable undertaking, is now become familiar to 
the mind by its frequency. 


ARISE OR RISE, MOUNT, ASCEND, CLIMB, 
SCALE. 


Arise, v. To arise; mount, from the Latin mons 
a mountain, signifies to go as it were up a mountain; 
ascend, in Latin ascendo, compounded of ad and 
scando, signifies to climb up towards a point; climb, 
in German klimmen, is probably connected with klam- 
mer a hook, signifying to rise by a hook; scale, in 
French escalader, Italian scalare, Latin scala a ladder, 
signifies to rise by a ladder. 

The idea of going upwards is common to all these 
terms ; arise is used only in the sense of simply get 
ting up ; 

Th’ inspected entrails could no fates foretell, 
Nor, laid on altars, did pure flames arise. 
DRYDEN. 


But rise is employed to express a continued motion 
upward ; 

To contradict them, see all nature rise / 

What object, what event the moon beneath, 

But argues or endears an after-scene 7—Youne. 


A person arises from his seat or his bed; a bird rises 
in the air; the silver of the barometer 7ises; the first 
three of these terms convey a gradation in their sense ; 
to arise or rise denotes a moticn to a less elevated 
height than to mount, and to mount that which is less 
elevated than ascend: a person rises from his seat, 
mounts & hill, and ascends a mountain ; 


At length the fatal fabrick mounts the walls, 
Big with destruction—DrypeEn. 


We view arising land like distant clouds ; 

The mountain tops confirm the pleasing sight, 

And curling smoke ascending from their height. 
DRYDEN. 


Arise and rise are intransitive only; the rest are 
likewise transitive ; we rise from a point, we mount 
and ascend to a point, or we mount and ascend some 
thing; an air balloon rises when it first leaves the 
ground ; it mounts higher and higher until it is out of 
sight; but if it ascends too high it endangers the life 
of the a@rial adventurer. 

Climb and scale express a species of rising: te 
climb is to rise step by step, by clinging to a certain 
body ; to scale is to rise by an escalade, or species of 
ladder, employed in mounting the walls of fortified 
towns: trees and mountains are climbed: walls are 
scaled . 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


While you (a.as, that I should find it so) 

To shun my sight, your native soil forego, 

And climb the frozen Alps, and tread the eternal snow. 
DRYDEN. 


But brave Messapus, Neptune’s warlike son, 

Broke down the pallisades, the trenches won, 

And loud for ladders calls, to scale the town. 
DryDEN. 


TO FALL, DROP, DROOP, SINK, TUMBLE. 


Fall, v. Fall ; drop and droop, in German tropfen, 
Low German, &c. druppen, is an onomatopeia of the 
falling of a drop; sink, in German sinken, is an in- 
tensive of stegen to incline downward; tumdle, in 
German tummeln, is an intensive of taumeln to reel 
backwards and forwards. 

Fall is the generick, the rest specifick terms: to 
drep is to fall suddenly ; to droop is to drop in part; 
to sink is to fall gradually ; to tumble is to fall awk- 
wardly or contrary to the usual mode. In cataracts 
the water falis perpetually and in a mass; in rain it 
drops partially; in ponds the water sinks low. The 
head droops, but the body may fail or drop froma 
height, it may sink down to the earth, it may tumble 
b> accident ; 


Yet come it will, the day decreed by fates 

(How my heart trembles, while my tongue relates!) 
The day when thou, imperial Troy! must bend, 
4nd see thy warriours fall and glories end.—Pore. 


The wounded bird, ere yet she breathed her last, 
With flagging wings alighted on the mast, 

A moment hung, and spread her pinions there, 
Then sudden dropp’d and left her life in air.—Pors. 


Thrice Dido tried to raise her drooping head, 
And fainting, thrice fell grov’Jing on the bed. 
DRYDEN. 


Down sunk the priest ; the purple hand of death 
Clos’d his dim eye, and fate suppress’d his pee 
OPE. 


Full on his ankle dropp’d the pond’rous stone, 
Burst the strong nerves, and crush’d the solid bone, 
Supine he tumdles on the crimson’d sands.—Pore. 


Fall, drop, and sink are employed in a moral sense ; 
droop in the physical sense. A person falls from a 
state of prosperity ; words drop from the lips, and sink 
into the heart. Corn, or the price of corn, falls; a 
subject drops; a person sinks into poverty or in the 
estimation of the world. 


TO SLIP, SLIDE, GLIDE. 


Slip is in Low German slipan, from the Latin labor 
to slip, and libe to pour, which comes from the Greek 
defBopvat to pour down as water does, and the Hebrew 


pd>D to turn aside; slide is a variation of slip, and 
glide of slide. 

To slip is an involuntary, and slide a voluntary 
motion: those who go on the ice in fear will slip ; ‘A 
skilful dancer on the ropes slips willingly, and makes 
a seeming tumble that you may think him in great 
hazard, while he is only giving you a proof of dexterity.’ 
—Drypren. Boys slide on the ice by way of amuse- 
ment; 


Thessander bold, and Sthenelus their guide, 
And dire Ulysses down the cable slide.-—DrypeEn. 


To slip and slide are lateral movements of the feet; 
but to glide is the movement of the whole body, and 
just that easy motion whichis made by slipping, sliding, 
flying, or swimming; a person glides along the surface 
of the ice when he slhides; a vessel glides along 
through the water; 


And softly let the running waters glide—DrypDEN. 


In the moral and figurative application, a person slips 
who commits unintentional errours, or the thoughts 
slip away contrary to our intention; Every one finds 
that many of the ideas which he desired to retain have 
irretrievably slapped away.’—Jounson. A person slides 
into a course of life, who wittingly, and yet without 
difficulty, falls into the practice and habits which are 
recxmmended; he glides through life if he pursues his 
course smoothly and without interruption. 


303 


TO STAGGER, REEL, TOTTER, 


Stagger is in all probability a frequentative from the 
German steigen, and the Greek sorxéw to go, signify- 
ing to go backward and forward ; to veel signifies to go 
like a reel in a winding manner; totter most probably 
comes from the German zzttern to tremble, because to 
totter is a tremulous action. 

All these terms designate an involuntary and an un 
steady motion; they vary both in the cause and the 
mode of the action; staggering and reeling are occa- 
sioned cither by drunkenness or sickness ; 


Natheless it bore his foe not from his sell, 
But made him stagger as he were not well. 
SPENSER. 


The cluuds, commix’d 
With stars, swift gliding sweep along the sky : 
All nature veels.—THomson. 


Tottering is purely the effect of weakness, particular!? 
the weakness of old age: adrunken manalways stag 
gers as he walks; one who is giddy reels from one 
part to another: to stagger is a much less degree of 
unsteadiness than to reel ; for he who staggers is only 
thrown a little out of the straight path, but he who 
reels altogether loses his equilibrium; reeling is com- 
monly succeeded by falling. To stagger and reel are 
said as to the carriageof the whole body ; but totter 
has particular reference to the limbs; the knees and 
the legs totter, and consequently the footsteps become 
tottering. In an extended application, the mountains 
may be said to stagger and to reel in an earthquake: 
houses may totter from their very bases; 


Troy nods from high, and totters to her fall. 
DryDEn. 


In a figurative application, the faith or the resolution 
of a person staggers when its hold on the mind is 
shaken, and begins to give way :_ a nation or a govern 
ment will totter when it is torn by intestine convul 
sions. 


ces 


TO DRAW, DRAG, HAUL OR HALE, tULL 
PLUCK, TUG. 


Draw comes from the Latin traho to draw, and the 
Greek dpécow to lay hold of; drag through the me 
dium of the German tragen to carry, comes also from 
traho to draw ; haul or hale comes from the Greek 2\xc@ 
to draw ; pull is in all probability changed from pelle 
to drive or thrust; pluck is in the German plucken, 
&c.; tug comes from the German ziehen to pull. 

Draw expresses here the idea common to the first 
three terms, namely, of putting a body in motion from 
behind oneself or towards oneself; to drag is to drazw 
a thing with violence, or to draw that- which makes 
resistance ; to haul is to drag it with still greater vio- 
lence. A cartis drawn; a body is dragged along the 
ground; ora vessel is hauled to the shore ; 


Furious he said, and tow’rd the Grecian crew, 
(Seiz’d by the crest) the unhappy warriour drew ; 
Struggling he follow’d, while th’ embroider’d thong, 
That ty’d his helmet, dragg’d the chief along. 
Pore. 


Some hoisting levers, some the wheels prepare, 

And fasten to the horse’s feet; the rest 

With cables haul along the unwieldy beast. 
DRYDEN. 


To pull signifies only an effort to draw without the 
idea of motion: horses pulZ very long sometimes be: 
fore they can draw a heavily laden cart up hill; ‘Twa 
magnets are placed, one of them in the roof and the 
other in the floor of Mahomet’s burying-place at 
Mecca, an‘ pull the impostor’s iron coffin with such 
an equal attraction, that it hangs in the air between 
both of them.’—Appison. To pluck isto pull with a 
sudden twitch, in order to separate ; thus feathers are 
plucked from animals ; 


Even children follow’d with endearing wile, ; 
And pluck’d his gown, to share the good man’s smile 
GOLDSMITH. 


To tug is to pull with violence; thus men tug at the 
oar; 


Clear’d, as I thought, and fully fix’d at length 


To learn the cause, I tugg’d with all my strength 
Drypen 


304 


In the moral application we may be drawn by any 
ining which can act on the mind to bring us near to an 
abject; we are dragged only by means of force; we 
puil a thing towards us by a direct effort ; 


Hither we sail’d, a voluntary throng, 

To avenge a private, not a publick wrong; 

What else to Troy the assembled nations draws, 

But thine, ungrateful! and thy brother’s ale! 
OPE. 


°T is long since I for my celestial wife, 
Loath’d by the gods have dragg’d a lingering life. 
Porz. 


Hear this, remember, ard our fury dread, 
Nor pull th’ unwilling vengeance on thy head. 
Pore. 


To haul, pluck, and tug are seldom used but in the 
physical application. 


TO CAST, THROW, HURL. 


Cast probably comes from casus, participle of cado 
to fall, signifying to make or to let fall; throw, in 
Saxon thrawan, is most probably a variation of thrust, 
in Latin trudo, Chaldee terad to thrust repeatedly ; 
hurl, like the word whirl, comes from’ the Saxon 
hirfiven, hiveorfian, German, &c. wirbel, Teutonic 
wirvel, Danish hvirvel, hvirvler, Latin verto, gyro, 


which are all derived from the Hebrew Say round, 
signifying to turn round. 

Cast conveys simply the idea of laying aside, or put- 
ting from one’s self; throw and hurl designate more 
specifically the mode of the action: cast is an indif 
ferent action, whether it respects ourselves or others ; 
throw always marks a direct motive of dislike or 
tontempt. What is not wanted is cast off; clothes 
which are no Jonger worn are cast off: what is worth- 
less or hurtful is thrown away; the dross is separated 
from the wheat and thrown away ; bad habits cannot 
be thrown off too soon. 

Cast, as it respects others, is divested of all per- 
sonalities ; but nothing is thrown at any one without 
an intention of offending or hurting: a glance is cast 
at a person, or things are cast before him; but insi- 
nuations are thrown out against a person; things are 
thrown at him with the view of striking. 

Cast requires no particular effort; it amounts in 
general to no more than let fall or go: throw is fre- 
quently accompanied with violence. Money is cast 
into a bag; stones are thrown from a great distance: 
animals cast their young at stated periods; a horse 
throws hisrider ; alawless man throws off constraint; 


As far as I could cast my eyes P 
Upon the sea, something methought did rise 
Like bluish mists.—DrypDEn. 


O war, thou son of hell! 
Whom angry heavens do make their minister, 
Throw in the frozen bosoms of our part 
Hot coals of vengeance !—SHAKSPEARE. 


Hurl is a violent species of throwing employed only 
on extraordinary occasions, expressive of an unusual 
degree of vehemence in the agent, and an excessive 
provocation on the part of the sufferer: the hurler, 
the thing hurled, and the cause of hurling, correspond 
in magnitude; a mighty potentate is hurled from his 
throne by some power superiour to his own; Milton 
represents the devils as hurled from Heaven by the 
word of the Almighty; the heathen poets have feigned 
a similar story of the giants who made war against 


_ Heaven, and were hurled by the thunderbolts of Jupiter 


down to the earth; 


Wreath my head 
With flaming meteors, load my arms with thunder, 
Which as I nimbly cut my cloudy way 
Vl Aurl on this ungrateful earth.—Tare. 


TO SPRING, START, STARTLE, SHRINK. 

Spring,v To spring; start isin all probability an 
intensive of stir; startle is a frequentative of start ; 
shrink is probably an intensive of sink, signifying to 
sink into itself. 

The idea of a sudden motion is expressed by all 
these terms, but the circumstances and mode differ in 
all, sxring (v To arise) ‘s indefinitein these respects, 


| violent action of the passions. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


and is therefore the most general term. To spring 
and start may be either voluntary or involuntary 
movements, but spring is mostly voluntary, and stare, 
which is an intensive of stir, is mostly involuntary; a 
person springs out of a place, or one animal springs 
upon another ; 


Death wounds to cure; we fall, we rise, we reign 
Spring from our fetters, and fasten in the skies. 
Youne 


A person or animal starts from a certain point to begin 
running, or starts with fright from one side to the 
other ; 


A shape within the wat’ry gleam appear’d, 
Bending to look on me: I started back, 
It started back.— MI. Ton. 


To startle is always an involuntary action; a ho 
starts by suddenly flying from the point on which he 
stands; but if he startles he seems to fly back on him- 
self and stops his course; 


*T is listening fear and dumb amazement, 

When to the startled eye the sudden glance 

Appears far south, eruptive through the cloud. 
THOMSON 


To spring and start therefore always carry a person 
farther from a given point; but startle and shrink are 
movements within one’s self; startling is a sudden 
convulsion of the frame which makes a person to stand 
in hesitation whether to proceed or not; shrinking is 
a contraction of the frame within itself; ‘There is a 
horrour in the scene of a ravaged country which makes 
nature shrink back at the reflection. —Hrerrine. Any 
sudden and unexpected sound makes a person startle ; 
the approach of any frightful object makes him shrin& 
back: spring and start are employed only in the pro- 
per sense of corporeal movements: startle and shrink 
are employed in regard to the movements of the mind 
as well as the body. 


TO SHAKE, AGITATE, TOSS. 


Shake, in German schitten, Latin quatio, Hebrew 
=w to shed; agitate, in Latin agito, is a frequenta- 
tive of ago to drive, that is, to drive different. ways; 
toss is probably contracted from the Latin torsi, pre 
terite of torqgueo to twirl. 

A motion more or less violent is signified by all these 
terms, which differ both inthe manner and the cause o. 
the motion. Shake is indefinite, it may differ in de- 
gree as to the violence; to agitate and toss rise in 
sense upon the word shake: a breeze shakes a leaf,a 
storm agztates the sea,and the waves toss a vessel to 
and fro: large and small bodies may be shaken ; large 
bodies are agitated; a handkerchief may be shaken ; 
the earth is agitated by an earthquake. What is 
shaken and agitated is not removed from its place; 
but what is tossed is thrown from place to place. A 
house may frequently be shaken, while the foundation 
remains good ; ‘An unwholesome blast of air, a cold, 
or a surfeit, may skake in pieces a man’s hardy 
fabrick”—Soutu. The waters are most agitated 
while they rematn within their bounds: ‘ We all must 
have observed that a speaker agitated with passion, or 
an actor, who is indeed strictly an imitator, are perpe 
tually changing the tone and pitch of their voice as 
the sense of their words varies.’—Sir Wm. Jonns. A 
ball is tossed from hand to hand; 


Toss’d all the day in rapid circles round, 
Breathless I fell.—Porr. 


To shake and toss are the acts either of persons or 
things; to agitate is the act of things, when taken in 
the active sense. A person shakes the hand of another, 
or the motion of a carriage shakes persons in general, 
and agitates those who are weak in frame; a child 
tosses his food about, or the violent motion of a vessel 
tosses every thing about which isin it. To shake arises 
from external or internal causes; we may be skaken 
by others, or shake ourselves from cold; to agitate and 
toss arise always from some external action, direct or 
indirect; the body may be agitated by violent concus 
sion from without, or from the action of perturbed 
feelings: the body may be tossed by various circum- 
stances, and the mind may be tossed to and fro by the 
Hence the propriety of 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


asing the terms in the moral application. The resolu- 
tion is shaken, as the tree is by the wind: 


Not my firm faith 
Can by his fraud be shaken or seduc’d.—MILToNn. 


The mind is agitated like troubled waters; ‘ His mother 
could no longer bear the egitations of so many passions 
as thronged upon eel EET A person is tossed 
to and froin the ocean of life, as the vessel is tossed by 
the waves; 


Your mind is tossing on the sea, 
There where your argosies 
Do overpeer the petty traffickers.—-SHaKsPEARE. 


SHOCK, CONCUSSION. 


Shock denotes a violent shake or agitation; con- 
cussion, a shaking together. The shock is often in- 
stantaneous, but does not necessarily extend beyond 
the act of the moment; the concussion is permanent 
in its consequences, it tends to derange the system. 
Hence the different application of the terms: the shock 
may affect either the body or the mind ; the concussion 
affects properly only the body, or corporeal objects; a 
violent and sudden biow produces a shock at the mo- 
ment it is given ; but it does not always produce a con- 
cussion: the violence of a fall will, however, some- 
times produce a concussion in the brain, which may 
affect the intellects. Sudden news of an exceedingly 

ainful nature will often produce a shock on the mind ; 
but time mostly serves to wear away the effect which 
has been produced. 


TO SHOOT, DART. 


To shoot and dart, in the proper sense, are clearly 
distinguished from each other, as expressing different 
modes of sending bodies to a distance from a given 
point. From the circumstances of the actions arise 
their different application to other objects in the im- 
proper sense ; as that which proceeds by, shooting goes 
unexpectedly, and with great rapidity, forth from a 
body, so, in the figurative sense, a plant shoots up that 
20mes so unexpectedly as not to be seen; a star is said 
20 shoot in the sky, which seems to move in a shooting 
manner, from one place to another: a dart, on the 
»ther hand, or that which is darted, moves through the 
air visibly, and with less rapidity: hence the quick 
movements of persons or animals, are described by the 
word dart; a soldier darts forward to meet his anta- 
yonist; a hart darts past any one in order to make her 
escape. ° 


TO REBOUND, REVERBERATE, RECOIL. 


To rebound is to bound or spring back: a ball re- 
bounds. To reverberate is to verberate or beat back: a 
sound reverberates when it echoes. To recoil is to 
coil or whirl back: a snake recoils. ‘They preserve 
the same distinction in their figurative application ; 
* Honour is but the reflection of a man’s own actions 
shining bright in the face of all about him, and from 
thence rebounding upon himself..—Soutnu. ‘ You 
seemed to reverberate upon me with the beams of the 
sun.’—HoweEL. 


Who in deep mines for hidden knowledge toils, 
Like guns o’ercharg’d, breaks, misses, or recoils. 
DenHAM. 


TO SHAKE, TREMBLE, SHUDDER, QUIVER, 
QUAKE. 


Shake, shudder, quiver, and quake, all come from the 
Latin guatio or cutio to shake, through the medium of 
the German schutteln, schutten, the Italian scussere, 
and the like ; tremble comes from the Latin tremo. 

To shake isa generick term, the rest are but modes of 
shaking : to tremble is to shake from an inward cause, 
or what aypears to be so: in this manner a person 
trembles from fear, from cold, or weakness; and a leaf 
which is imperceptibly agitated by the air is also said to 
tremble ; to shudder is to tremble violently: to guiver 
and guake are both to tremble quickly ; but the former 
denotes rather a vibratory motion, as the point of a 
spear when thrown against wood; the latter a quick 
motion of the whole body, as in the case of Ge that 


305 


have not guffictent consistency in themselves to remain 
still. 

The rapid radiance mstantaneous strikes 

Th’ ilumin’d mountain, through the forest streams, 

Shakes on the floods.—THOMSON. 

The trembling pilot, from his rudder torn, 

Was headlong hurl’d.—DrypEn. 

He said, and hurl’d against the mountain side 

His quivering spear.—DRYDEN. 

Thereto as cold and dreary as a snake, 

That seem’d to tremble evermore and quake. 

SPENSER 


TO PALPITATE, FLUTTER, PANT, GASP. 

Palpitate, in Latin palpitatus, from palpito, is a 
frequentative of the Greek rdé\\w to vibrate ; flutter is 
a frequentative of fly, signifying to fly backward and 
forward in an agitated manner; pant, probably de- 
rived from pent, and the Latin pendo to hang in a state 
of suspense, so as not to be able to move backward or 
forward, as is the case with the breath when one pants ; 
gasp is a variation of gape, which is the ordinary ac- 
companiment in the action of gasping. 

These terms agree in a particular manner, as they 
respect the irregular action of the heart or lungs: the 
two former are said of the heart; and the two latter of 
the lungs or breath; to paipitate expresses that which 
is strong ; it is a strong beating of the blood against the 
vessels of the heart; ‘No plays have oftener filled the 
eyes with tears, and the breast with palpitation, than 
those which are variegated with interludes of mirth.’— 
Jounson. To flutter expresses that which is rapid ; it 
is a violent and alternate motion of the blood back- 
ward and forward; 


She springs aloft, with elevated pride, 
Above the tangling mass of low desires, 
That bind the fluttering crowd.—-THomson. 


Fear and suspense produce commonly palpitation, but 
joy and hope produce a fluttering: panting is, with 
regard to the breath, what palpitating is with regard tc 
the heart; panting is occasioned by the inflated state 
of the respiratory organs which renders this paipz 
tating necessary : 


All nature fades extinct, and she alone, 

Heard, felt, and seen, possesses every thought, 

Fills every sense, and pants in every vein. 
THOMSOR. 


Gasping differs from the former, inasmuch as it denotes 
a direct stoppage of the breath; a cessation of action 
in the respiratory organs: 


Had not the soul this outlet to the skies, 

In this vast vessel of the universe, 

How should we gasp, as in an empty void! 
Youna. 


ALARM, TERROUR, FRIGHT, CONSTER 
NATION. 


lalarm, in French alarmer, is compounded of al or 
ad and armes arms, signifying a cry to arms, a signal 
of danger, a call to defence ;{terrour, in Latin terror, 
comes from terreo to produce fear} fright, from the 
German furcht fear, signifies a stdte of fear: conster- 
nation, in Latin consternatus, from consterno to lay low 
or prostrate, expresses the mixed emotion of ferrour 
and amazement which confounds. 

Alarm springs from any sudden signal that announces 
the approach of danger. Terrour springs from any 
event or phenomenon that may serve as a prognostic 
of some catastrophe. It supposes a less distinct view 
of danger than alarm, and affords rcom to the imagina 
tion, which commonly magnifies objects. Alarm there 
fore makes us run to our defence, and terrour disarms 
US ; 

‘ None so rencwn’d 
With breathing brass to kindle fierce alarms. 
DryDEN. 
‘I was once in a mixed assembly, that was full of noise 
and mirth, when on a sudden an old woman unluckily 
observed, there were thirteen of us in company. The 


remark struck a panick terrour into several of us ’— 
ADDISON. 


Fright is a less vivid emotion than either, as it arises 


306 


from the simple appearance of danger. It is more per- 
sonal than either alarm or terrour; for we may be 
alarmed or terrified for others, but we are mostly 
frightened for ourselves. Consternation is stronger 
than either terrour or affright; it springs from the 
view of some very serious evil; ‘I have known a sol 
dier that has entered a breach affrighted at his ow: 
shadow’.—ADDISON. 


The son of Pelias ceased; the chiefs around 
In silence wrapt, in consternation drown’d.—PopPE. 


Alarm affects the feelings, terrour the understanding, 
and fright the senses; consternation seizes the whole 
mind, and benumbs the faculties. 

Cries alarm; horrid spectacles terrify; a tumult 
frightens; a sudden calamity fills with consternation. 

One is filled with alarm, seized with terrour, over- 
whelmed with fright or consternation. 

We are alarmed for what we apprehend; we are 
terrified by what we imagine; we are frightened by 
what we see; consternation may be produced by what 
we learn. 


TO DISMAY, DAUNT, APPAL. 


Dismay is probably changed from the French des- 
mouvoir, signifying to move or pull down the spirit ; 
daunt, changed from the Latin domitus conquered, 
signifies to bring down the spirit; appal, compounded 
of the intensive ap or ud and palleo to grow pale, sig- 
nifies to make pale with fear. 

The effect of fear on the spirit is strongly expressed 
by all these terms; but dismay expresses less than 
daunt, and this than appal. We are dismayed by 
alarming circumstances ; we are daunted by terrifying ; 
we are appalled by horrid circumstances. A severe de- 
feat will dismay so as to lessen the force of resistance ; 


So flies a herd of beeves, that hear, dismay’d, 
The lions roaring through the midnight shade. 
Pope. 

The fiery glare from the eyes of a ferocious beast will 
daunt him who was venturing to approach ; 
Jove got such heroes as my sire, whose soul 
No fear could dawnt, nor earth, nor hell control.—Porr. 
The sight of an apparition will appal the stoutest 
heart; 

Now the last ruin the whole host appals ; 

Now Greece had trembled in her wooden walls, 

But wise Ulysses call’d Tydides forth.—Porr. 


30LD, FEARLESS, INTREPID, UNDAUNTED. 


Bold, ». Audacity ; fearless signifies without fear 
(vy. To apprehend) ; intrepid, compounded of in pri- 
vative and trepidus trembling, marks the total absence 
of fear; undaunted, of un privative, and daunted, 
from the Latin domitatus, participle of demitare to 
impress with fear, signifies unimpressed or unmoved 
at the prospect of danger. 

Boldness is positive; fearlessness is negative; we 
may therefore be fearless without being bold, or fear- 
less through boldness ; 


Such unheard of prodigies hang o’er us, 
As make the boldest tremble.—Youne. 


Fearlessness is a temporary state: we may be fearless 
of danger at this, or at that time; fearless of loss, and 
the like; 


The careful hen 
Calls all her chirping family around, 
Fed and defended by the fearless cock.—THOMSON. 


Boldness is a characteristick ; it is associated with 
constant fearlessness ; 


His party, press’d with numbers, soon grew faint, 

And would have left their charge an easy prey; 

While he alone, undaunted at the odds, 

Though hopeless to escape, fought well and bravely. 
Rowe. 


Intrepidity and undauntedness denote a still higher 
degree of fearlessness than boldness : boldness is con- 
fident, it forgets the consequences ; intrepidity is col- 
lected, it sees the danger, and faces it with composure ; 
undauntedness is associated with unconquerable firm- 
ness and resolution ; it is awed by nothing: the bold 
man proceeds on his enterprise with spirit and viva- 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


city ; the intrepid man calmly advances to the scene 
of death and destruction; ‘I could not sufficiently 
wonder at the intrepidity of those diminutive mortals, 
who durst venture to walk upon my body, without 
trembling..—Swirr. The undaunted man keeps his 
countenance in the season of trial, in the midst of the 
most terrifying and overwhelming circumstances. 

These good qualities may, without great care, de 
uaa into certain vices to which they cre closely 
allied. 

Of the three, boldness is the most questionable in 
its nature, unless justified by the absolute urgency of 
the case; in maintaining the cause of truth against 
the lawless and oppressive exercise of power, it is 
an essential quality, but it may easily degenerate into 
insolent defiance and contempt of superiours; it may 
lead to the provoking of resentment and courting of 
persecution. Intrepidity may become rashness if the 
contempt of danger lead to an unnecessary exposure 
of the life and person. Undauntedness, in the pre- 
sence of a brutal tyrant, may serve to baffle all his 
malignant purposes of revenge; but the same spirit 
may be employed by the hardened villain to preserve 
himself from detection. 


MANLY, MANFUL. 


Manly, or like a man, is opposed to juvenile or pue- 
rile, and of course applied to those who are fitted to 
act the part of men; ‘I love a manly freedom as much 
as any of the band of cashierers of kings.’—Burxx. 
Manful, or full of manhood, is opposed to effeminate, 
and is applicable to particular persons, or persons in 
particular cases; ‘I opposed his whim manfully, which 
[ think you will approve of.—CumBERLAND. A pre- 
mature manliness in young persons is hardly less un- 
seemly than a want of manfulness in one who is called 
upon to display his courage. 


FEARFUL, DREADFUL, FRIGHTFUL, TRE- 
MENDOUS, TERRIBLE, TERRIFICK, 
HORRIBLE, HORRID. 


Fearful here signifies full of that which causes 
fear (v. Alarm) ; dreadful, full of what causes dread 
(v. Apprehension); frightful, full of what causes 
fright (v. Afraid) or apprehension ; tremendous, that 
which causes trembling ; terrible, or terrifick, causing 
terrour (v. Alarm) ; horrible, or horrid, causing horrour 
The application of these terms is easily to be disco- 
vered by these definitions: the first two affect the 
mind more than the senses; all the others affect the 
senses more than the mind: a contest is fearful when 
the issue is important, but the event doubtful ; 


She wept the terrours of the fearful wave, 
Too oft, alas! the wandering lover’s grave. 
FALCONER. 
The thought of death is dreadful to one who feels 
himself unprepared ; 
And dar’st thou threat to snatch my prize away, 
Due to the deeds of many a dreadful day 1—Poprr. 


The frightful is less than the tremendous; the tre 
mendous than the terrible ; the terrible than the hor 
rible: shrieks may be frightful ; 


Frightful convulsions writh’d his tortur’d limbs 
FENTON 
The roaring of a lion is terrible ; 
Was this a face to be expos’d 
In the most terrible and nimble stroke 
Of quick, cross lightning ?—SHaKsPEARE. 


Thunder and lightning may be tremendous, or con 
vulsions may be tremendous ; the glare in the eye of 
a ferocious beast is terrifick ; ‘Out of the limb of the 
murdered monarchy has arisen a vast, tremendous, 
unformed spectre, in a far more terrifick guise than 
any which ever yet overpowered the imagination of 
man.’—Burker. The actual spectacle of killing is bor- 
rible or horrid ; 


Deck’d in sad triumph for the mournful field 
O’er her broad shoulders hangs his horrid shield 
Pork. 
In their general application, these terms are often em 


ployed promiscuously to characterize whatever pro- 
duces very strong impressions: hence we may speak of 


ENGLISH SYNONYMKES. 


a frightful, drzadful, terrible, or horrid dream; or 
frightful, dreadful, or terrible tempest; dreadful, ter- 
rible, or horrid consequences. 


\/ 


TO APPREHEND, FEAR, DREAD. 


Apprehend, in French appréhender, Latin appre- 
hendo, compounded of ap and prehendo to lay hold of, 
in a moral sense signifies to seize with the understand- 
ing ; fear comes in all probability through the medium 
of the Latin pavor and vereor, from the Greek gpicow 
to feel a shuddering; dread,in Latin territo, comes 


from the Greek rapdocw to trouble, signifying to fear’ 


with exceeding trouble. 

These words rise progressively in their import; 
they mark a sentiment of pain at the prospect-of evil: 
but the sentiment of apprehension is simply that of 
uneasiness; that of fear is anxiety; that of dread is 
wretchedness. roy 

We apprehend an unpleasant occurrence ; we fear 
a misfortune; we dread a calamity. What is possi- 
ble is apprehended ; ‘Our natural sense of right and 
wrong produces an apprehension of merited punish- 
ment, when we have committed a crime.’-—B.air. 
What is probable is feared; ‘That which is feared 
may sometimes be avoided : but that which is regretted 
to-day may be regretted again to-morrow¢”—Jounson. 
The symptom or prognostick of an evil is dreaded as if 
the evil Hself were present ; 


All men think al] men mortal but themselves, 

Themselves, when some alarming shock of fate 

Strikes through their wounded hearts the sudden 
dread.— Young. 


Apprehend respects things only ; fear and dread relate 
to persons as well as things: we fear the person who 
has the power of inflicting pain or disgrace; we dread 
him who has no less the will than the power. 

(Fear is a salutary sentiment in society, it binds men 
together in their several relations and dependencies, 
and affords the fullest scope for the exercise of the 
benevolent feelings; it is the sentiment of a child 
towards its parent or instructer; of a creature to its 
Creator; it is the companion of Jove and respect to- 
wards men, of adoration in erring and sinful mortals 
towards their Maker; / Dread is altogether an irksome 
sentiment; with regard to our fellow-creatures, it arises 
out of the abuse of power: we dread the tyrant who 
delights in punishing and tormenting, his image haunts 
the breast of the unhappy subject, his shadow awakens 
terrour as the approach of some direful misfortune: 
with regard to our Maker it springs from a conscious- 
ness of guilt, and the prospect of a severe and ade- 
quate punishment; the wratu of God may justly be 
dreaded. 


r 


AWE, REVERENCE, DREAD 


‘noe, probably from the German achten, conveys the 
idea of regarding; reverence, in French reverence, 
Latin reverentia, comes from revereor to fear strongly ; 
dread, in Saxon dread, comes from the Latin territo 
to frighten, and Greek rapdocw to trouble. 

Awe and reverence both denote a strong sentiment 
of respect, mingled with some emotions of fear; but 
the former marks the much stronger sentiment of the 
two: dread is an unmingled sentiment of fear for one’s 
personal security. Awe may be awakened by the help 
of the senses and understanding; reverence by that of 
the understanding only; and dread principally by that 
of the imagination. 

Sublime, sacred, and solemn objects awaken awe ; 
they cause the beholder to stop and consider whether 
he is worthy to approach them any nearer; they rivet 
his mind and body to a spot, and make him cautious, 
lest by his presence he should contaminate that which 
is hallowed; ‘It were endless to enumerate all the 
passages, both in the sacred and profane writers, which 
establish the general sentiment of mankind concerning 
the inseparable union of a sacred and reverential awe 
with our ideas of the Divinity’—Burxkr. Exalted and 
noble objects produce reverence; they lead to every 
outward mark of obeisance and humiliation which it is 
possible for a man to express; ‘If the voice of universal 
nature, the experience of all ages, the light of reason, 
and the immediate evidence of my senses, cannot 
awake me to a dependence upon my God, a reverence 


» 


i ET 


307 


for his religion, and an humble opinion of myself, 
what a lost creature am I.’—CumBeruanp, Terrifick 
objects excite dread; they cause a shuddering of the 
animal frame, and a revulsion of the mind which is 
attended with nothing but pain; 


To Phcebus next my trembling steps be led, 
Full of religious doubts and awful dread. 
DRYDEN. 


When the creature places himself in the presence of 
the Creator; when he contemplates the immeasurable 
distance which separates himself, a frail and finite 
mortal, from his infinitely perfect Maker ; he ap- 
proaches with awe: even the sanctuary where he is 
accustomed thus to bow before the Almighty acquires 
the power of awakening the same emotions in his 
mind. Age, wisdom, and virtue, when combined in 
one person, are never approached without reverence ; 
the possessor has a dignity in himself that checks the 
haughtiness of the arrogant, that silences the petu- 
lance of pride and se!f-conceit, that stills the noise and 
giddy mirth of the young, and communicates to all 
around a sobriety of mien and aspect. A grievous 
offender is seldom without dread; his guilty con- 
science pictures every thing as the instrument of ven- 
geance, and every person as denouncing his merited 
sentence. 

The solemn stillness of the tomb will inspire awe, 
even in the breast of him who has no dread of death. 
Children should be early taught to have a reverence for 
the Bible as a book, in distinction from all other books. 


AFRAID, FEARFUL, TIMOROUS, TIMID. 


Afraid is changed from afeared, signifying in a state 
of fear; fearful, as the words of which it is com 
pounded imply, signifies full of fear; timorous and 
timid come from the Latin timor fear, timidus fearful, 
and tzmeo to fear. 

The first denotes a temporary state, the three last a 
habit of the mind. 

Afraid may be used either in a physical or moral 
application, either as it relates to ourselves only or to 
others ; fearful and timorous are only applied physi- 
cally and personally; t¢mid is mostly used in a moral 
sense. 

It is the character of the fearful or timorous pe 
son to be afraid of what he imagines would hurt him- 
self; it is not necessary for the prospect of danger tc 
exist in order to awaken fear in such a disposition; 
‘ To be always afrazd of losing life is, indeed, scarcely 
to enjoy a life that can deserve the care of preserva- 
tion.’—Jounson. It is the characteristick of the timid 
person to be afraid of offending or meeting with some 
thing painful from others; such a disposition is pre- 
vented from following the dictates of its own mind; 
‘He who brings with him into a clamorous multitude 
the timidity of recluse speculation, will suffer himself 
to be driven by a burst of laughter from the fortresses 
of demonstration.’—JOHNSON. ‘ 

Between fearful and timorous there is little distine- 
tion, either in sense or application, except that we say 
fearful of a thing, not timorous of a thing; ‘By I 
know not what impatience of raillery, he is wonder 
fully fearful of being thought too great a believer’ 
STEELE. 


Then birds in airy space might safely move, 
And tim’rous hares on heaths securely rove. 
DryveEn. 


TO FRIGHTEN, INTIMIDATE. 


Between frighten and intimidate there is the same 
difference as between fright (v. Alarm) and fear 
(v. To apprehend); the danger that is near or before 
the eyes frightens; that which is seen at a distance 
intimidates. hence females are oftener frightened, and 
men are oftener intimidated: noises will frighten ; 
threats may intimidate: we may run away when we 
are frightened ; we waver in our resolution when we 
are intimidated : we fear immediate bodily harm when 
we are frightened; we fear harm to our property 
as well as our persons when we are intimidated: 
frighten, therefore, is always applied to animals, but 
intimidate never ; 


And perch, a horrour! on his sacred crown, 
If that such profanation were permitted 


308 


Cf the bystanders, who with reverend care 
Fright them away.—CUMBERLAND, 
Cortes, unwilling to employ force, endeavoured alter- 
nately to sooth and intimidate Montezuma.’—Ro- 
BERTSON. 


\ .» FORMIDABLE, DREADFUL, TERRIBLE, 
SHOCKING. 


Formidable is applied to that which is apt to excite 
fear (v. To apprehend) ; dreadful (v. To apprehend) to 
what is calculated to excite dread ; terrible (v. Alarm) 
to that which excites terrour ; and shocking from to 
shake is applied to that which violently shakes or agi- 
tates (v. To agitate). ‘The formidable acts neither 
suddenly nor violently; ‘France continued not only 
powerful but formidable to the hour of the ruin of the 
monarchy.’—Burxks. The dreadful may act violently, 
but not suddenly: thus the appearance of an army 
may be formidable; that of a field of battle is dread- 
ful; 

Think, timely think, on the last dreadful day. 
DrypDEn. 


The terrible and shocking act both suddenly and vio- 
lently ; but the former acts both on the senses and the 
imagination, the latter on the moral feelings only: 
thus the glare of a tiger’s eye is terrible; the unex- 
pected news of a friend’s death is shocking ; ‘ When 
men are arrived at thinking of their very dissolution 
with pleasure, how few things are there that can be 
terrible to them.’—STree.e. ‘ Nothing could be more 
shocking to a generous nobility, than the intrusting to 
mercenary hands the defence of those territories which 
had been acquired or preserved by the blood of their 
ancestors.’—ROBERTSON. 


TREMBLING, TREMOUR, TREPIDATION. 


All these terms are derived from the very same 
source (v. Agitation), and designate a general state of 
agitation: trembling is not only the most familiar but 
also the most indefinite term of the three ; trepidation 
and tremour are species of trembling. Trembling 
expresses any degree of involuntary shaking of the 
frame, from the affection either of the body or the 
mind; cold, nervous affections, fear, and the like, are 
the ordinary causes of trembling ; 


And with unmanly tremblings shook the car. 
Pope. 


Tremour is a slight degree of trembling, which arises 
only from a mental affection ; when the spirits are agi- 
tated, the mind is thrown into atremour by any trifling 
incident; ‘ Laughter is a vent of any sudden joy that 
strikes upon the mind, which, being too volatile and 
strong, breaks out in this tremour of the voice.’— 
STEELE. T'repidation is more violent than either of 
the two, and springs from the defective state of the 
mind, it shows itself in the action, or the different 
movements of the body; those who have not the re- 
quisite composure of mind to command themselves on 
all occasions are apt to do what is required of them 
with trepidation ; ‘ The ferocious insolence of Crom- 
well, the rugged brutality of Harrison, and the general 
trepidation of fear and wickedness (in the rebel parlia- 
ment) would make a picture of unexampled variety.’ 
—Jounson. Trembling is either an occasional or an 
habitual infirmity; there is no one who may not be 
sometimes seized with a trembling, and there are those 
who, from a lasting disease or from old age, are never 
rid of it; tremour is but occasional, and consequently 
depends rather on the nature of the occasion; no one 
who has a proper degree of modesty can make his first 
appearance in publick without feeling a tremour: tre- 
pidation may be either occasional or habitual, but 
oftener the latter, since it arises rather from the weak- 
ness of the mind than the strength of the cause. 
Trembling and tremulous are applied as epithets, 
either to persons or things: a trembling voice evinces 
trepidation of mind, a tremulous voice evinces a 
tremour of mind: notes in musick are sometimes 
trembling ; the motion of the leaves of trees is tremu- 
lous ; 
And rend the trembling unresisting prey.—Popr. 


As thus th’ effylgence tremulous I drank, 
With cherish’d gaze.—Tuomson. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


AGITATION, EMOTION, TREPIDATION, 
TREMOUR. 


Agitation, in Latin agitatio, from agito, signifies 
the state of being agitated ; emotion, in Latin emotio, 
from emotus, participle of emoveo, compounded of 
out of and moveo to move, signifies the state of being 
moved out of rest or put in motion; trepidation, in 
Latin trepidatio, from trepido 10 tremble, compounded 
of tremo and pede to tremble with the feet, signifies 
the condition of trembling in all one’s limbs from head 
to foot; tremour, v. Trembling. 

Agitation refers either to the body or mind, emotion 
to the mind only; tremour mostly, and trepidation 
only, to the body. 

Agitation of mind is a vehement struggle between 
contending feelings; emotion is the awakening but 
one feeling; which in the latter case is not so vehe- 
ment as in the former. Distressing circumstances pro- 
duce agitation; ‘The seventh book affects the ima- 
gination like the ocean in a calm, and fills the mind 
of the reader without producing in it any thing like 
tumult or agitation.’ Appison (On JMilton). Affect- 
ing and interesting circumstances produce emotions; 
‘The description of Adam and Eve as they first ap- 
peared to Satan, is exquisitely drawn, and sufficient to 
make the fallen angel gaze .upon them with all those 
emotions of envy in which he is represented.’—App1- 
son (On Miiton). 

Agitations have but one character, namely, that of 
violence: emotions vary with the object that awakens 
them; they are emotions either of pain or pleasure, 
of tenderness or anger; they are either gentle or strong, 
faint or vivid. 

With regard to the body, agitation is more than tre- 
pidation, and the latter more than éremour: the two 
former attract the notice of the bystander ; the latter 
is scarcely visible. 

Agitations of the mind sometimes give rise to dis- 
torted and extravagant agitations of the body; emo- 
tions of terrour or horrour will throw the body into a 
trepidation; or any publick misfortune may produce 
a trepidation among a number of persons; ‘ His first 
action of note was in the battle of Lepanto, where the 
success of that great day, in such trepidation of the 
state, made every man meritorious.—-WoTton. Emo- 
tions of fear will cause a tremour to run through the 
whole frame; ‘ He fell into such a universal tremour 
of all his joints, that when going his legs trembled 
under him.’—Hrrvey. 


TO ACTUATE, IMPEL, INDUCE 


Actuate, from the Latin actum an action, implies ta 
call into action; impel, in Latin impello, is com- 
pounded of zm.towards and pello to drive, signifying 
to drive towards an object; induce, in Latin induco, is 
compounded of zn and duco, signifying to lead towards 
an object. 

One is actuated by motives, impelled by passions, 
and induced by reason or inclination. 

Whatever actuates is the result of reflection: it is 
a steady and fixed principle: whatever impels is mo- 
mentary and vehement, and often precludes reflection: 
whatever induces is not vehement, though often mo- 
mentary. 

We seldom repent of the thing to which we are 
actuated ; as the principle, whether good or bad, is 
not liable to change; ‘It is observed by Cicero, that 
men of the greatest and the most shining parts are 
most actuated by ambition.,—Appison. We may fre- 
quently be impelied to measures which cause serious 
repentance ; 

When youth zmpell’d him, and when love inspir’d, 

The listening nymphs his Dorick lays admir’d. . 

Sir Wm. Jonzs. 


The thing to which we are induced is seldom of suffi- 
cient importance to call for repentance ; 


Induced by such examples, some have taught 
That bees have portions of ethereal thought. 
DrypDEn. 


Revenge actuates men to commit the most horri¢ 
deeds; anger impels them to the most imprudent ac 
tions; phlegmatick people are not easily induced tc 
take any one measure in preference to another 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


TO EXCITE, INCITE, PROVOKE. 


Excite, v. To awaken; incite, v. To encourage ; 

revoke, v. To aggravate. 

To excite is said more particularly of the inward 
feelings ; incite is said of the external actions ; provoke 
is Said of both. 

A person’s passions are excited ; he is incited by any 
particular passion to a course of conduct; a particular 
feeling is provoked, or he is provoked by some feeling 
to a particular siep. Wit and conversation excite 
mirth; 

Can then the sons of Greece (the sage rejoin’d) 
Excite compassion in Achilles’ mind 7—Pors. 


Men are incited by a lust for gain to frandulent prac- 
tices ; 
To her the god: Great Hector’s soul incite 
To dare the boldest Greek to single fight, 
Till Greece provok’d from all her numbers show 
A warriour worthy to be Hector’s foe —Popr. 


Men are provoked by the opposition of others to intem- 
perate language and intemperate measures; ‘ Among 
the other torments which this passion produces, we 
may usually observe, that none are greater mourners 
than jealous men, when the person who provoked their 
jealousy is taken from them.’—Anppison. To excite is 
very frequently used in a physical acceptation; incite 
always, and provoke mostly, in a moral application. 
We speak of exciting hunger, thirst, or perspiration ; 
of znciting to noble actions; of provoking imperti- 
nence, provoking scorn or resentment. 

When eacite and provoke are applied to similar 
objects, the former designates a much stronger action 
than the latter. A thing may eacite a smile, but it 
provokes \aughter ; it may excite displeasure, but it 
provokes anger; it may excite joy or sorrow, hut it 
provokes to madness. 


TO PRESS, SQUEEZE, PINCH, GRIPE. 


Press, in Latin pressus, participle of premo, which 
probably comes from the Greek Gdpnpa; squeeze, in 


Saxon guisan, Latin guasso, Hebrew Pw) to press 
tegether ; pinch is but a variation from pin, spine; 
gripe, ‘from the German greifen, signifies to seize, 
{ike the word grapple or grasp, the Latin rapio, the 


Greek yor7iCw to fish or catch, and the Hebrew 55) 
to catch. 

The forcible action of one body on another is in- 
eluded in all these terms. In the word press this is 
the only idea; the rest differ in the circumstances. 
We may press with the foot, the hand, the whole 
body, or any particular limb ; one squeezes commonly 
with the hand; one pinches either with the fingers, 
or an instrument constructed in a similar form; one 
gripes with teeth, claws, or any instrument that can 
gain a hold of the object. Inanimate as well as ani- 
mate objects press or pinch; but to squeeze and gripe 
are more properly the actions of animate objects ; the 
former is always said of persons, the latter of animals ; 
stones press that on which they rest their weight; a 
door which shuts of itself may pinch the fingers; one 
squeezes the hand of a friend; lobsters and many 
other shell-fish gripe whatever comes within their 
claws. 

In the figurative application they have a similar dis- 
tinction; we press a person by importunity, or by 
some coercive measure; ‘ All these women (the thirty 
wives of Orodes) pressed hard upon the old king, each 
soliciting for ason of her own.”—PripEaux. An ex- 
tortioner squeezes in order to get that which is given 
with reluctance or difficulty ; ‘ Ventidius, receiving 
great sums from Herod to promote his interest, and 
at the same time greater to hinder it, squeezed each 
of them to the utmost, and served neither.’—Prr- 
DEAUX. A miser pinches himself by contracting his 
8. wbsistence ; 


Better dispos’d to clothe the tatter’d wretch, 
Who shrinks beneath the blast, to feed the poor 
Pinch’d with afflictive want.—SoMERVILLE. 


A covetous person gripes all that comes within his 
pessession ; ‘How can he be envied for his felicity 
who is conscious that a very short time will give him 
up to the gripe of poverty.’—JoHNson. 


302 


TO RUB, CHAFE, FRET, GALL. 
To rub, through the medium of the northern lan 


guages, comes from the Hebrew 5}*- It is the generick 
term, expressing simply the act of moving bodies when 
in contact with each other; to chafe, from the French 
chauffer, and the Latin calfacere to make hot, signi- 
fies to rub a thing until it is heated; to fret, like the 
word fritter, comes from the Latin frio to crumble, 
signifying to wear away by rubbing: to gall, from 
the noun gall, signifies to make as bitter or painful as 
gall, that is, to wound by rubbing. ‘Things are rubbed 
sometimes for purposes of convenience; but they are 
chafed, fretted, and galled injuriously: the skin is 
liable to chafe from any violence; leather will fret 
from the motion of a carriage; when the skin is once 
broken, animals will become galled by a continuance 
of the friction. 'Thése terms are likewise used in the 
moral or figurative sense to denote the actions of 
things on the mind, where the distinction is clearly 
kept up. We meet with rubs from the opposing sen- 
timents of others; ‘A boy educated at home meets 
with continual rubs and disappointments (when he 
comes into the world)..—Bxrartiz. The angry hu , 
mours are chafed ; 


Accoutred as we were, we both plung’d in 
The troubled Tiber, chafing with the shores. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


The mind is fretted and made sore by the frequent 
repetition of small troubles and vexations; 


And full of indignation frets, 
That women should be such coquettes.—Swirt 


The pride is galled by humiliation and severe degra 
dations ; 


Thus every poet in his kind 

Is bit by him that comes behind, 

Who, tho’ too little to be seen, 

Can tease and gall, and give the spleen.—Swirt. 


EBULLITION, EFFERVESCENCE, FERMENT: 
ATION. 


These technical terms have a strong resemblance in 
their signification, but they are not strictly synony 
mous; having strong characteristick differences. 

Ebullition, from the Latin ebullitio and ebullio, 
compounded of e and bullio to boil forth, marks the 
* commotion of a liquid acted upon by fire, and in 
chymistry it is said of two substances, which by pene 
trating each other occasion bubbles to rise up; effer- 
vescence, from the Latin effervescentia and effervesco 
to grow hot, marks the commotion which is excited in 
liquors by a combination of substances; such as of 
acids, which are mixed and commonly produce heat ; 
fermentation, from the Latin fermentatio and fermen- 
tum or fervimentum, from ferveo to grow hot, marks 
the internal movement which is excited in a liquid of 
itself, by which its components undergo such a change 
or decomposition, as to form a new body. 

Ebullition is a more violent action than efferves- 
cence; fermentation is more graduai and permanent 
than either. Water is exposed to ebullition when 
acted upon by any powerful degree of external heat ; 
iron in aqua fortis occasions an effervescence ; beer 
and wine undergo a fermentation before they reach a 
state of perfection. 

These words are all employed in a figurative senss, 
which is drawn from their physical application. The 
passions are exposed to ebullitions, in which they 
break forth with all the violence that is observable in 
water agitated by excessive heat; ‘ Milbourn, indeed, 
a clergyman, attacked it (Dryden’s Virgil), but his 
outrages seem to be the ebullitions of a mind agitated 
by stronger resentment than bad poetry can excite.’— 
Jounson. The heart and affections are exposed to 
effervescence when powerfully awakened by particular 
objects , ‘ Dryden’s was not one of the gentle bosoms ; 
he hardly conceived love but in its turbulent. effer- 
vescence With some other desires..—JouHNsoNn. Minds 
are said to be in a ferment which are agitated by con- 
flicting feelings; ‘The tumult of the world raises that 
eager fermentation of spirit which will ever be sending 


* Vide Beauzée: “ Ebullition, effervescence, ferment 
ation.’’ 


310 


forth the dangerous fumes of folly. —Biatr. Ebulli- 
tion and effervescence are applicable only to indivi- 
duals ; fermentation to one or many. 

If the angry humours of an irascible temper be.not 
restrained in early life, they but too frequently break 
forth in the most dreadful ebulltzons in maturer years ; 
religious zeal, when not constrained by the sober exer- 
cise of judgement, and corrected by sound knowledge, 
is an unhappy effervescence that injures the cause 
which it espouses, and often proves fatal to the indi- 
vidual by whom it is indulged: the ferment which 
was produced in the publick mind by the French revo- 
ution exceeded every thing that is recorded in history 
of popular commotions in past ages, and will, it is to 
be hoped, never have its parallel at any future period. 
There can be no ebullition or fermentation without 
effervescence ; but there may be effervescence without 
either of the former. 


INTOXICATION, DRUNKENNESS, INFATUA- 
TION. 


Intoxication, from the Latin.tozicum a poison, sig- 

“nifies imbued with a poison; drunkenness signifies the 

state of having drunk overmuch; infatuation, from 
fatuus foolish, signifies making foolish. 

Intoxication and drunkenness are used either in 
the proper or the improper sense; infatuation in the 
improper sense only. Intoxication is a general state ; 
drunkenness a particular state. Intoxication may be 
produced by various causes ; drunkenness is produced 
only by an immoderate indulgence in some intoxicating 
liquor: a person may be intoxicated by the smell of 
strong liquors, or by vapours which produce a similar 
effect ; he becomes drunken by the drinking of wine 
or other spirits. In the improper sense a deprivation 
of one’s reasoning faculties is the common idea in the 
signification of all these terms. ‘The intoxication and 
drunkenness spring from the intemperate state of the 
feelings ; the infatuation springs from the ascendancy 
of the passions over the reasoning powers. A person 
is intoxicated with success, drunk with joy, and in- 
*atuated by an excess of vanity, or an impetuosity of 
character; ‘This plan of empire was not taken up in 
the first intezication of unexpected success.’—BURKE. 

Passion is the drunkenness of the mind.’—Sourn. 
‘A sure destruction impends over those infatuated 
princes, who, in the conflict with this new and unheard 
of power, proceed as ?f they were engaged in a war 
that bore a resemblance to their former contests.’— 
BuRKE. 

A person who is naturally intoxicated reels and is 
giddy ; he who is in the moral sense intoxicated is dis- 
orderly and unsteady in hisconduct: a drunken man is 
deprived of the use of ali his senses, and in the moral 
senst he is bewildered and unable to collect himself. 
An infatuated man is not merely foolish but wild: he 
carries his folly to the most extravagant pitch. 


TO AWAKEN, EXCITE, PROVOKE, ROUSE, 
STIR UP. 


To awaken is to make awake or alive; to excite, in 
Latin ezcito, compounded of the intensive syllables ex 


and cito, in Hebrew {OQ to move, signifies to move out 
of @ state of rest; provoke, from the Latin provoce to 
call forth, signifies to call forth the feelings; to rouse 
is t>9 cause them to rise; and to stir, from the Ger- 
mak stéren, and the Latin turbo, is to put in com- 
motion. 

To excite and provoke convey the idea of producing 
something; rouse and stir up that of only calling into 
action that which previously exists; to awaken is used 
in either sense. 

To awaken is a gentler action than to excite, and this 
is gentler than to provoke. We awaken by a simple 
eflort; we excite by repeated efforts or forcible means; 
we provoke by words, looks, or actions. The tender 
feelings are awakened ; affections or the passions in 
general are excited ; the angry passions are commonly 
povoked. Objects of distress awaken a sentiment of 
pity: competition among scholars excites a spirit of 
emulation; taunting words provoke anger. 

Awaken is applied only to the individual and what 
passes within him; exectte is applicable to the outward 
circumstances of one or many; provoke is applicable 


i rr ce 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


to the conduct or temper of one or many. The atten 
tion is awakened by interesting sounds that strike upow 
the ear; the conscience is awakened by the voice of 
the preacher, or by passing events; ‘ The soul has iis 
curiosity more than ordinarily awakened when it turns 
its thoughts upon the conduct of such who have 
behaved themselves with an equal, a resigned, a cheer- 
ful, a generous, or heroic temper in the extremity of 
death.’—SrerELE. A commotion, a tumult, or a re 
bellion is excited among the people by the active efforts 
of individuals: ‘In our Saviour wasno forin of come 
liness than men should desire, no artifice or trick te 
catch applause, or to excite surprise. —-CUMBERLAN™. 
Laughter or contempt is provoked by preposterexs 
conduct; 


See, Mercy! see with pure and loaded hands 
Before thy shrine my country’s genius stands. 
When he whom e’en our joys provoke, 

The fiend of nature join’d his yoke, 

And rush’d in wrath to make our isles his prey ; 
Thy form from out thy sweet abode, 

O’ertook him on the blasted road.—Co.tins. 


To awaken is, in the moral, as in the physical sense, 
to call into consciousness from a state of unconscious 
ness; to rouse is forcibly to bring into action that 
which is in a state of inaction; and stir up is to bring 
into a state of agitation or commotion. We are 
awakened from an ordinary state by ordinary means ; 
we are roused from an extraordinary state by extra- 
ordinary means; we are stirred up from an ordinary 
tk) an extraordinary state. The mind of a child is 
awakened by the action on its senses as soon as it is 
born ; 

The spark of noble courage now awake (awaken) 

And strive your excellent self to excel—_SpznsEr. 


Some persons are not to be roused from their stupor by 
any thing but the most awful! events; 


Go, study virtue, rugged ancient worth; 
Rouse up that flame our great forefathers felt 
SHIRLEY 


The passions, particularly of anger, are in some per 
sons stirred up by trifling circumstances; ‘ The use of 
the passions is to stir up the mind, and put it upon 
action, to awake the understanding, and to enforce the 
will.’—AppIson. 

The conscience is sometimes awakened for a time, 
but the sinner is not roused to asense of his danger, 
or to any exertions for his own safety, until an intem- 
perate zeal is stirred up in him by means of enthu- 
siastic preaching, in which case the vulgar proverb is 
verified, that the remedy is as bad as the disease. 
Death is a scene calculated to awaken some feeling in 
the most obdurate breast ; 


The fair 
Repairs her smiles, awakens ev'ry grace, 
And calls forth all the wonders of her face.—Porr 


The tears and sighs of the afflicted excite a sentiment 
of commiseration ; the most equitable administration 
of justice may excite murmurs among the discontented ; 
the relation of worthy deeds may excite to honour and 
virtue; ‘That kind of poetry which excites to virtue 
the greatest men, is of greatest use to human kind.’.— 
DryprEn. A harsh and unreasonable reproof wil} 
provoke a reply : or affronts provoke resentment ; 


Such acts 
Of contumacy will provoke the Highest—Lha ron, 


Continued provocations and affronts may rouse a sense 
of injuries in the meekest breast; ‘The heat with 
which Luther treated his.adversaries, though strained 
too far, was extremely well fitted by the providence of 
God to rouse up a people, the most phlegmatick of any 
in Christendom.’—AtTTrrBury. Nothing is so cai- 
culated to stir up the rebellious spirits of men as the 
harangues of political demagogues; ‘ The turbulent 
and dangerous are for embroiling councils, stirring up 
seditions, and subverting constitutions, out of a mere 
restlessness of temper.’—STxE.e. 


TO ENCOURAGE, COUNTENANCE, SANC- 
TION, SUPPORT. ~ 


Encourage has here the same genera} signification 
as in the preceding article; countenance signifies to 
keep in countenance, sanction, in French sanction, 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


Latin sanctzo from sanctus sacred, signifies to ratify a 
decree or ordinance; in an extended sense to make 
any thing binding; support, in French supporter, 
Latin supporto, compounded of sup or sub and porto 
.0 bear, signifies to bear from underneath, to bear up. 

These terms are allied in their application to persons 
or things personal; persons or things are encouraged 
and supported; persons are countenanced ; things are 
sanctioned ; measures or persons are encouraged and 
supported by every means which may forward the 
object; persons are countenanced in their proceedings 
by the apparent approbation of others; measures are 
sanctioned by the consent or approbation of others. 

To encourage is a general and indefinite term, we 
may encourage a person or his conduct by various 
ways: ‘Every man encourages the practice of that 
vice which he commits in appearance, though he 
avoids it in fact’ —HaWwkKESWORTH. Countenaneing 
is a direct mode of encouragement, it consists of some 
outward demonstration of regard or good will towards 
the person; ‘A good man acts with a vigour and suf- 
fers with a patience more than human, when he be- 
lieves himself countenanced by the Almighty.’—BuaIr. 
There is most of authority in sanctioning; it is the 
lending of a name, an authority, or an influence, in 
order to strengthen and confirm the thing; ‘Men of 
the greatest sense are always diffident of their private 
judgement, until it receives a sanction from the pub- 
lick.’—Anppison. There is most of assistanceand co- 
operation in support ; it is the employment of means 
to an end; ‘The apparent insufficiency of every indi- 
vidual to his own happiness or safety compels us to 
seek from one another assistance and support.’-- 
Joxnnson. Persons in all conditions may encourage 
and support: superiours only can countenance or 
sanction: those who countenance evil doers give a 
sanction to their evil deeds; those who support either 
an individual or a cause ought to be satisfied that they 
are entitled to support. : 


——os 


TO ENCOURAGE, ANIMATE, INCITE, IMPEL, 
URGE, STIMULATE, INSTIGATE. 


Encourage, compounded of en or in and courage, 
signifies to inspire with courage; animate, in Latin 
animatus, participle of antmo and anima the soul, 
signifies in the proper sense to give life, and in the 
moral sense to give spirit; znczte, from the Latin cito, 


and the Hebrew f\D to stir up, signifies to put into 
motion towards an object; impel signifies the same as 
in the preceding article; urge, in Latin urgeo, comes 
from the Greek root spyéw to set to work; stimulate, 
from the Latin stimulus a spur or goad, and instigate, 
from the Latin stigo, and Greek sigtw, signify literally 
to goad. 

The idea of actuating, or calling into action, is com- 
mon to these terms, which vary in the circumstances 
of the action. 

Encouragement acts as a persuasive, animate as an 
impelling or enlivening cause: those who are weak 
require to be encouraged ; those who are strong be- 
come stronger by being animated: the former require 
to have their difficulties removed, their powers reno- 
vated, their doubts and fears dispelled ; the latter may 
have their hopes increased, their prospects brightened, 
and their powers invigorated ; we are encouraged not 
to give up or slacken in our exertions; we are ani- 
mated to increase our efforts: the sinner is encouraged 
by offers of pardon, through the merits of a Redeemer, 
to turn from his sinful ways; ‘He would have women 
follow the camp, to be spectators and encouragers of 
noble actions.—Burron. The Christian is animated 
by the prospect of a blissful eternity, to go on from 
perfection to perfection ; ‘He that prosecutes a lawful 
purpose, by lawful means, acts always with the appro- 
bation of his own reason: he is animated through the 
course of his endeavours by an expectation which he 
knows to be just.’—JoHNson. 

What encourages and animates acts by the finer 
feelings of our nature; what zncites acts through the 
medium of our desires: we are encouraged by kind- 
ness; we are animated by the hope of reward; we 
are incited by the desire of distinction or the love of 
gain; ‘ While a rightful claim to pleasure or to afflu- 
ence must be procured either by slow industry or un- 
certain hazard, there will always be multitudes whom 
ewardice or impatience incite to more safe and speedy 


311 


methods of getting wealth..—Jounson. What zmpela 
urges, stimulates, and instigates, acts forcibly, be the 
cause internal or external: we are impelled and stimu- 
lated mostly by what is internal; we are urged and 
instigated by both the internal and external, but par- 
ticularly the latter: we are impelled by motives; we 
are stimulated by passions; we are urged and insti- 
gated by the representations of others: a benevolent 
man is impelled by motives of humanity to relieve the 
wretched ; 


So Myrrha’s mind, impell’d on either side, 
Takes ev’ry bent, but cannot long abide. 
DRYDEN. 


An ardent mind is stimulated. by ambition to great 
efforts; ‘Some persons from the secret st¢mulations of 
vanity or envy, despise a valuable book, and throw 
contempt upon it by wholesale.—Watts. We are 
urged by entreaties to spare those who are in our 
power; one is instigated by malicious representations 
to take revenge on a supposed enemy. 

We may be impelled ard urged though not properly 
stimulated or instigated by circumstances; in this 
case the two former differ only in the degree of force 
in the impelling cause: less constraint is laid on the 
will when we are impelled, than when we are urged, 
which leaves no alternative or choice: a monarch is 
sometimes impelled by the state of the nation to make 
a peace less advantageous than he would otherwise 
do; 

Thus, while around the wave-subjected soil 

Impels the natives to repeated toil, 

Industrious habits in each bosom reign. 
GOLDSMITH. 


A prince may be urged by his desperate condition to 
throw himself upon the mercy of the enemy; 


What I have done my safety uzg’d me to. 
3 SHAKSPEARE. 


A man is impelled, by the mere necessity of choosing, 
to take one road in preference to another ; he is urged 
by his pecuniary embarrassments to raise money at a 
great loss. 

We may be impelled, urged, and stimulated to that 
which is good or bad; we are never znstigated to that 
which is good: we may be impelled by curiosity to 
pry into that which does not concern us; we may be 
urged by the entreaties of those we are connected with 
to take steps of which we afterward repent, or have 
afterward reason to approve; ‘The magistrate cannot 
urge obedience upon such potent grounds as the minis- 
ter.,—Soutu. We may be stimulated by the desire 
of distinction or by necessity ; 


For every want that stzmulates the breast 
Becomes a source of pleasure when redres’d, 
GoLDsMITH. 


Those who are not hardened in vice require the insti 
gation of persons more abandoned than themselves, 
before they will commit any desperate act of wicked- 
ness; ‘There are few instigations in this country to 
a breach of confidence.’ —-HawkrEsWoRTH. 

The encouragement and incitement are the abstract 
nouns either for the act of encouraging or inciting, 
or the thing that encourages or incites; the encou- 
ragement of laudable undertakings is itself laudable; 
a single word or look may be an encouragement ; 


For when he dies, farewell all honour, bounty, 
All generous encouragement of arts.—Orway. 


The incitement of passion is at all times dangerous, 
but particularly in youth; money is said to be an in- 
citement to evil; the prospect of glory is an tncitement 
to great actions ; 


Let his actions speak him, and this shield, 
Let down from heaven, that to his youth will yield 
Such copy of incitement.—-B. Jonson. 


Incentive, which is another derivative from inczte, has 
a higher application for things that cnczte, being mostly 
applied to spiritual objects: a religious man wants ne 
incentives to virtues; his own breast furnishes him 
with those of the noblest kind; ‘ Even the wisdom of 
God hath not suggested more pressing motives, more 
powerful incentives to charity, than these, that we 
shall be judged by it at the last dreadful day.’—Ar- 
TERBURY. Impulse is the d>rivative from impel, and 
denotes the act of impelling or the thing that impels ; 


312 


stimulus, which is the root of the word stzmulate, na- 
turally designates the instrument, namely, the spur or 
goad with which one is stimulated: hence we speak 
of acting by a blind impulse, or of wanting a stimulus 
to exertion; ‘If these little impulses set the great 
wheels of devotion on work, the largeness and height 
of that shall not at all be prejudiced by the smallness 
of the occasion.’—SouTuH. 


TO ENCOURAGE, ADVANCE, PROMOTE, 
PREFER, FORWARD. 


To encourage signifies the same as in the preceding 
article ; advance, from the Latin advenio to come near, 
signifies here to cause to come near a point; promote, 
from the Latin promoveo, signifies to move forward; 

refer, from the Latin prefero, or fero and pre, to set 
oe bee signifies to set up before others; to forward is 
to put forward. 

The idea of exerting one’s influence to the advan- 
tage of an object is included in the signification of all 
these terms, which differ in the circumstances and 
mode of the action: to encourage, advance, and pro- 
mote are applicable to both persons and things; prefer 
to persons only; forward to things only. 

First, as to persons, encourage is partial as to the 
end, and indefinite as to the means: we may encourage 
a person in any thing, however trivial, and by any 
means: thus we may encourage a child in his rude- 
ness, by not checking him; or we may encourage an 
artist or a man of letters in some great national work ; 
but to advance, promote, and prefer are more general 

n their end, and specifick in the means: a person may 

advance himself, or may be advanced by others ; he is 
promoted and preferred only by others: a person’s ad- 
vancement may be the fruit of his industry, or result 
from the efforts of his friends ; promotion and prefer- 
ment are the work of one’s friends; the former in re- 
gard to offices in general, the latter mostly in regard to 
ecclesiastical situations: it is the duty of every one to 
encourage, to the utmost of his power, those among 
the poor who strive to obtain an honest livelihood ; 
‘Religion depends upon the encouragement of those 
that are to dispense and assert it.’ —Sourn. Itis every 
man’s duty to advance himself in life by every legiti- 
mate means; ‘ No man’s lot is so unalterably fixed in 
this life, but that a thousand accidents may either for- 
ward or disappoint his advancement..—Hueuss. It 
is the duty and the pleasure of every good man in the 
state to promote those who show themselves deserving 
of promotion; * Your zeal in promoting my interest 
deserves ny warmest acknowledgments.’—BrarrTig. 
It is the duty of a minister to accept of preferment 
when it offers, but it is not his duty to be solicitous for 
it; ‘If I were now to accept preferment in the church, 
Ishould be apprehensive that I might strengthen the 
hands of the gainsayers.’—BEATTIE. 

When taken in regard to things, encourage is used 
in an improper or figurative acceptation ; the rest are 
applied properly: we encourage an undertaking by 
giving courage to the undertaker; ‘ The great encou- 
ragement which has been given to learning for some 
years last past, has made our own nation as glorious 
upon this account as for its late triumphs and con- 
quests.’—Appison. But when we speak of advancing 
a Cause, Or promoting an interest, or forwarding a 
purpose, the terms properly convey the idea of keep- 
ing things alive, or in a motion towards some desired 
end: to advance is however generally used in relation 
to whatever admits of extension and aggrandizement; 
promote is applied to whatever admits of being brought 
to. a point of maturity or perfection; ‘I love to see a 
man zealous in a good matter, and especially when his 
zeal shows itself for advancing morality, and pro- 
moting the happiness of mankind.’—Appison. For- 
ward is but a partial term, employed in the sense of 
promote in regard to particular objects; thus we ad- 
vance religion or learning; we promote an art or an 
invention; we forward a plan; ‘It behooves us not to 
be wanting to ourselves in ferwarding the intention of 
nature by the culture of our minds.’—BERKELzY, 


TO ENCOURAGE, EMBOLDEN. 


To encourage is to give courage, and to embolden to 
make bold; the former impelling to action in general, 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


the latter to that which is more difficult or dangerous : 
We are encouraged to persevere; the resolution 1 
thereby confirmed: we are emboldened to begin; the 
spirit of enterprise is roused. Succegs encourages ; 
the chance of escaping danger emboldehs. 
Outward circumstances, however trivial, serve to 

encourage ; 

Intrepid through the midst of danger go, 

Their friends encourage and amaze the foe. 

DRYDEN, 


The urgency of the occasion, or the importance of the 
subject, serves to embolden ; 


Embolden’d then, nor hesitating more, 
Fast, fast they plunge amid the flashing wave. 
‘THOMSON 


A kind word ora gentle look encourages the suppliant 
to tender his petition; where the cause of truth and 
religion is at stake, the firm believer is emboldened to 
speak out with freedom: timid dispositions are not to 
be encouraged always by trivial circumstances, but 
sanguine dispositions are easily emboldened ; the most 
flattering representations of friends are frequently ne 
cessary to encourage the display of talent; the confi- 
dence natural to youth is often sufficient of itself to 
embolden men to great undertakings. 


TO DETER, DISCOURAGE, DISHEARTEN. 


Deter, in Latin deterreo, compounded of de and 
terreo, signifies to frighten away from a thing; dis- 
courage and dishearten, by the privative dis, signify to 
deprive of courage or heart. 

One is deterred from commencing any thing, one is 
discouraged or disheartened from proceeding. A va- 
riety of motives may deter any one from an under- 
taking; but a person is discouraged or disheartened 
mostly by the want of success or the hopelessness of 
the case. The wicked are sometimes deterred from 
committing enormities by the fear of punishment: 
projectors are discouraged from entering into fresh 
speculations by observing the failure of others; there 
are few persons who would not be disheartened from 
renewing their endeavours, who had experienced no- 
thing but ili success. The prudent and the fearful are 
alike easily to be deterred ; 


But thee or fear deters, or sloth detains, 
No drop of all thy father warms thy veins. 
PopPE. 


Impatient people are most apt to be discouraged ; and 
proud people are the most apt to discourage the humble; 
‘The proud man discourages those from approaching 
him who are of a mean condition, and who must want 
his assistance. —Appison. Faint-hearted people are 
easiest disheartened ; 


Be not disheartened then, nor cloud those looks, 

That wont to be more cheerful and serene, 

Than when fair morning first smiles on the world. 
MILTon. 


The fool-hardy and the obdurate are the least easily 
deterred from their object; the persevering will noj 
suffer themselves to be discouraged by particular fail- 
ures; the resolute and self-confident will not be die- 
heartened by trifling difficuities. 


TO EXHORT, PERSUADE. 


Exhort, in Latin exhortor, is compounded of ex and 
hortor, from the Greek @prat, perfect passive of gow to 
excite or impel; persuade has the same signification 
as given under the head of Conviction. 

Exhortation has more of impelling in it; persuasion 
more of drawing: a superiour exhorts; his words 
carry authority with them, and rouse to action: 

Their pinions still 
Tn loose librations stretch’d, to trust the void 
-Trembling refuse, till down before them fly 
The parent guides, and chide, exhort, command. 
THOMSON 


A friend or an equal persuades; he wins and drawe 
by the agreeableness or kindness of his expressions ; 
‘Gay’s friends persuaded him to se)l his share in the 
South Sea stock, but he dreamed of dignity and splen- 
dour.’--JoHNson. Evxhortations are employed onlv 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


in matters of duty or necessity ; persuasions are em- 
ployed in matters of pleasure or convenience. 


TO PERSUADE, ENTICE, PREVAIL UPON. 


Persuade (v. rite aie and entice (v. To allure) 
are employed to express different means to the same 
end: namely, that of drawing any one to a thing: one 
persuades a person by means of words; one entices 
him either by words or actions; one may persuade 
either to a good or bad thing; ‘I beseech you let me 
have so much credit with you as to persuade you to 
communicate any doubt or scruple which occur to you, 
before you suffer them to make too deep an impression 
upon you.’—CLARENDON. One entices commonly to 
that which is bad; 


If gaming does an aged sire entice, , 
Then my young master swiftly learns the vice. 
DRYDEN. 


One uses arguments to persuade, and arts to entice. 

Persuade and entice comprehend either the means 
or the end or both: prevail upon comprehends no 
more than the end: we may persuade without pre- 
vailing upon, and we may prevail upon without per- 
suading. Many wiil turn a deaf ear to all our persua- 
sions, and will not be prevailed upon, although per- 
suaded ; on the other hand, we may be prevailed upon 
by the force of remonstrance, authority, and the like ; 
and in this case we are prevailed upon without being 
persuaded. We should never persuade another to do 
that which we are not willing to do ourselves; credu- 
lous or good-natured people are easily prevailed upon 
to do things which tend to their own injury; ‘ Herod, 
hearing of Agrippa’s arrival in Upper Asia, went 
thither to him and prevailed with him to accept an 
invitation.’—PRIDEAUX. 


DELIGHTFUL, CHARMING. 


Delightful is applied either to material or spiritua] 
objects ; charming mostly to objects of sense, 

When they both denote the pleasure of the sense, 
delightful is not so strong an expression as charming»! 
a prospeet may be delightful or charming; but the 
latter raises to a degree that carries the senses away 
captive. 

Of musick we should rather say that it was charming 
han delightful, as it acts on the senses in so powerful 
a manner; ‘ Nothing can be more magnificent than 
the figure Jupiter makes in the first Iliad, nor more 
charming than that of Venus in the first Auneid.’—Ap- 
pison. On the other hand, we should with more pro- 
priety speak of a delightful employment to relieve dis- 
tress, or a-delightful spectacle to see a family living 
together in love and harmony; ‘Though there are 
several of those wild scenes that are more delightful 
than any artificial shows, yet we find the works of 
nature still more pleasant the more they resemble those 
of art.’—ApDISON. 


BECOMING, COMELY, GRACEFUL. 


Becoming, v. Becoming, decent ; and comely, or come 
like, signifies coming or appearing as one would have 
it; graceful signifies full of grace. 

These epithets are employed to mark in general 
what is agreeable to the eye. Becoming denotes less 
than comely, and this less than graceful : nothing can 
be comely or graceful which is unbecoming ; although 
many things are becoming which are neither comely nor 
graceful. 

Becoming respects the decorations of the person, and 
the exteriour deportment ; comely respects natural em- 
bellishments; g7-aceful natural or artificial acé®mplish- 
ments: manner is becoming; figure is comely; air, 
figure, or attitude is graceful. 

Becoming is relative; it depends on taste and opi- 
nion ; on accordance With the prevailing sentiments or 
particular circumstances of society ; comely and grace- 
ful are absolute ; they are qualities felt and acknow- 
Jedged by all. 

What is becoming is confined to no rank; the high- 
est and the lowest have, alike, the opportunity of doing 
or being that which becomes their station; ‘The care 
of doing nothing unbecoming has accempanied the 
greatest minds to their last moments. Thus Cesar 


313 


gathered his robe about him that he might not fall in 
a manner unbecoming of himself.’--Specraror. What 
is comely is seldom associated with great refinement 
and culture ; ‘ The comeliness of person, and the de- 
cency of behaviour, add infinite weight to what is pro- 
nounced by any one.’—Sprcraror. What is grace- 
ful is rarely to be discovered apart from high rank, 
noble birth, or elevation of character; ‘T’o make the 
acknowledgment of a fault in the highest manner 
graceful, it is lucky when the circumstances of the 
offender place him above any ill consequences from 
the resentment of the person offended.’—StT#xuLE 


BEAUTIFUL, FINE, HANDSOME, PRETTY. 


Beautiful, or full of beauty, in French beaut¢é. comes 
from beau, belle, in Latin bellus fair, and benus or 
bonus good ; fine, in French fin, German fein, &c. not 
improbably comes from the Greek gacvos bright, splen- 
did, and ¢atyw to appear, because what is fine is by 
distinction clear; handsome, from the word hand, 
denotes a species of beauty in the body, as handy 
denotes its agility and skill; pretty, in Saxon praete 
adorned, German prachtig, Swedish praktig splendid, 
is connected with our words parade and pride. 

Of these epithets, which denote what is pleasing to 
the eye, beautiful conveys the strongest meaning ; it 
marks the possession of that in its fullest extent, of 
which the other terms denote the possession in part 
only. Fineness, handsomeness, and prettiness are to 
beauty as parts to a whole. 

When taken in relation to persons, a woman is 
beautiful, who in feature and complexion possesses a, 
grand assemblage of graces; a woman is fine, who 
with a striking figure unites shape and symmetry; a 
women is handsome who has good features, and pretty 
if with symmetry of feature be united delicacy. 

The beautiful is determined by fixed rules; it ad- 
mits of no excess or defect ; it comprehends regularity, 
proportion, and a due distribution of colour, and every 
particular which can engage the attention; the fine 
must be coupled with grandeur, majesty, and strength 
of figure ; it is incompatible with that which is small: 
a little woman can never be fine; the handsomeisa 
general assemblage of what is agreeable; it is marked 
by no particular characteristick, but the absence of ail 
deformity. 

Prettiness is always coupled with simplicity, it is 
incompatible with that which is large; a tall woman 
with masculine features cannot be pretty ; ‘ ‘Indeed, 
my dear,”’ says she, “ you make me mad sometimes, 
so you do, with the silly way you have of treating me 
like a pretty idiot.” ’—STEELE. 

Beauty will always have its charms; they are, how 
ever, but attractions for the eye; they please and 
awaken ardent sentiments for a while; but the pos- 
sessor must have something else to give her claims to 
lasting regard. This is, however, seldom the case. 
Providence has dealt out his gifts with a more even 
hand. Neither the beautiful, nor the fine woman have 
in general those durable attractions which belong either 
to the handsome or the pretty, who with a less inimi- 
table tint of complexion, a Jess unerring proportion in 
the limbs, a less precise symmetry of feature, are fre- 
quently possessed of a sweetness of countenance; a 
vivacity in the eye, and a grace in the manner, that 
wins the beholder and inspires affection. 

Beauty is peculiarly a female perfection; in the male 
sex it is rather a defect; a beautiful man will not be 
respected, because he cannot be respectable. The 
possession of beauty deprives him of his manly cha- 
racteristicks ; boldness and energy of mind; strength 
and robustness of limb. But though a man may not 
be beautiful or pretty, he may be fine or handsome ; 
‘A handsome fellow immediately alarms jealous hus- 
bands, and every thing that looks young or gay turns 
their thoughts upon their wives.’—Appis0n. The same 
observation does not apply to the brute creation ; ‘It 
is observed among birds that nature has lavished all 
her ornaments upon the male, who very often appears 
in a most beautiful head-dress.’.—AppI1son. 

When relating to other objects, beautiful, fine, 
pretty, have a strong analogy. ; 

With respect to the objects of nature, the beautiful 
is displayed in the works of creation, and wherever it 
appears it is marked by elegance, variety, harmony 
proportion; but above all by that softness, which ‘s 


314 


peculiar to femaie beauty ; ‘There is nothing that 
makes its way more directly to the soul than beauty, 
which immediately diffuses a secret satisfaction and 
complacency through the imagination.’—Appison. 

The fine on the contrary is associated with the 
grand, and the pretty with the simple. The sky pre- 
sents either a beautiful aspect, or a fine aspect; but 
not a pretty aspect. 

A rural scene is beautiful when it unites richness 
and diversity of "etural objects with superiour culti- 
vation ; it is fine when it presents the bolder and more 
impressive featurcs of nature, consisting of rocks and 
mountains ; it is pretty, when, divested of all that is 
extraordinary, it presents a smiling view of nature in 
the gay attire of shrubs, and many-coloured flowers, 
and verdant meadows, and luxuriant fields. 

Beautiful sentiments have much in them to interest 
the affections, as well as the understanding; they make 
a vivid impression ; fine sentiments mark an elevated 
mind and a loftiness of conception; they occupy the 
understanding, and afford scope for reflection ; they 
make a strong impression; ‘When in ordinary dis- 
course, we say a man has a fine head, a long head, or 
a good head, we express ourselves metaphorically, and 
speak in relation to his understanding; whereas, 
when we say of a woman, she has a fine, a long, ora 
good head, we speak only in relation to her commode.’ 
—Appison. Pretty ideas are but pleasing associa- 
tions or combinations that only amuse for the time 
being, without producing any lasting impression. In 
the same manner expressions are termed pretty; ‘An 
innocent. creature, who. would start at the name of 
strumpet, may think it pretty to be called a mistress.’ 
—SPECTATOR. 

We may speak of a beautiful poem, although not 
a beautiful tragedy ; but a fine tragedy, and a pretty 
comedy. 

Imagery may be beautiful and fine, but seldom 

retty. 

H The celestial bodies, revolving with so much regu- 
larity in their orbits, and displaying so much brilliancy 
of light, are beautiful objects. The display of an army 
drawn up in battle array ; the neatness of the men; 
the order, complexity, and variety of their movements, 
and the precision in their discipline, afford a jine spec- 
tacle. An assemblage of children imitating in their 
amusements the system and regularity of more serious 
employments, and preserving at the same time the 
playfulness of childhood, is a preity sight. 

Handsome is applied to some objects in the sense 
of ample or liberal, as a handsome fortune, or hand- 
some treatment; ‘A letter dated Sept. acquaints me 
that the writer, being resolved to try his fortune, had 
fasted all that day, and that he might be sure of dream- 
ing upon something at night, procured a handsome 
slice of bride cake.’—SPEcTATOR. 


FINE, DELICATE, NICE. 


It is remarkable of the word fine (v. Beautzful), 
that it is equally applicable to large and small objects ; 
delacate, in Latin delicatus, from delicte delights, and 
deticio to allure, is applied only to small objects. Fine 
in the natural sense denotes smaliness in general. De 
Nicate denotes a degree of fineness that is agreeable to 
the taste. Thread is said to be fine as opposed to 
the coarse and thick ; silk is said to be delicate, when 
to jineness of texture it adds softness. The texture of 
a spider’s web is remarkable for its fineness ; that of 
the ermine’s fur is remarkable for its delicacy. In 
writing, all up-strokes must be jine ; but in superiour 
writing they will be delicately fine. When applied to 
colours, the fine is coupled with the grand and the 
strong; delicate with what is minute, soft, and fair: 
blue and red may be fine colours; and white and pink 
delicate colours. _The tulip is reckoned one of the 
finest flowers; the white moss-rose is a delicate flower. 
A jine painter delineates with boldness ; but the artist 
who has a delicate taste, throws delicate touches into 
the grandest delineations, 

Tn their moral application these terms admit of the 
same distinction; the jine approaches either to the 
strong or to the weak; ‘Every thing that results from 
nature alone lies out of the province of instruction ; 
and no rules that I know of will serve to give a fine 
form, a fine voice, or even those fine feelings, which 
are among the first properties of an actor.’—Cum- 


OO Oe eee 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


BERLAND. The delicate is ahigh degree of the jine, az 
a fine thought, which may be lofty; or a fine feeling, 
which is acute and tender ; and delicate feeling, which 
exceeds the former in fineness ; 


Chief, lovely Spring! in thee and thy soft scenes 
The smiling God is seen; while water, earth, 

And air attest his bounty, which exalts 

The brute creation to this finer thought—Tnomson 


‘Under this head of elegance I reckon those delicate 
and regular works of art, as elegant buildings or pieces 
of furniture.—Burxks. The French use their word 
Jin only in the latter sense, of acuteness, and apply it 
merely to the thoughts and designs of men, answering 
either to our word subtle, as un homme fin, or neat, as 
une satire fine. ; 

Delicate is said of that which is agreeable to the 
sense and the taste; nice to what is agreeable to the ap- 
petite: the former is a termof refinement: the latter os 
epicurism and sensual indulgence. The delicate affords 
pleasure only to those whose thoughts and desires are 
purified from what is gross; the nice affords pleasure 
to the young, ignorant, and the sensual: thus delicate 
food, delicate colours, delicate shapes and form, are 
always acceptable to the cultivated; a meal, a show, a 
colour, and the like, will be nice-to a child, which suits 
its appetite, or meets its fancy. 

When used in a moral application, nice, which is 
taken in a good sense, approaches nearer to the signifi- 
cation of delicate. A person may be said to have a de- 
licate ear in music, whose ear is offended with the 
smallest discordance; he may be said to have a nice 
taste or judgement in music, who scientifically discri- 
minates the beauties and defects of different pieces. A 
person is delicate in his choice, who is guided by taste 
and feeling; he is nice in his choice, who adheres to a 
strict rule. ‘ 

A point in question may be either delicate or nice; it 
is delicate, as it is likely to touch the tender feelings of 
any party; itis nice, as it involves contrary interests, 
and becomes difficult of determination. There are de- 
licacies of behaviour which are learned by good breed- 
ing, but which minds of a refined cast are naturally 
alive to, without any particular learning; ‘The com- 
merce in the conjugal state is so delicate that it is im- 
possible to prescribe rules for it.—Srerze. There are 
niceties in the law, which none but men of superiour 
intellect can properly enter into and discriminate; ‘ The 
highest point of good breeding, if any one can hit it, is 
to show a very nice regard to your own dignity, and, 
with that in your heart, to express your value for the 
man above you.’—-STs£r.e. 


DAINTY, DELICACY. 


These terms, which are in vogue among epicures, 
have some shades of difference in their signification 
not altogether undeserving of notice. 

Dainty, from dain, deign, and the Latin dignus 
worthy, signifies the thing that is of worth or value; it 
isof course applied only to such things as have a supe- 
riour value in the estimation of epicures; and conse- 
quently conveys a more positive meaning than deli- 
cacy; inasmuch as a dainty may be that which is ex- 
tremely delicate, a delicacy is sometimes a species of 
dainty; but there are many delicacies which are alto- 
gether suited to the most delicate appetite, that are 
neither costly nor rare, two qualities which are almost 
inseparable from a dainty: those who indulge them- 
selves freely in dainties and delicacies scarcely know 
what it is to eat with an appetite; but those who are 
temperate in their use of the enjoyments of life will be 
enabled to derive pleasure from ordinary objects; 


My landlord’s cellar stocked with beer and ale, 
Instantly brings the choicest liquors out, 

Whether we ask’d for home-brew’d or for stout, 
For mead or cider; or with dainties fed, 

Ring for a flask or two of white or red.—Swirt. _ 


She turns, on hospitable thoughts intent, 
What choice to choose for delicacy best —MILTON. 


eh 


GRACE, CHARM. 
Grace is altogether corporeal; charm.is either cor- 
poreal or mental; the grace qualifies the action of the 
body ; ‘Savage’s method of life particularly qualified 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 315 


him for conversation, of which he knew how to prac- 
tise all the graces.'.—Jounson. The charm is an in- 
herent quality in the body itself; 
Music has charms to sooth the savage breast. 
CoNGREVE. 
A lady moves, dances, and walks with grace; the 
charms of her person are equal to those of her mind. 


GRACEFUL, COMELY, ELEGANT. 


A graceful figure is rendered so by the deportment of 
the body. A comely figure has that in itself which 
pleases the eye. Gracefuiness results from nature, im- 
proved by art; ‘ The first who approached her wasa 
youth of graceful presence and courtly air, but dressed 
in/a richer habit than had ever been seen in Arcadia,’— 
STEELE. Comeliness is mostly the work of nature; 
‘Tsidas the son of Pheebidas was at this time in the 
bloom of his youth, and very. remarkable for the come- 
liness of his person..—Appison. It is possible to ac- 
quire gracefulness by the aid of the dancing-master, 
but for a comely form we are indebted to nature aided 
by circumstances. Grace is a quality pleasing to the 
eye; but elegance, from the Latin eligo, electus, select 
and choice, isa quality of a higher nature, that in- 
spires admiration ; elegant is applicable, like graceful, 
to the motion of the body, or, like comely, to the person, 
and is extended in its meaning also to Janguage and 
even te dress; ‘The natural progress of the works of 
men is from rudeness to convenience, from convenience 
to elegance, and from elegance to nicety.’—JoHNSON. 
A person’s step is graceful; his air or his movements 
are elegant. 

Grace is in some degree a relative quality; the grace- 
fulness of an action depends on its suitability to the oc- 
casion ; elegance is a positive quality; it is, properly 
speaking, beauty in regard to the exteriour of the per- 
son; an elegance of air and manner is the consequence 
not only of superiour birth and station, but also of su- 
periour natural endowments. 


AWKWARD, CLUMSY. 


Awkward, in Saxon ewerd, compounded of @ or a 
adversative and ward, from the Teutonic wahrentosee 
or look, that is, looking the opposite way, or being in’an 
opposite direction, as toward signifies looking the same 
way, or being in the same direction; clumsy, from the 
same source as clump and lump, in German lumpisch, 
denotes the quality of heaviness and unseemliness, 

These epithets denote what is contrary to rule and 
order, in form or manner. Awkward respects outward 
deportment; clumsy the shape and make of the object: 
a person has an awkward gait, or is clumsy in his whole 
person. 

Awkwardness is the consequence of bad education ; 
clumsiness is mostly a natural defect. Young recruits 
are awkward in marching, and clumsy in their manual 
labour. 

They may be both employed figuratively in the same 
sense, and sometimes in relation to the same objects: 
when speaking of awkward contrivances, or clumsy 
contrivances, the latter expresses the idea more strongly 
than the former; ‘ Montaigne had many awkward imi- 
tators, who, under the notion of writing with the fire 
and freedom of this lively old Gascon, have fallen into 
confused rhapsodies and uninteresting egotisms.’— 
Warton. ‘All the operations of the Greeks in sailing 
were clumsy and unskilful.’—RoBERTSON. 


AWKWARD CROSS, UNTOWARD, CROOKED, 
FROWARD, PERVERSE. 


Awkward, v. Awkward ; cross, from the noun cross, 
implies the quality of being like a cross; untoward 
signifies the reverse of toward (v. Awkward) : crooked 
signifies the quality of resembling a crook; froward, 
that is, from ward, signifies running a contrary direc- 
tion; perverse, Latin perversus, participle of perverto, 
compounded of per and verto, signifies turned aside. 

Awkward, cross, untoward, and crooked are used as 
epithets in relation to the events of life or the disposi- 
tion of the mind; froward and perverse respect only 
the disposition of the mind. wkward circumstances 
are apt to embarrass: cross circumstances to pain; 


is crooked springs from aperverted judgement; what is 
untoward is independent of human control.. In ourin- 
tercourse with the world there are always little awk- 
ward incidents arising, which a person’s good. sense 
and good nature will enable him to pass over without 
disturbing the harmony of society; ‘It is an awkward 
thing for a man to print in defence of his own work 
against a chimera: you know not who or what you 
fight against.—Porr. It is the lot of every one in his 
passage through life to meet with cross accidents that 
are calculated to ruffle the temper; but he proves him- 
self to be the wisest whose serenity is not so easily dis- 
turbed; ‘Some are indeed stopped in their career by a 
sudden shock of calamity, or diverted to a different di- 
rection by the cross impulse of some violent passion. 
—Jounson. A crooked policy obstructs the prosperity 
of individuals, as well as of states; 


There are who can, by potent magic spells, 
Bend to their crooked purpose nature’s laws. 
Mitton. 


Many men are destined to meet with severe trials in 
the frustration of their dearest hopes, by numberlesg 
untoward events which call for the exercise of pa- 
tience; in this case the Christian can prove to himself 
and others the infinite value of his faith and doctrine ; 


The rabbins write when any Jew 

Did make to God or man a vow, 

Which afterward he found untoward, 

Or stubborn to be kept, or too hard: 

Any three other Jews o’ th’ nation 

Might free him from the obligation.—Hup1sras. 


When used with regard to the disposition of the 
mind, awkward expresses less than froward, and 
froward less than perverse. Awkwardness is for the 
most part an habitual frailty of temper ; it includes 
certain weaknesses and particularities, pertinaciously 
adhered to. Sometimes it is a temporary feeling that 
is taken up on a particular occasion ; 


A kind and constant riend 
To all that regularly offend, 
But was implacable and awkward, 
To all that interlop’d and hawker’d.—Hupipras. 


Cressness is a partial irritation resulting from the state 
of the humours, physieal and mental. Frowardness 
and perversity lie in the will: a froward temper is 
capricious ; it wills or wills not to please itself without 
regard to others: ‘To fret and repine at every disap- 
pointment of our wishes is to discover the temper of 
froward children.’—Buair. Perversity lies deeper; 
taking root in the heart, it assumes the shape of malig- 
nity: a perverse temper is really wicked; it likes or 
dislikes by the rule of contradiction to another’s will; 
‘ Interference of interest, or perversity of disposition, 
may occasionally lead individuals to oppose, even te 
hate, the upright and the good.’—Buarr. Untoward- 
ness lies in the principles ; it runs counter to the wishes 
and counsels of another; ‘ Christ had to deal witha 
most untoward and stubborn generation.’—Buair. 

An awkward temper is connected with self-suffi- 
ciency ; it shelters itself under the sanction of what is 
apparently reasonable; it requires management and 
indulgence in dealing with it. Crossness and froward- 
ness are peculiar to children; indiscriminate indul- 
gence of the rising will engenders those diseases of the 
mind, which if fostered too long in the breast become 
incorrigible by any thing but a powerful sense of 
religion. Perversity is, however, but too commonly 
the result of a vicious habit, which imbitters the hap- 
piness of all who have the misfortune of coming in 
collision with it. Untowardness is also another fruit 
of these evil tempers. <A froward child becomes an 
untoward youth, who turns a deaf ear to all the ad- 
monitions of an afflicted parent. 


CAPTIOUS, CROSS, PEEVISH, PETULANT, 
FRETFUL. 


Captious, in Latin captiosus, from capio, signifies 
taking or treating in an offensive manner ; cross, after 
the noun cross, marks the temper which resembles a 
cross ; peevish, probably changed from beezsh, signifies 
easily provoked, and ready to sting like a bee; fretful, 
from the word fret, signifies full of fretting; fret, 
which is in Saxon freotan, comes from the Latin fré- 


erooked and untoward circumstances to defeat. What| catus, participle of frico to wear away with rubbing 


316 


petulant, in Latin petulans, from peto to seek, signifies 
seeking or catching up. 

All these terms indicate an unamiable working and 
expression of temper. _Captious marks a readiness to 
be offended: cross indicates a readiness to offend: 
peevish expresses a strong degree of crossness ‘ fret- 
ful a complaining impatience: petulant a quick or 
sudden impatience. Captiousness is the consequence 
of misplaced pride: crossness of ill-humour ; peevish- 
ness and fretfulness of a painful irritability ; petu- 
lance is either the result of a naturally hasty temper 
or of a sudden irritability ; adults are most prone to be 
captious; they have frequently a self-importance 
which is in perpetual danger of being offended ; ‘ Cap- 
tiousness and jealousy are easily offended; and to him 
who studiously looks for an affront, every mode of 
behaviour will supply it..—Jounson. An undisciplined 
temper, whether in young or old, will manifest itself 
on certain occasions by cross looks and words towards 
those with whom they come in connexion. Spoiled 
children are most apt to be peevish; they are seldom 
thwarted in any of their unreasonable desires, without 
venting their ill-humour by an irritating and offending 
action ; 


I was so good-humour’d, so cheerful and gay, 

My heart was as light as a feather all day. 

But now I so cross and so peevish am grown, 

So strangely uneasy as never was known.—ByRon. 


¢ Peevish displeasure, and suspicions of mankind, are 
apt to persecute those who withdraw themselves alto- 
gether from the haunts of men.’—-Biair. Sickly chil- 
dren are most liable to fretfulness; their unpleasant 
feelings vent themselves in a mixture of crying, com- 
plaints, and crossness; ‘By indulging this fretful 
temper, you both aggravate the uneasiness of age, and 
you alienate those on whose affections much of your 
comfort depends.’—Buair. The young and ignorant 
are most apt to be petulant when contradicted ; ‘It 
was excellently said of that philosopher, that there 
was a wall or parapet of teeth set in our mouth, to re- 
strain the petulancy of our words.’—B. Jonson. 


BENT, CURVED, CROOKED, AWRY. 


Bent, from bend, in Saxon bendan, is a variation of 
wind, in the sea phraseology wend, in German winden, 


&c. from the Hebrew 3}? to wind or turn; curved is 
in Latin curvus, and in Greek xuprés; crooked, v. 
Awkward; awry is a variation of writhed. 

Bent is here the generick term, all the rest are but 
modes of the bent. 

What is bent is opposed to that which is straight ; 
things may therefore be bent to any degree, but when 
curved they are bent only to a small degree; when 
crooked they are bent to a great degree. A stick is 
bent any way; it is curved by being bent one specifick 
way ; it is crooked by being bent different ways. 

Things may be bent by accident or design; 


And when too closely press’d, she quits the ground, 
From her bent bow she sends a backward wound. 
DRYDEN. 


Things are curved by design, or according to some 
rule; ‘ Another thing observable in and from the spots 
is that they describe various paths or lines over the 
sun, sometimes straight, sometimes curved towards 
one pole of the sun..—Drruam. Things are crooked, 
by accident or in violation of some rule; ‘It is the 
ennobling office of the understanding to correct the 
fallacious and mistaken reports of the senses, and to 
assure us that the staff in the water is straight, though 
our eye would tell us it is crooked.,.—Soutu. A stick 
is bent by the force of the hand; a line is curved so as 
to make a mathematical figure; it is crooked so as to 
lose all figure. 

Awry marks a species of crookedness, but crooked is 
applied as an epithet, and awry is employed to cha- 
racterize the action; hence we speak of a crooked 
thing and of sitting or standing awry ; 


Preventing fate directs the lance azry, 
Which glancing only mark’d Achates’ thigh. 
DRYDEN. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


BEND, BENT. 


Both abstract nouns from the verb to bend: the one 
to express its proper, and the other its moral applica- 
tion: a stick has a bend; the mind has a Lent ; 


His coward lips did from their colour fly, 
And that same eye whose bend does awe the world, 
Did lose its lustre.—SHAKSPEARE. 


‘ The soul does not always care to be in the same bent. 
The faculties relieve one another by turns, and receive 
an additional pleasure from the novelty of those ob 
jects about which they are conversant.’—ADDISON. 

A bend in any thing that should be straight is a de 
fect; a bent of the inclination that is not sanctioned 
by religion is detrimental to a person’s moral character 
and peace of mind. For a vicious Jend in a natural 
body there are various remedies; but nothing will cure 
a corrupt dent of the will except religion. 


TURN, BENT. 


These words are only compared here in the figura 
tive application, as respects the state of a person’s in- 
clination: the turn is therefore, as before, indefinite 
as to the degree; it is the first rising inclination: bent 
is a positively strong turn, a confirmed inclination; a 
child may early discover a turn for musick or drawing ; 
but the real bent of his genius is not known until he has 
made a proficiency in his education, and has had an 
opportunity of trying different things: it may be very 
well to indulge the turn of mind; it is of great im- 
portance to follow the Sent of the mind as far as re- 
spects arts and sciences; ‘I need not tell you howa 
manof Mr. Rowe’s turn entertained me.’—Porr. ‘I 
know the bent of your present attention is directed 
towards the eloquence of the bar..—Mr.mou7TnH (Let 
ters of Pliny.) 


TO TURN, WIND, WHIRL, TWIRL, WRITHE 


To turn (v. To turn) is, as before, the generick 
term ; the rest are but modes of turning ; 


How has this poison lost its wonted ways ? 

It should have burnt its passage, not have linger’d 
In the blind labyrinths and crooked turnings 

Of human composition.—DrypDEn. 


To wind is to turn a thing round, or to move in a re 
gular and circular manner ; 


The tracts of Providence like rivers wind, 
Here run before us, there retreat behind.—Hige1ns. 


To whirl is to turn a thing round in a violent manner* 


Man is but man, inconstant still, and various 
There ’s no to-morrow in him like to-day ; 
Perhaps the atoms, whirling in his brain, 

Make him think honestly this present hour; 
The next, a swarm of base, ungrateful thoughts 
May mount aloft—Dryprn. 


To twirl is to turn a thing round in any irregular and 
unmeaning way; ‘I had used my eye to such a quick 
succession of objects, that, in the most precipitate 
twirl, Tcould catch a sentence out of each author.’— 
Sterie. To writhe is to turn round in convolutions 
within itself. A worm seldom moves in a straight 
line; it is, therefore, always turning :; and sometimes 
it zwrithes in agony ; 

Dying, he bellowed out his dread remorse, 

And writh’d with seeming anguish of the soul. 

a SHIRLEY, 


TO TURN, BEND, TWIST, DISTORT, WRING, 
WREST, WRENCH. 


Turn, in French tourner, comes from the Greek 
topvéw to turn, and répvos a turner’s wheel; bend, 
v. Bend ; twist, in Saxon getwisan, German zeyen to 
double, comes from zwey two; distort, in Latin distor- 
tus, participle of distorqueo, compounded of dis and 
torqueo, signifies to turn violently aside. 

To turn signifies in general to put a thing out of its 
place in an uneven line ; 


Yet still they find a future task remain, 
To turn the soil and break the clods again. 
DRYDEN. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


To bend, and the rest, are species of turning: we 
turn a thing by moving it from one poiut to another ; 
thus we turn the earth over: to bend is simply to 
¢nange its direction; thus a stick is bent, or a body 
raay bend its direction to a particular point; 


Some to the house, 
The fold and dairy, hungry, bend their flight. 
THOMSON. 


fo twist isto bend many times, to make many turns ; 


But let not on thy hook the tortur’d worm, 
Convulsive, twist in agonizing folds.—T'HoMsSON. 


Co distort is to turn or bend out of the right course; 
thus the face is distorted in convulsions, or the looks 
gay be distorted from passion or otherwise : 


We saw their stern, distorted looks from far. 
DRYDEN. 


To wring is to twist with violence; thus linen which 
has been wetted is wrung; ‘Our bodies are unhap- 
pily made the weapons of sin; therefore we must, by 
an austere course of duty, first wring these weapons 
out of-its hands.—Soutu. To wrest or wrench is to 
separate from a body by means of twisting ; thus astick 
may be wrested out of the hand, or a hinge wrenched 
off the door; 


Wresting the text to the old giant’s sense, 
That heaven once more must suffer violence. 
DENHAM. 


Wrench his sword from him.—SHAKSPEARE. 


She wrench’d the jav’lin with her dying hands. 
DRYDEN. 


The same distinction holds good in the moral or ex- 
tended application: a person is turned from his design; 
‘Strong passion dwells on that object which has seized 
and taken possession of the soul; it is too much occu- 
pied and filled by it to turn its view aside.’—BLa1rR. 
The will of a person is bent, or the thoughts are dent, 
towards an object; ‘Men will not dend their wits to 
examine whether things wherewith they have been 
accustomed be good or evil..—Hooxrr. The mean- 
ing of words is twisted, or by a stronger expression 
distorted, to serve a purpose; ‘Something must be 
distorted, besides the intent of the divine Inditer.’— 
PreacuaM. A confession is wrung, or by a stronger 
expression wrested, from a person; 'To wring this 
sentence, to wrest thereby out of men’s hands the 
knowledge of God’s doctrines, is without all reason.’ 
—ASCHAM. 


TO EXACT, EXTORT. 


Exact, in Latin exactus, participle of exigo, to drive 
out, signifies the exercise of simple force; but extort, 
from extortus, participle of extorgueo to wring out, 
marks the exercise of unusual force. In application, 
therefore, the term exact signifies to demand with 
force ; it is commonly an act of injustice: to extort 
signifies to get with violence, it is an act of tyranny. 
The collector of the revenue exacts when he gets from 
the people more than he is authorized to take: an 
arbitrary prince extorts from his conquered subjects 
whatever he can grasp at. In the figurative sense, 
deference, obedience, applause, and admiration are 
exacted; ‘While to the established church is given 
that protection and support which the interests of reli- 
gion render proper and due, yet no rigid conformity is 
exacted.’—Buiair. Aconfession, an acknowledgment, 
a discovery, and the like, are extorted; ‘If I err in 
believing that the souls of men are immortal, not while 
Llive would I wish to have this delightful errour ez- 
terted from me.’—STEELE. 


TO CHARM, ENCHANT, FASCINATE, ENRAP- 
TURE, CAPTIVATE. 


Charm has the same signification as explained under 
the head of Attractions ; enchant is compounded of en 
and chant, signifying to act upon as by the power of 
chanting or musick ; fascinate, in Latin fascino, Greek 
Backatvw, signified originally among the ancients a spe- 
cies of witchcraft, performed by the eyes or the tongue; 
enrapture, compounded of en and rapture, signifies to 
put into a rapture: and rapture, from the Latin rapio 
to seize or carry away, signifies the state of being car- 


317 


ried away; whence to enrapture signifies to put into 
that state; captivate, in Latin captivatus, participle 
of captivo, from capzo to take, signifies to take as it 
were, prisoner. 

The idea of an irresistible influence is common ta 
these terms; charm expresses a less powerful effect 
than enchant; a charm is simply a magical verse used 
by magicians and sorcerers: incantation or enchant- 
ment is the use not only of verses but of any mysterious 
ceremonies, to produce a given effect. 

To charm and enchant in this sense denote an opera- 
tion by means of words or motions; to fascinate de- 
notes.an operation by means of the eyes or tongue: a 
person is charmed and enchanted voluntarily; he is 
fascinated involuntarily : the superstitious have always 
had recourse to charms and enchantments, for the pur- 
pose of allaying the passions of love or hatred; the 
Greeks believed that the malignant influence passed by 
fascination from the eyes or tongues of envious per- 
sons, which infected the ambient air, and through that 
medium penetrated and corrupted the bodies of animals 
and other things. 

Charms and enchantments are performed by persons; 
fascinations are performed by animals: the former 
have always some supposed good in view; the latter 
have always a mischievous tendency : there are per- 
sons who pretend to charm away the tooth-ache, or 
other pains of the body: some serpents are said to 
have a fascinating power in their eyes, by which 
they can kill the animals on whom they have fixed 
them. 

When these terms are taken in the improper sense, 
charm, enchant, and fascinate are employed to de- 
scribe moral as well as natural operations: enrapture 
and captivate describe effects on the mind only: to 
charm, enchant, fascinate, and enrapture designate 
the effects produced by physical and moral objects; 
captivate designates those produced by physical objects 
only: we may be charmed, or enchanted, or enrap- 
tured, with what we see, hear, and learn; we may be 
fascinated with what we see or learn; we are capti- 
vated only with what we see: a fine voice, a fine 
prospect, or a fine sentiment, charms, enchants, or 
enraptures ; afine person fascinates, or the conver 
sation of a person is fascinating ; beauty, with all its 
accompaniments, captivates. When applied to the 
same objects, charm, enchant, and enrapture rise in 
sense: what charms produces sweet but not tumultu- 
ous emotions ; in this sense musick in general charms 
a musical ear; 


So fair a landscape charm’d the wond’ring knight. 
GILBERT WEsT. 


What enchants rouses the feelings to a high pitch of 
tumultuous delight; in this manner the musician is 
enchanted with the finest compositions of Handel when 
performed by the best masters; or a lover of the coun- 
try is enchanted with Swiss scenery ; 


Trust not too much to that enchanting face: 
Beauty ’s a charm, but soon the charm will pass. 
DrypeEn. 


To enrapture is to absorb all the affections of the 
soul; it is of too violent a nature to be either lasting 
or frequent: it is a term applicable only to persons of 
an enthusiastick character, or to particularly powerful 
excitements ; 


He play’d so sweetly, and so sweetly sung, 
That on each note th’ enraptur’d audience hung. 
Sin Wo. Jones. 


What charms, enchants, and enraptures only affords 
pleasure for the time; what fascinates and captivates 
rivets the mind to the object: the former three convey 
the idea of a voluntary movement of the mind, as in 
the proper sense; the two latter imply a species of 
forcible action on the mind, which deprives a person 
of his free agency; the passions, as well as the affec- 
tions, are called into play while the understanding is 
passive, which, with regard to fascinate, may be to 
the injury of the subject: a foose woman may have it 
in her power to fascinate, and a modest woman to 
captivate ; ‘One would think there was some kind of 
fascination in the eyes of a large circle of people when 
darting altogether upon one person.’—ADDISON. 


Her form the patriot’s robe conceal’d, 
With studied blandishments she bow'd, 
And Qrav- Ada. 3 ett dd awcewt + Aw 


318 


TO ENSLAVE, CAPTIVATE. 


To enslave is to bring into a state of slavery; to 
captivate is to make a captive. 

There is as much difference between these terms as 
between slavery and captivity: he who is a slave is 
fettered both body and mind; he who is a captive is 
only constrained as to his body: hence to enslave is 
always taken in the bad sense ; captivate mostly in 
the good sense: enslave is employed literally or figu- 
ratively ; captivate only figuratively: we may be en- 
slaved by persons, or by our gross passions; ‘ The 
will was then (before the fall) subordinate but not 
enslaved to the understanding..—Sourn. We are cap- 
tivated by the charms or beauty of an object; ‘ Men 
should peware of being captivated by a kind of 
savage philosophy, women by a thoughtless gallantry.’ 
—ADDISON. 


ECSTASY, RAPTURE, TRANSPORT. 


There is a strong resemblance in the meaning and 
application of these words. They all express an ex- 
traordinary elevation of the spirits, or an excessive 
tension of the mind; ecstasy marks a passive state, 
from the Greek &xsaots and éfisnuc to stand, or be out 
of oneself, out of one’s mind. Rapture, from the 
Latin rapio to seize or carry away; and transport, 
from trans and porto to carry beyond oneself, rather 
designate an active state, a violent immulse with which 
the mind hurries itself forward. Ecstasy and rap- 
ture are always pleasurable, or arise from pleasurable 
causes: transport respects either pleasurable or pain- 
ful feelings: joy occasions ecstasies or raptures: joy 
and anger have their trapsports. 

An ecstasy benumbs tie faculties ; it will take away 
the power of speech and often of thought: it is com- 
monly occasioned by sudden and unexpected events: 
rapture, on the other hand, often invigorates the 
powers, and calls them into action; it frequently arises 
from deep thought: the former is common to all per- 
sons of ardent feelings, but more particularly to chil- 
dren, ignorant people, or to such as have not their 
feelings under control ; 


What followed was all ecstasy and trance: 
Immortal pleasures round my swimming eyes did 
dance.—DRYDEN. 


Rapture, on the contrary, is applicable to persons of 
superiour minds, and to circumstances of peculiar im- 
portance ; 


By swift degrees the love of nature works, 
And warms the bosom, till at last sublim’d 
To rapture and enthusiastick heat, 

We feel the present Deity.—THomson. 


Transports are but sudden bursts of passion, which 
generally lead to intemperate actions, and are seldom 
indulged even on joyous occasions except by the vola- 
tile and passionate: a reprieve from the sentence of 
death wil] produce an ecstasy of delight in the par- 
doned criminal. Religious contemp\ation is calculated 
to produce holy raptures in a mind strongly imbued 
with pious zeal: in transports of rage men have com- 
mitted enormities which have cost them bitter tears of 
repentance ever after. The word transport is how- 
ever used in the higher style in a good sense ; 


‘ When all thy mercies, O my God! 
My rising soul surveys, 
Transported with the view, I’m lost 
In wonder, love, and praise.—ApDISON. 


TO ATTRACT, ALLURE, INVITE, ENGAGE. 


Attract, in Latin attractum, participle of attraho, 
compounded of at or ad and traho, signifies to draw 
towards; allure, v. To allure; invite, in French in- 
viter, Latin invito, compounded of in privative and 
mito to avoid, signifies the contrary of avoiding, that 
is, to seek or ask; engage, compounded of en or in 
and the French gage a pledge, signifies to bind as by a 

ledge. 

‘ That is attractive which draws the thoughts towards 
itself; that is alluring which awakens desire ; that is 
inviting which offers persuasion; that is engaging 
which takes possession of the mind. ‘The attention is 
attracted; the senses are allured ; the understanding 
s invited; the whole mind is engaged. A particular 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


sound attracts the ear; the prospect of gratification 
allures; we are invited by advantages which offer; 
we are engaged by those which already accrue. 

The person of a female is attractwe ; female beauty 
involuntarily draws all eyes towardsitself; it awakens 
admiration ; ‘At this time of universal Migration, 
when almost every one considerable enough to attract 
regard has retired into the country, I have often been 
tempted to inquire what happiness is to be gained by 
this stated secession.—Jounson. The pleasures of 
society are alluring ; they create in the receiver an 
eager desire for still farther enjoyment; but when too 
eagerly pursued they vanish in the pursuit, and leave 
the mind a prey to listless uneasiness: the weather is 
inviting ; itseems to persuade the reluctant to partake 
of its refreshments; ‘Seneca has attempted not only 
to pacify us in misfortune, but almost to allure us to it 
by representing it as necessary to the pleasures of the 
mind. He invites his pupil to calamity as the Syrens 
allured the passengers to their coasts, by promising 
that he shall return with increase of knowledge.’— 
Jounson. The manners of a person are enguging ; 
they not only occupy the attention, but they lay hold 
of the affections ; ‘The present, whatever it be, seldom 
engages our attention so much as what is to come ’— 
Buair. . 


ATTRACTIONS, ALLUREMENTS, CHARMS. 


Attraction signifies the thing that attracts (v. To 
attract); allurement signifies the thing that allures 
(v. To allure) ; charm, from the Latin carmen a verse, 
signifies whatever acts by an irresistible influence, 
like poetry. 

* Besides the synonymous signification which dis- 
tinguishes these words, they are remarkable for the 
common property of being used only in the plural, 
when denoting the thing that attracts, allures, and 
charms. When applied to female endowments, or the 
influence of person on the heart: it seems that in at- 
tractions there is something natural; in allurements 
something artificial: in charms something moral and 
intellectual. 

Attractions lead or draw; allurements win or en- 
tice; charms seduce or captivate. The human heart 
is always exposed to the power of female atiractions ; 
it is guarded with difficulty against the allurements of 
a coquette; it is incapable of resisting the united 
charms of body and mind. ; 

Females are indebted for their attractions and 
charms to a happy conformation of features and figure, 
but they sometimes borrow their allwrements from 
their toilet. Attractions consist of those ordinary 
graces which nature bestows on women with more or 
less liberality ; they are the common property of the 
sex; ‘This cestus was a fine party-coloured girdle, 
which, as Homer tells us, had all the attractions of 
the sex wrought into it..—Appison. Allwrements con- 
sist of those cultivated graces formed by the aid of a 
faithful looking-glass and the skilful hand of one 
anxious to please ; ‘ How justly do I fall a sacrifice to 
sloth and luxury in the place where I first yielded to 
those allurements which seduced me to deviate from 
temperance and innocence.’—Jounson. Charms con- 
sist of those singular graces of nature which are granted 
as a rare and precious gift: they are the peculiar pro- 
perty of the individual possessor ; ‘Juno made a visit 
to Venus, the deity who presides over love, and begged 
of her as a particular favour, that she would lend her 
for a while those charms with which she subdued the 
hearts of gods and men.’—ApDISON. 

Defects unexpectedly discovered tend to the diminu 
tion of attractions ; allurements vanish when the arti 
fice is discovered ; charms lose their effect when time 
or habit have rendered them too familiar, so transitory 
is the influence of mere person. Attractions assail 
the heart and awaken the tender passion; allurements 
serve to complete the conquest, which, will however 
be but of short duration if there be not more solid 
though less brilliant charms to substitute affection in 


| the place of passion. 


When applied as these terms may be to other objects 
besides the personal endowments of the female sex, at- 
tractions and charms express whatever is very amiable 
in themselves; allurements on the contrary whatevei 


* Vide Abbe Girard and Roubaud: “ Attraits appag 
charmes.” 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


‘45 hateful and congenial to the baser propensities of 
human nature. A courtesan who was never possessed 
of charms, and has lost all personal attractions, may, 
by the allurements of dress and manners, aided by a 
thousand meretricious arts, still retain the wretched 
power of doing incalculable mischief. 

An attraction springs from something remarkable 
and striking; it lies in the exteriour aspect, and 
awakens an interest towards itself: a charm acts by a 
secret, all-powerful, and irresistible impulse on the 
soul; it springs from an accordance of the object with 
the affections of the heart; it takes hold of the imagi- 
nation, and awakens an enthusiasm peculiar to itself: 
an allurement acts on the senses; it flatters the pas- 
4ions; it enslaves the imagination. A musical society 
has attractions for one who is musically inclined; for 
musick has charms to soothe the troubled soul: fash- 
ionable society has too many allurements for youth, 
which are not easily withstood. 

The musick, the eloquence of the preacher, or the 
crowds of hearers, are attractions for the occasional 
attendants at a place of worship: the society of culti- 
vated persons, whose character and manners have 
been attempered by the benign influence of Chris- 
tianity, possess peculiar charms for those who have a 
congeniality of disposition; the present lax and undis- 
ciplined age is however ill-fitted for the formation of 
such society, or the susceptibility of such charms: 
peopie are now more prone to yield to the allurements 
of pleasure and licentious gratification in their social 
intercourse. A military life has powerful attractions 
for adventurous minds; glory has irresistible charms 
for the ambitious: the allurements of wealth predomi- 
nate in the minds of the great bulk of mankind. 


TO ALLURE, TEMPT, SEDUCE, EN TICE, 
DECOY. 


Allure is compounded of the intensive syllable al or 
ad and lure, in French leurre, in German luder a lure 
or bait, signifying to hold a bait in order to catch ani- 
mals, and figuratively to present something to please 
the senses, or the understanding; tempt, in French 
tenter, Latin tento to try, comes from tentus, participle 
of tendo to stretch, signifying by efforts to impel to ac- 
tion; seduce, in French seduzre, Latin seduco, is com- 
pounded of se apart and duco to lJead, signifying to 
lead any one aside ; entice is probably, per metathesin, 
changed from incite; decoy is compounded of the 
Latin de and coy, in Dutch koy, German, &c. koi a 
cage or enclosed place for birds, signifying to draw into 
any place for the purpose of getting them into one’s 

wer. 

Weare allured by the appearances of things; we are 
tempted by the words of’ persons as well as the appear- 
ances of things; we are enticed by persuasions: we 
are seduced or decoyed by the influence and false arts 
of others. 

To allure and tempt are used either in a good or bad 
sense; entice sometimes in an indifferent, but mostly 
in a bad sense; seduce and decoy are always in a bad 
sense. The weather may allure us out of doors: the 
love of pleasures may allure us into indulgencies that 
afterward cause repentance; ‘June 26, 1284, the rats 
and mice by which Hamelen was infested were al- 
tured, it is said; by a piper to a contiguous river, in 
which they were all drowned.’—Avppison. We are 
sometimes tempted upon very fair grounds to under- 
take what turns out unfortunately in the end: our 
passions are our bitterest enemies; the devil uses them 
as instruments to tempt us to sin; ‘In our time the 
poor are strongly tempted to assume the appearance of 
wealth.’—Jounson. When the wicked entice us to do 
evil, we should turn a deaf ear to their flattering re- 
presentations: those who know what is right, and are 
determined to practice it, will not suffer themselves to 
be enticed into any irregularities ; ‘ There was a parti- 
cular grove which was called “the labyrinth of co- 
quettes,’’ where many were enticed to the chase, but 
few returned with purchase.’-—Appison. Young men 
are frequently seduced by the company they keep; 

There is no kind of idleness by which we are so 
easily seduced as that which dignifies itself by the ap- 
pearance of business..—Jounson. Children are de- 
coyed away by the evil-minded, who wish to get them 
into their possession; ‘I have heard of barbarians, 


319 


who, when tempests drive ships to their coasts, deco 
them to the rocks that they may plunder their lading.’ 
—JOHNSON. 

The country has its allurements for the contem- 
plative mind: the metropolis is full of temptations. 
Those who have any evil project to execute will omit 
nv enticement in order to seduce the young and inex- 
perienced from their duty. The practice of decoying 
children or ignorant people into places of confinement 
was formerly more frequent than at present. 

Allure does not imply such a powerful influence ag 
tempt: what allwres draws by gentle means ; it lies in 
the nature of the thing that affects: what tempts acts 
by direct and continued efforts: it presents motives to 
the mind in order to produce decision; it tries the 
power of resistance. Entice supposes such a decisive 
influence on the mind, as produces a determination to 
act; in which respect it differs from the two former 
terms. Allure and tempt produce actions on the mind, 
not necessarily followed by any result ; for we may be 
allured or tempted to dv a thing, without necessarily 
doing the thing; but we cannot be enticed unless we 
are led to take some step. Seduce and decoy have re- 
ference to the outward action, as well as the inward 
movements of the mind which give rise to them: they 
indicate a drawing aside of the person as well as 
the mind; it is a misleading by false representation. 
Prospects are alluring, offers are tempting, words are 
enticing, charms are seductive. 


TRY, TEMPT. 


To try (v. To attempt) is to call forth one’s ordinary 
powers ; to tempt is a particular species of trial; we 
try either ourselves or others; we tempt others: to try 
is for the most part an indifferent action, a person may 
be tried in order to ascertain his principles or his 
strength; 

League all your forces then, ye pow’rs above, 
Join all, and try the omnipotence of Jove. 
Popg. 
To tempt is for the most part taken in a bad sense, men 
are tempted to depart from their duty; 


Still the old sting remain’d, and men began 
To tempt the serpent, as he tempted man. 
DrEnuHAM. 


It is necessary to try the fidelity of a servant before you 
place confidence in him ; it is wicked to tempt any one 
to do that which we should think wrong to do ourselves: 
our strength is tried by frequent experience; we are 
tempted by the weakness of our principles, to give way 
to the violence of our passions. 


EXPERIENCE, eget eS: TRIAL, PROOF, 
EST. 


Experiznce, experiment, from the Latin experior, 
compounded of ¢ or ex and perio or pario to bring 
forth, signifies the thing brought to light, or the act of 
bringing to light ; tral signifies the act of trying, from 
try, in Latin tento, Hebrew J); to explore, examine, 
search ; proof signifies either the act of proving, from 
the Latin probo to make good, or the thing made 
good, proved to be good; test, from the Latin testis a 
witness, is that which serves to attest or prove the 
reality of a thing. 

By all the actions implied in these terms, we endea- - 
vour to arrive at a certainty respecting some unknown 
particular: the experience is that which has been tried; 
the experiment is the thing to be tried: the experience 
is certain, as it is a deduction from the past for the 
service of the present; the experiment is wncertain, 
and serves a future purpose: experience is an unerring 
guide, which no man can desert without falling inte 
errour; experiments may fail, or be superseded by 
others more perfect. 

Experience serves to lead us to moral truth, the ez- 
periment aids us in ascertaining speculative truth; we 
profit by experience to rectify practice; ‘A man may, 
by experience, be persuaded that his will is free; that 
he can do this, or not do it’—Tintorson. We mak? 
experiments in theoretical inquiries; ‘Any one may 
easily make this experiment, and even plainly see tha 
there is no bud in the corn which ants lay up.’"—-App1 
son. He, therefore, who makes experiments in mat 


320 


eers of experience rejects a steady and definite mode 
of coming at the truth for one that is variable and un- 
certain, and that too in matters of the first moment : 
the consequences of such a mistake are obvious, and 
have been too fatully realized in the present age, in 
which experience has been set at nought by every wild 
speculator, who has recommended experiments to be 
made with all the forms of moral duty and civil 
society ; ‘It is good also not to try experiments in 
states, except the necessity be urgent, or the utility 
evident.’—Bacon. 

The experiment, trial, and proof have equally the 
character of uncertainty; but the experiment is em- 
ployed only in matters of an intellectual nature ; the 
trial is employed in matters of a personal nature, on 
physical as well as mental objects; the proof is em- 
ployed in moral-subjects: we make an experiment in 
order to know whether a thing be true or false; we 
make a trial in order to know whether it be capable 
or incapable, convenient or inconvenient, useful or the 
contrary ; we put a thing to the proof in order to de- 
termine whether it be good or bad, real or unreal: 
experiments tend to confirm our opinions; they are the 
handmaids of science; the philosopher doubts every 
position which cannot be demonstrated by repeated 
experiments ; ‘That which showeth them to be wise, 
is the gathering of principles out of their own parti- 
cular experiments ; and the framing of our particular 
experiments, according to the rule of their principles, 
shall make us such as they are.—Hooxker. Trials 
are of absolute necessity in directing our conduct, our 
taste, and our choice; we judge of our strength or 
skill by txzals; we judge of the effect of colours by 
trials, and the like ; 


But he himself betook another way, 

To make more trial of his hardiment, 

And seek adventures, as he with prince Arthur went. 
SPENSER. 


The proof determines the judgement, as in common 
life, according to the vulgar proverb, ‘The proof of 
the pudding is in the eating ;’ so in the knowledge of 
men and things, the proof of men’s characters and 
merits is best made by observing their conduct ; 


© goodly usage of those ancient tymes! 

In which the sword was servant unto right: 

When not for malice and contentious crymes, 

But all for praise and proof of manly might. 
SPENSER. 


The experiment is a sort of trial; ‘When we are 
searching out the nature or properties of any being by 
various methods of trial, this sort of observation is 
called experiment.—Watts. The proof results from 
the trial ; ‘My paper gives a timorous writer an op- 
portunity of putting his abilities to the proof.—Anpi- 
son. When the word test is taken in the sense of a 
trial, as in the phrases to stand the test, or to make a 
test, it derives its meaning from the chymica] process 
of refining metals in a test or cupel, testa being in 
Italian the name of this vessel. The test is therefore 
a positive and powerful trial ; 
All thy vexations 
Were but my trials of thy love, and thou 
Hast strangely stood the test.—SHAKSPEARE. 


When the test is taken for the means of trying or prov- 
+g, it bears a similar signification ; 
Unerring nature, still divinely bright, 
One clear, unchang’d and universal light, 
Life, force, and beauty, must to all impart 


At once the source, and end, and test of every art. 
Pope. 


Hence this word is used in the legal sense for the 
proof which a man is required to give of his religious 
creed. 


ATTEMPT, TRIAL, ENDEAVOUR, ESSAY, 
EFFORT. 


Attempt, in French atienter, Latin attento, from 


at or ad and tento, signifies to try at a thing; trial 
comes from try (v. Experience) ; endeavour, com- 
pounded of en and the French devoir to owe, signifies 
o try according to one’s duty; essay, in French 
essayer, comes probably from the German ersuchen, 


sompounded of er and suchen to seek, written in old | 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


German suachen, and is doubtless connected witn 
sehen to see or look after, signifying to aspire agter, to 
look up to; effort, in French effort, from the Latin 
effert, present tense of effero, compounded of e or ex 
and fero, signifiés a bringing out or calling forth the 
strength. 

To attempt is to set about a thing with a view of 
effecting it; to try is to set about a thing with a view 
of seeing the result. An attempt respects the action 
with its object; a trial is the exercise of power. We 
always act when we attempt; we use the senses and 
the understanding when we try. We attempt by try- 


ing, but we may try without attempting: when a 


thief attempts to break into a house he first tries the 


locks and fastenings to see where he can most easily 
gain admittance. 


Men attempt to remove evils; they ty experiments 


Attempts are perpetually made by quacks, whether in 
medicine, politicks, or religion, to recommend some 
scheme of their own to the notice of the publick; 
which are often nothing more than trials of skill to 
see who can most effectually impose on the credulity 
of mankind. Spirited people make attempts ; perse 
vering people make trials; players attempt to per 
form different parts; and try to gain applause. 


An endeavour is a continued attempt. Attempts 


may be fruitless; trials may be vain; endeavours, 


though unavailing, may be well meant. Many atiempts 
are made which exceed the abilities of the attempter ; 
trials are made in matters of speculation, the results 
of which are uncertain; endeavours are made in the 
moral concerns of life. People attempt to write books; 
they try various methods ; and endeavour to obtain a 
livelihood. 

An essay is used altogether in a figurative sense for 
an attempt or endeavour ; it is an intellectual exertion. 
A modest writer apologizes for his feeble essay to con- 
tribute to the general stock of knowledge and cultiva- 
tion: hence short treatises which serve as attempts to 
illustrate any point in morals are termed essays, among 
which are the finest productions in our language from 
the pen of Addison, Steele, and their successors. An 
effort is to an attempt as a means to an end; it is 
the very act of calling forth those powers which are 
employed in an attempt. In attempting to make an 
escape, a person is sometimes obliged to make despe- 
rate efforts. 

Attempts at imitation expose the imitator to ridicule 
when not executed with peculiar exactness; ‘A natural 
and unconstrained behaviour has something in it so 
agreeable that it is no wonder to see people endeavour- 
ing after it; but at the same time it is so very hard 
to hit, when it is not born with us, that people often 
make themselves ridiculous in attempteng it.’-—Appt- 
son. Trials of strength are often foolhardy ; insome 
cases attended with mischievous consequences to the 
trier ; 

To bring it to the tral, will you dare 
Our pipes, our skill, our voices to compare ? 
DRYDEN. 


Honest endeavours to please are to be distinguished 
from idle attempts to catch applause; ‘ Whether or 
no (said Socrates on the day of his execution).God 
will approve of my actions I know not; but this I am 
sure of, that I have at all times made it my endeavour 
to please him.’--Appison. The first essays of youth 
ought to meet with indulgence, in order to afford en- 
couragement to rising talents; ‘'This treatise prides 
itself in no higher a title than that of an essay, or 
imperfect attempt at a subject.—GLANvVILLE. Great 
attempts, which require extraordinary efforts either 
of body or mind, always meet with an adequate share 
of publick applause; ‘The man of sagacity bestirs 
himself to distress his enemy by methods probable and 
reducible to reason; so the same reason will fortify 
his enemy to elude these his regular efforts; but your 
fool projects with such notable inconsistency, that no 
course of thought can evade his machinations.’—- 
STEELE. : 


—- 


ATTEMPT, UNDERTAKING, ENTERPRISE. 


An attempt is the thing attempted (v. To attempt) : 
an undertaking, from undertake, or take in hand, is 
the thing taken in hand; an enterprise, from the French 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 32) 


enterpris, participle of entreprendre to undertake, has 
the same original sense. 

The idea of something set about to be completed is 
common to all these terms. An ditempt is less com- 
plicated than an undertaking ; and that less arduous 
than an enterprise. Attempts are the common exer- 
tions of power for obtaining an object: an undertaking 
involves in it many parts and particulars which require 
thought and judgement: an enterprise has more that 
is hazardous and dangerous in it; it requires resolu- 
tion. Attempts are frequently made on the lives and 
property of individuals; undertakin,rs are formed for 
private purposes; enterprises are commenced for some 
great national object. 

Nothing can be effected without making the attempt ; 
attempts are therefore often idle and unsuccessful, 
when they are made by persons of little discretion, 
who are eager to do something without knowing how 
to direct their powers ; 


Why wilt thou rush to certain death and rage, 
In rash attempts beyond thy tender age 2—DrypgEn. 


Undertakings are of a more serious nature, and in- 
volve a man’s:serious interests ; if begun without ade- 
quate means of bringing them to a conclusion, they 
too frequently bring ruin by their failure on those who 
are concerned in them; ‘When I hear a man com- 
Ae of his being unfortunate in all his undertakings, 

shrewdly suspect him for a very weak man in his 
affairs._AppIsON. Enterprises require personal sa- 
crifices rather than those of interest ; he who does not 
sombine great resolution and perseverance with con- 
siderable bodily powers, will be ill-fitted to take part 
in grand enterprises. 

The present age has been fruitful in attempts to 
bring premature genius into notice: literary wnder- 
takings have of late degenerated too much into mere 
commercial speculations: a state of war gives birth 
to naval and military enterprises; a state of peace 
is most favourable to those of a scientifick nature; 

There would be few enterprises of great labour or 
Aazard undertaken, if we had not the power of magni- 
fying the advantages which we persuade ourselves to 
expect from them.’—JoHNSON. 


FOOLHARDY, ADVENTUROUS, RASH. 


Foolhardy signifies having the hardihood of a fool; 
adventurous, ready to venture; rash,in German rasch, 
which signifies swift, comes from the Arabick raaschen 
to go swiftly. 

The foolhardy expresses more than the adventurous ; 
and the adventurous than the rash. 

The foolhardy man ventures in defiance of conse- 
quences: the adventurous man ventures from a love 
of the arduous and the bold; the rash man ventures 
for want of thought: courage and boldness become 
foolhardihood when they lead a person to run a fruit- 
less risk ; an adventurous spirit sometimes leads a man 
into unnecessary difficulties; but it is a necessary ac- 
companiment of greatness. There is not so much de- 
sign, but there is more violence and impetuosity in 
raskness than in foolhardihood: the former is the 
consequence of an ardent temper which will admit of 
correction by the influence of the judgement; but the 
latter comprehends the perversion of both the will and 
the judgement. 

An infidel is foolhardy, who risks his future salva- 
tion for the mere gratification of kis pride ; 


If any yet be so foolhardy, 

T’ expose themselves to vain jeopardy, 

If they come wounded off and lame, 

No honour ’s got by such a maim.—Berrier. 


Alexander was an adventurous priuce, who delighted 
in enterprises in proportion as they presented difficul- 
ties; he was likewise a rash prince, as was evinced 
by his jumping into the river Cydnus while he was 
hot, and by his leaping over the wall of Oxydrace and 
exposing himself singly to the attack of the enemy; 


*T' was an old way of recreating, 
Which learned butchers called bearbaiting, 
A bold, advent’rous exercise.—BuTLER. 


Why wilt thou, then, renew the vain pursuit, 
And rashly catch at the forbidden fruit ? 


PRIOR. 
Q1 


TO ENDEAVOUR, AIM, STRIVE, STRUGGLE. 


To endeavour (v. Attempt) is general in its object; 
aim (v. Aim) is particular ; we endeavour to do what 
ever we set about; we aim at doing something which 
we have set before ourselves as a desirable object. ‘To 
strive (v. Strife) is to endeavour earnestly ; to strug- 
gle, which is a frequentative of strive, is to strive 
earnestly. 

An endeavour springs from a sense of duty; we en- 
deavour to do that which is right, and avoid that which 
is wrong: aiming is the fruit of an aspiring temper ; 
the object aimed at is always something superiour 
either in reality or imagination, and calls for particular 
exertion: striving is the consequence of an ardent de- 
sire; the thing strzven for is always conceived to be of 
importance: struggling is the ettect of necessity ; it is 
proportioned to the difficulty of attainment, and the 
resistance which is opposed to it; the thing struggled 
for is indispensably necessary. 

Those only who endeavour to discharge their duty 
to God and their fellow-creatures can expect real tran- 
quillity of mind; ‘’T is no uncommon thing, my good 
Sancho, for one half of the world to use the other half 
like brutes, and then endeavour to make em so.’— 
Sterne. Whoever aims at the acquirement of great 
Wealth or much power opens the door for much misery 
to himself; 


However men may aim at elevation, 
"T is properly a female passion SHENSTONE. 


As our passions are acknowledged to be our greatesx 
enemies when they obtain the ascendancy, we should 
always strive to keep them under our control ; 


All understand their great Creator’s will, 
Strive to be happy, and in that fulfil, 
Mankind excepted, lord of all beside, 
But only slave to folly, vice, and pride. 
JENYNS. 


There are some men who struggle through life to ob 
tain a mere competence; and yet die without succeed 
ing in their object ; 
So the boat’s brawny crew the current stem, 
And slow advancing struggle with the stream. 
DRYDEN. 


We ought to endeavour to correct faults, to a’m at 
attaining Christian perfection, to strzve to conquer bad 
habits: these are the surest means of saving us from 
the necessity of struggling to repair an injured repu- 
tation. 


ENDEAVOUR, EFFORT, EXERTION. 


The idea of calling our powers into action is com 
mon to these terms: endeavour (v. Attempt) expresses 
little more than this common idea, being a term of 
general import: effort, from the Latin effert, from 
effero to bring forth, signifying the bringing out of 
power; and exertion, in Latin exero, signifying the 
putting forth power, are particular modes ot endea- 
vour ; the former being a special! strong endeavour, the 
latter a continued strong endeavour. The endeavour 
is called forth by ordinary circumstances , the effort 
and exertion by those which are extraordinary. The 
endeavour flows out of the condition of our heing and 
constitution; as rational and responsible agents we 
must make daily endeavours to fit ourselves for an here- 
after; as willing and necessilous agenis, we use our 
endeavours to obtain such things as are agreeable co» 
needful for us: when a particular emergency arises we 
make a great effort; and when a serious object is .o 
be obtained we make suitable exertions. 

The endeavour is indefinite both as to the end and 
the means: the end may be immediate or remote , the 
means may be either direct or indirect: but :a the 
effort the end is immediate ; the means are direct and 
personal: we may either make an endeavour to get 
into a room, or we may make an endeavour to obtain 
a situation in life, or act our part well in a particdfar 
situation; ‘To walk with circumspection and steadi- 
ness in the right path ought to be the constant endea- 
vour of every rational being.—Jounson. We make 
efforts to speak, or we make efforts to get through a 
crowd, or we make efforts to overcome our feelings ; 
‘The influence of custom is such, that to conquer it 
will require the utmost efforts of fortitude and virtue.’ 
—Jounson The endeavour may call forth one on 


54 


322 ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


many powers; the effort calls forth but one power: 
the endeavour to please in society is laudable, if it do 
not lead to vicious complianees ; it is a laudable effort 
of Sortitude to suppress our complaints in the moment 
of suffering. The exertion is as comprehensive in its 
meaning as the endeavour, and as positive as the 
effort ; but the endeavour is most commonly, and the 
effort always,‘applied to individuals only; whereas 
the exertion is applicable to nations as well as indi- 
viduals. A tradesman uses his best endeavours to 
please his customers: a combatant makes desperate 
efforts to overcome his antagonist: a candidate for 
literary or parliamentary honours uses great exertions 
to surpass his rival; a nation uses great exertions to 
raise a navy or extend its commerce; ‘ The discom- 
fitures which the republick of assassins has. suffered 
have uniformly called forth new exertions.’—BURKE. 


TO EXERT, EXERCISE. 


The employment of some power or qualification that 
belongs to oneself is the common idea conveyed by 
these terms; but exert (v. Endeavour) may be used 
for what is internal or external of oneself; ezercise, in 
Latin exerceo, from ex and arceo, signifying to drive 
or force out, is employed only for that which forms an 
express part of oneself: hence we speak of exerting 
one’s strength, or exerting one’s voice, or exerting 
one’s influence ; of exercising one’s limbs, exercising 
one’s understanding, or exercising one’s tongue; ‘ How 
has Milton represented the whole Godhead, exerting 
itself towards man in its full benevolence, under the 
threefold distinction of a Creator, a Redeemer, and 
Comforter..—Avpison. ‘God made no faculty, but 
also provided it with a proper object upon which it 
might exercise itself..—Sourn. 

Exert conveys simply the idea of calling forth into 
action; exercise always conveys the idea of repeated 
or continued exertion coupled with that of the purpose 
or end for which it is made: thus a person who Calls 
to another exerts his voice ; he who speaks aloud for 
any length of time ezercises his lungs. When the 
will has exerted an act of command upon any faculty 
of the soul, or a member of the body, it has done all 
that the whole man, as a moral agent, can do for the 
actual exercise or employment of such a faculty or 
member. 


TO EXERCISE, PRACTISE. 


Exercise signifies the same as in the preceding arti- 
cle; practise, from the Greek modoow to do, signifies 
to perform a part. 

These terms are equally applied to the actions and 
habits of men; but we exercise in that where the 
powers are called forth; we practise in that where 
frequency and habitude of action is requisite: we c2- 
ercise an art; we practise a profession; ‘ The Roman 
tongue was the study of their youth; it was their own 
language they were instructed and exercised in.’— 
Locke. ‘A woman that practis’d physick in man’s 
clothes. —TaTLerR. We may both exercise or practise 
a virtue; but the former is that which the particular 
occurrence calls forth, and which seems to demand a 
peculiar effort of the mind; the latter is that which is 
done daily and ordinarily: thus we in a peculiar man- 
ner are said to exercise patience, fortitude, or forbear- 
ance; to practise charity, kindness, benevolence, and 
the like; ‘Every virtue requires time and place, a 
proper object, and a fit conjuncture of circumstances 
for the due ezercise of it.—Appison. ‘All men are 
not equally qualified for getting money; but it is in the 
power of every one alike to practise this virtue (of 
thrift). —Bupe@e.. 

A similar distinction characterizes these words as 
nouns: the former applying solely to the powers of 
the body or mind; the latter solely to the mechanical 
operations: the health of the body and the vigour of 
the mind are alike impaired by the want of exercise ; 
‘Reading is to the mind what exercise is to the body.’ 
—Appison. In every art practice is an indispensable 
requisite for acquiring perfection ; 


Long practice has a sure improvement found, 
With kindled fires to burn the barren ground. 
DRYDEN. 


The exercise of the memory is of the first importance 


in the education of wfildren; constant practice in 
writing is almost the only means by which the art of 
penmanship is acqu ed. 


CUSTOM, FASH:ON, MANNER, PRACTICE. 


Customs, fashions, and manners are all employed 
for communities of men: custom (v. Custom, habit) 
respects established and general modes of action, 
fashion, in French facon, from facio to do or make, 
regards partial and transitory modes of making or do- 
ing things: manner, in the limited sense in which it is 
here taken, signifies tlle manner or mode of men’s 
living or behaving in their social intercourse. 

Custom is authoritative; it stands in the place of 
law, and regulates the conduct of men in the most im 
portant concerns of life: fashion is arbitrary and capri 
cious, it decides in matters of trifling import: manners 
are rational; they are the expressions of moral feelings 
Customs are most prevalent in a barbarous state of so- 
ciety; fashions rule most where luxury has made the 
greatest progress ; manners are most distinguishable in 
a Civilized state of society. 

Customs are in their nature as unchangeable as 
fashions are variable; manners depend on cultivation 
and collateral circumstances: customs die away or are 
abolished; fashions pass away, and new ones take 
their place ; manners are altered either for the better or 
the worse: endeavours have been successfully employ- 
ed in several parts of India to abolish the custom of in- 
fanticide, and that of women sacrificing themselves on 
the funeral piles of their husbands; ‘The custom of 
representing the grief we have for the loss of the dead 
by our habits, certainly had its rise from the real sorrow 
of such as were too much distressed to take the care 
they ought of their dress..—Strerte. The votaries of 
fashion are not contented with giving the law for the 
cut of the coat, or the shape of the bonnet, but they 
wish to intrude upon the sphere of the scholar or 
the artist, by prescribing in matters of literature and 
taste ; ? 


Cf beasts, it is confess’d, the ape 

Comes nearest us in human shape: 

Like man, he imitates each fashion, 

And malice is his ruling passion.—Swirt. 


The influence of publick opinion on the munnevs of a 
people has never been so strikingly illustrated as in the 
instance of the French nation during and since the Re- 
volution ; 


Their arms, their arts, their manners, I disclose, 
And how they war, and whence the people rose. 
Drypen 


Practice, in Latin practicus, Greek mpaxrixds, from 
modoow to do, signifies actual doing or the thing done, 
that is by distinction the regularly doing, or the thing 
regularly done, in which sense it is most analogous to 
custom; but practice simply conveys the idea of actual 
performance; custom includes also the accessory idea 
of repetition at stated periods: a practice must be de- 
fined as frequent or unfrequent, regular or irregular; 
but a custom does not require to be qualified by any 
such epithets: it may be the practice of a person to do 
acts of charity, as the occasion requires; but when he 
uniformly does a particular act of charity at any given 
period of the year, it is properly denominated his cus- 
tom ; ‘Savage was so touched with the discovery of his 
real mother, that it was his frequent practice to walk in 
the dark evenings for several hours before her door, 
with hopes of seeing her as she might cross her apart- 
ments with a candle in her hand.’—Jounson. 

Both practice and custom are general or particular, 
but the former is absolute, the latter relative; the prac- 
tice may be adopted by a number of persons without 
reference to each other; but a custom is always follow- 
ed either by imitation or prescription ; the practice of 
gaming has always been followed by the vicious part 
of society ; but it is to be hoped for the honour of man 
that it will never become a custom. 


CUSTOM, HABIT. 


Custom signifies the same as in the preceding article; 
habit, in Latin habitudo, from habeo to have, marks tne 
state of having or holding. 

_ Custom is a frequent repetition of the same act; ‘It 
is the custom of the Mahometans, if they see any printed 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


fr Written paper upon the ground, to take it up and 
lay it aside carefully, as not knowing but it may con- 
tain some piece of the Alcoran.—AppiIson. Habit 
the effect of such repetition , ‘If a loose and careless 
life has brought a man into habits of dissipation, and 
led him to neglect those religious duties which he owed 
to his Maker, let him return to the regular worship of 
God.’—Briair. The custom of rising early in the 
morning isconducive to the health, and may ina short 
time become such a habit as to render it no less agree- 
able than it is useful. 

Custom applies to mencollectively or individually ; 
kabit applies to the individual only. Every nation has 
zustoms peculiar to itself; ‘I dare not shock my readers 
with the description of the customs and manners of 
these barbarians (the Hottentots),--Hueurs. Every 
individual has habits peculiar to his age, station, and 
circumstances. 

Custom, in regard to individuals, supposes an act of 
the will ; habit implies an involuntary movement: a 
zustom is followed; ahabet is acquired: whoever fol- 
lows the custom of imitating the Jook, tone, or gesture 
of another, is liable to get the habit of doing the same 
himself: as habit is said to be second nature, it is of 
importance to guard against all customs to which we 
do not* wish to become habituated ; the drunkard is 
formed by the custom of drinking intemperately, until 
he becomes habituated to the use of spirituous liquors: 
the profane swearer who accustoms himself in early 
life to utter the oaths which he hears, will find it diffi- 
cult in advanced years to break himself of the habit of 
swearing; the love of imitation is so powerful in the 
numan breast, that it leads the major part of mankind 
to follow custom even in ridiculous things: Solomon 
refers to the power of habit when he says, ‘train up a 
child in the way in which he should go; and when he 
is old he will not depart from it ;’ a power which cannot 
be employed too early in the aid of virtue and religion. 
«The force of education is so great, that we may mould 
the minds and manners of the young into what shape 
we please, and give the impressions of such habits, as 
shall ever afterward remain.’—ATTERBURY. 

Customary and habitual, theepithets derived from 
these words, admit of a similar distinction: the cus- 
tomary action is that which is repeated after the man- 
ner of a custom; ‘This customary superiority grew too 
delicate for truth, and Swift, with all his penetration, 
allowed himself > be delighted with low flattery.’— 
Jounson. The habitual action is that which is done 
by the force of habit ; ‘We have all reason to believe 
that, amid numberless infirmities which attend hu- 
manity, what the great Judge will chiefly regard is 
the habitual prevailing turn of our heart and life.’-— 
Biair. 


COMMON, VULGAR, GRDINARY, MEAN. 


Common, in French commun, Latin communis, from 
con and munus the joint office or property of many, has 
regard to the multitude of objects; vulgar, in French 
vulgaire, Latin vulgaris, from vulgus the people, has 
regard to the number and quality of the persons; ordz- 
nary, in French ordinaire, Latin ordinarius, from ordo 
the order or regular practice, has regard to the repeti- 
tion or disposition of things; mean expresses the same 
as medium or moderate, froin which it is derived. 

Familiar use renders things common, vulgar, and 
ordinary ; but what is mean is so of itself; the com- 
mon, vulgar, and ordinary are therefore frequently, 
though not always, mean ; and on the contrary, what 
is mean is not always common, vulgar, or ordinary ; 
consequently, in the primitive sense of these words, the 
first three are not strictly synonymous with the last; 
monsters are common in Africa; vulgar reports are 
iittle to be relied on; it is an ordinary practice for men 
to make light of their word. 4 

Common is unlimited in. it8 application; it includes 
both vulgar and ordinary ; the latter are said in refer- 
ence to persons only, common with regard to persons or 
things: an opinion is either common or vulgar ; an 
employment is either common or ordinary : it was long 
a vulgarly received notion, that the sun turned round 
the earth: it is the ordinary pursuit of astronomers to 
observe the motions of the heavenly bodies: disputes 
on religion have rendered many facts vulgar or com- 
mon, Which were formerly known only to the learned ; 
on that account It is now become an oneeary ora 

1 


323 


common. practice for men & dispute about religion, 
and even to frame a new set of docirines for them 
selves. 

In the figurative sense, in which they convey the idea 
of low value, they are synonymous with mean ; what 
is to be seen, heard, or enjoyed by every body is com 
mon, and naturally of little value, since the worth of 
objects frequently depends upon their scarcity and the 
difficulty of obtaining them: ‘Men may change their 
climate, but they cannot their nature. -A man that 
goes out a fool cannot ride or sail himself into common 
sense..—App1son. What is peculiar to common people 
is vulgar, and consequently worse than common ; it is 
supposed to belong to those who are ignorant and de 
praved in taste as well as in morals; ‘The poet’s 
thought of directing Satan to the sun, which in the 
vulgar opinion of mankind, is the most conspicuous 
part of the creation, and the placing in it an angel, is a 
circumstance very finely contrived..—Appison. What 
is done and seen ordinarily may be done and seen 
easily ; it requires no abilities or mental acquirements: 
it has nothing striking in it, it excites no interest; ‘A 
very ordinary telescope shows us that a louse is itself 
a very lousy creature.—Appison. What is mean is 
even below that which is ordinary; there is something 
defective in it; 

Under his forming hands a creature grew, 

Manlike, but diff’rent sex, so lovely fair, 

That what seem’d fair in all the world seem’d now 

Mean, or in her sumin’d up.—M1.Ton, 


Common is opposed to rare and refined; vulgar to 
polite and cultivated ; ordinary to the distinguished ; 
mean to the noble: acommon mind busies itself with 
common objects; vulgar habits are easily contracted 
from a slight intercourse with vulgar people; an ordi 
nary person is seldom associated with elevation of 
character ; and a mean appearance is a certain mark 
of a degraded condition, if not of a degraded mind 


COMMONLY, GENERALLY, FREQUENTLY, 
USUALLY. 


Commonly, in the form of common (v. Commony ; 
generally, from general, and the Latin genus the kind, 
respects a whole body in distinction from an individual ; 
frequently, from frequent, in French frequent, Latin 
fSrequens, from the old Latin frago, in Greek ¢pdya 
and ¢payvtpe to go or turn about, signifies properly a 
crowding; usually, from usual and use, signifies ac 
cording to wse or custom. 

What is commonly done is an action common to all: 
‘Tt is commonly observed among soldiers and seamen 
that though there is much kindness, there is little grief.’ 
--Jounson. What is generally done is the action of 
the greatest part: ‘It is generally not so much the 
desire of men, sunk into depravity, to deceive the 
world, as themselves.’—Jounson. What is frequently 
done is either the action,of many, or an action many 
times repeated by the same person ; ‘It is too frequently 
the pride of students to despise those amusements and 
recreations which give to the rest of mankind strength 
of limbs and cheerfulness of heart.—JoHnson. What 
is usually done is done regularly by one or many ; 
‘The inefficacy of advice is usually the fault of the 
counsellor.’ JOHNSON. 

Commonly is opposed to rarely, generally and fre- 
quently to occasionally or seldom; usually to casually ; 
men commonly judge of others by themselves; those 
who judge by the mere exteriour are generally deceiv- 
ed; but notwithstanding every precaution, one is fre- 
quently exposed to gross frauds; a man of business 
usually repairs to his counting-house every day at 
certain hour. 


GENERAL, UNIVERSAL. 


The general is to the universal what the part is to 
the whole. What is general includes the greater part 
or number; what is wniversal includes every indivi 
dual or part. The general rule admits of many ex 
ceptions ; the universal rule admits of none. Human 
government has the general good for its object: the 
government of Providence is directed to universal 
good. General is opposed to particular, and univer- 
sal to individual. A scientifick writer will not content 
himself with general remarks, when he has it in his 


324 


power to enter into pafticulars ; the universal com- 
plaint which we hear against men for their pride, shows 
that in every individual it exists to a greater or less de- 
gree. It isa general opinion that women are not qua- 
lified for scientifick pursuits; but Madame Dacier, 
Mrs. Carter, and many female writers, form exceptions, 
no less honourable to their whole sex, than to them- 
selves in particular: it is a wnzversal principle, that 
children ought to honour their parents; the intention 
of the Creator in this respect is manifested in such a 
variety of forms as to admit of no question. General 
philosophy considers the properties common to all 
hodies, and regards the distinct properties of particular 
bodies, only inasmuch as they confirm abstract ge- 
neral views. Universal philosophy depends on wni- 
versal science or Knowledge, which belongs only to the 
infinite mind of the Creator. General grammar em- 
braces in it all principles that are supposed to be ap- 
plicable to all languages: wntversal grammar isa thing 
scarcely attainable by the stretch of human power. 
What man can becomeso thoroughly acquainted with 
all existing languages, as to reduce all their particular 
idioms to any system ? 


USAGE, CUSTOM, PRESCRIPTION. 


The usage’ is what one has been long used to do; 
custom (v. Custom) is what one generally does; pre- 
scription is what one is prescribed todo. The usage 
acquires force and sanction by dint of time; ‘ With 
the national assembly of France, possession is nothing, 
law and usage are nothing..—Burxe. The custom 
acquires sanction by the frequency of its being done or 
the numbers doing it; 


For since the time of Saturn’s holy reign, 
His hospitable customs we retain.—DRYDEN. 


The prescription acquires force by the authority which 
prescribes it, namely, the universal consent of man- 
kind; ‘If in any case the shackles of prescription 
could be wholly shaken off, on what occasion should 
it be expected but in the selection of lawful pleasure ? 
—-Jounson. Hence it arises that customs vary in 
every age, but that usage and prescription supply the 
place of written law. 


POSSIBLE, PRACTICABLE, PRACTICAL. 


Possible, frora the Latin posswm to be able, signifies 
properly to be able to be done: practicable, from prac- 
tice (v. To exercise) signifies to be able to be put in 
practice: hence the difference between possible and 
practicable is the same as between doing once, or doing 
asarule. There are many things possible which can- 
not be called practicable, but what is practicable must 
in its nature be possible. 'The possible depends solely 
on the power of the agent; ‘How can we, without 
supposing ourselves under the constant care of a Su- 
preme Being, give any possible account for that nice 
proportion which we find in every great city between 
the deaths and births of its inhabitants ?”7—Appison. 
The practicable depends on circumstances; ‘He who 
would aim at practicable things should turn upon 
allaying our pain, rather than promoting our sorrow.’— 
Sreeie. A child cannot say how much it is possible 
for him to learn until he has tried. Schemes have 
sometimes every thing to recommend them to notice, 
but that which is of the first importance, namely, their 
practicability, 

The practicable is that which may or can be prac- 
tised: the practical is that which is to be practised. 
the former therefore applies to that which men devise 
to carry into practice ; the latter to that which they 
have to practise. projectors ought to consider what is 
practicable; divines and moralists have to consider 
what is practical. The practicab e is opposed to the 
impracticable ; the practical to the theoretic or specu- 
lative; ‘ Practical cunning shows itself in political 
matters.” -Souru. 


MAY, CAN 
May is in German mégen tv wish, Greek paw to 
desire, from the connexion betws*n wishing and com- 
plying with a wish; can dergses possibility, may 
liberty and probability: he whe 2%as sound limbs can 
walk; but he may not walk ig ices which are p-o- 
hibited ; 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


For who can match Achilles? he who can 

Must yet be more than hero, more than man. 
Pops. 

Thou canst not call him from the Stygian shore, 

But thou, ales! mayst live to suffer more.—Popk. 


AIM, OBJECT, END. 


Aim is in all probability a variation of home, in ole 
Germain haim. It is the home which the marksman 
wishes to reach; it is the thing aimed at; the part 
cular point to which one’s efforts are directed ; which 
is had always in view, and to the attainment of which 
every thing is made to bend; object, from the Latin 
objectus, participle of ob and jacio to lie in the way, is 
more vague; it signifies the thing that lies before us; 
we pursue it by taking the necessary means to obtain 
it; it becomes the fruit of our labour; end in the im- 
proper sense of end is still more general, signifying the 
thing that ends one’s wishes and endeavours ; it is the 
result not only of action, but of combined action; it is 
the consummation of a scheme; we must take the 
proper measures to arrive at it. Leslie 

It is the aim of every good Christian to live in 
peace; ‘Cunning has only private, selfish aims, and 
sticks at nothing which may make them succeed.’— 
Appison. Itis a mark of dulness or folly to act with- 
out an object ; ‘We should sufficiently weigh the ob- 
jects of our hope, whether they be such as we may 
reasonably expect froin them what we propose in their 
fruition.,—Appison. Every scheme is likely to fail, in 
which the means are not adequate to the end; ‘* Liberty 
and truth are not in themselves desirable, but only as 
they relate to a farther end.’—BuRxKELEY. 

We have an aim; we propose to ourselves an ob 
ject; we look to the end. An aim is attainable, an 
object worthy, an end important. 


TO AIM, POINT, LEVEL. 


Aim, signifying to take aim (v. Aim), is to direct 
one’s view towards a point; point, from the noun 
point, signifies to. direct the point to any thing ; lesel, 
from the adjective level, signifies to put one thing on 4 
level with another. 

Aim expresses more than the other two words, inas 
much as it denotes a direction toWards some minute 
point in an object, and the others imply direction to- 
wards the whole objects themselves. We aim at a 
bird; we point a cannon against a wall; we level a 
cannon at a wall. Pointing is of course used with 
most propriety in reference to instruments that have 
points; it is likewise a less decisive action than either 
aiming or levelling. Astick or a finger may be pointed 
at a person, merely out of derision; but a blow is 
levelled or aimed with an express intent of committing 
an act of violence ; 


Their heads from aiming blows they bear afar, 
With clashing gauntlets then provoke the war. 
DryDEN 

He calls on Bacchus, and propounds the prize: 

The groom his fellow-groom at buts defies, 

And bends his bow, and levels with his eyes. 

4 DRYDEN. 

The same analogy is kept up in their figurative ap- 
plication. 

The shafts of ridicule are but too often aimed with 
little effect against the follies of fashion; ‘ Another 
kind there is, which although we desire for itself, aa 
health and virtue, and knowledge, nevertheless they 
are not the last mark whereat we aim, but have their 
further end whereunto they are referred..—Hooxer 
Remarks which seem merely to point at others, with 
out being expressly addressed to them, have always a 
bad tendency ; 


The story slily points at you—CumMBERLAND. 


It has hitherto been the fate of infidels to level their 
battery of sneers, declamation, and sophistry against 
the Christian religion pnly to strengthen the convic- 
tion of its sublime truihs in the minds of mankind at 
jarge ; ‘In contemplation of which verity, St. Gregory 
Nazianzen, observing the declension from it, introduced 
in his times by the ambition of somie prelates, did vent 
that famous exclamation, ‘‘O that there were not af 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


all any presidency, or aay preference in place and 
tyrannical enjoyment of prerogatives!’ which earnest 
wish he surely did not mean to level against the ordi- 
nance of God, but against that which lately began to 
be intruded by men.’—Barrow. 


TO AIM, ASPIRE. 


Aum (v. Aim) includes efforts as well as views, in 
obtaining an object; aspire, from as or ad to or after 
and spiro to breathe, comprehends views, wishes, and 
hopes to obtain an object. 

We aim at a certain proposed point, by endeavouring 
to gain it; ‘Whether zeal or moderation be the point 
we aim at, let us keep fire out of the one, and frost out 
of the other..—Appison. Weaspire after that which 
we think ourselves entitled to, and flatter ourselves 
with gaining ; ‘The study of those who in the time of 
Shakspeare aspzred to plebeian Jearning was laid upon 
adventures, giants, dragons, and enchantments.’— 
JOHNSON. 

Many men aim at riches and honour; 


Lo, here the world is bliss; so here the end 

To which all men do azm, rich to be made, 

Such grace now to be happy is before thee laid. 
SPENSER. 


itis the lot of but few to aspire to a throne; 
Aspiring to be gods, if angels fell, 
vispiring 1o be angels, men rebel.—Popz. 

We aim at what is attainable by ordinary efforts; 
we aspire after what is great and unusual. An emu- 
lous youth aims at acquiring the esteem of his teach- 
ers; he aspires to excel all his competitors in literary 
attainments. 


TENDENCY, DRIFT, SCOPE, AIM. 


Tendency, from to tend, denotes the property of tend- 
ing towards a certain point, which is the characteristick 
of all these words, but this is applied only to things; 
and drift, from the verb to drive; scope, from the 
Greek oxéxtouat to look; and atm, from the verb to 
aim (v. Aim) ; all characterize the thoughts of a per- 
son looking forward into futurity, and directing his 
actions to a certain point. Hence we speak of the 
tendency of certain principles or practices as being per- 
nicious ; the drift of a person’s discourse ; the scope 
which he gives himself either in, treating of a subject, 
or in laying down a plan; or a person’s aim to excel, 
or atm to supplant another, andthe like. The tendency 
of most writings for the last-five-and twenty years has 
been to unhinge the minds of men; ‘ It isno wonder if 
a great deal of knowledge, which is not capable of 
making a man wise, has a natural tendency to make 
him vain and arrogant.,—Appison. Where a person 
wants the services of another, whom he dares not 
openly solicit, he will discover his wishes by the drift 
of his discourse ; 


This said, the whole audience soon found out his d7-ift, 
The convention was summoned in favour of Swift. 
SwIrtT. 


A man of a comprehensive mind will allow himself full 
scope in digesting his plans for every alteration which 
circumstances may require when they come to be de- 
veloped ; ‘ Merit in every rank has the freest scope (in 
England).’—Buarr. Our desires will naturally give a 
cast to all our aims; and so long as they are but in- 
nocent, they are necessary to give a proper stimulus to 
exertion ; 


Each nobler aim, repress’d by long control, 
Now sinks at last or feebly mans the soul. 
GOLDSMITH. 


_——— 


OBJECT, SUBJECT. 


Object, in Latin objectus, participle of objicio to lie 
in the way, signifies the thing that lies in one’s way ; 
subject, in Latin subjectus, participle of subjicio to lie 
ander, signifies the thing forming the groundwork. 

The object puts itself forward ; the subject is in the 
back-ground: we notice the object ; we observe or re- 
flect on the subject : objects are sensible; the subject 
is altogether intellectual; the eye, the ear, and all the 
senses, are occupied with the surrounding objects - 


the memory, the judgement, and the imagination are | 


32 


supplied with subjects suitable te the nature of the 
operations. 

When object is taken for that which is intellectual, 
it retains a similar signification; it is the thing that 
presents itself to the mind; it is seen by the mind’s 
eye: the subject, on the contrary, is that which must 
be sought for, and when found it engages the mental 
powers: hence we say an odject of consideration, an 
object of delight, an object of concern; a subject of 
reflection, a subject of mature deliberation, the subject 
of a poem, the subject of grief, of lamentation, and 
the like. When the mind becomes distracted by too 
great a multiplicity of objects, it can fix itself on no 
one individual object with sufficient steadiness to take 
a survey of it; in like manner, if a child have too many 
objects set before it, for the exercise of its powers, it 
will acquire a familiarity with none; 


He whose sublime pursuit is God and truth, 
Burns like some absent and impatient youth, 
To join the object of his warm desires,—JENYNS. 


Religion and politicks are interesting, but delicate subd- 


jects of discussion; ‘The hymns and odes (of the in- 


spired writers) excel those delivered dcwn to us by the 
Greeks and Romans, in the poetry as much as in the 
subject.’ — ADDISON. 


MATTER, MATERIALS, SUBJECT. 


Matter and materials are both derived from the same 
source, namely, the Latin materia, which comes in all 
probability from mater, because matter, from which 
every thing is made, acts in the production of bodies 
like a mother; subject, in Latin subjectum, participle 
of subjicio to lie, signifies the thing lying under and 
forming the foundation. 

Matter in the physical application is taken for all 
that composes the sensible world in distinction from 
that which is spiritual, or discernible only by the think- 
ing faculty; hence matter is always opposed to mind. 

In regard to materials it is taken in an indivisible 
as well as a general sense ; the whole universe is said 
to be composed of matter, though not of materials ; 
‘It seems probable to me, that God in the beginning 
formed matter in solid, hard, impenetrable, moveable 
particles.--Newton. On the other hand, materials 
consist of those particular parts of matter which serve 
for the artificial production of objects; ‘ The materials 
of that building very fortunately ranged themselves 
into that delicate order that it must be very great 
chance that parts them.’—TiLLoTson. WVatter is said 
of those things which are the natural parts of the uni- 
verse: a house, a table, and a chair consist of mate- 
rials, because they are works of art; but a plant, a 
tree, an animal body, consist of matter, because they 
are the productions of nature. 

The distinction of these terms in their moral appli- 
cation is very similar: the matter which composes a 
moral discourse is what emanates from the author. 
The materials are those with which one is furnished 
by others. The style of some writers is so indifferent 
that they disgrace the matter by the manner ; 


Son of God, Saviour cf men! thy name 
Shall be the copious matter of my song.—MILTon. 


Periodical writers are furnished with materials for 
their productions out of the daily occurrences in the 
political and moral world ; ‘Simple ideas, the mate- 
rials of all our knowledge, are suggested to the mind 
only by sensation and reflection.’—Locke. ‘The prin- 
cipal materials of our comfert or uneasiness lie within 
ourselves.’—Buair. Writers of dictionaries endea 
vour to compress as much matter as possible into a 
small space; they draw their materials from other 
writers. 

Matter seems to bear the same relation to subject 
as the whole does to any particular part, as 1t respects 
moral objects: the swlject is the groundwork of the 
matter; the matter is that which flows ovt of tne 
subject ; the matter is that which we get by the force 
of invention ; the subject is that which offers itself to 
notice: many persons may therefore have a subject 
who have no matter, that is, nothing in their own 
minds which they can offer by way of illustrating this 
subject; but it is not possible to have matter without 
a subject ; hence the word matter is taken tor the sub- 
stance, and for that which is substantial 5 the swbject 
is taken for that which engages the attention; we 


326 


speak of a subject of conversation and matter for de- 
liberation ; a subject of inquiry, a matter of curiosity. 
Nations in a barbaraus state afford but little matter 
worthy to be recorded in history ; 


Whence tumbled headlong from the height of life, 


They furnish matter for the tragick muse. 
THOMSON. 


People who live a secluded life and ina contracted 
sphere have but few subjects to occupy their attention, 

Love hath such a strong virtual force that when it 
‘asteneth on a pleasing subject it sets the imagination 
at a strange fit of working. —HoweEL.. 


TO ALLUDE, REFER, HINT, SUGGEST. 


Allude, in Latin alludo, is compounded of al.or ad 
and ludo to sport, that is, to say any thing in a sportive 
or cursory manner ; refer, in Latin refero, signifies to 
bring back, that is, to bring back a person’s recollec- 
tion to any subject by an indirect mention of it; hint 
may very probably be changed from hind or behind, in 
German hinten, signifying to convey from behind, or 
in an obscure manner; suggest, in Latin suggestus, 
participle of suggero, is compounded of sub and gero 
to bring under or near, and signifies to bring forward 
in an indirect or casual manner. 

To allude is not so direct as to refer, but it is more 
clear and positive than either hint or suggest. 

We allude to a circumstance by introducing some- 
thing collaterally allied to it; we refer to an event by 
expressly introducing it into one’s discourse ; we hint 
at a person’s intentions by darkly insinuating what 
may possibly happen; we suggest an idea by some 
poetical expressions relative to it. 

There are frequent allusions in the Bible to the 
customs and manners of the East; ‘I need not inform 
my reader that the author of Hudibras alludes to this 
strange quality in that cold climate, when, speaking of 
abstracted notions clothed in a visible shape, he adds 
that apt simile, ‘‘ Like words congeal’d in northern 
air.” ’—Appison. It is necessary to refer to certain 
passages of a work when we do not expressly copy 
them ; ‘ Those causes the divine historian refers us to, 
and not to any productions out of nothing.’.—BurRNET. 
It is mostly better in conversation to be entirely silent 
upon a subject, than to hint at what cannot be entirely 
explained ; ‘It is hinted that Augustus had in mind 
to restore the commonwealth.’—CumMBERLAND. Many 
improvements have owed their origin to some ideas 
casually suggested in the course of conversation ; ‘ This 
image of misery, in the punishment of Tantalus, was 
perhaps originally suggested to some poet by the con- 
duct of his patron.’—JoHNSON. 

Allude and refer are always said with regard to 
things that have positively happened, and mostly such 
as are indifferent; hint and suggest have mostly a 
personal relation to things that are precarious. ‘Ihe 
whole drift of a discourse is sometimes unintelligible 
for want of knowing what is alluded to; although 
many persons and incidents are referred to with their 
proper names and dates. It is the part of the slan- 
derer to hint at things discreditable to another, when 
he does not dare to speak openly ; and to suggest doubts 
of his veracity which he cannot positively charge. 


TO HINT, SUGGEST, INTIMATE, INSINUATE. 


Hint, v. To allude; suggest, v. To allude ; to inti- 
mate is to make one intimate, or specially acquainted 
with, to communicate one’s most inward thoughts; 
insinuate, from the Latin sinus the bosom, is to intro- 
duce genily into the mind of another. 

All these terms denote indirect expressions of what 
passes in one’s own mind. We hiné at a thing from 
fear and uncertainty ; we suggest a thing from pru- 
dence and modesty ; we intimate a thing from inde- 
cision; a thing is znstnwated from artifice. A person 
who wants to get at the certain knowledge of any cir- 
cumstance fints at it frequently in the presence of 
those who can give him the information; a man who 
will not offend others by an assumption of superiour 
wisdom, suggests his ideas on a subject instead of 
setting them forth with confidence; when a person’s 
mind is not made up on any future action, he only zn- 
timates what may be done; he who has any thing 
offensive to communicate to another, will choose to 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


insinuate it, rather than declare it in express terer . 
Hints are thrown out; they are frequently characte- 
ized as broken ; 


Willing to wound, and yet afraid to strike, 
Just hint a fault, and hesitate dislike.—Pore 


Suggestions are offered; they are frequently termed 
idle or ill-grounded ; 


We must suggest to the people, in what hatred 
He still hath held them.—SHAKsS?YEARE 


Intimations are given, and are either sligit or broad ; 


°T is Heav’n itself that points out an hereafter, 
And intimates eternity to man.—ADDISON. 


Insinuations are thrown out; they are commonly de- 
signated as slanderous, malignant, and the like; ‘Let 
it not be thought that what is here said znsinwates any 
thing to the discredit of Greck and Latin criticism.’— 
W aRBURTON. 

T'o hint is taken either in a bad or an indifferent 
sense ; it is commonly resorted to by tale-bearers, mis- 
chief-makers, and all who want to ialk of more than 
they know: it is raiely necessary to have recourse to 
hints in lieu of pesitive inquiries and declarations, un- 
less the term be used in regard to matters of science 
or morals, when it designates loose thoughts, casually 
offered, in distinction from those which are systema- 
tized and formally presented: upon this ground, a dis- 
tinguished fernale writer of the present day modestly 
entitles er book, ‘Hints towards forming the Cha- 
racter cf a Young Princess.’ .To suggest is oftener 
used in the good than the bad sense: while one sug- 
gests doubts, queries, difficulties, or improvements in 
matters of opinion, it is truly laudable, particularly for 
young persons; but to suggest any thing to the dis- 
advantage of another is even worse than to speak ill 
of him openly, for it bespeaks cowardice as well as ill- 
nature. To intimate is taken either in a good or an 
indifferent sense; it commonly passes between rela- 
tives or persons closely connected, in the communica 
tion of their half-formed intentions or of doubtful in 
telligence; but to insinuate is always taken in a bad 
sense; it is the resource of an artful and malignant 
enemy to wound the reputation of another, whom he 
does not dare openly to accuse. A person is said to 
take a hint, to follow a suggestion, to receive an énti- 
mation, to disregard an insznuation. 


TO REFER, RELATE, RESPECT, REGARD. 


Refer, from the Latin re and fero, signifies literally 
to bring back; and relate, from the participle relatus 
of the same verb, signifies brought back: the former 
is, therefore, transitive, and the latter intransitive. . 
One refers a person to a thing; one thing refers, that 
is, refers a person, to another thing: one thing relates, 
that is, related, to another. To refer is an arbitrary 
act, it depends upon the will of an individual; we may 
refer a person to any part of a volume, or to any work 
we please: to relate is a conditional act, it depends on 
the nature of things; nothing relates to another with- 
out some point of accordance between the two; or- 
thography relates to grammar, that is, by being a part 
of the grammatical science. Hence it arises that refer, 
when employed for things, is commonly said of cir- 
cumstances that earry the memory to events or cir- 
cumstances; relate is said of things that have a na- 
tural connexion: the religious festivals and ceremonies 
of the Roman Catholicks have all a reference to some 
events that happened in the early periods of Chris- 
tianity; ‘Our Saviour’s words (in his sermon on the 
mount) all refer to the Pharisees’ way of speaking.’— 
Sout. The notes and observations at the end of a 
book relate to what has been inserted in the text; 
‘ Homer artfully interweaves, in the several succeeding 
parts of his poem, an account of every thing material 
which relates to his princes.’—Anprson. 

Refer and relate carry us back to that which may 
be very distant ; but respect and regard turn our views 
to that which is near. The object of the actions of 
referring and relating is indirectly acted upon, and 
consequently stands in the oblique case; we refer to 
an object ; a thing relates to an object: but the object 
of the action respect and regard is directly acted upon, 
therefore it stands in the accusative or objective case: 
to respect or regard a thing, not to a thing. What 7re- 
spects comprehcnds in it more than what rdates. Ta 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


pevate is t0 respect; but to respect is not always to re- 


327 


wish to be observed to look, we take but a glance of 


fate; the former includes every species of affinity or | an object; 


accordance ; the latter only that which flows out of 
the properties and circumstances of things: when a 
number of objects are brought* together, which fitly 
associate, and properly relate the one to the other, they 
form a grand whole, as in the case of any scientifick 
work which is digested into a system; when all the 
incidental circumstances which respect either moral 
principles or moral conduct are properly weighed, they 
will enable one to form a just judgement, 

Respect is said of ybjects in general; regard mostly 
of that which enters into the feelings: laws respect 
the general welfare of the community ; ‘ Religion is a 
pleasure to the mind, as respects practice.—Souru. 
The due administration of the laws regards the hap- 
piness of the individual; ‘ What I have said regards 
only the vain part of the sex.’—ApDISON. 


TO REVERT, RETURN. 


Revert is the Latin, and return the English word ; 
the former is used however only in few cases, and the 
latter in general cases: they are allied to each other in 
the moral application; a speaker reverts to what has 
already passed on a preceding day ; he returns after‘a 
digression to the thread of his discourse: we may 
always revert to something different, though more or 
less connected with that which we are discussing ; we 
always return to that which we have left: we turn to 
something by reverting to it; we continue the same 
thing by returning to it; 

Whatever lies or legendary tales 

May taint my spotless deeds, the guilt, the shame, 

Will back revert on the inventor’s head. 
SHIRLEY. 


One day, the sou] supine with ease and fulness 
Revels secure, and fondly tells herself 
The hour of evil can return no more.—RoweE. 


TO GLANCE AT, ALLUDE TO. 


Glance, probably from the Teutonick glaentzen to 
shine, signifies to make a thing appear like a ray of 
light in an oblique direction: allude has the same 
general meaning as in the preceding article (v. To 
allude). 

These terms are nearly allied in the sense of indi- 
rectly referring to any object, either in written or 
verbal discourse: but glance,expresses a cursory and 
latent action; ailude, simply an indirect but undis- 
guised action: ill-natured satirists are perpetually 
giancing at the follies and infirmities of individuals ; 
‘Entering upon his discourse, Socrates says, he does 
not believe any of the most comick genius can censure 
him for talking upon such a subject (the immortality 
of the soul) at such a time (that of death). This pas- 
sage, I think, evidently glances upon Aristophanes, 
who writ a comedy on purpose to ridicule the dis- 
courses of that divine philosopher.’—Appison. The 
Scriptures are full of allustons to the manners and 
customs of the Easterns; ‘The author, in the whole 
course of his poem, has infinite allusions to places of 
Scriyture.—Appison. He who attempts to write an 
epitoine of universal history must take but a hasty 
glance at the most important events. 3 


GLIMPSE, GLANCE. 


The glimpse is the action of the object appearing to 
the eye; the glance is the action of the eye seeking 
the object: one catches a glimpse of an object ; one 
casts a glance at an object: the latter therefore is pro- 
perly the means for obtaining the former, which is the 
end: we get a glimpse by means of 2 glance. The 
glimpse is the hasty, imperfect, and sudden view 
which we get of an object: the glance is the hasty and 
imperfect view which we take of an object: the former 
may depend upon a variety of circumstances; the 
latter depends upon the will of the agent. We can 
seldom do more than get a glimpse of objects in a car- 
riage that is going with rapidity; ‘ Of the state with 
which practice has not acquainted us, we snatch a 
glimpse, we discern a point, and regulate the rest by 
passion and by faney.’~JoHNnson. When we do not 


Here passion first I felt, 
Commotion strange! In all enjoyments else 
Superiour unmov'd; here only weak 
Against the charm of beauty’s pow’rful glance. 
MILTON. 


TO INSINUATE, INGRATIATE. 


Insinuate (v. To hint) and ingratiate, from gratus 
grateful or acceptable, are employed to express the en 
deavour to gain favour; but they differ in the circum 
stances of the action. A person who insinuates adopts 
every art to steal into the good will of another; but 
he who ingratiates adopts unartificial means to con- 
ciliate good will. A person of insinuating manners 
Wins upon another imperceptibly, even so as to con- 
vert dislike into attachment; a person with ingra- 
tating manners procures good will by a permanent 
intercourse. Insinwate and ingratiate differ in the 
motive, as well as the mode, of the action: the motive 
is, in both cases, self-interest ; but the former is un- 
lawful, and the latter allowable. In proportion as the 
object to be attained by another’s favour is base, so is 
it necessary to have recourse to insinuation; ‘At the 
isle of Rhé he zxstnwated himself into the very good 
grace of the Duke of Buckingham.’—CLaRENnpon. 
While the object to be attained is that which may be 
avowed, ingratiating will serve the purpose; ‘My 
resolution was now to ingratiate myself with men 
whose reputation was established..—JoHnson. Low 
persons insinuate themselves into the favour of their 
superiours, in order to obtain an influence over them: 
it is commendable in a young person to wish to ingra- 
tiate himself with those who are entitled to his esteem 
and respect. 

Insinuate may be used in the improper sense for 
unconscious agents; ingratiate is always the act of a 
conscious agent. Water will znsinwate itself into every 
body that is in the smallest degree porous; ‘ The same 
character of despotism insinuated itself into every 
court of Europe.’—Burxke. There are few persons 
of so much apathy, that it may not be possible, one 
way or another, to ingratiate one’s self into their 
favour. 


INSINUATION, REFLECTION. 


These both imply personal remarks, or such remarks 
as are directed towards an individual; but the former 
is less direct and more covert than the latter. The 
insinuation always deals in half words ; the reflection 
is commonly open. They are both levelled at the in- 
dividual with no good intent: but the znsinuation is 
general, and may be employed to convey any unfa- 
vourable sentiment; the reflection is particular, and 
commonly passes between intimates, and persons in 
close connexion. : 

The insinuation respects the honour, the moral cha- 
racter, or the intellectual worth, of the object; ‘The 
prejudiced admirers of the ancients are very angry at 
the least instnwation that they had any idea of our bar- 
barous tragi-comedy.’—Twinine. The reflection re- 
spects the particular conduct or feelings of an indi- 
vidual towards another; ‘The ill-natured man gives 
ulterance to reflections which a good-natured man 
stifles..—Appison. Envious people throw out insi- 
nuations to the disparagement of others, whose merits 
they dare not openly question; when friends quarrel, 
they deal largely in reffections on the past. 


PERTINENT, RELEVANT. 


Pertinent, from the Latin pertinco to pertain or ap- 
pertain, signifies belonging or relating to any subject in 
hand; relevant, from the Latin relevo to relieve or. as- 
sist, signifies coming in aid or support of a subject. 
Remarks are pertinent when they bear on any ques- 
tion, and, on the other hand, they are zmpertinent 
when they have nothing to do with the question ; 
‘ Here I shall seem a little to digress, but you will by 
and-by find it pertinent..—Bacon. Matter in a dis 
course. and arguments are relevant, when they serve 
to strengthen a cause, and, on the other hand, they are 
irrelevant when they in no wise answer this end; 
‘Having showed you that we differ about the meaning 
of Scripture, and are like to do so, certainly there 


328 


ought to be a rule or a judge between us, to determine 
our differences, or at least to make our probations 
and arguments relevant.’—K. Cuaruss (Letter to 4. 
Henderson). What is relevant is therefore, properly 
speaking, that which is pertinent, so as to aid a cause. 


TO LABOUR, TAKE PAINS OR TROUBLE, 
USE ENDEAVOUR. 


Labour, in Latin labor, comes, in all probability, 
from Jado to falter or faint, because labour causes faint- 
ness ; to take pains is to expose oneself to the pains; 
and to take the trouble is to impose the trouble ; endea- 
wour, v. To endeavour. 

The first three terms suppose the necessity for a 
painful exertion: but to labour (v. Work) expresses 
more than to take pains, and this more than to take 
trouble ; to use endeavour excludes every idea of pain 
or inconvenience: great difficulties must be conquered ; 
great perfection or correctness requires pains ; a con- 
cern to please will give trouble; but we use endea- 
vours wherever any object is to be obtained, or any 
duty to be performed. To Jadour is either a corporeal 
or a mental action; to take pains is principally an 
effort of the mind or the attention; to take trouble is 
an effort either of the body or mind: a faithful minis- 
ter of the Gospel Zabours to instil Christian principles 
into the minds of his audience, and to heal all the 
breaches which the angry passions make between 
them: when achild is properly sensible of the value 
of improvement, he will take the utmost pains to pro- 
fit by the instruction of the master: he who is too in- 
dolent to take the trouble to make his wishes known 
to those who would comply with them, cannot expect 
others to trouble themselves with inquiring into their 
necessities: a good name is of such value to every 
man that he ought to use his best endeavours to pre- 
serve it unblemished ; ‘ They (the Jews) were fain to 
take pains to rid themselves of their happiness; and 
it cost them labour and violence to become miserable.’ 
—Souru. ‘A good conscience hath always enough to 
reward itself, though the success fall not out according 
to the merit of the endeavour.’-—Howe.. 


WORK, LABOUR, TOIL, DRUDGERY, TASK. 
Work, in Saxon weorc, Greek Zpyov, comes doubtless 


from the Hebrew 35 to weave; labour, in Latin 
labor, signifies the same as in the preceding article (v. 
To labour) ; toil is probably connected with to till ; 
drudgery is connected with drag, signifying painful 
labour. 

Work is the general term, as including that which 
calls for the exertion of our strength: Zabour differs 
from it in the degree of exertion required; it is hard 
work; toil expresses a still higher degree of painful 
exertion: drudgery implies a mean and degrading 
work ; 

The hireling thus 
With labour drudges out the painful day.—Rowe. 


“Every member of society must work for his support, 
if he is not in independent circumstances: the poor 
are obliged to labour for their daily subsistence; some 
are compelled to tozd incessantly for the pittance which 
they earn: drudgery falls to the lot of those who are 
the lowest in society. A man wishes to complete his 
work ; he is desirous of resting from his labour ; he 
seeks for a respite from his toil; he submits to 
drudgery. 
Work is more or less voluntary, but task, in French 
tasche, and Italian tassa, is a work imposed by others ; 
Relieves me from my task of servile toil, 
Daily in the common prison else enjoined me. 
Miron. 
In its improper application it may be taken in a good 
sense for a work which one has imposed on oneself; 
No happier task these faded eyes pursue, 
To read and weep is all they now can do.—Popn. 


WORK, OPERATION. 


Work, which is derived from the Hebrew, as in the 
preceding article, denotes either the act of working, 
or the result of that act: in both cases it is a simple 
exertion of power; as when speaking of the works of 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


creation or of art and mechanical skill; as the work 
of the artist and artisan; 


O, fairest of creation! last and best 

Of all God’s works! crea*ure, in whom excels 
Whatever can to sight 01 thought be form’d, 
Holy, divine, good, amiable, or sweet, 

How art thou lost !—Mi.ron. 


Nor was the work impair’d by storms alone, 
But felt the approaches of too warm a sun —Porg 


Operation (v. Action) denotes the act of operating 
and is a combined exertion, being the effect of method 
and skill; as in the case of the surgeon, who performs 
an operation; or a natural process, as the operations 
of thought, or the operation of vegetation; ‘ Specu- 
lative painting, without the assistance of manual ope- 
ration, can never attain to perfection, but slothfully 
languishes; for it was not with his tongue that Apelles 
performed his noble works. —Drypren. ‘There are in 
men operations natural, rational, supernatural, some 
politick, some finally ecclesiastick.’-—Hooxkrr. 

Between the verbs to work and operate there is even 
a nicer distinction, both being used in the sense of a 
process, physical, moral, or intellectual: but work 
always conveys the idea of the exertion of power, and 
operate that of a gradual course of action: so water 
works its way under ground; things operate on the 
mind by various ways; 


Some deadly draught, some enemy to life, 
Boils in my bowels, and works out my soul. 
DrypbEn 


Sometimes a passion seems to operate, 
Almost im contradiction to itself—Sairiry. 


SERVANT, DOMESTICK, MENIAL, DRUDGE. 


In the term servant is included the idea of the ser- 
vice performed; ‘A servant dwells remote from al} 
knowledge of his lord’s purposes.’—Souru. In the 
term domestick, from domus a house, is included the 
idea of one belonging to the house or family ; ‘ Monte- 
zuma was attended by his own domesticks, and served 
with his usual state.—Roserrson. In the word me- 
nial, from manus the hand, is included the idea of 
labour ; ‘Some were his (King Charles’) own menias 
servants, and ate bread at his table before they lifted 
up their heel against him.’—Sourr. The term drudge 
includes drudgery ; ‘He who will be vastly rich must 
resolve to be a drudge all his days.—Sourn. We 
hire a servant at a certain rate, and for a particular 
service ; we are attached, to our domesticks according 
to their assiduity and attention to our wishes; we 
employ as a mental one who is unfit for a higher em 
ployment ; and a drudge in any labour, however hard 
and disagreeable. 


SERVITUDE, SLAVERY, BONDAGE. 


Servitude expresses less than slavery, and this lesa 
than bondage. 

Servitude, from servio, conveys simply the idea of 
performing a service, without specifying the principle 
upon which it is performed. Among the Romans. 
servus signified a slave, because all who served were 
literally slaves, the power over the person being almost 
unlimited. ‘The mild influence of Christianity has 
corrected men’s notions with regard to their rights, as 
well as their duties, and established servitude on the 
just principle of a mutual compact, without any infrac- 
tion on that most precious of all human gifts, personal 
liberty ; ‘It is fit and necessary that some persons in 
the world should be in love with a splendid servitude? 
—Sourns. Slavery, which marks a condition incom- 
patible with the existence of this invaluable endow- 
ment, is a term odious to the Christian ear; it had its 
origin in the grossest state of society: the word being 
derived from the German slave, or Sclavonians, a 
fierce and intrepid people, who made a long stand 
against the Germans, and, being at last defeated, were 
made slaves. Slavery, therefore, includes not only 
servitude, but also the odious circumstance of the 
entire subjection of one individual to another; a con 
dition which deprives him of every privilege belonging 
to a free agent, and a rational creature ; and which 
forcibly bends the will and affections of the one to the 
humour of the other, and converts a thinking being 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


into a mere senseless tool in the hands of its owner. 
Slavery unfortunately remains, though barbarism has 
ceased. Christianity has taught men their true end 
and destination; but it has not yet been able to ex- 
tinguish that inordinate love of dominion, which is an 
innate propensity in the human breast. ‘There are 
those who take the name of Christians, and yet cling 
to the practice of making their fellow-creatures an 
article of commerce. Some delude themselves with 
the idea that they can ameliorate the condition of those 
over whom they have usurped this unlicensed power ; 
but they forget that he who begins to be a slave ceases 
to be a man; that slavery is the extinction of our nobler 
part; and the abuse even of that part in us which we 
have in common with the brutes; ‘ So different are the 
geniuses which are formed under Turkish slavery and 
Grecian liberty.,— ADDISON. : 

Bondage, from to bind, denotes the state of being 
bound, that is, slavery in its most aggravated form, in 
which, to the loss of personal liberty, is added cruel 
treatment; the term is seldom applied in its proper 
sense to any persons but the Israelites in Egypt. Ina 
figurative sense, we speak of being a slave to our pas- 
sions, and under the bondage of sin, in which cases the 
terms preserve precisely the same distinction ; 


Our cage 
We make a choir, as doth the prison’d bird, 
And sing our bondage freely. —-SHAKSPEARE. 


The same distinction exists between the epithets 
servile and slavish, which are employed only in the 
moral application. He who is servile has the mean 
character of a servant, but he is still a free agent ; but 
he who is slavish is bound and fettered in every possi- 
bie form ; 


That servile path thou nobly dost decline, 

Of tracing word by word, and line by line. 
hose are the labour’d births of slavish brains, 
Not the effect of poetry but pains.—-DENHAM. 


PRODUCTION, PERFORMANCE, WORK. 


When we speak of any thing as resulting from any 
specified operation, we term it a production; as the 
production of an author, signifying what he has pro- 
duced by the effort of his mind: Homer’s Iliad is 
esteemed as one of the finest productions of the ima- 
gination. When we speak of any thing as executed 
or performed by some person we term it a perform- 
ance, as a drawing or a painting is denominated the 
performance of a particular artist. The term produc- 
tion cannot be empioyed without specifying or referring 
to the source from which it is produced, or the means 
by which it is produced,—-as the production of art, the 
production of the inventive faculty, the production of 
the mind, &c.; 


Nature, in her productions slow, aspires 
By just degrees to reach perfection’s height. 
SOMERVILLE. 


A performance cannot be spoken of without referring 
to the individual by whom it has been performed ; 
hence we speak of this or that person’s performance ; 
‘The performances of Pope were burnt by those whom 
he had, perhaps, selected as most likely to publish 
them.’—Jounson. When we wish to specify any 
thing that results from work or labour, it is termed a 
work: in this manner we either speak of the work of 
one’s hands, or a work of the imagination, a work of 
time, a work of magnitude ; ‘ Yet there are some works 
which the author must consign unpublished to poste- 
rity”—Jonnson. The production results from a com- 
plicated operation ; the performance consists of simple 
action ; the work springs from active exertion: Shak- 
speare’s plays are termed productions, as they respect 
the source from which they came, namely, his genius; 
they might be called his performances, as far as 
respected the performance or completion of some task 
or specifick undertaking; they would be called his 
works, as far as respected the labour which he bestow- 
ed upon them. The composition of a book is properly 
a production, when it is original matter; the sketching 
of a landscape, or drawing a plan, is a performance ; 
the compilation of a history is a work. 


328 
ESSAY, TREATISE, TRACT, DISSERTATION, 


All these words are employed by authors to charac- 
terize compositions varying in their form and contents 
Essay, which signifies a trial or attempt (v. .2ttempt) 
is here used to designate in a specifick manner an au- 
thor’s attempt to illustrate any point. It is most com- 
monly applied to small detached pieces, which contain 
only the general thoughts of a writer on any given 
subject, and afford room for amplification into details ; 
although by Locke in his ‘“ Essay ou the Understand- 
ing,” Beattie in his “‘ Essay on Truth,’ and other 
authors, it is modestly used for their connected and 
finished endeavours to elucidate a doctrine: ‘ It is my 
frequent practice to visit places of resort in this town, 
to observe what reception my works meet with in the 
world; it being a privilege asserted by Monsieur Mon- 
taigne and others, of vain-glorious memory, that we 
writers of essays may talk of ourselves.’—STrexeLE. 

A treatise is more systematick than an essay; it 
treats on the subject in a methodical form, and conveys 
the idea of something laboured, scientifick, and in- 
structive; ‘The very title of a moral treatise has 
something in it austere and shocking to the careless 
and inconsiderate.’—Appison. A tract is only a spe- 
cies of small treatise, drawn up upon particular occa 
sions, and published in a separate form. ‘They are 
both derived from the Latin tractus, participle of traho 
to draw, manage, or handle; ‘I desire my reader to 
consider every particular paper or discourse as a dis- 
tinct tract by itself..—Appison. Dissertation, from 
dissero to argue, is with propriety applied to perform- 
ances of an argumentative nature; ‘A modern philo- 
sopher, quoted by Monsieur Bayle in his learned dis- 
sertation on the souls of brutes, says, Deus est anima 
brutorum, God himself is the soul of brutes..—Appr- 
SON. 

Essays are either moral, political, philosophical, or 
literary : they are the crude attempts of the youth to 
digest his own thoughts ; or they are the more mature 
attempts of the man to communicate his thoughts te 
others. Of the former description are the prize essays 
in schools; and of the latter are the essays innumer- 
able which have been published on every subject, 
since the daysof Bacon to the presentday. Treatises 
are mostly written on ethical, political, or speculative 
subjects, such as Fenelon’s, Milton’s, or Locke’s trea- 
tise on education; De Lolme’s treatise on the constitu- 
tion of England; Colquhoun’s treatise on the police. 
Dissertations are employed on disputed points of 
literature, as Bentley’s dissertation upon the epistles 
of Phalaris, De Pauw’s dissertations on the Egyptians 
and Chinese. TJ'racts are ephemeral. productions, 
mostly on political and religious subjects, which sel- 
dom survive the occasion which gave them birth. 
Of this description are the pamphlets which daily 
issue from the press, for or against the measures of 
government, or the public measures of any particular 
party. 

The essay is the most popular mode of writing; it 
suits the writer who has not either talent or inclination 
to pursue his inquiries farther, and it suits the gener- 
ality of readers who are amused with variety and 
superficiality : the treatise is adapted for the student ; 
he will not be contented with the superficial essay, 
when more ample materials are within his reach; the 
tract is formed for the political partisan ; it receives its 
interest from the occurrence of the motive; the disser- 
tation interests the disputant. 


PRODUCTION, PRODUCE, PRODUCT. 


The term production expresses either the act of 
producing or the thing produced ; product and produce 
express only the thing produced: the production of a 
tree from a seed, is one of the wonders of nature; the 
produce of a thing is said to be considerable or other 
wise. 

In the sense of the thing produced, production is 
applied to every individual thing that is produced by 
another: in this sense a tree is a production; produce 
and product are applied only to those productions 
which are to be turned to a purpose: the former in a 
collective sense, and in reference to some particular 
object ; the latter in an abstract and general sense ; 
the aggregate quantity of grain drawn from a field is 
termed the produce of the field; but corr, hay, vege 
tables and fruits in general, are termed products or 


330 


the earth: the naturalist examines all the productions 
of nature; ‘ Nature also, as if desirous that so bright 
a production of her skill should be set in the fairest 
light, had bestowed on king Alfred every bodily ac- 
complishment.’—Humsr. ‘The husbandman looks to 
the produce of his lands; ‘A storm of hail, I am in- 
formed, has destroyed all the produce of my estate in 
Tuscany.,—Mx.moutn (Letters of Cicero). ‘The to- 
pographer and traveller inquire about the products of 
different countries; ‘Our British products are of such 
kinds and quantities as can turn the balance of trade 
to our advantage.’—ADDISON. 

There is the same distinction between these terms 
in their improper, as in their proper, acceptation: a 
production is whatever results from an effort, physical 
or mental, as a production of genius, a production of 
art, and the like; ‘What would become of the scro- 
fulous consumptive productions, furnished by our men 
of wit and learning.’—Swirt. The produce is the 
amount or aggregate result from physical or mental 
labour: thus, whatever the husbandman reaps from 
the cultivation of his land is termed the produce of his 
labour; whatever results from any publick subscrip- 
tion or collection is, in like manner, the produce ; 
‘This tax has already been so often tried, that we 
know the exact produce of it.—Appison. The pro- 
duct is seldom employed except in regard to the mental 
operation of figures, as the product from multiplica- 
tion, but it may be used precisely in the sense of pro- 
duction ; ‘1 cannot help thinking the Arabian tales 
the product of some woman’s imagination.’—ATTER- 
BURY. 


TO BEAR, YIELD. 


Bear, in Saxon baran, old German beran, Latin 


pario, and Hebrew \\3 to create ; yield, v. To afford. 

Bear conveys the idea of creating within itself; 
yield that of giving from itself. Animals bear their 
young; inanimate objects yield their produce. An 
apple-tree bears apples; the earth yields fruits. 

Bear matks properly the natural power of bringing 
forth something cf its own kind; yield is said of the 
result or quantum brought forth: shrubs bear leaves, 
flowers, or berries, according to their natural pro- 
perties ; 

No keel shall cut the waves for foreign ware, 

For every soil shall ev’ry product dear.—DryDEn. 


Flowers yield seeds plentifully or otherwise as they are 
favoured by circumstances ; 


Nor Bactria, nor the richer Indian fields, 

Nor all the gummy stores Arabia yields, 

Nor any foreign earth of greater name, 

Can with sweet Italy contend in fame.—DrypEn. 


TO BEAR, CARRY, CONVEY, TRANSPORT. 


Bear, from the sense of generating (v. To bear, 
yield), has derived that of retaining; car7y, in French 
charier, probably from the Latin currus, Greek xatow 


or rpéxw to run, or kdpw, in Hebrew tbe) to meet, sig- 
nifies to move a thing from one place to another; con- 
vey, in Latin conveho, is compounded of con and veho 
to carry with one; transport, in French transporter, 
Latin transporto, compounded of trans over and 
porto to carry, signifies to carry to a distance. 

Zo bear is simply to take the weight of any sub- 
stance upon one’s self; to carry is to remove that 
weight from the spot where it was: we always bear in 
carrying, but we do not always carry when we bear. 
Both may be applied to things as well as persons: 
whutever receives the weight of any thing bears it; 
whatever is caused to move with any thing carries it. 
That which cannot be easily borne must be burden- 
some to carry: in extremely hot weather it is some- 
times irksome to bear the weight even of one’s cloth- 
ing; Virgil praises the pious Aineas for having carried 
his father on his shoulders in order to save him from 
the sacking of Troy. Weak people or weak things 
are not fit to bea heavy burdens: lazy people prefer 
to be carried rather than to carry any thing. 

Since bear is confined to personal service it may be 
‘ased in the sense of carry, when the latter implies the 
removal of any thing by means of any other body. 


i A A 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


The bearer of any letter or parce: is he who carries 
it in his hand; 


In hollow wood thy floating armies bear.—Drypun 


The carrier of parcels is he who employs a convey- 
ance; ‘A whale, besides those seas and oceans in the 
several vessels of his body which are filled with innu- 
merable shoals of litle animals, carries about hifM a 
whole would of inhabitants.—Appison. Hence the 
word dear is often very appropriately substituted for 
carry, aS Virgil praises Aineas for bearing his father 
on his shoulders. 4 

Convey and transport are species of carrying. 
Carry in its, particular sense is employed either for 
personal exertions or actions performed by the help of 
other means ; convey and transport are employed for 
such actions as are performed not by immediate per- 
sonal intervention or exertion: a porter carries goods 
onhis Knot; goods are conveyed in a wagon or a Cart; 
they are transported in a vessel. 

Convey expresses simply the mode of removing; 
transport annexes to this the idea of the place and the 
distance. Merchants get the goods conveyed into their 
warehouses, which they have had transported from 
distant countries. Pedestrians take no more with 
them than what they can conveniently carry: could 
armies do the same, one of the greatest obstacles to the 
indulgence of human ambition would be removed ; for 
many an incursion into a peaceful country is defeated 
for the want of means to convey provisions sufficient 
for such numbers ; and when mountains or deserts are 
to be traversed, another great difficulty presents itself 
in the transportation of artillery ; 


Love cannot, like the wind, itself convey 
To fill two sails, though both are spread one way 
Howarb. 


It is customary at funerals for some to bear the pall 
and others to carry wands or staves; the body itself 
is conveyed in a hearse, unless it has to cross the 
ocean, in which case it is transported in a vessel ; 
‘It is to navigation that men are indebted for the 
power of transporting the superfluous stock of one 
part of the earth to supply the wants of another.’ -- 
ROBERTSON. 


TO BRING, FETCH, CARRY. 


To bring, in German, &c. bringen, is supposed to 
be contracted from deringen, and ringen or regen to 
move; fetch is not improbably connected with the 
verb search, signifying to send for or go after; carry 
v. To bear, carry. 

To bring is simply to take with one’s self from the 
place where one is; to fetch is to go first to a place 
and then bring the thing away; to fetch therefore is 
a species of bringing ; Whatever is near at hand is 
brought ; whatever is at a distance must be fetched. 
The porter at an inn brings a parcel, the servant 
fetches it. : 

Bring always respects motion towards the place in 
which the agent or speaker resides ; ‘ What appeared 
to me wonderful was that none of the ants came home 
without bringing something.’—Appison. Fetch de- 
notes a motion both to and from ; ‘I have said before 
that those ants which J did so particularly consider, 
fetched their corn out of a garret..—Appison. Carry 
denotes always a motion directly from the place or at 


a distance from the place; ‘ How great is the hardship | ° 


of a poor ant, when she carries a grain of corn to the 
second story, climbing up a wall with her head down 
wards.’—Appison. Aservant brings the parcel home 
which his master has sent him to fetch; he carries a 
parcel from home. A carrier carries parcels to and 
from a place, but he only brings parcels to any place. 
Bring is an action performed at the option of the 
agent; fetch and carry are mostly done at the com 
mand of another. Hence the old proverb, ‘He who 
will fetch will carry,’ to mark the character of the 


gossip and tale-bearer, who reports what he hears from 


two persons in order to please both parties. 


TO AFFORD, YIELD, PRODUCE. 


Afford is probably changed from afferred, and comes 
from the Latin affero, compounded of af or ad and 
fero, signifying to bring to a person; yield, in Saxon 
geldan, German gelten to pay, restore, or give the 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


~alue, is prébably connected with the Hebrew b> 
to breed, or bring forth; produce, in Latin produco, 
compounded of pro forth and duco to bring, signifies to 
veer out or into,existence. i 

ith afford is associated the idea of communicating 
a part or property of some substance, to a person: 
meat affords nourishment to those who make use of 
it; the sun affords light and heat to all living crea- 
tures; ‘The generous man in “the ordinary accepta- 
tion, without respect of the demands of his family, will 
soon find upon the foot of his account that he has 
sacrificed to fools, knaves, flatterers, or the deservedly 
unhappy, all the opportunities of affording any future 
assistance where it ought to be.’—STEELE. 

Yielding is the natural operation of any substance 
to give up or impart the parts or properties inherent in 
it; it is the natural surrender which an object makes 
of itself; trees yield fruit; the seed yields grain; 
some sorts of grain do not yield much in particular soils ; 


Their vines a shadow to their race shall yield, 
And the same hand that sowed shall reap the ned 
OPE. 


Produce conveys the idea of one thing causing an- 
other to exist, or to spring out of it; it is a species of 
creation, the formation of a new substance: the earth 
produces a variety of fruits; confined air will produce 
an explosion ; 


Their sharpen’d ends in earth their footing place, 
And the dry poles produce a living race.—DRyYDEN. 


In the moral application they are similarly distin- 
guished; nothing affords so great a scope for ridicule 
as the follies of fashion; ‘ This is the consolation of 
all good men unto whom his ubiquity affordeth con- 
tinual comfort and security..—Brown. Nothing yields 
so much satisfaction as religion. ‘The mind of man 
desireth evermore to know the truth, according to the 
“most infallible certainty which the nature of things can 
yield.—Hooxer. Nothing preduces so much mischief 
as the vice of drunkenness ; 


Thou all this good of evil shalt produce.—MiLTon. 


The history of man does not afford an instance of any 
popular commotion that has ever produced such atro- 
cities and atrocious characters as the French revolu- 
tion. 

Religion is the only thing that can afford true con- 
solation and peace of mind in the season of affliction 
and the hour of death. The recollection of past inci- 
dents, particularly those which have passed in our in- 
ae produces the most pleasurable sensations in the 
mind. 


BUSINESS, OCCUPATION, EMPLOYMENT, 
ENGAGEMENT, AVOCATION. 


Business signifies what makes busy (v. Active, 
busy); occupation, from occupy, in French occuper, 
Latin occupo, that is, ob and capio, signifies that which 
serves or takes possession of a person or thing to the 
exclusion of other things; employment, from employ, 
in French emploi, Latin implico, Greek eumdékw, signi- 
fies that which engages or fixes a person; engagement 
also signifies what engages or binds a person; avocation, 
in Latin avocatio, from a and voco, signifies the thing 
that calls off from: another thing. 

Business occupies all a person’s thoughts as well as 
his time and powers; occupation and employment 
occupy only. his time and strength: the first is mostly 
regular, it is the object of our choice; the second is 
casual, it depends on the will of another. Engage- 
ment is a partial employment, avocation a particular 
engagement; an engagement prevents us from doing 
any thing else ; an avocation calls off or prevents us 
from doing what we wish. 

Every tradesman has a business, on the diligent 
prosecution of which depends his success in life ; ‘The 
materials are no sooner wrought into paper, but they 
are distributed among the presses, where they again set 
innumerable artists at work, and furnish business to 
another mystery..—Appison. Every mechanick has 
his daily occupation, by which he maintains his family; 
‘How little must the ordinary occupations of men 
seem to one who.is engaged in so noble a pursuit as 
the assimilation of himself to the Deity.”.—BrrxKetry. 
Every labourer has an employment which is fixed for 
lim: ‘Creatures who have the labours of the mind, 


331 


as well as those of the body, to furnish them with em- 
ployments.’—GUARDIAN. 

Business and occupation always suppose a serious 
object. Business is something more urgent and im 
portant than occupation; a man of independent for- 
tune has no occasion to pursue business, but as a 
rational agent he will not be contented to be without 
an occupation. 

Employment, engagement, and avocation leave the 
object undefined. An employment may be a mere 
diversion of the thoughts, and a wasting of the hours 
in some idle pursuit ; a child may have its employment. 
which may be its play in distinction from its business , 
‘IT would recommend to every one of my readers the 
keeping a journal of their lives: for one week, and 
setting down punctually their whole series of employ- 
ments during that space of time.’—Appison. An en- 
gagement may have no higher object than that of 
pleasure ; the idlest people have often the most en- 
gagements ; the gratification of curiosity, and the love 
of social pleasure, supply them with an abundance of > 
engagements ; ‘Mr. Baretti being a single man, and 
entirely clear from all engagements, takes the advan- \ 
tage of his independence..—JoHNSON.  Avocations 
have seldom a direct trifling object, although it may 
sometimes be of a subordinate nature, and generally 
irrelevant: numerous avocations are not desirable; 
every man should have a regular pursuit, the business 
of his life, to which the principal part of his time 
should be devoted: avocations therefore of a serious 
nature are apt to divide the time and attention to a 
hurtful degree ; ‘Sorrow ought not to be suffered” to 
increase by indulgence, but must give way after a 
stated time to social duties and the common avocttions 
of life.—JoHNSON. 

A person who is busy has much to attend to, and 
attends to it closely: a person who is occupied has a 
full share of business without any pressure ; he is op- 
posed to one who is idle: a person who is employed 
has the present moment filled up; he is not in a state 
of inaction: the person who is engaged is not at 
liberty to be otherwise employed; his time is not hia 
own; he is opposed to one at leisure. . 


BUSINESS, TRADE, PROFESSION, ART. 


These words are synonymous in the sense of a call 
ing, for the purpose of a livelihood ; buszness (v. Bust- 
ness) is general; trade, signifying that which employs 
the time by way of trade; profession, or that which 
one professes to do by way of employment; and ar%, 
signifying that which is practised in the way of the 
arts, are particular ; all trade is business, but all busi- 
ness is not trade. 

Buying and selling of merchandise is inseparable 
from trade; but the exercise of one’s knowledge and 
experience, for purposes of gain, constitutes a business ; 
when learning or particular skill is required, it is a 
profession ; and when there is a peculiar exercise of 
art, it is an art: every shopkeeper and retail dealer 
carries on a trade; ‘Some persons, indeed, by the 
privilege of their birth and quality, are above a com- 
mon trade and profession, but they are not hereby 
exempted from all business, and allowed to live unpro- 
fitably to others..—TiLLorson. Brokers, manufactu- 
rers, bankers, and others, carry on business ; ‘ Those 
who are determined by choice to any particular kind 
of business are indeed more happy than those who 
are determined by necessity..-Appison. Clergymen, 
medical, or military men, follow a profession; ‘No 
one of the sons of Adam ought to think himself ex- 
empt from labour or industry; those to whom birth 
or fortune may seem to make such an application un- 
necessary, ought to find out some calling or profession, 
that they may not lie as a burthen upon the species.’ 
—Anppison. Musicians and painters follow an art’ 
‘The painter understands his art.,—Swirt. 


BUSINESS, OFFICE, DUTY. 


Business is what one prescribes to one’s self; office, 
in French office, Latin offictum, from officio, or ob and 
facio, signifying to do for, or on account of any one 
is prescribed by another; duty,ifrom the Latin debi. 
tum and debeo to owe, signifying what is due, is pre- 
scribed or enjoined by a fixed rule of propriety: mer 
cantile concerns are the business wiich a man takes 


332 


upon himself, the management of parish concerns is 
an office imposed upon a person often, much against his 
inclination; the maintenance of a family is a duty 
which a man’s conscience enjoins upon him to per- 
form. 

Business and duty are publick or private; office is 
mostly of a publick nature: a minister of state, by 
virtue of his office, has always publick business to per- 
form ; 

But now the feather’d youth their former bounds 

Ardent disdain, and, weighing oft their wings, 

Demand the free possession of the sky. 

This cne glad office more, and then dissolves 


Parental love at once, now heedless grown. 
THOMSON. 


But men in general have only private business to 
transact; ‘It is certain, from Suetonius, that the Ro- 
mans thought the education of their children a business 
properly belonging to the parents themselves.’—Bup- 
GELL. A minister of religion has publick duties to 
perform in his ministerial capacity ; every other man 
has personal or relative duties, which he is called upon 
to discharge according to his station; ‘ Discretion is the 
perfection of reason, and a guide to us in all the duties 
of life.’—Appison. 


AFFAIR, BUSINESS, CONCERN. 


Affair, in French affaire, from @ and faire to be 
done, signifies that which is to be done or is in hand; 
business, from busy (v. Active), signifies the thing that 
makes or interests a person, or with which he is busy 
or occupied ; concern, in French concerner, Latin con- 
cerno, compounded of con and cerno to look, signifies 
the thing looked at, thought of, or taken part in. 

An affair is what happens; a business is what is 
done; a concern is what is felt. An affair is general ; 
it respects one, many, or all; every duszness and con- 
cern isan affacr, though not wice versd. Business and 
concern are personal; business is that which engages 
the attention: concern is that which interests the feel- 
ings, prospects, and condition, advantageously or other- 
wise. An affair is interesting; a buszness is serious; 
a concern momentous. The usurpation of power isan 
affair which interests a nation; ‘ Trememberin Tully’s 
epistle, in the recommendation of aman to an affair 
which had no manner.of relation to money, it is said, 
you may trust him, for he is a frugal man’—STre.e. 
The adjusting of a difference is a business most suited 
to the ministers of religion; ‘ We may indeed say that 
our part does not suit us, and that we could perform 
another better; but this, says Epictetus, is not our duws7- 
ness.—ApDISON. ‘To make our peace with our Maker 
is the concern of every individual; ‘The sense of other 
men ought to prevail over us in things of less consider- 
ation; but not in concerns where truth and honour are 
engaged.’—STEELE. 

Affairs are administered; business is transacted ; 
concerns are managed. The affairs of the world are 
administered by a Divine Providence. Those who are 
in the practice of the law require peculiar talents to 
fit them for transacting the complicated business which 
perpetually offers itself. Some men are so involved in 
the affairs of this world, as to forget the concerns 
ot the next, which ought to be nearest and dearest to 
them. 


TO AFFECT, CONCERN. 


Affect, in French affecter, Latin ajfectum, participle 
of aficio, compounded of ad and facio to do or act, sig- 
nifies to act upon ; concern, v. Affair. 

Things affect us which produce any change in our 
outward circumstances; they concern us if only con- 
nected with our circumstances in any shape. 

Whatever affects must concern; but all that concerns 
does not affect. The price of corn affects the interest 
of the seller: and therefore it concerns him to keep it 
up, without regard to the publick good or injury. 

Things affect either persons or things; but they con- 
cern persons only. Rain affects the hay or corn; and 
these matters concern every one more or less. 

Affect and concern have an analogous meaning like- 
wise, when taken for the influence on the mind. We 
are affected by things when our affections only are 
awakened bythem; we are concerned when our under- 
standing and wishes are engaged. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


We may be affected either with joy¢rsorrow’ ‘ We 
see that every different species of scnsible creatures 
has its different notions of beauty, and that each of 
them is affected with the beauties of its own kind. 
—Appison. Weare concerned only in a painful man- 
ner: 


Without concern he hears, but hears from far, 
Of tumults, and descents, and distant war. 
. Drypen. 


People of tender sensibility are easily affected ; irvita- 
ble people are concerned about trifles. It is natural 
for every one to be affected at the recital of misfor- 
tunes; but there are people of so cold and selfish a 
character as not to be concerned about any thing 
which does not immediately affect their persons or 


property. 


INTEREST, CONCERN. 


The interest, from the Latin interesse to be among, 
or have a part or a share in a thing, is more compre- 
hensive than concern (v. Affair). We have an interest 
in whatever touches or comes near to our feelings or 
our external circumstances; we have a concern in 
that which respects our external circumstances. The 
interest is that which is agreeable; itconsists of either 
profit, advantage, gain, or amusement; it binds .us to 
an object, and makes us think of it: the concern, on 
the other hand, is something involuntary or painful. 
We have a concern in that which we are obliged to 
look to, which we are bound to from the fear of losing 
or of suffering. Itis the interest of every man to cul- 
tivate a religious temper; it is the concern of all to be 
on their guard against temptation; ‘O give usa serious 
comprehension of that one great interest of others as 
well as ourselves. HamMmonp. 


And could the marble rocks but know, 

They ’d strive to find some secret way unknown 
Maugre the senseless nature of the stone, 

Their pity and concern to show.—PoMFrRET 


OFFICE, PLACE, CHARGE, FUNCTION 

Office, in Latin offictum, from officio, or efficio, signi- 
fies either the duty performed or the situation in which 
the duty is performed. Place comprehends no idea of 
duty, for there may be sinecure places which are only 
nominal offices, and designate merely a relationship 
with the government: every office therefore of a publick 
nature is in reality a place, yet every place is not an 
office. The place of secretary of state is likewise an 
office, but that of ranger of a park is a place only and 
not an office. The office is held; the place is filled: the 
office is given or intrusted to a person; the place is 
granted or conferred: the office reposes a confidence, 
and imposes a responsibility; the place gives credit 
and influence: the office is bestowed on a man from his 
qualification; the place is granted to him by favour, or 
as a reward for past services: the office is more or less 
honourable ; 

You have’contriv’d to take 
From Rome all season’d office, and to wind 
Yourself into a power tyrannical. —SHaksPEARE. 


The place is more or less profitable ; 


When rogues like these (a sparrow cries) 
To honours and employment rise, 
I court no favour, ask no place.—Gay. 


In an extended application of the terms office and 
place, the latter has a much lower signification than 
that of the former, since the office is always connected 
with the State; but the place is a private concern; the 
office is a place of trust, but the place may be a place 
for menial labour; the offices are multiplied in time of 
war; the places for domestick service are more nume- 
rous in a state of peace and prosperity. The office ia 
frequently taken not with any reference to the place 
occupied, but simply to the thing done; this brings it 
nearer in signification to the term charge (v. Care). 
An office imposes a task, or some performance ; 


Tis all men’s office to speak patience 
To those that wring under the load of sorrow. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


A charge imposes a responsibility; we have alway 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


something to do in office, always something to look after 
in a charge ; ‘Denham was made governour of Farn- 
ham Castle for the king, but he soon resigned that 
charge and retreated to Oxford.’—Jounson. The ajjice 
is either publick or private, the charge is always of a 
private and personal nature: a person performs the 
office of a magistrate, or of a minister; he undertakes 
the charge of instructing youth, or of being a guardian, 
or of conveying a person’s property from one place to 
another. The office is that which is assigned by an- 
other; function is properly the act of discharging or 
completing an office or business, from fungor, viz. 
jinem and ago to put an end to or bring to a conclu- 
sion ; it is extended in its acceptation to the office itself 
or the thing done, in which case the idea of duty pre- 
dominates, as the functions of a minister of state or 
of a minister of the gospel; ‘The ministry is not now 
bound to any one tribe; now none is secluded from 
that function of any degree, state, or calling. —Wu1tT- 
eirr. The office in its strict sense is performed only by 
conscious or intelligent agents, who act according to 
their instructions; the function, on the other hand, is 
sometimes an operation of unconscious objects accord- 
ing to the laws of nature. The office of a herald isto 
proclaim publick events or to communicate circum- 
stances from one publick body to another: the function 
of the tongue is to speak; that of the ear, to hear: that 
of the eye, to see. The word office is sometimes em- 
ployed in the same application by the personification of 
nature, which assigns an office to the ear, to the tongue, 
to the eye, and the like. When the frame becomes 
Overpowered by a sudden shock, the tongue will fre- 
quently refuse to perform its office; ‘The two offices 
of memory are collection and distribution.,—JoHNSON. 
When the animal functions are impeded for a length 
of time, the vital power ceases to exist; 


Nature within me seems, 
In all her functions, weary of herself.—MinTon. 


PROCEEDING, PROCESS, PROGRESS. 


The manner of performing actions for the attain- 
ment of a given end isthe common idea comprehended 
in these terms. Proceeding is the most general, as it 
simply expresses the general idea of the manner of 
going on; the rest are specifick terms, denoting some 
particularity in the action, object, or circumstance. 
The proceeding is said commonly of such things as 
happen in the ordinary way of doing business ; ‘What 
could be more fair, than to lay open to an enemy all 
that you wished to obtain, and to desire him to imitate 
your ingenuous proceeding?’—BuRkkE. Process is 
said of such things as are done by rule: the former is 
considered in a moral point of view; the latter in a 
scientifick or technical point of view; the freemasons 
kave bound themselves together by a law of secrecy 
not to reveal some part of their proceedings ; the pro- 
cess by which paper is made has undergone consider- 
able improvements since its first invention; 


Saturnian Juno now, with double care, 
Attends the fatal process of the war.—DryYDEN. 


The proceeding and progress both refer tu the moral 
actions of men; but the proceeding simply denotes the 
act of going on, or doing something; the progress de- 
notes an approximation to the end: the proceeding 
may be only a partial action, comprehending both the 
beginning and the end; but the progress is applied to 
that which requires time, and a regular succession of 
action, to bring it to a completion; that is a proceeding 
in which every man istried in acourt of law; that is 
a progress which one makes in learning, by the addi- 
tion to one’s knowledge: hence we do not talk of the 
proceeding of life, but of the progress of life; ‘De- 
votion bestows that enlargement of heart in the service 
of God, which is the greatest principle both of perse- 
verance and progress in virtue..—Buair. 


PROCEEDING, TRANSACTION. 


Proceeding signifies literally the thing that proceeds ; 
and transaction the thing transacted; the former is, 
therefore, of something that is going forward; the 
latter of something that is already done: we are wit- 
nesses to the whole proceeding ; we inquire into the 
whole transaction. The proceeding is said of every 
event or circumstance which g es forward through 

4 


333 


the agency of men; the transaction or ly comprehends 
those matters which have been deliberately transacted 
or brought to a conclusion: in this sense we use the 
word proceeding in application to an affray in the 
street; and the word transaction to some commercial 
negotiation that has been carried on between certain 
persons. The proceeding marks the manner of pro 
ceeding ; as when we speak of the proceedings in a 
court of law; ‘The proceedings of a council of old 
men in an American tribe, we are told, were no less 
formal and sagacious than those in a senate in more 
polished republicks.’—Roxsrerrson. The transaction 
marks the business transacted; as the transactions on 
the Exchange; ‘It was Bothwell’s interest to cover, if 
possible, the whole transaction under the veil of dark- 
ness and silence.’—Rosertson. <A proceeding may 
be characterized as disgraceful; a transaction as in‘- 
quitous. 


TRADE, COMMERCE, TRAFFICK, DEALING. 


Trade, in Italian tratto, Latin tracto to treat, signi- 
fies the transaction of business; commerce, v.‘Inter- 
course; trafick, in French traffique, Italian trafjico, 
compounded of tra or trans and facio, signifies to 
make over from one to another; dealing, from the 
verb to deal, in German theilen to divide, signifies to 
put in parts according to a certain ratio, or at a given 
price. 

The leading idea in trade is that of carrying on busi- 
ness for purposes of gain; the rest are but modes of 
trade: commerce is a mode of trade by exchange: 
traffick is a sort of personal trade, a sending from 
hand to hand; dealing is a bargaining or calculating 
kind of trade. Trade is either on a !arge or small 
scale; commerce is always on a large scale: we may 
trade retail or wholesale; we always carry on com 
merce by wholesale: trade is either within or without 
the country; commerce is always between different 
countries: there may be a trade between two towns; 
but there is a commerce between England and America, 
between France and Germany: hence it arises that 
the general term trade is of inferiour import when 
compared with commerce. The commerce of a coun- 
try, in the abstract and general sense, conveys more ta 
our mind, and is a more noble expression, than the 
trade of the country, as the merchant ranks higher 
than the tradesman, and a commercial house, than a 
trading concern ; 

Instructed ships shall sail to quick commerce, 

By which remotest regions are ally’d ; 

Which makes one city of the universe, 

Where some may gain, and all may be supply’d 

DRYDEN. 


Nevertheless the word trade may be used in the same 
general and enlarged sense ; 'T7ade, without enlarging 
the British territories, has given us a kind of additional 
empire..—Appison. T'rade may be altogether domes- 
tick, and between neighbours; the traffick is that which 
goes forward between persons at a distance: in this 
manner there may be a great traffick between two 
towns or cities, as between London and the capitals of 
the different counties ; 


The line of Ninus this poor comfort brings, 
We sell their dust, and trafick for their kings. 
Dryprn. 

Trade may consist simply in buying and selling ac- 
cording to a stated valuation; dealings are carried on 
in matters that admit of a variation: hence we speak 
of dealers in wool, in corn, seeds, and the like, who 
buy up portions of these goods, more or less, according 
to the state of the market. 

These terms will also admit of an extended applica 
tion: hence we speak of the risk of trade, the narrow- 
ness of a trading spirit: the commerce of the world, a 
legal or illicit commerce; to make a traffick of honours, 
of principles, of places, and the like; plain dealing or 
underhand dealing. 


INTERCOURSE, COMMUNICATION, CON- 
“NEXION, COMMERCE, 


Intercourse, in Latin intercursus, signifies literally a 
running between; communication, the act of commu- 
nicating or having some things in common; connexion 
is the state of being connected or linked together; 


334 


commerce, from com and merz a merchandise, signifies 
literally an exchange of merchandise and generally an 
interchange. 

The intercourse and commerce subsist only between 
persons; the communication and connexion between 
persons and things. The intercourse with persons 
may be carried on in various forms ; either by an inter- 
change of civilities, which is a friendly intercourse ; 
an exchange of commodities, which is a commercial 
intercourse; or an exchange of words, which is a 
verbal and partial intercourse; ‘The world is main- 
tained by cntercourse.—Soutu. The communication, 
in this sense, is a species of intercourse; namely, that 
which consists in the communication of one’s thoughts 
to another; ‘How happy is an intellectual being, who, 
by prayer and meditation, opens this communication 
between God and his own soul.—Appison. ‘The 
connexion consists of a permanent. intercourse, since 
one who has a regular intercourse for purposes of 
trade with another is said to have a connexion with 
him, or to stand in connexion with him. ‘There may, 
therefore, be a partial intercourse or communication 
where there is no connexion, nothing to bind or link 
the parties to each other; but there cannot be a con- 
nezion Which is not kept up by continual zntercourse : 
‘A very material part of our happiness or misery arises 
from the connexions we have with those around us.’— 
Buair. 

The commerce is a species of general but close 7nter- 
gourse; it may consist either of frequent meeting and 
regular co-operation, or in cohabitation: in this sense 
we speak of the commerce of men one with another, 
or the. commerce of man and wife, of parents and 
children, and the like; ‘I should venture to call polite- 
ness benevolence in trifles, or the preference of others 
to ourselves, in little, daily, and hourly occurrences in 
the commerce of life. —-CHATHAM. 

As it respects things, communication is said of places 
in the proper sense; connexion is used for things in the 
proper or improper sense: there is said to be a commu- 
nication between two rooms when there is a passage 
open from one to the other; one house has a connexion 
with another when there is a common passage or 
thoroughfare to them: a communication is kept up 
between two countries by means of regular or irre- 
gular conveyances; a connexion subsists between two 
towns when the inhabitants trade with each other, in- 
termarry, and the like. 


ny 


INTERCHANGE, EXCHANGE, RECIPROCITY. 


Interchange is a frequent and mutual exchange 
(v. Change); exchange consists of one act only; an 
interchcnge consists of many acts: an interchange is 
used only in the moral sense ; exchange is used mostly 
in the proper sense; an interchange of civilities keeps 
alive good will; ‘Kindness is preserved by a constant 
interchange of pleasures.'—Jounson. An exchange 
of commodities is a convenient mode of trade; ‘The 
whole course of nature is a great exchange. —Soutn. 

Inierchange is an act; reciprocity is an abstract pro- 
perty: by an znterchange of sentiment, friendships are 
engendered ; the reciprocity of good services is what 
renders them doubly acceptable to those who do them, 
and to those who receive them; ‘ The services of the 
poor, and the protection of the rich, become recipro- 
cally necessary.’—BLaIR. 


MUTUAL, RECIPROCAL. 


Mutual, in Latin mutuus, from muto to change, sig- 
nifies exchanged so as to be equal or the same on both 
sides; reciprocal, in Latin reciprocus, from rectpio to 
take back, signifies giving backward and forward by 
way of return. Mutual supposes a sameness in con- 
dition at the same time: reczprocal supposes an alter- 
nation or succession of returns. * Exchange is free 
and voluntary; we give in exchange, and this action 
is mutual; return is made either according to law or 
equity; it is obligatory, and when equally obligatory 
on each in return itis reciprocal. Voluntary disinter- 
ested services rendered to each other are mutual: im- 
posed or merited services, returned from one to the 
other, are reciprocal: friends render one another 
mutual services; the services between servants and 


* Vide Roubaud: “ Mutual, reciproque.” 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


masters are reciprocal. The husband, and wife pledge 
their faith to each other mutually; they are recipro- 
cally bound to keep their vow of fidelity. The senti- 
ment is mutual, the tie is reciprocal. Mutual applies 
mostly to matters of will and opinion, a mutual affec- 
tion, a mutwal inclination to oblige, a mutwal interest 
for each other’s comfort, a mutual concern to avoid 
that which will displease the other; these are the senti 
ments which render the marriage state happy; ‘ The 
soul and spirit that animates and keeps up society is 
mutual trust..—Sourn. Reciprocal ties, reciprocal 
bonds, reciprocal rights, reciprocal duties; these are 
what every one ought to bear in mind as a member of 
society, that he may expect of no man more than what 
in equity he is disposed to return ; ‘ Life cannot subsist 
in society but by reciprocal concessions..—JOHNSON, 
Mutual applies to nothing but what is personal ; reet- 
procal is applied to things remote from the idea of 
personality, as reciprocal verbs, reciprocal terms, recé 
procal relations, and the like. 


TO CHANGE, EXCHANGE, BARTER, 
‘ SUBSTITUTE. 


Change, v. To change, alter; exchange is coin- 
pounded of e or ea and change, signifying to change 
in the place of another; barter is supposed to come 
from the French barater, a sea term for indemnifica- 
tion, and also for circumvention; hence it has derived 
the meaning of a mercenary exchange; substitute, 
in French substitut, Latin sudstitutus, from sub and 
statuo, signifies to place one thing in the room of 
another. 

The idea of putting one thing in the place of another 
is common to all these terms, which vary in the manner 
and the object. Change is the generick, the rest are 
specifick terms: whatever is exchanged, bartered, or 
substituted, is changed ; but not vice versd. Change is 
applied in general to things of the same kind, or of 
different kinds; exchange to articles of property or 
possession; darter to all articles of merchandise; sub- 
stitute to all matters of service and office. 

Things rather than persons are the proper objects 
for changing and exchanging, although whatever one 
has a control over may be changed or exchanged; a 
king may change his ministers; governments exchange 
prisoners of war. Things only are the proper objects 
for barter ; but, to the shame of humanity, there are 
to be found people who will barter their cauntrymen, 
and even their relatives, for a paltry trinket. 

Substituting may either have persons or things for 
an object; one man may be substituted for another, or 
one word substituted for another. 

The act of changing or substituting requires but 
one person for an agent; thatof exchanging and bar 
tering requires two: a person changes his things or 
substitutes one for another; but one person exchanges 
or barters with another. 

Change is used likewise intransitively, the others 
always transitively ; things change of themselves, but 
persons always exchange, barter, or substitute things. 
Changing is not advisable, it is seldom advantageous ; 
there is a greater chance of changing for the worse, 
than for the better; it is set on foot by caprice oftene: 
than by prudence and necessity ; 


Those who beyond sea go will sadly find 
They change their climate only, not their mind. 
CREECH. 


Exchanging is convenient, it is founded not so much 
on the intrinsic value of things, as their relative utility 
to the parties concerned; its end is mutual accommo- 
dation; ‘ Our English merchant converts the tin of his 
own country into gold, and exchanges its wool for 
rubies."—Appison. Bartering is profitable; it pro- 
ceeds upon a principle ot mercantile calculation; the 
productiveness, and not the worth of the thing is con 
sidered; its main object is gain ; 
If the great end of being can be lost, 
And thus perverted to the worst of crimes; 
Let us shake off deprav’d humanity, 
Exchange conditions with the savage brute, 
And for his blameless instinct barter reason. 
HAvaRD 
Substituting is a matter of necessity ; it springs from 
the necessity of supplying a deficiency by some equl- 
y valent: it serves for the accommodation of the party 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES 


whose place is filled up; * Let never insulted beauty 
admit a second time into her presence the wretch who 
has once attempted to ridicule religion, and to sudsti- 
tute other aids to human frailty. —HAWKESWoRTH. 

In the figurative application these terms bear the 
same analogy to each other. <A person changes his 
opinions ; but a proneness to such changes evinces a 
want of firmness in the character. The good king at 
his death exchanges a temporal for an eternal crown. 
The mercenary trader barters his conscience for paltry 
pelf. Men of dogmatical tempers substitute assertion 
for proof, and abuse for argument. 


CO EXCHANGE, BARTER, TRUCK, COMMUTE. 


To exchange (v. To change) is the general term 
signifying to take one for another, or put one thing in 
the place of another; the rest are but modes of ez- 
changing ; to barter (v. To change) is to exchange 
one article of trade for another; to truck, from the 
Greek reoxdw to wheel, signifying to bandy about, is 
a familiar term to express a familiar action for ez- 
changing one article of private property for another; 
commute, from the Latin syllable com or contra and 
muto to change, signifies an exchanging one mode of 
punishment for another. We may exchange one book 
for another, or one moral object for another ; 


Pleasure can be exchanged only for pleasure. 
HAWKESWORTH. 


Traders barter trinkets for gold dust; so also in the 
figurative sense men barter their consciences for gold; 
‘Some men are willing to barter their blood for lucre.’ 
—Burxke. Coachmen or stablemen truck a whip for 
a handkerchief; 


Shows all her secrets of house-keeping, 
For candles how she trucks her dripping.—Swirr. 


The government commute the punishment of death 
for that of banishment; ‘ Henry. levied upon his vas- 
sals in Normandy a sum of money in lieu of their 
service, and this commutation, by reason of the great 
distance, was still more advantageous to his English 
vassals,’—Humg. 


TO BUY, PURCHASE, BARGAIN, CHEAPEN. 


Buy, in Saxon byegean, isin all probability connect- 
ed with bargain; purchase, in French pourchasser, 
.ike the word pursue, poursuzvre, comes from the Latin 
persequor, signifying to obtain by a particular effort ; 
bargain, in Welch bargen, is most probably connected 
with the German borgen to borrow, and birgea surety ; 
sheapen is in Saxon ceapan, German kaufen, Dutch 
koopen to buy, &c. 

Buy and purchase have a strong resemblance to each 
other, both in sense and application; but the latter isa 
term of more refinement than the former: buy may 
always be substituted for purchase without impro- 
priety ; but purchase would be sometimes ridiculous 
in the familiar application of buy; the necessaries of 
life are bought; luxuries are purchased. 

Thecharacteristick idea of buying is that of expend- 
ing money according to a certain rule, and for a parti- 
cular purpose; that of purchasing is the procuring the 
thing: the propensity of buying whatever comes in 
one’s way is very injurious to the circumstances of 
some people; ‘It gives me very great scandal to ob- 
serve, wherever I go, how much skill, in buying all 
manner of things, there is necessary-to defend yourself 
from being cheated.’—-Strerte. What it is not con- 
venient to procure for ourselves, we may commission 
another to purchase for us; so in the figurative ac- 
ceptation we may purchase our pleasures at a dear 
rate ; 


Pirates may make cheap pennyworths of their pillage 
And purchase friends.—-SHAKSPEARE. 


Buying implies simply the exchange of one’s money 
fora commodity; bargaining and cheapening have 
likewise respect to the price: to bargain is to make a 
specifick agreement as to the price; 


So York must sit, and fret, and bite his tongue, 
While his own lands are bargain’d for, and sold. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


To cheapenis not only to lower the price asked, but 
to deal in such things as are cheap : trade is supported 


335 


by buyers ; bargainers and cheapeners are not accept: 
able customers: mean people are prone to bargaining ; 
poor people are obliged te cheapen; ‘You may see 
many a sinart rhetorician turning his hat in his hands, 
moulding it into several different cocks, examining 
sometimes the lining, and sometimes the button, during 
the whole course of his harangue. A deaf man woul 
think he was cheapening a beaver, when perhaps he is 
talking of the fate of the British nation,,—Appison 


ARTICLE, CONDITION, TERM. 


Article, in French article, Latin articulus a joint or 
a part of a member; condition, in French condition, 
Latin conditio, from condo to build or form, signifies 
properly the thing framed; term, in French terme, 
Latin terminus a boundary, signifies the point to which 
one is fixed. 

These words agree in their application to matters of 
compact, cr understanding between man and man. 
Article and condition are used in both numbers; terms 
only in the plural in this sense: the former may be 
used for any point individually ; the latter for all the 
points collectively: article is employed for all matters 
which are drawn out in specifick articles or points ; as 
the articles of an indenture, of a capitulation, or an 
agreement. Condition respects any point that is ad 
mitted as a ground of obligation or engagement: it is 
used for the general transactions of men, in which 
they reciprocally bind themselves to return certain 
equivalents. The word terms is employed in regard 
to mercantile transactions ; as the terms of any bar- 
gain, the terms of any agreement, the terms on which 
any thing is bought or sold. 

Articles are mostly voluntary; they are admitted 
by mutual agreement: conditions are frequently com- 
pulsory, sometimes hard; they are submitted to from 
policy or necessity: terms are dictated by interest or 
equity; they are fair, or unfair, according to the 
temper of the parties; they are submitted or agreed 
to. Articles are drawn up between parties who have 
to co-operate; ‘In the mean time, they have ordered the 
preliminary treaty to be published, with observations 
on each article, in order to quiet the minds of the 
people..—Strrete. Men undertake particular offices 
on condition of receiving a stipulated remuneration 


The Trojan by his word is bound to take 
The same conditions which himself did make. 
DRYDEN. 


Men enter into dealings with each other on definite and 
precise terms ; 


Those mountains fill’d with firs, that lower land 

If you consent, the Trojans shall command ; 

Call’d into part of what is ours, and there, 

On terms agreed, the common country share. 
DrRyDEN. 


Clergymen subscribe to the articles of the established 
church before they are admitted to perform its sacred 
functions; in so doing they are presumed to be free 
agents; but they are not free to swerve from these 
articles while they remain in the church, and receive 
its emoluments: in all auctions there are certain con- 
ditions with which all must comply who wish to re- 
ceive the benefits of the sale: in the time of war it is 
the business of the victor to prescribe terms to the 
vanquished ; with the latter it is a matter of prudence 
whether they shall be accepted or rejected. 


TRADER, MERCHANT, TRADESMAN. 


Trader signifies in general any one who deals in 
goods, whether in a large or a small way, and is used 
therefore in the most extended sense ; 


Now the victory ’s won, 
We return to our lasses like fortunate traders, 
Triumphant with spoils.—Dryprn. 


Merchant signifies one dealing in foreign merchandise 
and, for the most part, in a large way ; 


France hath flaw’d the league, and hath attach’d 
Our merchants’ goods at Bourdeaux.—SHAKSPEARE 


Hence these two terms may be used in contradistinction 
to each other; ‘Many traders will necessitate me 

chants to trade for less profit, and consequently be 
more frugal.’—Cuinp (On Trade). A tradesman is & 


336 


retail dealer who commonly exposes his goods ina 
publick shop; ‘From a plain tradesman in a shop, 
he is now grown a very rich country gentleman.’— 
ARBUTHNOT. 


—— 


ARTIST, ARTISAN, ARTIFICER, MECHANICK. 


Artist is a practiser of the fine arts; artisan is a 
practiser of the vulgar arts; artificer, from ars and 
facio, is one who does cr makes according to art; 
mechanick is an artisan in the mechanick arts. 

The atist ranks higher than the artisan: the former 
requires intellectual refinement in the exercise of his 
art; the latter requires nothing but to know the 
general rules of his art. —The musician, painter, and 
sculptor are artzsts ; ‘If ever this country saw an age 
of artists, it is the present; her painters, sculptors, 
and engravers are now the only schools properly so 
called..— CUMBERLAND. The carpenter, the sign- 
painter, and the blacksmith are artisans ; ‘The mer- 
chant, tradesman, and artisan will have their profit 
upon all the multiplied wants, comforts, and indul- 
gences of civilized life’—CumBrrtanp. The arti- 
jicer is an intermediate term between the artist and 
the artisan ; manufacturers are artificers ; and South, 
in his sermons, calls the Author of the universe the 
great Artificer ; ‘Man must be in a certain degree the 
artificer of his own happiness; the tools and materials 
may be put into his hands by the bounty of Provi- 
dence, but the workmanship must be his own.’—Cum- 
BERLAND. The mechanick is that species of artisan 
who works at arts purely mechanical, in distinction 
from those which contribute to the completion and em- 
bellishment of any objects; on this ground a shoe- 
maker is a mechanick, but a common painter is a 
simple artisan; ‘'The concurring assent of the world 
in preferring gentlemen to mechanicks seems founde 
in that preference which the rational part of cur na- 
ture is entitled to above the animal.’—BarTLETT. 


WRITER, PENMAN, SCRIBE. 


Writer is an indefinite term; every one who 2rztes 
is called a writer; but none are penmen, but such as 
fre expert at their pen. Many who profess to teach 
writing are themselves but sorry writers: the best 
penmen are not always the best teachers of writing. 
The scribe is one who writes for the purpose of copy- 
iag: he is therefore an official writer. 


WRITER, AUTHOR. 


Writer refers us to the act of writing ; author to the 
act of inventing. There are therefore many writers, 
who are not authors; but there is no author of books 
who may not be termed a writer; compilers and con- 
tributors to periodical works are writers, but not au- 
thors. Poets and historians are more properly termed 
authors than writers. 


FARMER, HUSBANDMAN, AGRICULTURIST. 


Farmer, from the Saxon feorm food, signifies one 
managing a farm, or cultivating the ground for a sub- 
gistence; 


To check this plague, the skilful farmer chaff 
And blazing straw before his orchard burns. 
THOMSON. 


Husbandman is one following husbandry, that is, the 
tillage of land by manual labour; the farmer, there- 
fore conducts the concern, and the husbandman labours 
under his direction ; 


Old husbandmen I at Sabinum know, 
Who, for another year, dig, plough, and sow. 
- DENHAM. 


Agriculturist, from the Latin ager a field, and colo to 
till, signifies any one engaged in the art of cultivation. 
The farmer is always a practitioner ; the agriculturist 
may be a mere theorist: the farmer follows husbandry 
solely as a means of living; the agricultwrist follows 
it as a science: the former tills the land upon given 
admitted principles; the latter frames new principles, or 
alters those that are established. Between the farmer 
and the agriculturist there is the same difference as 
setween practice and theory: the former may be as- 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


sisted by the latter, so long as they can go hand is 
hand; butin the case of acollision, the farmer will be of 
more service to himself and his country than the agre- 
culturist: farming brings immediate profit from per- 
sonal service; agriculture may only promise future, 
and consequently contingent, advantages; ‘An im- 
proved and improving agriculture, which implies a 
great augmentation of labour, has not yet found itself 
at a stand.’—BurkKeE. 


RURAL, RUSTICK. 


Although both these terms, from the Latin rus coun 
try, signify belonging to the country; yet the former is 
used in a good, and the latter in a bad or an indifferent 
sense. ural applies to all country objects, except 
man; it is, therefore, always connected with the 
charms of nature: vustick applies only to persons, or 
what is personal, in the country, and is, therefore, 
always associated with the want of culture. Rural 
scenery is always interesting; but the vustick manners 
of the peasants have frequently too much that is un- 
cultivated and rude in them to be agreeable: a rurai 
habitation may be fitted for persons in a higher sta- 
tion ; 

E’en now, methinks, as pondering here I stand, 
I see the rural virtues leave the land. 
GOLDSMITH 


A rustick cottage is adapted only for the poorer inha- 
bitants of the country; ‘ The freedom and laxity of @ 
rustick life produces remarkable particularities of con- 
duct.’—JoHNson. 


ny 


COUNTRYMAN, PEASANT, SWAIN, HIND, 
RUSTICK, CLOWN. 


Countryman, that is, a man of the country, or one 
belonging to the country, is the general term appli 
cable to ail inhabiting the country, in distinctiom from 
a townsman; peasant, in French paysan, from pays, 
is employed in the same sense for any countryman 
among the inhabitants ot the Continent, and is in con- 
sequence used in poetry or the grave style; swain in 
the Saxon signified a labourer, but it has acquired, 
from its use in poetry, the higher signification of 2 
shepherd ; hind may in all probability signify one whe 
is in the back ground, an inferiour ; rustick, from rus 
the country, signifies one born and bred in the coun 
try ; clown, contracted from colonus a husbandman 
signifies of course a menial in the country. ; 

All these terms are employed as epithets to persons, 
and principally to such as live in the country; the 
term countryman is taken in an indifferent sense, and 
may comprehend persons of different descriptions; it 
designates nothing more than habitual residence in the 
country ; ‘Though considering my former condition, I 
may now be called a countryman: yet you cannot call 
me a rustick (as you would imply in your letter) as 
long as I live in so civil and noble a family.,—Hownt. 
The other terms are employed for the lower orders of 
countrymen, but with collateral ideas favourable or 
unfavourable annexed to them. The peasant is a 
countryman who follows rural occupations for a liveli- 
hood. He is commonly considered as a labourer, and 
contracted in his education; ‘If by the poor measures 
and proportions of a man we may take an estimate of 
this great action (our Saviour’s coming in the flesh), 
we shall quickly find how irksome it is to flesh and 
blood ‘to have been happy,” to descend some steps 
lower, to exchange the estate of a prince for that of a 
peasant.’—Soutu. Swain, hind, both convey the idea 
of innocence in an humble station, and are therefore 
always employed in poetry in a good sense; 

As thus the snows arise, and foul and fierce 
All winter drives along the darken’d air, 

In his own loose revolving fields the szoain 
Disastered stands.—THomson. 


The lab’ring hind his oxen shall disjoin. 
DRYDEN. 


Rustick and clown both convey the idea of that un 
couth rudeness and ignorance which is in reality found 
among the lowest orders of countrymen; 


In arguing too the parson own’d his skill, 
For ev’n tho’ vanquish’d he could argue still: 


ENGLISH 


While words cf learned length and thundering 
sound 
Amaz’d the gazing rusticks rang’d around. 
GOLDSMITH. 


Th’ astonish’d mother finds a vacant nest, 
By the hard hand of unrelenting clowns 
Robb’d.—T Homson. 


CULTIVATION, TILLAGE, HUSBANDRY. 


Cultivation has a much more comprehensive mean- 
ng than either tillage or husbandry ; 


O softly swelling hills 
On which the power of ewltivation lies, 
And joys to see the wonders of his toil. 
‘THOMSON. 


Tillage is a mode of cultivation that extends no far- 
ther than the preparation of the ground for the recep- 
tion of the seed ; cultivation includes the whole pro- 
cess by which the produce of the earth is brought to 
maturity. We may zi witnout cultivating, but we 
cannot cultivate, as far as respects the soil, without 
tillage ; ‘The south-east parts of Britain had already 
before the age of Cesar made the first and most requi- 
site step towards a civil settlement: and the Britons 
by tllage and agriculture had there increased to a 
great multitude’—Humer. Husbandry is more exten- 
sive in its meaning than tillage, but not so extensive 
as cultivation; ‘We find an image of the two states, 
the contemplative and the active, figured out in the 
persons of Abel and Cain, by the two primitive trades, 
that of the shepherd and that of the husbandman.’— 
Bacon. 

Tillage respects the act only of tilling the ground; 
husbandry is employed for the office of cultivating for 
domestick purposes. A cultivator is a general term, 
defined only by the object that is cultivated, as the cul- 
tivator of the grape, or-the olive; a tiller is a labourer 
in the soil who performs that office for another; a 
husbandman is an humble species of cultivator, who 
himself performs the whole office of cultivating the 
ground for domestick purposes. 


SEAMAN, WATERMAN, SAILOR, MARINER, 
BOATMAN, FERRYMAN. 


All these words denote persons occupied in naviga- 
tion; the seaman, as the word implies, follows his busi- 
ness on the sea; the waterman is one who gets his live- 
lihood on fresh water ; ‘Many a lawyer who makes but 
an indifferent figure at the bar might have made a very 
elegant waterman.—Soutu. The sailor and the ma- 
riner are both specifick terms to designate the seaman ; 
every sailor and mariner is a seaman; although every 
seaman is not @ sailor or mariner ; the former is one 
who is employed about the laborious part of the 
vessel; the latter is one who traverses the ocean to 
and fro, who is attached to the water and passes his 
life upon it. 

Men of all ranks are denominated seamen, whether 
officers or men, whether in a merchantman or in a 
king’s ship; 

Thus the toss’d seaman, after boist’rous storms, 
Lands on his country’s breast,—Lers. 


Sailor is only used for the c}mmon men, or, in the sea 
phrase, for those before the mast, particularly in vessels 
of war; hence our sailors and soldiers are spoken of 
as the defenders of our country ; 


Through storms and tempests so the sailor drives. 
SHIRLEY. 
A mariner is an independent kind of seaman who 
manages his own vessel and goes on an expedition on 
his own account; fishermen and those who trade alony 


the coast are in a particular manner distinguished by 
the name of mariners ; 


Welcome to me, ag to a sinking mariner 
The lucky plank that bears him to the shore. 
LEE. 
Waterman, boatman, and ferryman are employed 
tor persons who are engaged with boats; but the term 
waterman is specifically applied to such whose busi- 
ness it is to let out their boats and themselves for a 
given time; the boatman may use a boat only occa- 
22 


SYNONYMES. 


337 


sionally for the transfer of goods; a ferryman uses a 
boat only for the conveyance of persons or goods 
across a particular river or piece of water. 


MARITIME, MARINE, NAVAL, NAUTICAL. 


Maritime and marine, from the Latin mare a sea, 
signifies belonging to the sea; naval, from navis a 
ship, signifies belonging to a ship; and nautical, from 
nauta a sailor, signifies belonging to a sailor, or to 
navigation. 

Countries and places are denominated maritime from 
their proximity to the sea, or their great intercourse by 
sea ; hence England is called the most maritime nation 
in Europe; ‘ Octavianus reduced Lepidus to a neces- 
sity to beg his life, and be content to lead the remain- 
der of it in a mean condition at Circeii, a small mar¢. 
time town among the Latins.—Pripraux. Marine is 
a technical term, employed by persons in office, to de- 
note that which is officially transacted with regard to 
the sea in distinction from what passes on land: hence 
we speak of the marines as a species of soldiers acting 
by sea, of the marine society, or marine stores; ‘A 
man of a very grave aspect required notice to be given 
of his. intention to set out on a certain day on a sub- 
marine voyage.’—JOHNSON.  . 

Naval is another term of art as opposed to military, 
and used in regard to the arrangements of government 
or commerce: hence we speak of naval affairs, naval 
officers, naval tacticks, and the like; ‘Sextus Pompey 
having together such a naval force as made up 350 
vessels, seized Sicily.-—Pripraux. Nautical is a 
scientifick term, connected with the science of naviga- 
tion.or the management of vessels; hence we talk of 
nautical instruction, of nautical calculations; ‘He 
elegantly showed by whom he was drawn, which de- 
painted the nautical compass with aut magnes, aut 
magna.’—CamMpEN. The maritime laws of England 
are essential for the preservation of the naval power 
which it has so justly acquired. The marine of Eng 
land is one of its glories. The naval administration 
is one of the most important branches of our govern- 
ment in the time of war. MNVautical tables, and nau- 
tical almanacks have been expressly formed for the 
benefit of all who apply themselves to nautical sub 
jects. 


MARTIAL, ne MILITARY, SOLDIER 
I 


Martial, from Mars, the god of war, is the Latin 
term for belonging to war: warlike signifies literally 
like war, having the image of war. In sense these 
terms approach so near to each other, that they may 
be easily admitted to supply each other’s place; but 
custom, the lawgiver of language, has assigned an office 
to each that makes it not altogether indifferent how 
they are used. Martial is both a technical and a 
more comprehensive term than warlike ; on the other 
hand, warlike designates the temper of the individual 
more than martial; we speak of martial array, mar 
tial preparations, martial law, a court martial ; 


An active prince, and prone to martial deeds. 
Drypen. 


We speak of a warlike nation, meaning a nation who 
is fond of war; a warlike spirit or temper, also a war- 
like appearance, inasmuch as the temper is visible in 
the air and carriage of a man; 


Last from the Volscians fair Camilla came, 
And led her warlike troops, a warriour dame. 
i Drypen. 
Military, from miles a soldier, signifies belonging to 
a soldier, and soldier-like like a soldier. Military in 
comparison with martial is a term of particular import; 
martial having always a reference to war in general, 
and military to the proceedings consequent upon that: 
hence we speak of military in distinction from naval, 
as military expeditions, military movements, and the 
like ; ‘The Tlascalans were, like all unpolished nations, 
strangers to military order and discipline.’—Rosrrr- 
son. Jn characterizing the men, we should say that 
they had a martial appearance; but in speaking of a 
particular place, we should say it had a military ap- 
pearance, if there were many soldiers in it. 
Military, compared with soldier-cike, is used for the 


338 


body, and the latter for the individual. The whole 
army is termed the military: the conduct of an indi- 
vidual is soldier-like or otherwise; ‘The fears of the 
Spaniards led them to presumptuous and unsoldier-like 
discussions concerning the propriety of their general’s 
measures.’—ROBERTSON. 


TO PAINT, DEPICT, DELINEATE, SKETCH. 


Paint and depict both come from the Latin pingo, 
to represent forms and figures: as a verb to paint is 
either literally to represent figures on paper, or to re- 
present circumstances and events by means of words; 
to depict is used only in this latter sense, but the former 
word expresses a greater exercise of the imagination 
than the latter: it is the art of the poet to paznt nature 
in lively colours; it is the art of the historian or nar- 
rator to depict a real scene of misery in strong colours. 
As nouns, painting rather describes the action or ope- 
ration, and p2cture the result. 

When we speak of a good painting, we think par- 
ticularly of its execution as to drapery, disposition of 
colours, and the like ; 


The painting is almost the natural man, 
He is but outside.—SHAKSPEARE. 


When we speak of a fine picture, we refer immediately 
to the object represented, and the impression which it 
is capable of producing on the beholder; ‘ A picture 
is a poem without words.’—Appison. Paintings are 
confined either to oil paintings or paintings in colours: 
but every drawing, whether in pencil, in crayons, or in 
India ink, may produce a picture; and we have like- 
wise pictures in embroidery, pictures in tapestry, and 
pictures in Mosaic. 

Delineate, in Latin delineatus participle of delinso, 
signifies literally to draw the lines which include the 
contents; sketch is in the German. skizze, Italian 
schizzo. 

Both these terms are properly employed in the art of 
drawing, and figuratively applied to moral subjects to 
express a species of descriptions: a delineation ex- 
presses something more than a sketch ; the former con- 
veying not merely the general outlines or more promi- 
nent features, but also as much of the details as would 
serve to form a whole; the latter, however, seldom 
contains more than some broad touches, by which an 
imperfect idea of the subject is conveyed. 

A delineation therefore may be characterized as 
accurate, and a sketch as hasty or imperfect: an atten- 
tive observer who has passed some years in a country 
may be enabled to give an accurate delineation of the 
laws, customs, manners, and character of its inha- 
bitants: ‘ When the Spaniards first arrived in America 
expresses were sent to the emperor of Mexico in paint- 
ing, and the news of his country delineated by the 
strokes of a pencil.—Appison. A traveller who 
merely passes through a country can give only a hasty 
sketch from what passes before his eyes; ‘ Sketch out 
arough draught of my country, that I may be able to 
judge whether a return to it be really eligible."—AtTTErR- 
BURY. 


SKETCH, OUTLINES. 


A sketch may form a whole; owtlines are but a part: 
the sketch may comprehend the ouélines and some of 
the particulars ; outlines, as the term bespeaks, com- 
prehend only that which is on the exteriour surface: 
the sketch in drawing, may serve as a landscape, as it 
presents some of the features of a country; but the 
outlines serve only as bounding lines, within which 
the sketch may be formed. So in the moral applica- 
tion we speak of the sketches of countries, characters, 
manners, and the like, which serve as a description ; 
but of the outlines of a plan, of a work, a project, and 
the like, which serve as a basis on which the subordi- 
nate parts are to be formed: barbarous nations present 
us with rude sketches of nature; an abridgment is 
little more than the outlines of a larger work ; 

In few, to close the whole, 
The moral muse has shadow’d out a sketch 
Of most our weakness needs believe or do. 
Youne. 
This is the outline of the fable (King Lear).’— 
JOHNSON. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


ASTRONOMY, ASTROLOGY. 


Astronomy is compounded of the Greek dsijo and 
vouos, Signifying the laws of the stars, or a knowledge 
of their laws ; astrology, from dsp and )éyos, signi 
fies a reasoning on the stars. 

The.* astronomer studies the course and movement 
of the stars ; the astrologer reasons on their influence. 

The former observes the state of the heavens, marks 
the order of time, the eclipses and the revolutions 
which arise out of the established laws of motion in 


‘the immense universe: the latter predicts events, 


draws horoscopes, and announces all the vicissitudes 
of rain and snew, heat and cold, &c. The astrono- 
mer calculates and seldom errs, as his calculations are 
built on fixed rules and actual observations; the astro- 
loger deals in conjectures, and his imagination often 
deceives him. The astronomer explains what he 
knows, and merits the esteem of the learned; the as- 
trologer hazards what he thinks, and seeks to please. 

A thirst for knowledge leads to the study of astro- 
nomy ; an inquietude about the future has given rise 
to astrology. Many important results for the arts of 
navigation, agriculture, and of civil society in general, 
have been drawn from astronomical researches: many 
serious and mischievous effects have been produced on 
the minds of the ignorant, from their faith in the dreams 
of the astrologer. 


FACTOR, AGENT. 


Though both these terms, according to their origin, 
imply a maker or doer, yet, at present, they have a 
distinct signification: the word factor is used in a 
limited, and the word agent in a general sense: the 
factor only buys and sells on the account of others ; 
‘Their devotion (that is of the puritanical rebels) 
served all along but as an instrument to their avarice, 
as a factor or under agent to their extortion.’-—-Sourn. 
The agent transacts every sort of business in general ; 
‘ No expectations, indeed, were then formed from re- 
newing a direct application to. the French regicides 
through the agent general for the humiliation of sove- 
reigiis.—Burxe. Merchants and manufacturers em- 
ploy factors abroad to dispose of goods transmitted ; 
lawyers are frequently employed as agents in the re- 
ceipt and payment of money, the transfer of estates, 
and various other pecuniary concerns. 


FREIGHT, CARGO, LADING, LOAD, BURDEN. 


Freight, through the northern languages in all pro- 
bability comes from the Latin fero to bring, signifying 
the thing brought; cargo, in French cargaison, pro- 
bably a variation from carriage, is employed for all 
the conterts of a vessel, with the exception of the 
persons that it carries; lading and load (in German 
laden to load), comes most probably from the word 
last a burden, signifying the burden or weight im- 
posed upon any carriage ; burden, which through the 
medium of the northern Janguages, comes from the 
Greek gépros, and ¢épw to carry, conveys the idea of 
weight which is borne by the vessel. 

A captain speaks of the freight of his ship as that 
which isthe object of his voyage, by which all whu are 
interested in it are to make their profit ; the value and 
nature of the freight are the first objects of consider 
ation: he speaks of the lading as the thing which is to 
fill thes hip; the quantity, and weight of the lading, 
are to be taken into the consideration: he speaks of 
the cargo as that which goes with the ship, and belongs 
as it were to the ship; the amount of the cargo is that 
which is first thought of: he speaks of the Durden as 
that which his vessel will bear; it is the property of 
the ship which is to be estimated. 

The ship-broker regulates the freight ; the captain 
and the crew dispose the lading : the agent sees to the 
disposal of the cargo: the ship-builder determines the 
burden: the carrier looks to the load which he has to 
carry. The freight must consist of such merchandise 
as will pay for the transport and risk: the lading must 
consist of such things as can be most conveniently 
stowed: the value of a cargo depends not only on the 
nature of the commodity, but the market to whick 
it is carried; the burden of a vessel is estimated by 
the number of tons which it can carry. Freight and 


* Abbe Girard: * Astronomia, Astrologue ” 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


burden may +ometimes be used in a figurative appli- 
cation; 
Haste, my deer father (’t 18 no ame to wait), 
And load my shoulders with a willing freight. 
DRYDEN. 
« The surging air receives 
Its plumy burdern.—THomson. 


MERCANTILE, COMMERCIAL. 


Mercantile, from merchandise, respects the actual 
transaction of business, or a transfer of merchandise 
by sale or purchase; commercial comprehends the 
theory and practice of commerce: hence we speak in 
a peculiar manner of a mercantile house, a mercantile 
town, a mercantile situation, and the like; ‘Such is 
the happiness, the hope of which seduced me from the 
duties and pleasures of a mercantile life.’—JoHNSON. 
But of a commercial education, a commercial people, 
commercial speculations, and the like; ‘ The commer- 
cial world is very frequently put into confusion by the 
bankruptcy of merchants.’—JoHNSON. 


VENAL, MERCENARY, HIRELING. 


Venal, from the Latin venalis, signifies saleable or 
ready to be sold, which, applied as it commonly is to 
persons, is a much stronger term than mercenary. A 
venal man gives up all principle for interest; a mer- 
cenary man seeks his interest without regard to princi- 
ple: venal writers are such as write in favour of the 
cause that can promote them to riches or honours ; a 
servant is commonly a mercenary who gives his ser- 
vices according as he is paid: those who are loudest in 
their professions of poiitical purity are the best sub- 
jects for a minister to make venal : 


The minister, well pleas’d at small expense 

To silence so much rude impertinence, 

With squeeze and whisper yields to his demands, 
And on the venal list enroll’d he stands.—JEnyns. 


mercenary spirit is engendered in the minds of those 
eo devote themselves exclusively to trade; ‘For 
heir assistance they repair to the northern steel, and 
fring in an unnatural, mercenary crew.’—Souru. 

Hireling from hire, and mercenary from merx wages, 
are applied to any one who follows a sordid employ- 
ment; but hireling may sometimes be taken in its pro- 
per and less reproachful sense, for one who is hired asa 
servant to perform an allotted work; but in generai they 
are both reproachful epithets: the former having par- 
ticular reference to the meanness of the employment, 
and the latter to the sordid character of the person. 
Hireling prints are those which are in the pay of a 
party ; ‘It was not his carrying the bag which made 
Judas a thief and a hireling.—Sovutu. <A mercenary 
principle will sometimes actuate men in the highest 
station; ‘ These soldiers were nut citizens, but mer- 
cenary, sordid deserters.—BuRKE. 


COMMODITY, GOODS, MERCHANDISE, 
WARE. 


These terms agree in expressing articles of trade 
under various circumstances. 

Commodity, in Latin commoditas, signifies in its 
abstract sense convenience, and in an extended appli- 
cation the thing that is convenient or fit for use, which 
being also saleable, the word has been employed for 
the thing that is sold; goods, which denotes the thing 
that is good, has derived its use from the same analogy 
in its sense us in the former case; merchandise, in 
French marchandise, Latin mercatura or merz, He- 


brew 9\3}) to sell, signifies a saleable matter: ware, in 
Saxon ware, German, &c. waare, signifies properly any 
thing manufactured, and, by an extension of the sense, 
an article for sale. 

Commodity is employed only for articles of the first 
necessity ; it is the source of comfort and object of in- 
fustry. Goods is applied to every thing belonging to 
tradesmen, for which there is a stipulated value: they 
are sold retail, and are the proper objects of trade. 
Merchandise applies to what belongs to merchants; it 
is the object of commerce. Wares are ihanufactured, 
and may be either goods or merchandise. A country 

22 


339 


has its commodities ; a shopkeeper his goods, a mer 
chant his merchandise ; a manufacturer his wares. 
The most important commodities in a country are 
what are denominated staple commodities, which con- 
stitute its main riches: yet, although England has 
fewer of such commodities than almost any other na- 
tion, it has been enabled, by the industry and energy of 
its inhabitants, the peculiar excellence of its govern- 
ment, and its happy insular situation, not only to obtain 
the commodities of other cuuntries, but to increase 
their number, for the convenience of the whole world 
and its own aggrandizement: ‘Men must have made 
some considerable progress towards civilization before 
they acquired the idea of property so as to be acquaint- 
ed with the most simple of all contracts, that of ex- 
changing by barter one rude commodity for another.’— 
RogertTson. It is the interest of every tradesman to 
provide himself with such goods as he can recommend 
to his customers; the proper choice of which depends 
on judgement and experience; ‘It gives me very great 
scandal to observe, wherever I go, how much skill in 
buying all mannet of goods there is necessary to defend 
yourself from being cheated..—Strrte. The convey- 
ance of merchandise into England is always attended 
with considerable risk, as they must be transported by 
water: on the continent it is very slow and expensive, 
as they are generally transported by land; ‘If wecon- 
sider this expensive voyage, which is undertaken in 
search of know!¢dge, and how few there are who take 
in any considerable merchandise ; how hard is it, that 
the very small number who are distinguished with 
abilities to know how to vend their wares, should sufier 
being plundered by privateers under the very cannon 
that should protect them!"—Appison. All kinds of 
wares are not the most saleable commodities, but 
earthen ware claims a preference over every other. 


GOODS, FURNITURE, CHATTELS, MOVE- 
ABLES, EFFECTS. 


All these terms are applied to such things as belong 
to an individual; the first term is the most general 
both in sense and application ; all the rest are species. 

Furniture comprehends all household goods; where 


| fore in regard to an individual, supposing the house to 


contain all he has, the general is put for the specifick 
term, as when one speaks of a person’s moving his 
goods for his furniture; but in the strict sense oods 
comprehends more than furniture, including not only 
that which is adapted for the domestick purposes of 
a family, but also every thing which is of value toa 
person: the chairs and tables are a part of furniture ; 
papers, books, and money are included among his 
goods ; it is obvious, therefore, that goods, even in its 
most limited sense, is of wider import than furniture ; 
‘Now I give up my shop and dispose of all my poetical 
goods at once; I must therefore desire that the publick 
would please to take them in the gross, and that every 
body would turn over what he does not like.’—Prior. 
‘ Considering that your houses, your place and furné- 
ture, are not suitable to your quality, I conceive that 
your expense ought to be reduced to two-thirds of your 
estate. —WENTWORTH. ; 

Chattels, which is probably changed from cattle, is 
a term not in ordinary use, but still sufficiently employed 
to deserve notice. It comprehends' that species of 
goods which is in a special manner separated from 
one’s person and house ; a man’s cattle, his implements 
of husbandry, the alienable rights which he has in land 
or buildings, are all comprehended under chattels ; 
hence the propriety of the expression to seize a man’s 
goods and chattels, as denoting the disposable property 
which he has about his person oratadistance. Soime- 
times this word is used in the singular number, and 
also in the figurative; 


Honour’s a lease for lives to come, 

And cannot be extended from 

The legal tenant; ’tis a chattel 

Not to be forfeited in battle—Hup1pras 


Moveables comprehends all the other terms in the 
limited application to property, as far as it admits of 
being removed from one place to the other; it is op- 
posed either to fixtures, when speaking of furniture, 
or to land as contrasted to goods and chattels ; ‘There 
can be no doubt but that moveables of every kind 


340 


become sooner appropriated than the permanent, sub- 
stantial soil. —BLacKSTONE. j ee 
Effects is a term of nearly as extensive a significa- 
tion as goods, but not so extensive in application: 
whatever a man has that is of any supposed value, or 
convertible into money, is entitled his goods ; whatever 
a man has that can effect, produce, or bring forth 
money by sale,is entitled his effects: goods therefore 
is applied only to that which a man has at his own uis- 
posal; effects more properly to that which is left at the 
disposal of others. A man makes a sale of his goods 
on his removal from any place; his creditors or execu- 
tors take care of his effects either on his bankruptcy or 
decease: goods, in this case, is seldom empioyed but in 
the limited sense of whatis removeable ; but effects in- 
cludes every thing personal, freehold, and copyhoid; 
‘The laws of bankruptcy compel the bankrupt to give 
up all his effects to the use of the creditors without any 
concealment.’—BLACKSTONE. 


GOODS, POSSESSIONS, PROPERTY. 


All these terms are applicable to such things as are 
the means of enjoyment; but the former term respects 
the direct quality of producing enjoyment, the latter 
two. have regard to the subject of the enjoyment: we 
consider goods as they are real or imaginary, adapted 
or not adapted for the producing of real happiness; 
those who abound in the goods of this world are not 
always the happiest; ‘ The worldling attaches himself 
wholly to what he reckons the only solid goods, the 
possession of riches and influence..—Buair.  Posses- 
sions must be regarded as they are lasting or temporary ; 
he who is anxious for earthly possessions forgets that 
they are but transitory and dependent upon a thousand 
contingencies; ‘While worldly men enlarge their pos- 
sessions, and extend their connexions, they imagine 
they are strengthening themselves. —BLair. Property 
is to be considered as it is legal or illegal, just or un- 
just; those who are anxious for great property are not 
always scrupulous about the means by which it is to be 
obtained. 


For numerous blessings yearly shower’d, 
And property with plenty crown’d, 
Accept our pious praise.—DryDEN. 


The purity of a man’s Christian character is in dan- 
ger from an overweaning attachment to earthly goods ; 
no wise man will boast the multitude of his posses- 


sions, when he reflects that if they do not leave him, } 


the time is not far distant when he must leave them; 
the validity of one’s claim to property which comes by 
inheritance is better founded than any other. 


RICHES, WEALTH, OPULENCE, 
AFFLUENCE. 


Riches, in German reichthum, from reiche a kingdom, 
comes from the Latin rego torule; because riches and 
power are intimately connected; wealth, from well, 
signifies well being; opulence, from the Latin opes 
riches, denotes the state of having riches; aflwence, 
from the Latin ad and jiwo, denotes either the act of 
riches flowing in to a person, or the state of having 
riches to flow in. 

Riches is a general term denoting any considerable 
share of property, but without immediate reference to 
@ possessor; wealth denotes the prosperous condition 
of the possessor; opulence characterizes the present 
possession of great riches; affluence denotes the in- 
creasing wealth of the individual. Riches is a con- 
dition opposed to poverty; the whole world is divided 
into rich and poor; ‘Riches are apt to betray a.man 
into arrogance.’—Appison. Wealth is that positive 
and substantial share in the goods of fortune which 
distinguish an individual from his neighbours, by 
putting him in possession of all that is commonly de- 
sired and sought after by man; 


His best companions innocence and health, 
And his best riches ignorance of wealth. 
GOLDSMITH. 


We who has much money has great wealth ; 


Along the lawn where scatter’d hamlets rose, 
Unwieldly wealth and cumb’rous pomp repose. 
GOLDSMITH. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


Opulence is likewise a positively great share of riches, 
but refers rather to the external possessions, than to 
the: whole condition of the man. He who has much 
land, much cattle, many houses, and the like, is pro- 
perly denominated opulent; ‘Our Saviour did not 
choose for himself an easy and opulent condition” — 
Buair. Aflwence isa term peculiarly applicable to thé 
fluctuating condition of things which flow in in quan 
tities, or flow away in equally great quantities; ‘ Pros- 
perity is often an equivocal word denoting merely 
affluence of possession.’—Biarr. Hence we do not say 
that a man is opulent, but that he is affluent in his cir 
cumstances. 

Wealth and opulence are applied to individuals, or 
communities: affluence is applicable only to an indi- 
vidual. The wealth of a nation must be procured by 
the industry of the inhabitants; the opulence of a town 
may arise from some local circumstance in its favour, 
as its favourable situation for trade and the like; he 
who lives in affluence is apt to forget the uncertain 
tenure by which he holds his riches; we speak of 
riches as to their effects upon men’s minds and man- 
ners; itis not every one who knows how to use them 
We speak of wealth as it raises a man in the scale of 
society; the wealthy merchant is an important member 
of the community: we speak of opulence as it indicates 
the flourishing state of the individual: an opulent man 
shows unquestionable marks of his opulence around 
him; we speak of affluence to characterize the abun- 
dance of the individual , we show our affluence by the 
style of our living. 


en 


MONEY, CASH. 


Money comes from the Latin moneta, which signi- 
fied stamped coin, from moneo to advise, to inform of 
its value, by means of an inscription or stamp; cash, 
from the French caisse a chest, signifies that which is 
put in a chest, 

* Money is applied to every thing which serves asa 
circulating medium: cash is, in a strict sense, put for 
coin only: bank notes are money; guineas and sghil- 
lings are cash: all cash is therefore money, but all 
money is not cash. The only money the Chinese have 
are square bits of metal, with a hole through the centre, 
by which they are strung upon a string: travellers on 
the Continent must always be provided with letters of 
credit, which may be turned into cash as convenience 
requires. 


TO HEAP, PILE, ACCUMULATE, AMASS 


To heap signifies to form into a heap, which through 
the medium of the northern languages is derivable 
from the Latin copia plenty. ‘To pile is to form into a 
pile, which, being a variation of pole, signifies a high 
raised heap. To accumulate, from the Latin cwmulus 
a heap, signifies to put heap upon heap. To amass is 
literally to form into a mass. 

To heap is an indefinite action: it may be performed 
with or without order: to pile is a definite action done 
with design and order; thus we heap stones, or pile 
wood : to heap may be to make into large or small heaps ; 


Within the circles arms and tripods lie, 
Ingots of gold and silver heap’d on high. 
DrypDEN. 
To pile is always to make something considerable; 


This wouid I celebrate with annual games, 
With gifts on altars pil’d, and holy flames. 
DRYDEN. 

Children may heap sticks together; men pile loads ot 
wood together. ‘To heap and pile are used mostly in 
the physical, accwmulate and amass in the physical or 
moral acceptation ; the former is a species of heapin 
the latter of piling : we accumulate whatever is broug t 
together in a loose manner; we amass that which can 
coalesce: thus a man accumulates guineas; he amasses 
wealth. 

To accumulate and to amass are not always the acts 
ef conscious agents: things may accumulate or amass : 
water or snow accumulates by the continual accession 
of fresh quantities ; the ice amasses in rivers until it 
is frozen over: so in the moral acceptation, evils, 
abuses, and the like, accumulate; corruption amasses 


* Vide Trusler: ‘‘ Money, cash.” 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


W hen overwhelmed with an accumulation of sorrows, 
the believer is never left comfortless; ‘ These odes are 
marked by glittering accumulations of ungraceful or- 
naments.—Jounson. The industrious inquirer may 
collect a mass of intelligence; ‘Sir Francis Bacon, by 
an extraordinary force of nature, compass of thought, 
and indefatigable study, had amassed to himself such 
stores of knowledge as we cannot look upon without 
amazement.’—HvGuHEs. 


STOCK, STORE. 


Stock, from stick, stoke, stow, and stuff, signifies any 
quantity laid up; store, in Welch sto7, comes from the 


Hebrew AD to hide. 

The ideas of wealth and stability being naturally 
allied, it is not surprising that stock, which expresses 
the latter idea, should also be put for the former, par- 
ticularly as the abundance here referred to serves as a 
foundation in the same manner as stock in the literal 
sense does to a tree 

Store likewise implies a quantity; but agreeable to 
the derivation of the word, it implies an accumulated 
quantity. Any quantity of materials which is in hand 
may serve as a stock fora given purpose; thus a few 
shillings with some persons may be their stock in trade: 
any quantity of materials brought together for a given 
purpose may serve as a store ; thus the industrious ant 
collects a store of grain for the winter: we judge of a 
man’s substantial property by the steck of goods which 
he has on hand; we judge of a man’s disposable pro- 
verty by the store which he has. The stock is that 
which must increase of itself; it is the source and 
foundation of industry: the store is that which we 
must add to occasionally; it is that from which we 
draw in time of need. By a stock we gain riches; by 
a store we guard against want: a stock requires skill 
and judgement to make the proper application; a store 
requires foresight and management to make it against 
the proper season. It is necessary for one who has a 
large trade to have a large stock; and for him who has 
no prospect of supply to have a large store. 

The same distinction subsists between these words 
in their moral application; he who wishes to speak a 
foreign language must have a stock of familiar words; 
stores of learning are frequently lost to the world for 
want of means and opportunity to bring them forth to 
publick view ; ‘It will not suffice to rally all one’s Jittle 
utmost into one’s discourse, which can constitute a 
divine. Any man would then quickly be drained; and 
his short stock would serve but for one meeting in 
ordinary converse; therefore there 1.aust be store, 
plenty, and a treasure, lest he turn broker in divinity.’ 
—Soura. 

As verbs, to stock and to store both signify to pro- 
vide; but the former is a provision for the present use, 
and the latter for some future purpose: a tradesman 
stocks himself with such articles as are most saleable ; 
a fortress or a ship is stored: a person stocks himself 
with patience, or stores his memory with knowledge. 


TO TREASURE, HOARD. 


The idea of laying up carefully is common to these 
verbs; but to treasure is to lay up for the sake of 
preserving; to hoard, to lay up for the sake of accu- 
mulating ; we treasure up the gifts of a friend; the 
miser hoards up his money: we attach a real value to 
that which we treasure; a fictitious value to that 
which is hoarded. To treasure is used either in the 
proper or improper sense; to hoard only in the proper 
sense: we treasure a book on which we set particular 
value, or we treasure the words or actions of another 
in our recollection; ‘Fancy can combine the ideas 
which memory has. treasured.—-HaAWwKESWORTH. 
The miser hoards in his coffers whatever he can 
scrape together ; 


Hoards ev’n beyond the miser’s wish abound. 
GoLDsMITH. 


PLENTIFUL, PLENTEOUS, ABUNDANT, 
COPIOUS, AMPLE, 


Plenitful and plenteous signify the presence of 
plenty, plenitude, or fulness; abundance, in Latin 
abundantia, from abundo to overflow, compounded of 
the intensive ab and unda a wave, signifies flowing 


34k 


over in great quantities like the waves; copious, in 
Latin copiosus, from copia, or con, and opes a stock, 
signifies having a store; ample, in Latin amplus, from 
the Greek dvdrAcws, signifies over-full. 

Plentiful and plenteous differ only in use; the 
former being most employed in the familiar, the latter 
in the grave style. 

Plenty fills; abundance does more, it leaves a super 
fluity; as that, however, which fills suffices as much 
as that which flows over, the term abundance is often 
employed promiscuously with that of plenty: we car 
indifferently say a plentiful harvest, or an abundant 
harvest. Plenty is, however, more frequent in the 
literal sense for that which fills the body; abundance, 
for that which fills the mind, or the desire of the mind. 
A plenty of provisions is even more common than an 
abundance; a plenty of food; a plenty of corn, wine, 
and oil; 

The resty knaves are overrun with ease, 
As plenty ever is the nurse of faction.—Rowr. 


But an abundance of words; an abundance of riches ; 
an abundance of wit and humour. In certain years fruit 
is plentiful, and at other times grain is plentiful: in 
all cases we have abundant cause for gratitude to the 
Giver of all good things ; 


And God said, let the waters generate 
Reptile with spawn abundant, living soul. 
MILToN. 


Copious and ample are modes either of plenty or 
abundance; the former is employed in regard to what 
is collected or brought into one point: the ample is 
employed only in regard to what may be narrowed or 
expanded. A copious stream of blood, or a copious 
flow of words, equally designate the quantity which is 
collected together ; 


Smooth to the shelving brink a copious flood 
Rolls fair and placid.—THomson. 


As an ample provision, an ample store, an ample share 
marks that which may at pleasure be increased or 
diminished ; 
Peaceful beneath primeval trees, that cast 
Their ample shade o’er Niger’s yellow stream, 
Leans the huge elephant, wisest of brutes. 
THOMSON. 


FULNESS, PLENITUDE. 


Although plenitude is no more than a derivative 
from the Latin for fulness, yet the latter is used either 
in the proper sense to express the state of objects that 
are full, or in the improper sense to express great 
quantity, which is the accompaniment of fulness; the 
former only in the higher style and in the improper 
sense: hence we say in the fulness of one’s heart, in 
the fulness of one’s joy, or the fulness of the God- 
head bodily ; but the plenitude of glory, the plenitude 


of power; 
All mankind 
Must have been lost, adjudg’d to death and hell, 
By doom severe, had not the Son of God, 
In whom the fulness dwells of love divine, 
His dearest meditation thus renew’d.—MILTon. 


‘The most beneficent Being is he who hath an abso- 
lute fulness of perfection in himself, who gave exist- 
ence to the universe, and so cannot be supposed te 
want that which he communicated without diminish- 
ing from the plenitude of his own power and happi 
ness.’—GROVE. 


FERTILE, FRUITFUL, PROLIFICK. 


Fertile, in Latin fertilis, from fero to bear, signi 
fies capable of bearing or bringing to light; fructful 
signifies full of fruit, or containing within itself much 
fruit; prolifick is compounded of proles and facio to 
make a progeny. 

Fertile expresses in its proper sense the faculty of 
sending forth from itself that which is not of its own 
nature, and is peculiarly applicable to the ground which 
causes every thing within itself to grow up; 


Why should I mention those, whose oozy soil 


Is render’d fertile by the o’erflowing Nile. 
JENYNS. 


Fruitful expresses a state containing or possessing 


342 


abundantly that which is of the same nature ; it is, 
therefore, peculiarly applicable to trees, plants, vegeta- 
bles, and whatever is said to bear fruit ; 


When first the soil receives the fruitful seed, 
Make no delay, but cover it with speed.—DrypEN. 


Prolifick expresses the faculty of generating ; it con- 
veys therefore the idea of what is creative, and is pecn- 
liarly applicable to animals; ‘ All dogs are of one spe- 
cies they mingling together in generation, and the 
breed of such mixtures being prolifick.—Ray. We 
may say that the ground is either fertile or fruitful, 
but not prolifick : we may speak of a female of any 
species being fruitful and prolifick, but not fertile ; 
we may speak of nature as being fruztful, but neither 
fertile nor prolifick. A country is fertzle as it respects 
the quality of the soil; it is fruitful as it respects the 
abundance of its produce: it is possible, therefore, for 
a country to be fruitful by the industry of its inha- 
bitants, although not fertile by nature. 

An animal is said to be fruitful as it respects the 
number of young which it has; it is said to be prolz- 
fick as it respects its generative power. Some women 
are more fruitful than others; but there are many ani- 
mals more prolifick than human creatures. The lands 
in Egypt are rendered fertile by means of mud which 
they receive from the overflowing of the Nile: they 
consequently produce harvests more fruitful than in 
almost any other country. Among the Orientals bar- 
renness was reckoned a disgrace, and every woman 
was ambitious to be fruitful: there are some insects, 
particularly among the noxious tribes, which are so 
prolifice, that they are not many hours in being before 
they begin to breed. 

In the figurative application they admit of a similar 
distinction. A man is fertile in expedients who rea- 
dily contrives upon the spur of the occasion; he is 
fruitful in resources who has them ready at his hand ; 
his brain is prolifick if it generates an abundance of 
new conceptions. A mind is fertile which has powers 
that admit of cultivation and expansion ; ‘To every 
work Warburton brought a memory full fraught, toge- 
ther with a fancy fertile of combinations.’—JoHNSON. 
An imagination is frudtful that is rich in stores of 
imagery; a genius is prolifick that is rich in invention. 
Females are fertile in expedients and devices ; ambi- 
tion and avarice are the most fruitful sources of dis- 
cord and misery in publick and vrivate life ; ‘ The phi- 
losophy received from the Greeks has been fruitful in 
controversies, but barren of works.’—Bacon. Novel- 
writers are the most prolifick class of authors ; 

Parent of light! all-seeing sun, 
Prolifick beam, whose rays dispense 
The various gifts of Providence.—Gay. 


LARGELY, COPIOUSLY, FULLY. 


Largely (v. Great) is here taken in the moral sense, 
and, if the derivation given of it be true, in the most 
proper sense ; copiously comes from the Latin copia 
plenty, signifying in a plentiful degree; fully signifies 
in odie degree ; to the full extent, as far as it can 
reach. 

Quantity is the idea expressed in common by all 
these terms; but largely has always a reference to the 
freedom of the will in the agent; copiously qualifies 
actions that are done by inanimate objects; fully qua- 
lifies the actions of a rational agent, but it denotes a 
degree or extent which cannot be surpassed. 

A person deals largely in things, or he drinks large 
draughts ; rivers are copiously supplied in rainy sea- 
sons; a person is fully satisfied, or fully prepared. A 
bountiful Providence has distributed his gifts largely 
among his creatures; ‘There is one very faulty me- 
thod of drawing up the laws, that is, when the case is 
largely set forth in the preamble.’—Bacon. Blood 
flows copiously from a deep wound when it is first 
made; 


The youths with wine the copious goblets crown’d, 
And pleas’d dispense the flowing bowls around. 
Popr. 

When a man is not fully convinced of his own insuf- 
ficiency, he is not prepared to listen to the counsel of 
others; ‘Every word (in the Bible) is so weighty that 

ouglit to be carefully considered by all that desire 
fully to understand the sense.’—BrvVERIDGE, 


en 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


PROFUSION, PROFUSENESS. 


Profusion, from the Latin profundo to pour forts 
is taken in relation to unconscious objects, which pout 
forth in great plenty ; prefuseness is taken from the 
same, in relation to conscious agents, who likewise 
pour forth in great plenty. The term profusion, 
therefore, is put for plenty itself, and the term profuse, 
mess as a characteristick of persons in the sense of ex- 
travagance. 

At the hospitable board of the rich there will natu: 
rally be a profusion of every thing which can gratify 
the appetite ; 


Ye glit’ring towns with wealth and splendout 
crown’d, 

Ye fields where summer spreads profusion round, 

For me your tributary stores combine.—GoLpaMITH. 


When men see an unusual degree of profusion, they 
are apt to indulge themselves in profuseness ; ‘ 1 was 
convinced that the liberality of my young companions 
was only profuseness.’—JOHNSON. 


EXTRAVAGANT, PRODIGAL, LAVISH, 
PROFUSE. 


Extravagant, from extra and vagans, signifies in 
general wandering from the line; and prodigal, from 
the Latin prodigus and prodigo to launch forth, sig 
nifies in general to send forth, or give out in great 
quantities ; lavish comes probably from the Latin lave 
to wash, signifying to wash away In waste; profuse, 
from the Latin profusus, participle of profundo to pour 
forth, signifies pouring out freely. 

The idea of using immoderately is implied in all 
these terms, but extravagant is the most general in 
its meaning and application. The extravagant man 
spends his money without reason; the prodigal man 
spends it in excesses; the former errs against plain 
sense, the latter violates the moral law: the eztrava- 
gant man will ruin himself by his follies ; the prodigal 
by his vices. One may be extravagant with a small 
sum where it exceeds one’s Means; one cannot be 
prodigal but with large sums. 

Extravagance is practised by both sexes; prodi- 
gality is peculiarly the vice of the male sex. Eztra- 
vagance is opposed to meanness; prodigality to ava 
rice. Those who know the true value of money, as 
contributing to their own enjoyments, or those of 
others, will guard against extravagance. Those wha 
lay a restraint on their passions, can never fall into 
prodigality. 

Extravagant and prodigal serve to designate habit- 
ual as well as particular actions; lavish and profuse 
are employed only in particular: hence we say to be 
lavish of one’s money, one’s presents, and the like; to 
be profuse in one’s entertainments, both of which may 
be modes of extravagance. An extravagant man, 
however, in the restricted sense, mostly spends upon 
himself to indulge his whims and idle fancies; buta 
man may be lavish and profuse upon others from a 
misguided generosity. 

In a moral use of these terms, a man is extravagant 
in his praises who exceeds either in measure or appli 
cation; ‘No one is to admit into his petitions to hig 
Maker, things superfluous and eztravagant.’—Soutu. 
He is prodigal of his strength who consumes it by an 
excessive use ; 


Here patriots live, who for their country’s good, 
In fighting fields were prodigal of blood. 
DryDen. 
He is lavish of his compliments who deals them out 
so largely and promiscuously as to render them of no 
service ; 
See where the winding vale its Zavish stores 
Irriguous spreads.—THomson. 


He is prefuse in his acknowledgments who repeats 
them oftener, or delivers them in more words, than are 
necessary ; ‘Cicero was most liberally profuse in com 
mending the ancients and his contemporaries.’—App1 
son (after Plutarch). 

_ Extravagant and profuse are said only of indi- 
viduals ; prodigal and lavish may be said of many in 
a general sense. A nation may be prodigal of its re- 
sources ; a government may be lavish of the publick 
money, as an individual is extravagant with his own 
and profuse in what he gives another. 


- ENGLISH SYNONYMES. — 


ENOUGH, SUFFICIENT. 


rnough, in German genug, comes from gentigen, 
w satisfy; sufficient, in Latin sufficiens, participle of 
suficio, compounded of sub and facto, signifies made 
er suited to the purpose. 

He has enough whose desires are satisfied; he has 
eufficient whose wants are supplied. We may there- 
fore frequently have suffictency when we have not 
enough. A greedy man is commonly in this case, he 
has never enough, although he has more than a suff- 
ciency. Enough is said only of physical objects of 
desire; sufficient is employed in a moral application, 
for that which serves the purpose. Children and ani- 
mals never have enough food, nor the miser enough 
money ; , 

My loss of honour ’s great enough, 
Thou need’st not brand it with a scoff. 
f BUTLER. 


It is requisite to allow sufficient time for every thing 
that is to be done, if we wish it to be done well; ‘The 
time present seldom afiords sufficient employment for 
the mind of man.’—AppIson. 


EXCESS, SUPERFLUITY, REDUNDANCY. 


Excess is that which exceeds any measure; swper- 
fuity from super and fluo to flow over; and redun- 
dancy, from redundo to stream back or over, signifies 
an excess of a good measure. We may have an ez- 
cess of heat or cold, wet or dry, when we have more 
than the ordinary quantity; but we have a superfluity 
of provisions when we have more than we want. 
Excess is applicable to any object; but superfluity and 
redundancy are species of excess. Superfluity is ap- 
plicable in a particular manner to that which is an ob- 
ject of our desire; and redundancy to matters of ex- 
pression or feeling. We may have an ezcess of pros- 
perity or adversity; ‘It is wisely ordered in our present 
state that joy and fear, hope and grief, should act alter- 
mately as checks and balances upon each other, in 
order te prevent an excess in any of them.’—B arr. 
We may have a superfluity of good things; ‘ When 
by force or policy, by wisdom, or by fortune, property 
and superiority were introduced and established, then 
they whose possessions swelled above their wants 
naturally laid out their superfluzties on pleasure.’— 
Jounson. ‘There may be a redundancy of speech or 
words; ‘ The defect or redundance of a syllable might 
be easily covered in the recitation.’ —TYRRWHIT. 


EXCESSIVE, IMMODERATE, INTEMPERATE. 


The excessive is beyond measure; the zmmoderate, 
from modus a mode or measure, is without measure ; 
the intemperate, from tempus a time or term, is that 
which is not kept within bounds. 

Excessive designates excess in general; tmmoderate 
and intemperate designate excess in moral agents. 
The excessive liés simply in the thing which exceeds 
any given point: the immederate lies in the passions 
which range to a boundless extent: the intemperate 
lies in the will which is under no control. Hence we 
speak of an excessive thirst physically considered: an 
immoderate ambition or lust of power: an intemperate 
indulgence, an intemperate warmth. Excessive ad- 
mits of degrees; what is excessive may exceed in a 
greater or less degree: immoderate and intemperate 
mark a positively great degree of excess ; the former 
still higher than the latter: zmmoderate is in fact the 
highest conceivable degree of excess. 

The excessive use of any thing will always be at- 
tended with some evil consequence; ‘ Who knows not 
the languor that attends every excessive indulgence in 
pleasure ?—Buair. The immoderate use of wine will 
rapidly tend to the ruin of him who is guilty of the 
excess ; ‘ One of the first objects of wish to every one 
is to maintain a proper place and rank in society: this 
among the vain and ambitious is always the favourite 
aim. With them it arises to immoderate expecta- 
tions founded on their supposed talents and imagined 
merits.".—-Biarr. The intemperate use of wine will 

oceed by a more gradual but not less sure process to 
nis ruin; ‘Let no wantonness of youthful spirits, no 
compliance with the intemperate mirth of others, ever 
betray you into profane sallies.’-—Bvatr. 


343 


Excesswe designates what is partial; zmmoderate 
is used oftener for what is partial than what is habi- 
tual; intemperate oftener for what is habitual than 
what is partial. A person is excessively displeased on 
particular occasions: he may be an zmmoderate eater 
at all times, or only ¢mmoderate in that which he likes: 
he is intemperate in his language when his anger is 
intemperate; or he leads an intemperate life. The 
excesses of youth do but too often settle into confirmed 
habits of intemperance. 


EXUBERANT, LUXURIANT. 


Exuberant, from the Latin exuberans or ex and 
ubero, signifies very fruitful or superabundant : luau- 
riant, in Latin luzurians, from laxus, signifies ex- 
panding with unrestrained freedom. ‘These terms are 
both applied to vegetation in a flourishing state; but 
exuberance expresses the excess, and luxuriance the 
perfection: ina fertile soil where plants are left unre- 
strainedly to themselves there will be an exuberance; 


Another Flora there of bolder hues 

And richer sweets, beyond our garden’s pride 

Plays o’er the fields, and showers with sudden hand 
Exuberant spring.—THomson. 


Plants are to be seen in their luxuriance only in seasons 
that are favourable to them; 


On whose luxurious herbage, half conceal’d, 

Like a fall’n cedar, far diffus’d his train, 

Cas’d in green scales, the crocodile extends. 
THOMSON. 


In the moral application, exuberance of intellect is 
often attended with a restless ambition that is incom- 
patible both with the happiness and advancement of 
its possessor; ‘His similes have been thought too 
exuberant and full of circumstances.—Popr. Luxu 
riance of imagination is one of the greatest gifts which 
a poet can boast of; ‘A fluent and luxuriant speech 
becomes youth well, but not age.’-—Bacon. 


EMPTY, VACANT, VOID, DEVOID. 


Empty, in Saxon empéz, is not improbably derived 
from the Latin znopis poor or wanting; vacant, in 


Latin vacans or vaco, comes from ihe Hebrew pp 


to draw out or exhaust; vozd and devoid, in Latin v2 
duus and Greek idcos, signifies solitary or bereft. 

Empty is the term in most general use; vacant, 
void, and devoid are employed in particular cases: 
empty and vacant have either a proper or an improper 
application; void or devoid only a moral acceptation. 

Empty, in the natural sense, marks an absence of 
that which is substantial, or adapted for filling; vacant 
designates or marks the absence of that which should 
occupy or make use of a thing. That which is hollow 
may be empty; that which respects any space may be 
vacant. A house is empty which has no inhabitants; 
a seat is vacané which is without an occupant: a room 
is empty which is without furniture ; a space on paper 
is vacant which is free from writing. 

In the figurative application empty and vacant have 
a similar analogy: a dream is said to be empty, or a 
title empty, &c.; 


To honour Thetis’ son he bends his care, 

And plunge the Greeks in all the woes of war \ 

Then bids an empty phantom rise to sight, 

And thus commands the vision of the night. 
Pop. 


A stare is said to be vacant, or an hour vacant; ‘An 
inquisitive man is a creature naturally very vacant of 
thought in itself, and therefore forced to apply itself to 
foreign assistance.’"—-STEELE. Void or devoid are used 
in the same sense as vacant, as qualifying epithets, 
but not prefixed as adjectives, and always followed by 
some object: thus we speak of a creature as void of 
reason; and of an individual as devotd of common 
sense ; 

My next desire is, vozd of care and strife, 

To lead a soft, secure, inglorious life.x—DRYDEN. 


We Tyrians are not so devoid of sense, 
_ Ner so remote from Phebus’ influence.x—DrypEn. 


344 


VACANCY, VACUITY, INANITY. 


Vacancy and vacuity both denote the space unoc- 
cupied, or the abstract quality of being unoccupied. 
Inanity, from the Latin inanzs, denotes the :abstract 
quality of emptiness, or of not containing any thing: 
hence the former terms vacancy and vacuity are used 
in an indifferent or bad sense; zmanity always in a 
bad sense: there may be a vacancy in the seat, or a 
vacancy in the mind, or a vacancy in life, which we 
may or may not fill up as we please ; 

How is ’t 
That thus you bend your eye on vacancy 
And with th’ incorporal air do hold discourse # 
SHAKSPEARE. 


Vacuities are supposed to be interspersed among the 
particles of matter, or, figuratively, they may be sup- 
posed to exist in the soul and in other objects; ‘There 
are vacutties in the happiest life, which it is not in the 
power of the world to fill’—Buatr. IJnanity of cha- 
racter denotes the want of the essentials that consti- 
tute a character; ‘When I look up and behold the 
heavens, it makes me scorn the world and the plea- 
sures thereof, considering the vanity of these and the 
inanity of the other.—Howe.L. 


HOLLOW, EMPTY. 


Hollow, from hole, signifies being like a hole; empty, 
ov. Empty. 

Hollow respects the body itself; the absence of its 
own material produces hollowness: empty respects 
foreign bodies; their absence in another body consti- 
tutes emptiness. Hollowness is therefore a prepara- 
tive to emptiness, and may exist independently of it; 
but emptiness presupposes the existence of hollowness : 
what is empty must be hollow; but what is hollow 
need not be empty. Hollowness is often the natural 
property of a body; emptiness is a contingent pro- 
perty: that which is hollow is destined by nature to 
contain; but that which is empty is deprived of its 
contents by a casualty: a nut is hollow for the purpose 
of receiving the fruit: it is emptyif it contain no fruit. 

They are both employed in a moral acceptation, and 

“in a bad sense; the hollow, in this case, is applied to 
what ought to be solid or sound; and empty to what 
ought to be filled: a person is hollow whose goodness 
lies only at the surface, whose fair words are without 
meaning ; a truce is hollow which is only an external 
cessation from hostilities ; 

He seem’d 
For dignity compos’d, and high exploit ; 
But all was false and hollow.— MILTON. 
A person is empty who is without the requisite portion 
of understanding and knowledge; an excuse is empty 
which is unsupported by fact and reason; a pleasure 
is empty which cannot afford satisfaction; 
The creature man 
Condemn’d to sacrifice his childish years 
To babbling ignorance and empty fears.—Prtor. 


TO SPEND, EXHAUST, DRAIN. 


Spend, contracted from expend, in Latin expendo to 
pay away, signifies to give from oneself; exhaust, from 
the Latin exhaurio to draw out, signifies to draw out 
all that there is; drain, a variation of draw, signifies 
to draw dry. 

The idea of taking from the substance of any thing 
is common to these terms; but to spend is to deprive 
in a less degree than to exhaust, and that in a less 
degree than to drain: every one who exerts himself, 
in that degree spends his strength; if the exertions 
are violent he exhausts himself; a country which is 
drained of men is supposed to have no more left. To 
spend may be applied to that which is either external 
or inherent in a body; 


Your tears fo such a death in vain you spend, 
Which straight in immortality shall end. 
DrnuHAM. 


Exhaust applies to that which is inherent or essential ; 
drain to that which is external of the body in which it 
is contained; ‘Teaching is not a flow of words nor 
the draining of an hour-glass.—Sourn. We may 


-and the like: 


" ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


speak of spending our wealth, our resources, our time, 
The strength, the vigour, or the voice ig 
exhausted ; ‘Many of our provisions for ease or hap- 
piness are exhausted by the present day.’—Jounson. 
Draining is applied in its proper application to a vessel 
which is drained of its liquid; or, in extended appli- 
cation, to a treasury which is drained of money. 
Hence arises this farther distinction, that to spend and 
to exhaust may tend, more or less, to the injury of a 
body; but to drain may be to its advantage. Inas 
much as what is spent or exhausted may be more o. 
less essential to the soundness of a body, it cannot be 
parted with without diminishimg its value, or even 
destroying its existence; as when a fortune is spent it 
is gone, or when a person’s strength is exhausted he 
is no longer able to move: on the other hand, to drain, 
though a more complete evacuation, is not always 
injurious, but sometimes even useful to a body; as when 
the land is drained of a superanundance of water. 


TO SPEND OR EXPEND, WASTE, DISSIPATE, 
SQUANDER. 


Spend and expend are variations from the Latin ez- 
pendo ; but spend may be used in the sense of turning 
to some purpose, or making use of; to expend carries 
with it likewise the idea of exhausting; and waste 
moreover, comprehends the idea of exhausting to no 
good purpose: we spend money when we purchase any 
thing with it; we expend it when we lay it out in large 
quantities, so as essentially to diminish its quantity: 
individuals spend what they have; government ez- 
pends vast sums in conducting the affairs of a nation; 
all persons waste their property who have not sufficient 
discretion to use it well: we spend our time, or our 
lives, in any employment ; 

Then having spent the last remains of light, 
They give their bodies due repose at night. 
DRYDEN. 


We expend our strength and faculties upon some 
arduous undertaking ; ‘The king of England wasted 
the French king’s country, and thereby caused him to 
expend such sums of money as exceeded the debt.’ 
Haywarp. Men are apt to waste their time and talents 
in trifles ; 

What numbers, guiltless of their own disease, 

Are snatch’d by sudden death, or waste by slow de- 

grees !—JENYNS. 

Dissipate, in Latin dissipatus, from dissipo, that is, 
dis and sipo, in Greek oi¢w to scatter, signifies te 
scatter different ways, that is, to waste by throwing 
away in all directions: squander, which is a variation 
of wander, signifies to make to run wide apart. Both 
these terms, therefore, denote modes of wasting; but 
the former seems peculiarly applicable to that which is 
wasted in detail upon different objects, and by a dis- 
traction of the mind; the latter respects rather the act 
of wasting in the gross, in large quantities, by planlesg 
profusion; young men are apt to dissipate their pro- 
perty in pleasures ; 

He pitied man, and much he pitied those 

Whom falsely smiling fate has curs’d with means 

To dissipate their days in quest of joy. 

ARMSTRONG. 


The open, generous, and thoughtless are apt te 
squander their property; ‘To how many temptations 
are all, but especially the young and gay, exposed to 
eens their whole time amid the circles of levity * 
—Buarr. 


TO SPREAD, SCATTER, DISPERSE. 


Spread (v. To spread) applies equally to divisible o1 
indivisible bodies ; we spread our money on the table, 
or we may spread a cloth on the table: but ecatter 
which, like shatter, is a frequentative of shake, is ap 
plicable to divisible bodies only; we scatter cornon the 
ground. To spread may be an act of design or other- 
wise, but mostly the former; as when we spread books 
or papers before us: scatter is mostly an act without 
design ; a child scatters the papers on the floor. When 
taken, however as an act of design, it is done without 
order; but spreaa 1s an act done in order: thus hay ix 
spread out to dry, but corn is scattered over the land : 


ENGLISH SYNUNYMES. 


Allin a row 
Advancing broad, or wheeling round the field, 
They spread their breathing harvest to the sun. 

THOMSON. 


Each leader now his scatter’d force conjoins. 
Pore. 


Things may spread in one direction, or at least with- 
out separation; but they disperse (v. To dispel) in 
many directions, so as to destroy the continuity of 
bodies: a leaf spreads as it opens in all its parts, and 
a tree also spreads as its branches increase; but a mul- 
titude disperses, an army disperses. Between scatter 
and disperse there is no other difference than that one 
is immethodical and involuntary, the other systematick 
and intentional: flowers are scattered along a path, 
which accidentally fall from the hand; a mob is dis- 
persed by an act of, authority: sheep are scattered 
along the hills; religious tracts are dispersed among 
the poor: the disciples were scattered as sheep without 
a shepherd, after the delivery of our Saviour into the 
hands of the Jews; they dispersed themselves, after 
his ascension, over every part of the world; 


Straight to the tents the troops dispersing bend. 
Pops. 


TO SPREAD, EXPAND, DIFFUSE. 


Spread, in Saxon spredan, Low German spredan, 
High German sprezten, is an intensive of brett broad, 
signifying to stretch wide; expand, in Latin expando, 
compounded of ez and pando to open, and the Greek 
daivw to show or make appear, signifies to open out 
wide; diffuse, v. Diffuse. 

To spread is the general, the other two are particular 
terms. To spread may be said of any thing which 
occupies more space than it has done, whether by a 
direct separation of its parts, or by an accession to the 
substance; but to expand is to spread by means of 
separating or unfolding the parts: a mist spreads over 
the earth; a flower expands its leaves: a tree spreads 
by the growth of its branches; the opening bud ez- 
pands when it feels the genial warmth of the sun. 

Spread and expand are used likewise in a moral 
application ; diffuse is seldom used in any other appli- 
cation: spread is here, as before, equally indefinite as 
to the mode of the action; every thing spreads, and it 
spreads in any way; 

See where the winding vale its lavish’d stores 
lrriguous spreads.—T HOMSON. 


Expansion is that gradual process by which an object 
opens or unfolds itself after the manner of a flower; 


As from the face of heaven the shatter’d clouds 
Tumultuous rove, th’ interminable sky 
Sublimer swells, and o’er the world expands 
A purer azure.— THOMSON. 
Diffusion is that process of spreading which consists 
literally in pouring out in different ways; 
Th’ uncurling floods diffus’d 
In glassy breadth, seem, through delusive lapse, 
Forgetful of their course.—THomson. 
Evils spread, and reports spread; the mind ez- 
pands, and prospects expand ; knowledge diffuses itself, 
or cheerfulness is diffused throughout a company. 


TO DILATE, EXPAND. 


Dilate, in Latin dilato, from di apart and latus, 
wide, that is, to make very wide; expand, v. To 
spread, in the preceding article. 

The idea of drawing any thing out so as to occupy 
a greater space is common to these terms in opposition 
to contracting. Dilate is an intransitive verb; expand 
is transitive or intransitive; the former marks the 
action of any body within itself; the latter an external 
action on any body. A bladder dilates on the admis- 
sion of air, or the heart dilates with joy; knowledge 
expands the mind, or a person’s views expand with 
circumstances. In the circulation of the blood through 
the body, the vess&s are exposed to a perpetual dila- 
tation and contraction: the gradual expansion of the 
mind by the regular modes of communicating know- 
ledge to youth is unquestionably to be desired; but 
the sudden expansion of a man’s thoughts from a 


345 


comparative state of ignorance Ly any powerful action 
is very dangerous; 
The conscious heart of charity would warm, 


And her wide wish benevolence dilate. 
THOMSON. 


‘ The poet (Thomson) leads us through the appearances 
of things as they are successively varied by the vicissi- 
tudes of the year, and imparts to us so much of his 
own enthusiasm that our thoughts expand with his 
imagery..— JOHNSON. 


TO SPREAD, CIRCULATE, PROPAGATE, 
DISSEMINATE. 


To spread (v. To spread, expand) is said of any 
object material or spiritual; the rest are mostly em- 
ployed in the moral application. To spread is to ex- 
tend to an indefinite width; 


Love would between the rich and needy stand, 
And spread heaven’s bounty with an equal hand. 
WaLLER. 


To girculate is to spread within a circle; thus news 
spreads through a country; but a story circulates in a 
village, or from house to house, or a report is circulated 
in a neighbourhood . 


Our God, when heaven and earth he did create, 

Form’d man, who should of both participate ; 

If our lives’ motions theirs must imitate, 

Our knowledge, like our biood, must circulate. 
DrENHAM. 


Spread and circulate are the acts of persons or things ; 
propagate and disseminate are the acts of persons only. 
A thing spreads and circulates, or it is spread and 
circulated by some one; it is always propagated and 
disseminated by some one. ‘Propagate, from the Latin 
propago a breed, and disseminate, from semen a seed, 
are here figuratively employed as modes of spreading, 
according to the natural operations of increasing the 
quantity of any thing which is implied in the first two 
terms. What is propagated is supposed to generate 
new subjects; as when doctrines, either good or bad, 
are propagated among the people so as to make them 
converts; 


He shail extend his propagated sway 
Beyond the solar year, without the starry way. 
DryDEN. 


What is disseminated is supposed to be sown in differ- 
ent parts; thus principles are disseminated among 
youth; ‘ Nature seems to have taken care to dissem7- 
nate her blessings among the different regions of the 
world.’—AppIson. ; 


TO DISPEL, DISPERSE, DISSIPATE. 
Dispel, from the Latin pello to drive, signifying to 
dtive away, is a more forcible action than to disperse, 
which signifies merely to cause to come asunder: we 
destroy the existence of a thing by dispelling it; we 
merely destroy the junction or cohesion of a body by 
dispersing it: the sun dispels the clouds and dark. 
ness ; 
As when a western whirlwind, charg’d with storms, 
Dispels the gathering clouds that Notus fora 
OPE. 


The wind disperses the clouds, or a surgeon disperses 
a tumour; but the clouds and the tumour may both 
gather again: 

The foe dispers’d, their bravest warriours kill’d, 


Fierce as a whirlwind now I swept the field. 
PorE. 


Dispelling and dispersing are frequently natural 
and regular operations; dissipating is oftentimes a 
violent and disorderly proceeding. Dissipate, in Latin 
dissipatum, participle of dissipo, compounded of dis 
and the obsolete szpo, in Greek cidw, was originally 
applied to fluids, whence the word siphon takes its 
rise. -The word dissipate therefore denotes the act of 
scattering after the manner of fluids which are thus 
lost; whence that which is dissipated loses its exist- 
ence as an aggregate body ; ‘ The heat at length grows 
so great, that it again dissipates and bears off thosa 
corpuscles which it brought.’—WooDwarp. In the 
same manner wealth is said to be dissipated when 


346 


It is lost to the owner by being spent. These terms 
admit of a similar distinction in the moral accepta- 
tion ; 
If the night 
Have gather’d aught of evil, or conceal’d 
Disperse it, as now light dispels the dark.—MiTon. 


When the thoughts are dissipated the mind is as it 
were lost; ‘I have begun two or three letters to you 
by snatches, and been prevented from finishing them 
py a thousand avocations and dissipations.’—Swirt. 

Dispel is used figuratively ; disperse only in the 
natural sense: gloom, ignorance, and the like, are dzs- 
pelled; books, people, papers, and the like, are dis- 
persed. 


es 


TO POUR, SPILL, SHED. 


Pour is probably connected with pore, and the 
Latin preposition per through, signifying to make to 
pass as it were through a channel; spild and splash, 
and the German spt/en are probably onomatopetas ; 
shed comes from the German scheiden to separatey sig- 
nifying to cast from. : i 

We pour with design; we spill by accident: we 
pour water over a plant or a bed; we spill it on the 
ground. To pour is an act of convenience ; to spill 
and shed are acts more or less hurtful; the former is 
to cause to run in small quantities ; the latter in large 
quantities: we pour wine out of a bottle into a glass ; 
but the blood of a person is said to be spilled or shed 
when-his life is violently taken away : what is poured 
is commonly no part of the body from whence it is 
poured ; but what is shed is no other than a compo- 
nent part; hence trees are said to shed their leaves, 
animals their hair, or human beings to shed tears; 
‘Poesy is of so subtle a spirit, that in the pouring out 
of one language into another, it will evaporate. — 
DennamM. 

O reputation! dearer far than life, 

Thou precious balsam, lovely sweet of smell, 

Whose cordial drops once spzll’d by some rash hand, 

Not all the owner’s care, nor the repenting toil 

f the rude spiller, can collect.—SEwE.. 


‘ Herod acted the part of a great mourner for the de- 
ceased Aristobulus, shedding abundance of tears.’— 
PRIDEAUX. 


—— 


POVERTY, INDIGENCE, WANT, NEED, 
PENURY. 


Poverty marks the condition of being poor ; indi- ! 


gence, in Latin indigentia, comes from indigeo and 
the Greek déopat to want, signifying in the same man- 
ner as the word want, the abstract condition of want- 
ing; need, v. Necessity; penury, in Latin penuria, 
comes in all probability from the Greek a#uns poor. 
Poverty is a general state of fortune opposed to that 
of riches; in which one is abridged of the conveni- 
ences of life: indigence isa particular state of poverty, 
which rises above it in such a degree, as to exclude 
the necessaries as well as the conveniences of life ; 
mant and need are both partial states, that refer only 
to individual things which are wanting to any one. 
Poverty and indigence comprehend all a man’s exter- 
nal circumstances; but want, when taken by itself, 
denotes the want of food or clothing, and is opposed to 
abundance; need, when taken by itself, implies the 
want of money, or any other useful article; but they 
are both more commonly taken in connexion with the 
object which is wanted, and in this sense they are to 
the two former as species tothe genus. Poverty and 
indigence are permanent states; want and need are 
temporary: poverty and indigence are the order of 
Providence, they do not depend upon the individual, 
and are, therefore, not reckoned as his fault; want 
and need arise more commonly from circumstances of 
one’s own creation, and tend frequently to one’s dis- 
credit. What man has not caused, man cannot so 
easily obviate ; poverty and indigence cannot, there- 
fore, be removed at one’s will: but want and need are 
frequently removed by the aid of others. Poverty is 
that which one should learn to bear, so as to lessen its 
pains; ‘That the poverty of the Highlanders is gra- 
dually diminished cannot be mentioned among the un- 
pleasing consequences of subjection..—Jounson Ja- 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


digence is a calamity which the compassion of others 
may in some measure alleviate, if they cannot entirely 
remove it; ‘If wecan but raise him above indigence. 
a moderate share of good fortune and merit will be 
sufficient to open his way to whatever else we can wish 
him to obtain.’--MgLmorTu (Letters of Cicero). Want, 
when it results from intemperance or extravagance, is 
not altogether entitled to any relief ; 


Want is a bitter and a hateful good, 

Because its virtues are not understood ; 

Yet many things, impossible to thought, 

Have been by need to full perfection brought. 
DkKYDEN. 


But need, when it arises from casualties that are in- 
dependent of our demerits, will always find friends. 

It is a wise distribution of Providence which has 
made the rich and poor to be mutually dependent upon 
each other, and both to be essential to the happiness 
of the whole. Among all descriptions of indigent 
persons, none are more entitled to charitabie attention 
than those who in addition to their wants suffer under 
any bodily infirmity. The old proverb says, ‘‘ That 
waste makes wani,”’ which is daily realized among 
men without making them wiser by experience. ‘A 
friend in need,” according to another vulgar proverb, 
“is a friend indeed,’ which, like all proverbial say- 
ings, contains a striking truth; for nothing can be more 
acceptable than the assistance which we receive from 
a friend when we stand in need of it; ‘God grant we 
never may have need of you.’—SHAKSPEARE. All 
these terms may be used, either in a general orina 
particular sense, to denote a privation of things in 
general or a partial privation. Penury is used to de- 
note a privation of things in general, but particularly 
of things most essential for existence; ‘The penury 
of the ecclesiastical state. —Hooxer. 


Sometimes am I a king, 
_Then treason makes me with myself a beggar; 
And sol am; then crushing penury 
Persuades me, I was better when a king. 
SHAKSPEARES 


NECESSITY, NEED. 


Necessity (v. Necessary) respects the thing wanted ; 

need, in German noth, probably from the Greek avdyKn 
necessity, the person wanting. There would be no 
necessity for punishments, if there were not evil doers; 
he is peculiarly fortunate who finds a friend in time of 
need. Necessity is more pressing than need; the 
former places us in a positive state of compulsion to 
act; it is said to have no law, it prescribes the law for 
itself ; the latter yields to circumstances, and leaves us 
in a state of deprivation. We are frequently under 
the necessity of going without that of which we stand 
most in need; ‘Where necessity ends, curiosity be- 
gins.’—Jounson. ‘One of the many advantages of 
friendship is, that one can say to one’s friend the things 
that stand in need of pardon.’—Popx. 
' From these two nouns arise two epithets for each, 
which are worthy of observation, namely, necessary 
and needful, necessitous and needy. Necessary and 
needful are both applicable to the thing wanted; ne- 
cessitous and needy to the person wanting mecessary 
is applied to every object indiscriminately | needful 
only to such objects as supply temporary or partial 
wants. Exercise is necessary to preserve the health 
of the body ; restraint is necessary to preserve that of 
the mind; assistance is needful for one who has not 
sufficient resources in himself: it is necessary to go by 
water to the continent: money is needful for one who 
is travelling. 

The dissemination of knowledge is necessary to 
dispel the ignorance which would otherwise prevail in 
the world ; ; 


It seems to me most strange that men should fear 
Seeing that death, a necessary end, 
Will come when it will come.—SHAKSPEARE 


It is needful for a young person to attend to the im - 
structions of his teacher, if he will improve; 


Time, long expected, eas’d us of our load, 
And brought the needful presence of a god. 
DRYDEN. 
Necessitous expresses more than needy : the former 
comprehends a general state of necessity or deficiency 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


In the thing that is wanted or needful; needy ex- 
presses only a particular condition. The poor are ina 
necessitous condition who are in want of the first ne- 
cessaries, or who have not wherewithal to supply the 
most pressing necessities ; ‘Steele’s imprudence of 
generosity, or vanity of profusion, kept him always 
incurably necessitous..—JoHNsoNn. Adventurers are 
said to be needy, when their vices make them in need 
of that which they might otherwise obtain ; ‘ Charity 
48 the work of heaven, which is always laying itself 
cut on the needy and the impotent.’—Souru. It is 
charity to supply the wants of the necessitous, but 
those of the needy are sometimes not worthy of one’s 
ity. 


POOR, PAUPER. 


Poor and pauper are both derived from the Latin 
pauper, which comes from the Greek wavpos small. 
Poor is the term of general use; pauper is a term of 
particular use: a pauper is a poor man who lives upon 
alms or the relief of the parish: the former is, there- 
fore, indefinite in its meaning; the latter conveys a 
reproachful idea. The word poor is used as a sub- 
stantive only in the plural number; pauper is a sub- 
stantive both in the singular and plural: the poor of 
a parish are, in general, a heavy burden on the inha- 
bitants ; there are some persons who are not ashamed 
to live and die as paupers. 


NECESSITIES, NECESSARIES. 


Necessity, in Latin necessitas, and necessary, in 
Latin necessarius, from necesse, or ne and cesso, sig- 
nify not to be yielded or given up. JVecessity is the 
mode or state of circumstances, or the thing which cir- 
cumstances render necessary; the necessary is that 
which is absolutely and unconditionally necessary. 

Art has ever been busy in inventing things to supply 
the various necessities of our nature, and yet there are 
always numbers who want even the first necessaries 
of life. Habit and desire create necessities; nature 
only requires necessaries; a voluptuary has necesst- 
ties which are unknown to a temperate man; the poor 
have in general little more than necessaries ; ‘ Those 
whose condition has always restrained them to the con- 
templation of their own necessities will scarcely under- 
stand why nights and days should be spent in study.’ 
—JouHNson. ‘To make a man happy, virtue must be 
accompanied with at least a moderate provision of all 
the necessaries of life, and not disturbed by bodily 
pains.’—BUvGELL. 


TO WANT, NEED, LACK. 


To be without is the common idea expressed by 
these terms: but to want is to be without that which 
contributes to our comfort, or is an object of our de- 
sire ; to need is to be without that which is essential 
for our existence or our purposes. To lack, which is 
probably a variation from leak, and a term not in fre- 
quent use, expresses little more than the general idea 
of being without, unaccompanied by any collateral 
idea. From the close connexion which subsists be- 
tween desiring and want, it is usual to consider what 
we want as artificial, and what we need as natural 
and indispensable. What one man wants is a super- 
fluity to another ; but that which is needed by one is 
in like circumstances needed by all: tender people 
want a fire when others would be glad not to have it ; 
all persons need warm clothing and a warm house in 
the winter. 

To want and need may extend indefinitely to many 
or all objects ; to lack, or be deficient, is properly said 
of a single object: we may want or need every thing ; 
we lack one thing, we lack this or that; a rich man 
may lack understanding, virtue, or religion. He who 
wants nothing is a happy man; ‘ To be rich is to have 
more than is desired, and more than is wanted.’— 
Jounson. He who needs nothing, may be happy if he 
wants no more than he has; 


The old from such affairs are only freed, 
Which vig’rous youth and strength of body need. 
DENHAM. 
Contentment is often the only thing a man lacks to 
make him happy ; 


eat EIEN SEnEIEEEISanS eae 


————————————— 


347 


See the mind of beastly man! 
That lath so soon torgot the excellence 
Of his creation, when he life began, 
That now he chooseth with vile difference 
To be a beast and Jacke intelligence.-—Srenser 


TO INCREASE, GROW. 


Increase, from the Latin in. and cresco, signifies te 
grow upon or grow to a thing, to become one with it ; 
grow, in Saxon growan, very probably comes from, or 
is connected with, the Latin crevz, perfect of cresco to 
increase or grow. 

The idea of becoming larger is common to both 
these terms: but the former expresses the idea in an 
unqualified manner: and the latter annexes to this 
general idea also that of the mode or process by which 
this is effected. To increase is either a gradual or an 
instantaneous act; to grow is a gradual process: a 
stream zncreases by the addition of other waters; it 
may come suddenly or in course of time, by means of 
gentle showers or the rushing in of other streams; 
but if we say that the river or stream grows, it is sup- 
posed to grow by some regular and continual process 
of receiving fresh water, as from the running in of 
different rivulets or smaller streams. To increase is 
either a natural or an artificial process; to grow is 
always natural: money increases but does not grow, 
because it increases by artificial means: corn may 
either increase or grow: in the former case we speak 
of it in the sense of becoming larger or increasing in 
bulk ; in the latter case we consider the mode of its 
increasing, namely, by the natural process of vegeta- 
tion. On this ground we say that a child grows when 
we wish to denote the natural process by which his 
body arrives at its proper size; but we may speak of 
his increasing in stature, in size, and the like ; 


Then, as her strength with years-increas’d, began 
To pierce aloft in air the soaring swan.—DryDEn. 


For this reason likewise increase is used in a transi 
tive as well as intransitive sense; but grow always in 
an intransitive sense: we can increase a thing, though 
not properly grow a thing, because we can make it 
larger by whatever means we please; but when it 
grows it makes itself larger. ‘Bones, after full zrowth, 
continue at astay ; as for nails, they grow continually.’ 
—Bacon. 

In their improper acceptation these words preserve 
the same distinction: ‘ trade increases’ bespeaks the 
simple fact of its becoming larger; but ‘ trade grows’ 
implies that gradual increase which flows from the 
natural concurrence of circumstances. The affections 
which are awakened in infancy grow with one’s 
growth; here is a natural and moral process com- 
bined ; 

Children, like tender oziers, take the bow, 
And, as they first are fashion’d, always grow 
DRYDEN. 


The fear of death sometimes increases as one grows 
old; the courage of a truly brave man increases with 
the sight of danger: here is a moral process which is 
both gradual and immediate, but in both cases pro- 
duced by some foreign cause. 

I have enlarged on these two words the more be- 
cause they appear to have been involved in some con 
siderable perplexity by the French writers Girard and 
Robaud, who have entered very diffusely into the dis- 
tinction between the words croitre and augmenter, 
corresponding to increas. and grow; but I trust thar 
from the above explanation, the distinction is clearly 
to be observed. 


INCREASE, ADDITION, ACCESSION, 
AUGMENTATION. 


Increase is here as in the former article the generick 
term (v. To increase): there will always be increase 
where there is augmentation, addition, and accession, 
though not vice versd. 

Addition is to increase as the means to the end: the 
addition is the artificia} mode of making two things 
into one; the increase is the result: when the value 
of one figure is added to another, the sum is increased ; 
hence a man’s treasures experience an increase by the 
addition of other parts to the main stock Addition ia 


348 


an intentional mode of increasing; accession is an 
accidental mode: one thing is added to another, and 
thereby increased; but an accession takes place of 
itself; it is the coming or joining of one thing to an- 
other so as to increase the whole. A merchant in- 
creases his property by adding his gains in trade every 
year to the mass ; but he receives an accession of pro- 
perty either by inheritance or any other contingency. 
Inthe same manner a monarch increases his dominions 
by adding one territory to another, or by various acces- 
sions of territory which fall to his lot. 

When we speak of an increase, we think of the 
whole and its relative magnitude at different times ; 


At will I crop the year’s increase, 
My latter life is rest and peace.—DRyYDEN. 


When we speak of an addition, we think only of the 
part and the agency by which this part is joined ; ‘ The 
ill state of health into which Tullia is fallen-is a very 
severe addition to the many and great disquietudes 
that afflict my mind.,—Mr.mora (Letters of Cicero). 
When we speak of an accession, we think onty of the 
circumstance by which one thing becomes thus joined 
to another; ‘There is nothing in my opinion more 
pleasing in religion than to consider that the soul is to 
shine for ever with new accessions of glory.’—Appi- 
son. Increase of happiness does not depend upon in- 
crease of wealth; the miser makes daily additions to 
the latter without making any to the former: sudden 
accessions of wealth are seldom attended with any 
good consequences, as they turn the thoughts too vio- 
lently out of their sober channel, and bend them too 
strongly on present possessions and good fortune. 

Augmentation is another term for increase, which 
differs Jess in sense than in application: the latter is 
generally applied to all objects that admit such a 
change: but the former is applied only to objects of 
higher import or cases of a less familiar nature. We 
may say that a person experiences an increase or an 
augmentation in his family ; or that he has had an in- 
crease of an augmentation of his salary, or that there 
is an increase or augmentation of the number: in all 
which cases the former term is most adapted to the 
colloquial, and the latter to the grave style. 


TO ENLARGE, INCREASE, EXTEND. 


Enlarge signifies literally to make large or wide, and 
# applied to dimension and extent ; increase, from the 
“Latin incresco to grow to a thing, is applicable to 
quantity, signifying to become greater in size by the 
junction of other matter ; extend, in Latin extendo, or 
ex and tendo, signifies to stretch out, that is, to make 
greater in space. Wespeak of enlarging a house, a 
room, premises, or boundaries; of increasing the pro- 
perty, the army, the capital, expense, &c.; of extend- 
“gg the boundaries of an empire. We say the hole or 
cavity enlarges, the head or bulk enlarges, the num- 
ber increases, the swelling, inflammation, and the like, 
tncrease: so likewise in the figurative sense, the views, 
the prospects, the powers, the ideas, and the mind, are 
enlarged ; 


Great objects make 
Great minds, enlarging as their views enlarge, 
Those still more godlike, as these more divine. 
Youne. 

Pain, pleasure, hope, fear, anger, or kindness, is in- 
creased ; ‘Good sense alone is a sedate and quiescent 
quality, which manages its possessions well, but does 
not increase them.’—Jonnson. Views, prospects, con- 
nexions, and the like, are extended ; 


The wise extending their inquiries wide, 

See how both states are by connexion tied ; 
Fools view but part, and not the whole survey, 
So crowd existence all into a day.—Jznyns. 


TO REACH, STRETCH, EXTEND. 
Reach, through the medium of the northern languages, 
as also the Latin rego in the word porrigo, and the 
Greek dépéyw, comes from the Hebrew Jy)4 to draw 


out. and FAN length; stretch is but an intensive of 
reack; extend, v. To extend. 

The idea of drawing out in a line is common to 
these terms, but they differ in the mode and circum- 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


stances of the action. To reach and to stretch are em 
ployed only for drawing out in a straight line, that is, 
lengthwise ; extend may be employed to express the 
drawing out in all directions. In this sense a wall is 
said to reach a certain number of yards; a neck of 
land is said to stretch into the sea; a wood extends 
many miles over a country. As the act of persons, in 
the proper sense, they differ still more widely; reach 
and stretch signify drawing to a given point, and for 
a given end: extend has no such collateral meaning, 
We reach in order to take hold of something; we 
stretch in order to surmount some object: a person 
reaches With his arm in order to get down a book ; he 
stretches his neck in order to see over another person: 
in both cases we might be said simply to extend the 
arm or the neck, where the collateral circumstance is 
not to be expressed. 

In the improper application, they have a similar dis- 
tinction: to reach is applied to the movements which 
one makes to a certain end, and is equivalent to ar- 
riving at, or attaining. A traveller strives to reach his 
journey’s end as suickly as possible; an ambitious 
man aims at. reachins the summit of human power or 
honour; ‘The whole power of cunning is privative ; 
to say nothing, and to do nothing, is the utmost of its 
reach. —JOHNSON. 'To stretch is applied to the direc- 
tion which one gives to another object, so as to bring it 
to a certain point; a ruler stretches his power or au- 
thority to its utmost limits ; 

Plains immense 
Lie stretch’d below interminable meads. 
THOMSON. 


To extend retains its original unqualified meaning ; us 
when we speak of extending the meaning or applica- 
tion of a word, of extending one’s bounty or charity, 
extending one’s sphere of action, and the like ; 


Our life is short, but to extend that span 
To vast eternity is virtue’s work.—SHAKSPEARE 


SIZE, MAGNITUVE, GREATNESS, BULK. 


Size, from the Latin cisus and cedo to cut, signifies 
that which is cut or framed according to a certain pro 
portion; magnitude, from the Latin magnitudo, an- 
swers literally to the English word greatness ; bulk, 
v. Bulky. 

Size is a general term including all manner of di- 
mension or measurement; magnitude is employed in 
science or in an.abstract sense to denote some specifick 
measurement; greatness is an unscientifick term ap- 
plied in the same sense to objects in general; s7ze is 
indefinite, it never characterizes any thing either ag 
large or small; but magnitude and greatness always 
suppose something great ; and bulk denotes a consi- 
derable degree of greatness ; things which are diminu- 
tive in size will often have an extraordinary degree of 
beauty, or some other adventitious perfection to com- 
pensate the deficiency ; 


Soon grows the pigmy to gigantick s2ze.—DrypEn. 


Astronomers have classed the stars according to their 
different magnitudes ; : 


Then form’d the moon, 
Globose, and every magnitude of stars.—MiLTon. 


Greatness is considered by Burke as one source of the 
sublime; ‘Awe is the first sentiment that rises in the 
mind at the first view of God’s greatness”—Buair. 
Bulk is that species of greatness which destroys the 
symmetry, and consequently the beauty, of objects; 


His hugy bulk on seven high volumes roll’d. 
DRYDEN 


BULKY, MASSIVE OR MASSY. 


Bulky denotes having bulk, which is connected with 
our words, belly, body, bilge, bulge, &c., and the Ger 
man balg; massive, in French massif, from mass, 
signifies having a mass or being like a mass, which, 
through the German masse, Latin massa, Greek pda 
dough, comes from pdéoow to knead, signifying made 
into a solid substance. 

Whatever is bulky has a prominence of figure, 
what is massive has compactness of matter. The 
bulky, therefore, though larger in size, is not so weighty 
as the massive; ‘In Milton’s time 1t was suspected 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


that the whole creation languished, that neither trees 
nor animals had the height or bulk of their prede- 
cessors.’—JOHNSON. 


His pond’ rous shield, 
Ethereal temper, massy, large, and round, 
Behind him cast.—MinTon. 


Hollow bodies commonly have a bulk; none but 
solid bodies can be massive. 

A vessel is bulky in its form; lead, silver, and gold, 
massive. 


——oo 


LARGE, WIDE, BROAD. 


Large (v. Great) is applied in a general way to ex- 
press every dimension; it implies not only abundance 
in solid matter, but also freedom in the space, or extent 
of a plane superficies; wide, in German wet, is most 
probably connected with the French wide, and the 
Latin viduus empty, signifying properly an empty or 
open space unincumbered by any obstructions; broad, 
in German brett, probably comes from the noun bret, 
board; because it is the peculiar property of a board, 
that is to say,it is the width of what-is particularly 
long. Many things are large, but not wide; as alarge 
town, a large circle, a large ball, a large nut: other 
things are- both large and wide; as a large field, or a 
wide field: a large house, or a wide house: but the 
field is said to be large from the quantity of ground it 
contains ; it is said to be zwde both from its figure, or 
the extent of its space in the cross directions; in like 
manner, a’ house is large from its extent in all direc- 
tions ; it is said to be wide from the extent which it runs 
in front: some things are said to be wide which are 
not denominated large; that is, either such things as 
have less bulk and quantity than extent of plane sur- 
face ; as ell zwde cloth, a wide opening, a wide entrance, 
and the like; or such as have an extent of space only 
one way; as a wide road, a wide path, a wide passage, 
and the like; 


Wide was the wound, 
But suddenly with flesh fill’d up and heal’d. 
MILTON. 


What is broad is in sense, and mostly in application, 
wide, but not vice versd: a ribbon is broad; a ledge is 
broad; a ditch is broad; a plank is broad; the brim 
of a hat is broad; or the border of any thing is broad: 
on the other hand, a mouth is wide, but not broad; 
apertures in general are zw2de, but not broad. The 
large is opposed to the small; the wide to the close; 
the broad to the narrow. In the moral application, we 
speak of largeness in regard to Iiberality ; 


Shall grief contract the largeness of that heart, 
In which nor fear nor anger has a part ? 
WALLER. 


Wide and broad only in the figurative sense of space 
or size: as a wide difference; or a broad line of dis- 
tinction; ‘The wider a man’s: comforts extend, the 
broader is the mark which he spreads to the arrows of 
misfortune.’—B alr. 


GREAT, LARGE, BIG. 


Great, derived through the medium of the northern” 
languages from the Latin crassus thick, and cresco to 
grow, is applied to all kinds of dimensions in which 
things can grow or increase; large, in Latin largus 
wide, is probably derived from,the Greek da and péey 
to flow plentifully ; for Jargior signifies to give freely, 
and large has in English a similar sense; it is properly 
applied to space, extent, and quantity: big, from the 
German bauch belly, and the English bulk, denotes 
arte! as to expansion or capacity. A house, a room, a 

eap, a pile, an army, &c., is great or large ; ‘At one’s 
first entrance into the Pantheon at Rome, how the ima- 
gination is filled with something great and amazing ; 
and at the same time how little in proportion one is 
affected with the inside of a Gothick cathedral, al- 
though it be five times larger than the other.’—App1- 
son. An animal or a mountain is great or big; a 
road, a city, a street,and the like, is termed rather 
great than large; ‘An animal no ne than a mite, 
cannot appear perfect to the eye, because the sight 
takes it in at once.,—Appison. ‘ We are not a little 
pleased to find every green leaf swarm with millions 


345 


of animals, that at their largest growth are not visible 
to the naked eye.’ —ApDpison. Great is used generally 
in the improper sense; large and big are used only 
occasionally; a noise, a distance, a multitude, a num- 
ber, a power, and the like, is termed great, but not 
large; we may, however, speak of a large portion, a 
large share, a large quantity; or of a mind big with 
conception, or of an event bzg with the fate of nations; 
‘Among all the figures of architecture, there are none 
that have a greater air than the concave and the con 
vex.’— ADDISON. 


Sure he that made us with such large discourse, 
Looking before and after, gave us not, 

That capability and godlike reason, 

To rust in us unus’d.—_SHAKSPEARE. 


Amazing clouds on clouds continual heap’d, 

Or whirl’d tempestuous by the gusty wind, 

Or silent borne along heavy and slow, 

With the dig stores of streaming oceans charg’d. 
THOMSON. 


ENORMOUS, HUGE, IMMENSE, VAST. 


Enormous, from e and norma a rule, signifies out of 
rule or order; huge is in all probability connected with 
high, which is hoogh in Dutch; immense, in Latin 
immensus, compounded of in privative and mensus 
measured, signifies not to be measured; vast, in 
French vaste, Latin vastus, from vaco to be vacant, 
open, or wide, signifies extended in space. 

Enormous and huge are peculiarly applicable to 
magnitude; immense and vast to extent, quantity, 
and number. Enormous expresses more than huge, 
as immense expresses more than vast: what is enor- 
mous exceeds in a very great degree all ordinary 
bounds ; what is huge is great only in the superlative 
degree. The enormous is always out of proportion; 
the huge is relatively extraordinary in its dimensions. 
Seme animals may be made enormously fat by a par 
ticular mode of feeding: to one who has seen nothing 
but level ground common hills will appear to be huge 
mountains ; 


The Thracian Acamus his falchion found, 
And hew’d the enormous giant to the ground. 
Pore. 


Great Areithous, known from shore to shore, 
By the huge knotted iron mace he bore, 
No lance he shook, nor bent the twanging bow, 
But broke with this the battle of the foe. 

Porn. 


The immense is that which exceeds all calculation: 
the vast comprehends only a very great or unusual 
excess. The distance between the earth and sun may 
be said to be immense: the distance between the poles 
is vast ; 

Well was the crime, and well the vengeance sparr’d, 
E’en power immense had found such battle hard. 
Popr. 


Just on the brink they neigh and paw the ground, 
And the turf trembles, and the skies resound ; 
Eager they view’d the prospect dark and deep, 
Vast was the leap, and headlong hung the steep. 
PopE. 


Of all these terms huge is the only one confined to 
the proper application, and in the proper sense of size: 
the rest are employed with regard to moral objects. 
We speak only of a huge animal, a huge monster, a 
huge mass, a huge size, a huge bulk, and the like; but 
we speak of an enormous waste, an immense differ- 
ence, and a vast number. : 

The epithets enormous, immense, and vast are ap- 
plicable to the same objects, but with the same distinc- 
tion in their sense. A sum is enormous which exceeds 
in magnitude not only every thing known, but every 
thing thought of or expected; a sum is ¢mmense that 
scarcely admits of calculation: a sum is vast which 
rises very high in calculation. The national debt of 
England has risen to an enormous amount: the revo- 
lutionary war has been attended with an 7mmense losg 
of blood and treasure to the different nations of Eu- 
rope: there are individuals who, while they aie ex- 
pending vast sums on their own gratifications, refuse 
to contribute any thing to the relief of the necessitous 


350 


ENORMOUS, PRODIGIOUS, MONSTROUS. 


Enorinous, v. Enormous; prodigious comes from 
prodigy, in Latin prodigium, which in all probability 
comes from prodigo to lavish forth, signifying literally 
breaking out in excess or extravagance; monstrous, 
from monster, in Latin monstrum, and monstro to 
show or make visible, signifies remarkable, or exciting 
notice 

The enormous contradicts our rules of estimating 
and calculating: the prodigious raises our minds be- 
yond their ordinary standard of thinking: the mon- 
strous contradicts nature and the course of things. 
What is enormous excites our surprise or amazement ; 


Jove’s bird on sounding pinions beat the skies, 

A bleeding serpent of enormous size, 

His talons truss’d, alive and curling round, 

He stung the bird whose throat receiv’d the jam: 
OPE 


What is prodigious excites our astonishment; ‘I 
dreamed that I was in a wood of so prodigious an 
extent, and cut into such a variety of walks and alleys, 
that all mankind were lost and bewildered in it.’-—Ap- 
pison. What is monstrous does violence to our senses 
and understanding ; 


Nothing so monstrous can be said or feign’d 
But with belief and joy is entertain’d.—DrypxEn. 


There is something enormous in the present scale upon 
which property, whether publick or private, is amassed 
and expended: the works of the ancients in general, 
but the Egyptian pyramids in particular, are objects of 
admiration, on account of the prodigious labour which 
was bestowed on them: ignorance and superstition have 
always been active in producing monstrous images for 
the worship of its blind votaries. 


LITTLE, SMALL, DIMINUTIVE. 


Little, in Low German litje, Dutch Jettel, is, in all 
probability, connected with light, in Saxon leoht, old 
German lihto, Swedish létt, &c.; small is, with some 
variations, to be found in most of the northern dialects, 
in which it signifies, as in English, a contracted space 
or quantity ; diminutive, in Latin diminutivus, signi- 
fies made small. 

Little is properly opposed to the great (v. Great), 
small to the large, and diminutive is a species of the 
small, which is made so contrary to the course of 
things: a child is said to be lzttle as respects its age as 
well as its size; it is said to be small as respects its 
size only; it is said to be diminutive when it is ex- 
ceedingly small considering its age: little children 
cannot be ieft with safety to themselves; small chil- 
dren are pleasanter to be nursed than large ones: if we 
look down from any very great height the largest men 
will look diminutive; ‘ The talent of turning men into 
ridicule, and exposing to laughter those one converses 
with. is the qualification of little, ungenerous tempers.’ 
—Appison. ‘He whose’ knowledge is at best but 
limited, and whose intellect proceeds by a small, dimi- 
nutive light, cannot but receive an additional light by 
the conceptions of another man.’—SourTu. 


SPACE, ROOM. 


Space, in Latin spatium, Greek sdéd.ov, ol. omddrov 
a race ground; room, in Saxon rum, &c. Hebrew ramah 
a wide place. 

These are both abstract terms, expressive of that 
portion of the universe which is supposed not to be 
occupied by any solid body: space is a generai term, 
which includes within itself that which intinitely sur- 
passes our comprehension ; room is a limited term, 
which comprehends those portions of space which are 
artificially formed: space is either extended or bounded; 
room is always a bounded space; the space between 
two objects is either natural, incidental, or designedly 
formed ; 

The man of wealth and pride 
Takes up a space that many poor supplied. 
GOLDSMITH. 


The room is that which is the ruit of design, to suit 
the convenience of persons ; 


For the whole world, without a native home, 
Is nothing but a prison of a larger room.—Cow ey. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


There is a sufficient space between the heavenly bodies 
to admit of their meving without confusion ; the value 
of a house essentially depends upon the quantity of 
room which it affords: in a row of trees there must 
always be vacant spaces between each tree; in a coach 
there will be only room for a given number of persons. 

Space is only taken in the natural sense; room is 
also employed in the moral application: in every per- 
son there is ample room for amendment or improve- 
ment. 


AMPLE, SPACIOUS, CAPACIOUS. 


Ample, in French ample, Latin amplus, probably 
comes from the Greek dvarAéws full; spacious, in 
French spacieuz, Latin spaciosus, comes from spa- 
tiwm a space, implying the quality of having space; 
capacious, in Latin capaz, from capio to hold, signifies 
the quality of being able to hold. 

These epithets convey the analogous ideas of extent 
in quantity, and extent in space. Ample is figuratively 
employed for whatever is extended in quantity ; spa- 
cious is literally used for whatever is extended in space; 
capacious is literally and figuratively employed to ex- 
press extension in both quantity and space. Stores are 
ample, room is ample, an allowance is ample: a room, 
a house, a garden is spacious :; a vessel or hollow of any 
kind is capacious ; the soul, the mind, and the heart 
are capacious. 

Ample is opposed to scanty, spacious to narrow 
capacious to small. What is ample suffices and satis- 
fies ; it imposes no constraint ; ‘The pure conscious- 
ness of worthy actions, abstracted from the views of 
popular applause, is to a generous mind an ample re 
ward.’—Hucurs. What is spacious is free and open, 
it does not confine; 


These mighty monarchies, that had o’erspread 

The spacious earth, and stretch’d their conq’ring arms 
From pole to pole by ensnaring charms 

Were quite consumed.—May. 


What is capacious readily receives and contains; it is 
spacious, liberal, and generous ; 


Down sunk, a hollow bottom broad and deep 
Capacious bed of waters.—MiLTon. 


Although sciences, arts, philosophy, and languages 
afford to the mass of mankind ample scope for the 
exercise of their mental powers without recurring to 
mysterious or fanciful researches, yet this world is 
hardly spacious enough for fhe range of the intellectual 
faculties: the capacious minds of some are no less capa 
ble of containing than they are disposed for receiving 
whatever spiritual food is offered them. 


% 


DEPTH, PROFUNDITY. 
Depth, from deep, dip, or dive, the Greek dvzrw, and 


the Hebrew ¥5% to dive, signifies the point under 
water which is dived for; profundity, from profound, 
in Latin profundus, compounded of pro or procul far, 
and fundus the bottom, signifies remoteness from the 
surface of any thing. 

These terms do not differ merely in their derivation , 
but depth is indefinite in its signification; and pro- 
fundity is a positive and considerable degree of depth. 
Moreover, the word depth is applied to objects in gene- 
ral; ‘By these two passions of hope and fear, we 
reach forward into futurity, and bring up to our pre- 
sent thoughts objects that lie in the remotest depths of 
time.’—Appison. Profundity is confined in its appli- 
cation to moral objects: thus we speak of the depth 
of the sea, or the depth of a person’s learning ; but his 
profundity of thought; ‘The peruser of Swift will 
want very little previous knowledge: it will be suffi- 
cient that he is acquainted with common words and 
common things; he is neither required to mount eleya- 
tions nor to explore profundities.’— JOHNSON. 


OBLONG, OVAL. 


Oblong, in Latin oblongus, from the intensive sylla- 
ble ob, signifies very long, longer than broad: oval. 
from the Latin ovum, signifies egg-shaped. 

The oval is a species of the oblong : what is oval 
is oblong ; but what is oblong is not always oval. Ob- 
long is peculiarly ayyplied to figures formed by right 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


fines, that is, all rectangular parallelograms, except 
squares, are ollong : but the oval is applied to curvi- 
linear oblong figures, as ellipses, which are distin- 
guished from the circle: tables are oftener oblong 
than oval; garden beds are as frequently oval as they 
are oblong. 


—_——__— 


ROUNDNESS, ROTUNDITY. 


Roundness and rotundity both come from the Latin 
rotundus and rota a wheel, which is the most perfectly 
round body that is formed: the former term is how- 
ever applied to all objects in general; the latter only 
to solid bodies which are round in all directions: one 
speaks of the roundness of a circle, the rowndness of 
the moon, the roundness of a tree; but the rotundity 
of a man’s body which projects in a round form in all 
directions, and the rotundity of a full cheek, or the 
rotundity of a turnip ; 


Bracelets of pearls gave roundness to her arms. 
PRIOR. 


‘ Angular bodies lose their points and asperities by fre- 
quent friction, and approach by degrees to uniform 
rotundity.’—JOHNSON. 


OUTWARD, EXTERNAL, EXTERIOUR. 


Outward, or inclined to the out, after the manner 
of the out, indefinitely describes the situation; eater- 
nal, from the Latin externus and extra, is more defi- 
nite in its sense, since it is employed only in regard to 
such objects as are conceived to be independent of 
man as a thinking being: hence, we may speak of the 
outward part of a building, of a board, of a table, a 
box, and the like; but of external objects acting on 
the mind, or of an external agency; ‘ The contro- 
versy about the reality of external evils is now at an 
end.’—Jounson. LExteriour is still more definite than 
either, as it expresses a higher degree of the outward 
or external ; the former being in the comparative, and 
the two latter in the positive degree: when we speak 
of any thing which has two coats, it is usual to desig- 
nate the outermost by the name of the exteriour ; when 
we speak simply of the surface, without reference to 
any thing behind, it is denominated external: as the 
exteriour coat of a walnut, or the external surface of 
things. In the moral application the external or out- 
ward is that which comes simply to the view; but the 
exteriour ts that which is prominent, and which conse- 
quently may conceal something ; 


But when a monarch sins, it should be secret, 
To keep exteriour show of sanctity, 
Maintain respect, and cover bad example.—Dryprn. 


A man may sometimes neglect the outside, who is 
altogether mindful of the in; 


And though my outward state misfortune hath 
Depress’d thus low, it cannot reach my faith. 
DENHAM. 


A man with a pleasing exteriour will sometimes gain 
more friends than those who have more solid merit. 


INSIDE, INTERIOUR. 


The term inside may be applied to bodies of any 
magnitude, small or large; znteriour is peculiarly ap- 
propriate to bodies of great magnitude. We may 
speak of the inside of a nut-shell, but not of its inte- 
rzour : on the other hand, we speak of the interiour of 
Bt. Paul’s, or the interiour of a palace; ‘As for the 
amside of their nest, none but themselves were con- 
cerned in it, according to the inviolable laws esta- 
blished among those animals (the ants).’—Appison. 
‘The gates are drawn back, and the interiour of the 
fane is discovered..—Cumserbtanp. This difference 
of application is not altogether arbitrary: for inside 
literally signifies the side that is inward; but interiour 
signifies the space which is more inward than the rest, 
which is enclosed in an enclosure: consequently cannot 
be applied to any thing but a large space that is 
enclosed. 


‘THICK, DENSE. 


Between thick and dense there is little other differ- 
ence, than that the latter is employed to express that 


36. 


species of thickness which is philosophically considered 
as the property of the atmosphere in a certain con- 
dition; hence we speak of thick in regard to hard or 
soft bodies, as a thick board or thick cotton; solid or 
liquid, as a thick cheese or thick milk: but the term 
dense only in regard to the air in its various forms, as 
a dense air, a dense vapour, a dense cloud; ‘I have 
discovered, by a long series of observations, that in- 
vention and elocution suffer great impediments from 
dense and impure vapours.’—J OHNSON. 


THIN, SLENDER, SLIGHT, SLIM. 


Thin, in Saxon thinne, German dinn, Latin tener, 
from tendo, in Greek refyw to extend or draw out, and 


the Hebrew $qi93; slender, slight, and slim are all 
variations from the German schlank, which are con 
nected with the words slime and sling, as also with the 
German schlingen to wind or wreathe, and schlange a 
serpent, designating the property of length and small- 
ness, which is adapted for bending or twisting. 

Thin is the generick term, the rest are specifick: thin 
may be said of that which is small and short, as well 
as small and long; slender is always said of that which 
is small and long at the same time: a board is thin 
which wants solidity or substance; a poplar is slen 
der because its tallness is disproportionate to its mag 
nitude or the dimensions of its circumference. Thin 
ness is sometimes a natural property; slight and slim 
are applied to that which is artificial: the leaves of 
trees are of a thin texture; a board may be made 
slight by continually planing; a paper box is very 
slim. Thinness is a good property sometimes; thin 
paper is frequently preferred to that which is thick: 
slightness and slimness, which is a greater degree of 
slightness, are always defects; that which is made 
slight is unfit to bear the stress that will be put upon 
it; that which is slim is altogether unfit for the pur- 
pose proposed; a carriage that is made slight is 
quickly broken, and always out of repair; paper is 
altogether too slim to serve the purpose of wood. 

These terms admit of a similar distinction in the 
moral application; ‘I have found dulness to quicken 
into sentiment in a thin ether..—Jounson. ‘Very 
slender differences will sometimes part those whom 
beneficence has united..—Jounson. ‘Friendship is 
often destroyed by a thousand secret and slight com- 
petitions.’ —JoHNSON. 


TO ABATE, LESSEN, DIMINISH, DECREASE, 


Abate, from the French abattre, signified originally 
to beat down, in the active sense, and to come down, 
in the neuter sense; diminish, or, as it is sometimes 
written, minish, from the Latin diminuo, and minuo ta 
lessen, and minus less, expresses, like the verb lessen, 
the sense of either making less or becoming less; de- 
crease is compounded of the privative de and crease, in 
Latin cresco to grow, signifying to grow less. 

The first three are used transitively or intransitively ; 
the latter only intransitively. 

Abate respects the vigour of action: a person’s fever 
is abated or abates ; the violence of the storm abates ; 
pain and anger abate ; ‘My wonder abated, when upon 
looking around me, I saw most of them attentive to 
three Syrens clothed like goddesses, and distinguished 
by the names of Sloth, Ignorance, and Pleasure.’— 
Appison. Lessen and diminish are both applied to 
size, quantity, and number; but the former mostly in 
the proper and familiar sense, the latter in the figurative 
and higher acceptation; the size of a room or garden 
is lessened; the credit and respectability of a person is 
diminished. 

Nothing is so calculated to abate the ardour of youth 
as grief and disappointment; ‘Tully was the first who 
observed that friendship improves happiness and 
abates misery..—Apptson. An evil may be lessened 
when it cannot be removed by the application of 
remedies; 


He sought fresh fountains in a foreign soil; 
The pleasure lessened the attending toil.—Appi1sen. 


Nothing diminishes the lustre of great deeds more 
than cruelty; ‘If Parthenissa can now possess her own 
mind, and think as little of her beauty, as she ought to 
have done when she had it, there will be no grea 
diminution of her charms.’ —Hueues. 


352 


The passion of an angry man ought to be allowed to 
abate before any appeal is made to his understanding ; 
we may lessen the number of our evils by not dwelling 
upon them. Objects apparently diminish according to 
the distance from which they are observed. 

To decrease is to diminish for a continuance: a 
retreating army will decrease rapidly when exposed to 
all the privations and hardships attendant:on forced 
marches, it is compelled to fight for its safety: some 
things decrease so gradually that it is some time before, 
they are observed to be diminished ; 


These leaks shall then decrease; the sails once more 
Direct our course to some relieving shore. 
FAaLconeErR. 


In the abstract sense the word lessening is mostly 
supplied by diminution: it will be no abatement of 
sorrow toa generous mind to know thatthe diminution 
of evil to itself has been produced by the abridgment 
of good to another. 


es 


TO OVERFLOW, INUNDATE, DELUGE. 


What overflows simply flows over ; what inundates, 
from in and unda a wave, flows into; what deluges, 
from dilwo, washes away. 

The overflow bespeaks abundance; whatever ex- 
ceeds the measure of contents must flow over, because 
it is more than can be held: to inwndate bespeaks not 
only abundance, but vehemence; when it znundates 
it flows in faster than is desired, it fills to an incon- 
venient height: to deluge bespeaks impetuosity; a 
deluge irresistibly carries away all before it. This ex- 
planation of these terms in their proper sense will 
illustrate their improper application: the heart is said 
to overflow with joy, with grief, with bitterness, and 
the like, in order to denote the superabundance of the 
thing; ‘I am too full of you not to overjiow upon those 
I converse with.’—Porx. A country is said to be in- 
‘undated by swarms of inhabitants, when speaking of 
numbers who intrude themselves to the annoyance of 
the natives; ‘There was such an inundation_ of 
speakers, young speakers in every sense of the word, 
that neither my Lord Germaine, nor myself, could find 
room for a single word.’—Gisson. The town is said 
to be deluged with publications of different kinds, when 
they appear in such profusion and in such quick suc- 
cession as to supersede others of more value; 


At length corruption, like a general flood, 
Shall deluge all.—Poprr. 


TO FLOW, STREAM, GUSH. 


Flow, in Latin fluo, and Greek B\vw or ddAvdJw, to be 
in a ferment, is in all probability connected with féw, 
which signifies literally to flow; stream, in German 
strémen, from riemen a thong, signifies to run in a 
line; gush comes from the German giessen, &c. to 
pour out with force. 

Flow is here the generick term: the two others are 
specifick terms expressing different modes: water may 
jéow either in a large body or in a long but narrow 
course; the stream in a long, narrow course only: thus, 
waters jtov in seas, rivers, rivulets, or ina small pond; 
they stream only out of spouts or small channels: they 
jlow gently or otherwise; they stream gently; but they 
gush with violence: thus, the blood flows from a wound 
when it comes from it in any manner; it streams from 
a wound when it runs as it were in a channel; it 
gushes from a wound when it runs with impetuosity, 
and in as large quantities as the cavity admits; 


Down his wan cheek a briny torrent flows.—Porg, 


Fires stream in lightning from his sanguine eyes. 
Pore. 


Sunk in his sad companions’ arms he lay, 

And in short pantings sobb’d his soul away 

{Like some vile worm extended on the ground), 

While his life’s torrent gush’d from out the wound. 
Pope. 


FLUID, LIQUID. 


Fluid, from fluo to flow, signifies that which from 
its nature flows; léquid, from liquesco to melt, signifies 
that which is melted. These words may be employed 
ns epithets to the same objects; but they have a distinct 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


@ 


office which they derive from their original meaning: 
when we wish to represent a thing as capable of pass- 
ing along in a stream or current, we should denominate 
it a fluid ; 

Or serve they as a flow’ry verge to bind 

The jiuid skirts of that same wat’ry cloud, 

Lest it again dissolve, and show’r the earth. 

: MILTON 


When we wish to represent the body as passing from 
a congealed to a dissoived state, we should name ita 
liquid ; 
As when the fig’s press’d juice, infus’d in cream, 
To curds coagulates the liguid stream.—Porr. 


Water and air are both represented as fluids from their 
general property of flowing through certain spaces; 
but ice when thawed becomes a liguid and melts; lead 
when melted is also a-Wquid: the humours of the 
animal body, and the juices of trees, are fluids ; what 
we oe is a liquid, as opposed to what we eat which 
is solid. 


LIQUID, LIQUOR, JUICE, HUMOUR. 


Liquid (wv. Fluid) is the generick term: liguor, which 
is but a variation from the same Latin verb, liguesco, 
whence liquid is derived, is a liquid which is made to 
be drunk: juice, in French jus, is a liquid that issues 
from bodies; and humour, in Latin humor, from humeo, 
and the Greek tw to rain, is a species of liquid which 
flows in bodies and forms a constituent part of them. 
All natural bodies consist of liquids or solids, or a 
combination of both; 


How the bee 
Sits on the bloom, extracting liquid sweet. 
MILTON 


Liquor serves to quench the thirst as food satisfies the 
hunger ; 

They who Minerva from Jove’s head derive, 

Might make old Homer’s scull the muse’s hive, 

And from his brain that Helicon distill, 

Whose racy liquor did his offspring fill—DsnHam. 


The juzces of bodies are frequently their richest parts; 


Give me to drain the cocoa’s milky bow], 

And from the palm to draw its freshening wine, 
More bounteous far than all the frantick juice 
Which Bacchus pours.—THomson. 


The humours are commonly the most important parts 
of any animal body; ‘The perspicuity of the humours 
of the eye transmit the rays of light.—SrTrrue. 
Liquid and kquor belong peculiarly to vegetable sub- 
stances ; humour to animal bodies; and juzce to either ; 
water is the simplest of all diguids; wine is the most 


inviting of all liquors; the orange produces the most 


oe 


agreeable juice ; the humours of both men and brutes 


are most liable to corruption, whence the term is very 


frequently applied to fluids of the body when in acor- 
rupt state: ‘He denied himself nothing that he hada 
mind to eat or drink, which gave nim a body full of 
humours, and made his fits of the gout frequent and 
violent..—TEMPLE. 


—— 


STREAM, CURRENT, TIDE. 


A fluid body in a progressive motion is the object 
described in common by these terms ; stream is the 
most general, the other two are but modes of the 
stream; stream, in Saxon stream, in German strom, 
is an onomatopela which describes the prolongation of 
any body in a narrow line along the surface: a cur- 
rent from curro to run, isa running stream ; anda tide 
from tide, in German zeit time, is a periodical stream 
or current. All rivers are streams which are more or 
less genjle according to the nature of the ground 
through which they pass; the force of the current is 
very much increased by the confinement of any water 
between rocks, or by means of artificial impediments. 
The tide is high or low, strong or weak, at different 
hours of the day; when the tide is high the current is 
strongest. 

From knowing the proper application of the terms 
their figurative use becomes obvious; a stream of air, 
or a stream of light isa prolonged body of air or light; 
a current of air is acontinued stream that has rapid 
motion; streets and passages which are open at each 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


extremity are the channels of such currents. In the 
moral sense the tide is the ruling fashion or propensity 
of the day; it is in vain to stem the tide of folly; it 
is wiser to get out of its reach; 


When now the rapid stream of eloquence 

Bears all before it, passion, reason, sense, 

Can its dread thunder, or its lightning’s force, 

Derive their essence from a mortal source. 
JENYNS. 


With secret course, which no loud storms annoy, 
Glides the smooth current of domestick joy. 
GOLDSMITH. 


There is a tide in the affairs of men, 
Which taken at the flood leads on to fortune. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


SPRING, FOUNTAIN, SOURCE. 


The spring denotes that which springs ; the word, 
therefore, carries us back to the point from which the 
water issues. Kewntain,in Latin fons, from fundo to 
pour out, signifies the sprzng which is visible on the 
the earth: and source (v. Origin) is said of that which 
is not only visible, but runs along the earth. Springs 
are to be found by digging a sufficient depth in all parts 
of the earth: in mountainous countries, and alsoin the 
East, we read of fountains which form themselves, and 
supply the surrounding parts with refreshing streams : 
the sources of rivers are always to be traced to some 
mountain. 

These terms are all used in a figurative sense: inthe 
Bible the gospel is depictured as a spring of living 
waters; the eye as a fountain of tears; ‘The heart of 
the citizen is a perennial spring of energy to the state.’ 
—BurRKE. 


Eternal king! the author of all being. 
Fountain of light, thyself invisible—MuitTon. 


in the general acceptation the source is taken for the 
channel through which any event comes to pass, the 
primary cause of its happening: a war is the sowrce 
of many evils toa country; an imprudent step in the 
outset of life is oftentimes the source of ruin toa 
young person; 

These are thy blessings, industry! rough power! 

Yet the kind source of every gentle art.—THomson. 


TO SPRINKLE, BEDEW. 


‘To sprinkleis a frequentative of spring, and denotes 
either an act of nature or design: to bedew is to cover 
with dew, which is an operation of nature. By sprink- 
ting, a liquid falls in sensible drops upon the earth, 
by bedewing, it covers by imperceptible drops: rain 
vesprinkles the earth; dew bedews it. So likewise, 
dguratively, things are sprinkled with flour; the 
eheeks are bedewed with tears. 


TO SPROUT, BUD. 


Sprout, in Saxon sprytan, Low German sprouyten, is 
doubtless connected with the German spritzen to spurt, 
spreiten to spread, and the like; to bud is to put forth 
buds ; the noun bud is a variation from button, which 
it resembles inform. To sprout is to come forth from 
the stem; to bud, to put forth in buds. 


TO SPURT, SPOUT. 


To spurt and spout are, like the German spritzen, 
variations of spreiten to spread (v. To spread), and 
springen to spring (v. To arise); they both express 
the idea of sending forth liquid in small quantities from 
acavity; the former, however, does not always include 
the idea of the cavity, butsimply that of springing up; 
the latter is however confined to the circumstance of 
issuing forth from some place; dirt may be spurted in 
the face by means of kicking it up ; or blood may be 
spurted out of a vein when it is opened, water out of 
-he mouth, and the like; but a liquid spouts out from 
a pipe. To spurt is a sudden action arising from a 
momentary impetus given to a liquid either intention- 
ally or incidentally; the beer will spurt from a barrel 
when the vent peg is removed: to spout is a continued 
action produced by a perpetual impetus which the 
liquid receives equally from design or gr the 


353 


water spouts out from a pipe which is denominated a 
spout, or it will spurt out from any cavity in the earth, 
or in a rock which may resemble a spout ; 


Far from the parent stream it boils again 
Fresh into day, and all the glittering hill 
Is bright with spouting rills—THOMSON. 


A person may likewise spowt water in a stream from 
his mouth. Hence the figurative application of these 
terms; any sudden conceit which compels a person to 
an eccentrick action is a spurt, particularly if it springs 
from ill-humour or caprice; a female will sometimes 
take a spurt and treat her intimate friends very coldly, 
either from a fancied offence or a fancied superiority ; 
to spout, on the other hand, is to send forth a stream of 
words in imitation of the stream of liquid, and is 
applied to those who affect to turn speakers, in whom 
there is commonly more sound than sense. 


TO PLUNGE, DIVE. 


Plunge is but a variation of pluck, pull, and the 
Latin pello to drive or force forward; dive is buta 
variation of dip, which is, under various forms, to be 
found in the northern languages. 

One plunges sometimes in order to dive; but one 
may plunge without diving, and one may dive without 
plunging ; to plunge isto dart head foremost into the 
water: to dive is to go to the bottom of the water, or 
towards it: it is a good practice for bathers to plunge 
into the water when they first go in, although it is not 
advisable for them to dive; ducks frequently dive 
into the water without ever plunging. Thus far they 
differ in their natural sense; but in the figurative appli- 
cation they differ more widely: to plunge, in this case 
is an act of rashness: to dive is an act of design: a 
young man hurtied away by his passions will plunge 
into every extravagance when he comes into possession 
of his estate; ‘The French plunged themselves into 
these calamities they suffer, to prevent themselves 
from settling into a British constitution..—BURKE 
People of a prying temper seek to dive into the secret 
of others; 


How he did seem to dive into their hearts 
With humble and familiar courtesy. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


WAVE, BILLOW, SURGE, BREAKER. 


Wave, from the Saxon waegan, and German wiegen 
to weigh or rock, is applied to water in an undulating 
state; it is, therefore, the generick term, and the rest 
are specifick terms ; 


The wave behind impels the wave befere.—Pors. 


Those waves which swell more than ordinarily are 
termed billows, which is derived from bulge or bilge, 
and German dalg, the paunch or belly ; 


I saw him beat the dzllows under him, 
And ride upon their backs.—SHAKSPEARE. 


Those waves which rise higher than usual are termed 
surges, from the Latin surgo to rise ; 


He flies aloft, and with impetuous roar 
Pursues the foaming surges to the shore. 
DrybDEn. 


Those waves which dash against the shore, or against 
vessels with fiiore than ordinary force, are termed 
breakers ; 


Now on the mountain wave on high they ride, 

Then downward plunge beneath th’ involving tide, 
Till one who seems in agony to strive 
The whirling breakers heave on shore alive. 


FALCONER. 


BREEZE, GALE, BLAST, GUST, STORM, 
TEMPEST, HURRICANE. 


All these words express the action of the wind, in 
different degrees and under different circumstances. 

Breeze, in Italian brezza, is in all probability an 
onomatopela for that kind of wind peculiar to southern 
climates; gale is probably connected with call and 
yell, denoting a sonorous wind; dlast, in German 
geblaset, participle of blasen, signifies properly the act 
of blowing, but by distinction it is employed for any 
strong effort of blowing; gust is immediately of lce 


354 


-andish origin, and expresses the phenomena which are 
characteristick of the northern climates ; but in all pro- 
bability itis a variation of gush, signifying a violent 
streau: of wind; storm, in German sturm, from stéren 
to put in commotion, like gust, describes the phenome- 
non of northern climates ; tempest, in Latin tempestus, 
or tempus a time or season, describes that season or sort 
of weather which is most remarkable, but at the same 
time most frequent, in southern climates; hurricane 
has been introduced by the Spaniards into Europea 
languages from the Caribee islands; where it describes 
that species of tempestuous wind, most frequent in the 
tropical climates. 

A breeze is gentle; a gale is brisk, but steady; we 
have breezes in a calm summer’s day: the mariner has 
favourable gales which keep the sails on the stretch; 


Gradual sinks the breeze 
Into a perfect calm.—THomson. 


What happy gale 
Blows you to Padua here from old Verona ? 
SHAKSPEARE. 


A dlast is impetuous; the exhalations of a trumpet, 
the breath of bellows, the sweep of a violent wind, are 
blasts. A gust is sudden and vehement; gusts of 
wind are sometimes so violent as to sweep every thing 
before them while they last; 


As when fierce northern blasts from th’ Alps de- 
scend,. 

From his firm roots with struggling gusts to rend 

An aged sturdy oak, the rustling sound 

Grows loud.—DrnuaAM. 


Storm, tempest, and hurricane include other parti- 
culars besides wind. 

A storm throws the whole atmosphere into commo- 
tion; it is a war of the elements, in which wind, rain, 
hail, and the like, conspire to disturb the heavens; 
tempest is a species of storm, which has also thunder 
and lightning to add to the confusion. Hurricane is 
a species of storm, which exceeds all the rest in vio- 
lence and duration; 


Through storms and tempests so the sailor drives, 

While every element in combat strives; 

Loud roars the thunder, fierce the lightning flies, 

Winds wildly rage, and billows tear the skies. 
SHIRLEY. 


So where our wide Numidian wastes extend, 
Sudden th’ impetuous hurricanes descend, 
Wheels through the air in circling eddies play, 
Tear up the sands, and sweep whole plains away. 
ADDISON. 


Gust, storm, and tempest, which are applied figu- 
ratively, preserve their distinction in this sense. The 
passions are exposed to gusts and storms, to sudden 
bursts, or violent and continued agitations; the soul 
is exposed to tempests when agitated with violent and 
contending emotions; . 

Stay these sudden gusts of passion, 

That hurry you away.— Rowe. 

I burn, I burn! The storm that ’sin my mind 

Kindles my heart, like fires provok’d by wind. 

LANSDOWN. 


All deaths, all tortures, in one pang combin’d, 
Are gentle, to the tempest of my mind.—THoMsoNn. 


TO HEAVE, SWELL. 


Heave is used either transitively or intransitively, 
as a reflective or a neuter verb; swell is used only as 
a neuter verb. Heave implies raising, and swell im- 
plies distension: they differ therefore very widely in 
sense, but they sometimes agree in application. The 
bosom is said both to heave and to swell; because it 
happens that the bosom swells by heaving ; the waves 
are likewise said to heave themselves or to swell, in 
which there is a similar correspondence between the 
actions: otherwise most things which heave do not 
well, and those which swelldo not heave ; 


He heaves for breath, he staggers to and fro, 
And clouds of issuing smoke his nostrils loudly blow. 
DryDENn. 


Meantime the mountain billows to the clouds, 


In dreadful tumult, swell’d surge above surge. 
THOMSON. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


TO LIFT, HEAVE, HOIST. 


Lift is in all probability contracted from levatus 
participle of levo to lift, which comes from levis light, 
because what is light is easily borne up; heave, in 
Saxon heavian, German heben, &c. comes from the 
absolute particle Aa, signifying high, because to heave 
is to set upon high; ozst, in French hausser, Low 
German hissen, is a variation from the same source as 
heave. 

The idea of making high is common to all these 
words, but they differ in the objects and the circum- 
stances of the action; we lift with or without an 
effort: we heave and hoist always with an effort; we 
lift a child up to let him see any thing more distinctly , 
workmen heave the stones or beams which are used in 
a building ; sailors hoist the long boat into the water. 
To lift and hoist are transitive verbs; they require an 
agent and an object: heave is intransitive, it may have 
an inanimate object for an agent: a person lifts his 
hand to his head; when whales-are killed, they are 
hoisted into vessels: the bosom heaves when it is op- 
pressed with sorrow, the waves of thesea heave when 
they are agitated by the wind; ‘ 


What god so daring in your aid to move, 
Or lift his hand against the force of Jove ?—Popr. 


Murm’ring they move, as when old Ocean roars, 
And heaves huge surges to the trembling shores. 
PopPE 


The reef enwrap’d, th’ inserted knittles tied, 
To hoist the shorten’d sail again they tried. 
FaLcoNnER. 


TO LIFT, RAISE, ERECT, ELEVATE, EXALT. 


Lift, v. To lift; raise, signifies to cause to rise ; 
erect, in Latin erectus, participle of erigo, or e and 
rego, probably from the Greek dpéya, signifies literally 
to extend or set forth in the height; elevate is a varia- 
tion from the same source as lift ; exalt comes from 
the Latin altus high, and the Hebrew olah to ascend, 
and signifies to cause to be high (v. Aigh). 

The idea of making one thing higher than another 
is common to these verbs, which differ in the circum- 
stances of the action. To Jift isto take off from the 
ground, or from any spot where it is supposed to be 
fixed; to raise and erect are to place in a higher posi- 
tion, while in contact with the ground: we lift up a 
stool; we raise a chair, by giving it longer legs; we 
erect a monument by heaping one stone on another ; 


Now rosy morn ascends the court of Jove, 
Lifts up her light, and opens day above.—Porpr. 


Such a huge bulk as not twelve bards could raise, 
Twelve starveling bards of these degenerate days. 
Pops 


From their assistance happier walls expect, 
Which, wand’ring long, at last thou shalt erect. 
DRYDEN 


Whatever is to be carried is lifted ; whatever is to 
be situated higher is to be raised ; whatever is to be 
constructed above other objects is erected. A ladder 
is lifted upon the shoulders to be conveyed from one 
place to another; a standard ladder is raised against 
a building ; a scaffolding is erected. 

These terms are likewise employed in a moral ac 
ceptation ; exalt and elevate are used in no other sense. 
Lift expresses figuratively the artificial action of set- 
ting aloft; as in the case of liftzng a person into 
notice: to raise preserves the idea of making higher 
by the accession of wealth, honour, or power; as in 
the case of persons who are raised from beggary toa 
state of affluence: to erect retains its idea of artificially 
constructing, so as to produce a solid as well as lofty 
mass; as in the case of erecting a tribunal, erecting a 
system of spiritual dominion. A person cannot litt 
himself, but he may razse himself; individuals lift or 
raise up each other; but communities, or those only 
who are invested with power, have the opportunity of 
erccting. 

To lift is seldom used in a good sense; to raise is 
used in a good or an indifferent sense: to elevate and 
exalt are always used in the best sense. A person is 
seldom lifted up for any good purpose, or from any 
merit in himself; it is commonly to suit the ends of 
party that people are lifted into notice, or lifted into 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


offee; on the same ground, if a person is lifted up in 
his own imagination, it is only his pride which gives 
him the elevation; ‘Our successes have been great, 
and our hearts have been much lifted up by them, so 
that we have reason to humble ourselves.’-—ATTER- 
Bury. A person may be raised for his merits, or raise 
himself by his industry, in both which cases he is en- 
titled to esteem; or he may with propriety be raised in 
the estimation of himself or others; 


Rais’d in his mind the Trojan hero stood, 
And long’d to break from out his ambient cloud. 
DRYDEN. 


One is elevated by circumstances, but still more so 
by one’s character and moral qualities; one is rarely 
exalted but by means of superiour endowments; $ Pru- 
dence operates on life in the same manner as rules on 
composition; it produces vigilance rather than eleva- 
tion.’-—JOHNSON. 


A creature of a more exalted kind ‘ 
Was wanting yet, and then was man design’d. 
DRyDEN. 


To elevate may be the act of individuals for them- 
selves ; to exalt must be the act of others. There are 
some to whom elevation of rank is due, and others 
who require no adventitious circumstances to elevate 
them; the world have always agreed to exalt great 
power, great wisdom, and great genius, 


HIGH, TALL, LOFTY. 


High, in German hoch, &c. comes in all probability 


from the Hebrew })§, the king of the Amalekites, so 
called on account of his size, and is connected with 
the Latin gigas; tall, in Welch tal, is derived by 


Davis from the Hebrew Sbn to elevate; lofty is 
doubtless derived from /?ft, and that from the Latin 
levatus raised. 

High is the term in most general use, which seems 
likewise in the most unqualified manner to express the 
idea of extension upwards, which is common to them 
all. Whatever is tall and lofty is high, but every 
thing is not tall or lofty which is high. Tall and lofty 
both designate a more than ordinary degree of height ; 
but tall is peculiarly applicable to what shoots up or 
stands up in a perpendicular direction: while lofty is 
said of that which is extended in breadth as well as in 
height ; that which is lifted up or raised by an accre- 
tion of matter or an expansion in the air. By this 
rule we say that a house is high,a chimney tall, a 
room lofty. 

Trees are in general said to be high which exceed 
the ordinary standard of height; they are opposed to 
the low; 


High at their head he saw the chief appear, 
And bold Merion to excite their rear.—Popkr. 


A poplar is said to be tall, not only from its exceeding 

other trees in height, but from its perpendicular and 

res manner of growing is opposed to that which is 
ulky; 


Prostrate on earth their beauteous bodies lay, 
Like mountain Grs, as tall and straight as they. 
Popr. 


A man and a horse are likewise said to be tall; buta 
hedge, a desk, and other common objects, are high. A 
hillis high, but a mountain is lofty; churches are in 
general high, but the steeples or the domes of cathe- 
drals are lofty, and their spires are tall ; 


E’en now, O king! ’t is giv’n thee to destroy 
The lofty tow’1s of wide-extended Troy.—Pope. 


With the high is associated no idea of what is 
striking; but the tall is coupled with the aspiring or 
that which strives to out-top: the lofty is always 
coupled with the grand, and that which commands 
admiration. 

High and lofty have a moral acceptation, but tall is 
taken in the natural sense only: high and lofty are 
applied to persons or what is personal, with the same 
difference in degree as before: a lofty title or lofty 
pretension conveys more than a high title or a high 
pretension. Men of Aigh rank should have high ideas 
of virtue and personal dignity, and keep themselves 
slanr from every thing low and mean; 


. 


355 


When you are tried in scandav’s court, 

Stand high in honour, wealth, or wit, 

All others who inferiour sit 

Conceive themselves in conscience bound 

To join and drag you to the ground.—_Swirr 
A lofty ambition often soars too high to serve the pur- 
pose of its possessor, whose fall is the greater when 
he finds himself compelled to descend ; 


Without thee, nothing lofty can I sing, 
Come, then, and with thyself thy genius kring. 
DrypeEn. 


TO HEIGHTEN, RAISE, AGGRAVATE. 


To heighten is to make higher (v. Haughty). To 
raise is to cause to rise (v. To arise). To aggravate 
(v. To aggravate) is to make heavy. Heighten refers 
more to the result of the action of making higher; 
raise to the mode: we heighten a house by raising 
the roof; as raising conveys the idea of setting up 
aloft, which is not included in the word heighten; 
‘Purity and virtue heighten all the powers of fruition.’ 
—Buair. On the same ground a headdress may be 
said to be heightened, which is made higher than it 
was before; and a chair or a table is 7 aised that is set 
upon something else: but in speaking of a wall, we 
may say, that it is either heightened or raised, because 
iue operation and result must in both cases be the 
same; ‘I would have our conceptions raised by the 
dignity of thought and sublimity of expression, rather 
than by a train of robes or a plume of feathers.’— 
Appison. Inthe improper sense of these terms they 
preserve a similar distinction: we heighten the value 
of a thing; we raise its price: we heighten the gran- 
deur of an object; we raise a family. 

Heighten and aggravate have connexion with each 
other only in application to offences: the enormity of 
an offence is heghtened, the guilt of the offender is 
aggravated by particular circumstances. The horrours 
of a murder are heightened by being committed in the 
dead of the night; the guilt of the perpetrator is ag 
gravated by the addition of ingratitude to murder, 
‘The counsels of pusillanimity are very rarely put off, 
while they are always sure to aggravate the evils 
from which they would fly.—Burxx. 


TO ANIMATE, INSPIRE, ENLIVEN, CHEER, 
EXHILARATE. 


To animate is to give life (v. To encourage) ; inspire, 
in French inspirer, Latin inspiro, compounded of in 
and spiro, signifies to breathe life or spirit into any 
one; enliven, from en or in and liven, has the same 
sense; cheer, in French chére, Flemish czére the coun- 
tenance, Greek yapd joy, signifies the giving joy or 
spirit; exhlarate, in Latin exhilaratus, participle of 
exhilaro, from hilaris, Greek jAapds joyful, Hebrew 
pw to exult or leap for joy, signifies to make glad. 

Animate and inspire imply the communication of 
the vital or mental spark ; enliven, cheer, and exhila- 
rate signify actions on the mind or body. To be ani- 
mated, in its physical sense, is simply to receive the 
first spark of animal life in however small a degree; 
for there are animated beings in the world possessing 
the vital power in an infinite variety of degrees and 
forms; 

Through subterranean cells 
Where searching sunbeams scarce can find a way, 
Earth animated heaves.—THomson. 


“To be animated in the moral sense is to receive the- 


smallest portion of the sentient or thinking faculty ; 
which is equally varied in thinking beings: animation 
therefore never conveys the idea of receiving any 
strong degree of either physical or moral feeling; 
‘The more to animate the people, he stood on high, 
from whence he might best be heard, and cried unto 
them with a loud voice.,—Knotues. To inspire, on 
the contrary, expresses the communication of a strong 
moral sentiment or passion: hence to animate with 
courage is a less forcible expression than to znspire 
with courage: we likewise speak of caspiring with 
emulation or a thirst for knowledge; not of animating 
with emulation or a thirst for knowledge ; 

Each gentle breast with kindly warmth she moves, 


Inspires new flames, revives extinguished loves. 
DryDEN on May 


356 


To enliven respects the mind; cheer relates to the 

heart; exhilarate regards the spirits, both animal and 

mental, they all denote an action on the frame by the 

communication of pleasurable emotions: the mind is 

enlivened by contemplating the scenes of nature; the 

imagination is enlivened by the reading of poetry; 

To grace each subject with enlivening wit. 

ADDISON. 


The benevolent heart is cheered by witnessing the 
happiness of others; ‘The creation is a perpetual 
feast to a good man; every thing he sees cheers and 
delights him.’—Appison. The spirits are exhélarated 
by the convivialities of social life ; 


Nor rural sights alone, but rural sounds 
Exhilarate the spirit—Cowrgmr. 


Conversation enlivens society; the conversation of 2 
kind and considerate friend cheers the drooping spirits 
in the moments of trouble; urexpected good ne¥vs is 
apt to exhilarate the spirits. 


ANIMATION, LIFE, VIVACITY, SPIRIT. 


Animation and life do not differ either ia sense or 
application, but the latter is more in familiar use. 
They express either the particular or general state of 
the mind; vivacity and spirit express only the habit- 
ual nature and state of the feelings. 

A person of no animation is divested of the dis- 
tinguishing characteristick of his nature, which is 
mind: a person of no vivacity is a dull companion: 
a person of no spirit is unfit to associate with others. 

A person with animation takes an interest in every 
thing ; a vivacious man catches at every thing that is 
pleasant and interesting: a spirited man enters into 
plans, makes great exertions, and disregards difficul- 
ties. 

A speaker may address his audience with more or 
less animation according to the disposition in which 
he finds it; ‘The British have a lively, animated as- 
pect.—Srrevz. A painter may be said by his skill to 
throw life into his picture; 


The very dead creation from thy touch 
Assumes a mimick life—THomson, 


A man of a vivacious temper diffuses his vivacity into 
all his words and actions; ‘ His vivacity is seen in 
doing all the offices of life, with readiness of spirit, 
and propriety in the manner of doing them.’—STEELE. 
A man of spirit suits his measures to the exigency of 
his circumstances ; 


Farewell the big war, 
The spirit-stirring drum, th’ ear-piercing fife. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


LIFELESS, DHAD, INANIMATE. 


Lifeless and dead suppose the absence of life where 
it has once been; inanimate supposes its absence 
where it has never been; a perso is said to be life- 
less or dead from whom life has departed; the mate- 
rial world consists of objects which are by nature 
inanimate; ‘ We may in some sort be said to have a 
society even with the inanimate world.’—BuRKE. 
Lifeless is negative ; it signifies simply without life, 
or the vital spark: dead is positive; it denotes an 
actual and perfect change in the object. We may 
speak of a lifeless corpse, When speaking of a body 
which sinks from a state of animation into that of 
inanimation ; 

Nor can his lifeless nostril please, 
With the once ravishing smell—CowLey. 


We speak of dead bodies to designate such as have 
undergone an entire change ; ‘A brute and a man are 
another thing, when they are alive and when they are 
dead—Hatrs. A person, therefore, in whom ani- 
mation is suspended, is, for the time being, lifeless, 
in appearance at least, although we should not say 
dead. 

In the moral acceptation, lifeless and inanimate 
respect the spirits; dead respects the moral feeling. 
A person is said to be lifeless who has lost the spirits 
which he once had; he is said to be inanimate when 
he is naturally wanting in spirits: a person who is 
lifeless is unfitted for enjoyment ; he who is dead to 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


moral sentiment i otally bereft of the essential pro 
perties of his naf €. The epithet dead is sometimes 
applied in the ser: of having the stillness of death ; 


How dead tht —getable kingdom lies!—Twomson 


TO CHEE) BNCOURAGE, COMFORT. 
Cheer has the same signification as given under the 


thead of To animate; encaurege, compounded of ex 


and courage, signifies to inspire with courage; comfort, 
compounded of com or cum, and fortis strong, signi- 
fies to invigorate or strengthen. 

To cheer regards the spirits; to encourage the reso- 
lution: the sad require to be cheered ; the timid to be 
encouraged. Mirthful company is suited to cheer those 
who labour under any depression; ‘ Every eye bestowa 
the cheering look of approbation upon the humble 
man.’—CuUMBERLAND. ‘I'he prospect of success en- 
courages those who have any object to obtain; ‘Com- 
plaisance produces good nature and mutual benevo- 
lence, encourages the timorous, sooths the turbulent, 
humanizes the fierce, and distinguishes a society of 
civilized persons from savages.’— ADDISON. 

To cheer and comfort have both regard to the spi- 
rits, but the latter differs in degree and manner: to 
cheer expresses more than to comfort; the former sig 
nifying to produce a lively sentiment, the latter to 
lessen or remove a painful one: we are cheered in the 
moments of despondency, whether from real or ima- 
ginary causes; we are comforted in the hour of dis- 
tress ; 


Sleep seldom visits sorrow, 
When it does, it is a comforter.—SHAKSPEARE. 


Cheering is mostly effected by the discourse of 
others ; comforting is effected by the actions, as well 
as the words, of others. Nothing tends more to cheer 
the drooping soul than endearing expressions of ten- 
derness from those we love; the most effectual meang 
of comforting the poor and afilicted, is by relieving 
their wants; ‘There are writers of great distinction 
who have made it an argument for providence, that 
the whole earth is covered with green, rather than with 
any other colour, as being such a right mixture of 
lightand shade, that comforts and strengthens the eye, 
instead of weakening or grieving it.—Appison. The 
voice of the benevolent man is cheering to the aching 
heart; his looks encourage the sufferer to disclose his 
griefs; his hand is open to administer relief and com 
fort. 


ee 


TO CONSOLE, SOLACE, COMFORT 


Console and solace are derived from the same source, 
in French consoler, Latin consolor and solatium, pos- 
sibly from solwm the ground, which nourishes all 
things; to comfort signifies to afford comfort (v. To 
cheer). 

Console and solace denote the relieving of pain; 
comfort marks both the communication of positive 
pleasure and the relief of pain. We console others 
with words; we console or solace ourselves with re- 
flections ; we comfort by words or deeds. Console is 
used on more important occasions than solace. We 
console our friends when they meet with afflictions ; 
we solace ourselves when we meet with disasters; we 


‘comfort those who stand in need of comfort. 


The greatest consolation which we can enjoy on the 
death of our friends is derived from the hope that they 
have exchanged a state of imperfection and sorrow 
for one that is full of pure and unmixed felicity; ‘In 
afflictions men generally draw their consolation out of 
books of morality, which indeed are of great use to 
fortify and strengthen the mind against the impressions 
of sorrow.’—Appison. It is no small solace to us in 
the midst of all our troubles, to consider that they are 
not so bad as that they might not have been worse; 
‘ He that undergoes the fatigue of labour must solace 
his weariness with the contemplation of its reward.’ 
—Jounson. The comforts which a person enjoys 
may be considerably enhanced by the comparison 
with what he has formerly suffered; ‘If our afilic 
tions are light, we shall be comforted by the compari 
son we make between ourselves and our fellow-suf 
ferers.’— ADDISON. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


COMFORT, PLEASURE. 


Comfort (v. To cheer), that genuine English word, 
describes what England only affords: we may find 
pleasure in every country ; but comfort is to be found 
in our own country only: the grand feature in comfort 
is substantiality ; in that of pleasureis warmth. Plea- 
sure is quickly succeeded by pain; it is the lot of hu- 
manity that to every pleasure there should be an alloy: 
comfort is that portion of pleasure which seems to lie 
exempt from this disadvantage; it is the most durable 
sort of pleasure. 

Comfort must be sought for at home; pleasure is 
pursued abroad: comfort depends upon a thousand 
nameless trifles which daily arise ; it is the relief of a 
pain, the heightening of a gratification, the supply of 
a want, or the removal of an ‘inconvenience ; 


Thy growing virtues justified my cares, 
And promis’d comfort to my silver hairs.—Popr. 


Pleasure is the companion of luxury and abundance ; 
it dwells in the palaces of the rich and the abodes of 
the voluptuary : but comfort is within the reach of the 
poorest, and the portion of those who know how to 
husband their means, and to adapt their enjoyments 
to their habits and circumstances in life. Comfort is 
tess than pleasure in the detail; it is more than plea- 
sure in the aggregate. 


SYMPATHY, COMPASSION, COMMISERATION, 
CONDOLENCE. 


Sympathy, from the Greek cin or ody with, and 
2aQos feeling, has the literal meaning of fellow-feeling, 
that is, a kindred or like feeling, or feeling in company 
with another. Compassion, from com and patior 9 
Buiter ; commiseration, from the Latin com and miseria 
misery ; condolence, from the Latin con and doleo to 
grieve, signify a like suffering, or a suffering in com- 
pany. Hence it is obvious, that according to the deri- 
vation of the words sympathy may be said either of 
pleasure or pain, the rest only of that which is painful. 
Sympathy preserves its original meaning in its applica- 
tion, for we laugh or cry by sympathy; this may, how- 
ever, be only a merely physical affection; ‘ You are 
not young, no more am I; go to, then, there’s sympa- 
thy; you are merry, so aml; ha! ha! then there’s 
more sympathy ; you love sack, and so dol; would 
you —SHAKSPRARE. Hence it is that the word sym- 
pathy may be taken for a secret alliance or kindred 
feeling between two minds or between the mind and 
other objects ; 


Or sympathy or some connatural force, 
Powerful at greatest distance to unite, 
With secret amity, things of like kind, 
By secretest conveyance.—MILTon. 


That mind and body often sympathize 
Is plain; such is this union nature ties —Jmnyns. 


But sympathy when taken in a sense the most closely 
allied to compassion, does not go beyond the feeling 
another’s pleasures or pains; we may sympathize with 
others without essentially serving them; ‘ Their coun- 
trymen were particularly attentive to all their story, 
and sympathized with their heroes in all their adven- 
tures.'—ADDISON. Compassion, on the other hand, 
not only a moral, but an active feeling; if we feel 
compassion, We naturally turn our thoughts towards 
relieving the object ; 

’*Mong those whom honest lives can recommend, 

Our justice more compassion should extend. 

DrnuyaM. 


Compassion is awakened by any sort of suffering, but 
particularly those which are attributable to misfortune; 
* The good-natured man is apt to be moved with com- 
passion for those misfortunes and infirmities, which 
another would turn into ridicule..—Appison. Com- 
miseration is a stronger feeling awakened by deep dis- 
tress, above all by the troubles which people bring on 
themselves ; a criminal going to suffer the penalty of 
the law demands commiseration ; 


She indeed weeping ; and her lovely plight 
Immoveable, till peace obtain’d from fault 
Acknowledg’d and deplor’d, in Adam wrought 
Commiser ation —-MiLTon. 


And the calamities of human life equally call for com- 
miseration; : 


357 


Then must we those who groan beneath the weight 
Of age, disease, or want, commiserate ?--Dunuam. 


Compassion may be awakened in the minds of persons 
of very unequal condition ; commiseration supposes a 
certain distance, at least in the external condition of 
the parties ; he who commiserates being set above the 
chance of falling into the calamities of him who is 
commiserated ; whence it is represented as the feeling 
which our wretchedness excites in the Supreme Being. 
Condolence supposes an entire equality; it excludes 
every thing but what flows out of the courtesy and 
good-will of one friend to another, and is called forth 
by events which the parties on either side are equally 
exposed to; we condole with a person on the death of 
a relative ; ‘ Why should I think that all that devout 
multitude, which so lately cried Hosanna in the streets. 
did not also bear their part in these publick condolings 
(on the crucifixion of our Saviour).’—HAa... 


Rather than all must suffer, some must die, 
Yet nature must cendole their misery —Drnnam 


GRACIOUS, MERCIFUL, KIND. 


Gracious, when compared to merciful, is used only 
in the spiritual sense; the latter is applicable to the 
conduct of man as well as of the Deity. 

Grace is exerted in doing good to an object that has 
merited the contrary ; mercy is exerted in withholding 
the evil which has been merited. God is gracious to 
his creatures in affording them not only an opportunity 
to address him, but every encouragement to lay open 
their wants to him; their unworthiness and sinfulness 
are not made impediments of access to him. God is 
merciful to the vilest of sinners, and lends an ear ta 
the smallest breath of repentance; in the moment of 
executing vengeance he stops his arm at the voice of 
supplication: he expects the same mercy to be extended 
by man towards his offending brother. 

Grace, in the lofty sense in which it is here admitted, 
cannot with propriety be made the attribute of any 
human being, however elevated his rank: nothing 
short of infinite wisdom as well as goodness can be 
supposed capable of doing good to offenders without 
producing ultimate evil ; 


He heard my vows, and graciously decreed 
My grounds to be restor’d, my former flocks to feed. 
Drypen. 


Were aking to attempt any display of grace by be 
stowing favours on criminals, his conduct would be 
highly injurious to the interests of society ; but when 
we speak of the Almighty as dispensing his goods to 
sinners, and even courting them by every act of endear- 
ment to lay aside their sins, we clearly perceive that 
this difference arises from the infinite disparity between 
him and us; which makes that “ his ways are not our 
ways, nor are his thoughts our thoughts.’’ I am in- 
clined therefore to think that in our language we have 
made a peculiarly just distinction between grace and 
mercy, by confining the former to the acts of the 
Almighty, and applying the latter indiscriminately to 
both ; for it is obvious that mercy as far as it respects 
the suspension of punishment, lies altogether within 
the reach of human discretion ; 


He that’s merciful 
Unto the bad is cruel to the good.—RanpoLpH. 


Gracious, when compared with kind, differs prin- 
cipally as to the station of the persons to whom it is 
applied. Gracious is altogether confined to superiours; 
kind is indiscriminately employed for superiours and 
equals: a king gives a gracious reception to the nobles 
who are presented to him; one friend gives a kind 
reception to another by whom he is visited. Gracious 
is a term in peculiar use at court, and among princes; 
it necessarily supposes a voluntary descent from a 
lofty station, to put oneself, for the time being, upon a 
level with those to whom one speaks: it comprehends, 
therefore, condescension in manner, affability in ad- 
dress ; ‘So gracious hath God been to us, that he hath 
made those things to be our duty which naturally tend 
to our felicity.-T1LLotson.. Kindness is a domes- 
tick virtue ; it is found mostly among those who have 
not so much ceremonial to dispense with ; it is the dis- 
play of our good-will not only in the manner, but in the 
action itself; it is not confined to the tone of the voice. 
the gesture of the body, or the mode of expression : 


358 


but extends to actual services in the closest relations 
of society ; a master is kind to his servants in the time 
of their sickness ; friends who are kind to one another 
nave perpetual opportunities of displaying their kind- 
ness in various little offices ; 
Love! that would al! men just and temp’rate make, 
Kind to themselves and others for his sake. 
WALLER. 


PITY, COMPASSION. 


The pain which one feels at the distresses of another 
s the idea that is common to the signification of both 
hese terms, but they differ in the object that causes 
the distress. Pity, which is probably changed from 
piety, is excited principally by the weakness or de- 
graded condition of the subject: compassion (v. Sym- 
pathy) by his uncontrollable and inevitable mistor- 
tunes. We pity a man of a weak understanding who 
exposes his weakness: we compassionate the man who 
is reduced to a state of beggary and want. Pity is 
kindly extended by those in higher condition to such 
as are humble in their outward circumstances; the 
poor are at all times deserving of pity when their 
poverty is not the positive fruit of vice; 


Others extended naked on the floor, 

Exil’d from human pity here they lie, 

And know no end of mis’ry till they die. 
POMFRET. 


Compassion is a sentiment which extends to persons 
in all conditions; the good Samaritan had compassion 
on the traveller who fell among thieves ; 


His fate compassion in the victor bred ; 
Stern as he was, he yet rever’d the dead.—Popr. 


Pity, though a tender sentiment, is so closely allied to 
contempt, that an ingenuous mind is always loath to 
be the subject of it, since it can never be awakened 
but by some circumstances of inferiority ; it hurts the 
honest pride of a man to reflect that he can excile no 
interest but by provoking a comparison to his own dis- 
advantage: on the other hand, such is the general in- 
firmity of our natures, and such our exposure to the 
casualties of human life, that compassion is a pure and 
delightful sentiment, that is reciprocally bestowed and 
acknowledged by all with equal satisfaction. 


PITY, MERCY. 


The feelings we indulge, and the conduct we adopt, 
towards others who suffer for their demerits, is the com- 
mon idea which renders these terms synonymous; but 
pity lays hold of those circumstances which do not 
affect the moral character, or which diminish the cul- 
pability of the individual: mercy lays hold of those 
external circumstances which may diminish punish- 
ment. Pity is often asentiment unaccompanied with 
action; mercy is often a mode of action unaccom- 
panied with sentiment: we have or take pity upon a 
person, but we show mercy to a person. Pity is be- 
stowed by men in their domestic and private capacity ; 
mercy is shown in the exercise of power: a master 
has pity upon his offending servant by passing over his 
offences, and affording him the opportunity of amend- 
ment, or an individual may feel a sentiment towards 
another whom he thinks in a degraded situation. 


I pity from my soul unhappy men, 
Compell’d by want to prostitute their pen. 
Roscommon. 


The magistrate shows mercy to a criminal by abridg- 
ing his punishment; ‘Examples of justice must be 
made for terrour to some; examples of mercy for com- 
fort to others; the one procures fear, and the other 
-love.’—Bacon. Pity liesin the breast of an individual, 
and may be bestowed at his discretion : mercy is restrict- 
ed by the rules. of civil society ; it must not interfere 
with the administration of justice. Young offenders 
call for great pity, as their offences are often the fruit of 
inexperience and bad example, rather than of depra- 
vity: mercy is an imperative duty in those who have 
the power of inflicting punishment, particularly in cases 
where life and death are concerned. 
Pity and mercy are likewise applied to the brute 
freation with a similar distinction: pity shows itself in 
‘Glieving real misery, and in lightening burdens; 


pe Eee 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


mercy is displayed in the measure of pain which one 
inflicts. One takes pety on a poor ass to whom one 
gives fodder to relieve hunger ; ‘ An ant dropped into the 
water ; a wvod-pigeon took pity on her, and threw het 
a little bough.’—L’Estrraner. One shows a brute 
mercy by abstaining to lay heavy stripes upon its 
back ; i 

Cowards are crucl, but the brave 

Love mercy, and delight to save.-—Gay. 


These terms are moreover applicable to the Deity, 
in regard to his creatures, particularly man. God 
takes pity on us as entire dependants upon him: he 
extends his mercy towards us as offenders against him’ 
he shows his pity by relieving our wants; he shows 
his mercy by forgiving our sins. ~ 


PITIABLE, PITEOUS, PITIFUL. 


These three epithets drawn from the same word 
have shades of difference in sense and application ; 
pitiable signifies deserving of pity ; piteous, moving 
pity ; pitiful, full of that which awakens pity : a con- 
dition is pitzable which is so distressing as to call forth 
pity; acry is piteous which indicates such distress as 
can excite pity; a conduct is pitiful which marks a 
character entitled to pity. 

The first of these terms is taken in the best sense of 
the term pity; the last two in its unfavourable sense: 
what is pitiable in a person is independent of any 
thing in himself; circumstances have rendered him 
pitiable ; ‘Is it then impossible that a man may be 
found who without criminal ill intention, or pitiable 
absurdity, shall prefer a mixed government to either 
of the extremes ?”—Burkre. What is piteous and 
pitiful in a man arises from the helplessness and im- 
becility or worthlessness of his character; the former 
respects that which is weak ; the latter that which is ° 
worthless in him: when a poor creature makes piteous 
moans, it indicates his incapacity to help himself as 
he ought to do out of his troubles, or at least his im- 
patience under suffering; 


I have in view, calling to mind with heed 

Part of our sentence, that thy seed shall bruise 

The serpent’s head; piteous amends, unless 

Be meant, whom I conjecture, our grand foe. 
MILTON. 


When a man of rank has recourse to pitzful shifts to 
gain his ends, he betrays the innate meanness of his 
soul; ‘Bacon wrote a pitiful letter to King James I 
not long before his death.—How Eu. 


CLEMENCY, LENITY, MERCY. 


Clemency is in Latin clementia, signifying mildness ; 
lenity, in Latin lenitas, comes from lenis soft, or levis 
smooth, and the Greek Aetos mild; mercy, in Latin 
misericordia, compounded of miseria and cordis, i. e. 
affliction of the heart, signifies the pain produced by 
observing the pain of others. 

Clemency and lenity are employed only towards 
offenders ; mercy towards all who are in trouble, whe 
ther from their own fault, or any other cause. 

Clemency lies in the disposition ; lenity and mercy in 
the act; the former as respects superiours in general, 
the latter in regard to those who are invested with civil 
power: a monarch displays his clemency by showing 
mercy ; @ master shows lenity by not inflicting punish- 
ment where it is deserved. 

Clemency is arbitrary on the part of the dispenser, 
flowing from his will independent of the object on 
whom it is bestowed ; 


We wretched Trojans, toss’d 9n ev’ry shore, 
From sea to sea, thy clemency implore ; 

Forbid the fires our shipping to deface, 

Receive th’ unhappy fugitives to grace—DrypENn. 


Lenity and mercy are discretionary, they always have 
regard to the object and the nature of the offence, or 
misfortunes ; lenity therefore often serves the purposes 
of discipline, and mercy those of justice by forgive- 
ness, instead of punishment; but clemency defeats its 
end by forbearing to punish where it is needful; ‘The 
King (Charles IL.) with lenity of which the world has 
had perhaps no other example, declined to be the 
judge or avenger of his own or his father? wrongs,’= 
J0HNSON. 


9 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


The gods (if gods to goodness are inclin’d, 

If acts of mercy touch their heav’nly mind), 

And more than all the gods, your gen’rous heart, 

Conscious of worth, requite its own desert. 
DRYDEN. 


A mild master who shows clemency to a faithless 
servant by not bringing him to justice, often throws a 
worthless wretch upon the public to commit more 
atrocious depredations. A well-timed lenity some- 
times recalls an offender to himself, and brings him 
back to good order. Upon this principle, the English 
constitution has wisely left in the hands of the monarch 
the discretionary power of showing mercy in all cases 
that do not demand the utmost rigour of the law. 


SOFT, MILD, GENTLE, MEEK. 


Soft, in Saxon soft, German sanff, comes most 
probably from the Saxon szb, Gothick sef, Hebrew 


paw rest; mild, in Saxon milde, German milde, &c. 
atin mollis, Greek pedivds, comes from pericoow to 
sooth with soft words, and péXt honey; gentle, v. 
Gentle ; meek, like the Latin mitts, may in all proba- 
bility come from the Greek yecéw to make less, signify - 
ing to make one’s self small, to be humble. 

Soft and mild are employed both in the proper and 
the improper application ; meek only in the moral ap- 
plication : soft is opposed to the hard ; mild to the sharp 
or strong. All bodies are said to be soft which yield 
easily to the touch or pressure, as a soft bed, the soft 
earth, soft fruit ; 


Soft stillness, and the night, 
Become the touches of sweet harmony. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


Some bodies are said to be mild which act weakly, but 
pleasantly, on the taste, as mld fruit, or a mild cheese ; 
or on the feelings, as mz/d weather ; 


Sylvia ’s like autumn ripe, yet mild as May, 
More bright than noon, yet fresh as early day. 
PoPE. 


Some things are said to be gentle, which intheir nature 
might be boisterous as the winds ; 


As when the woods by gentle winds are stirr’d. 
DRYDEN. 


In the improper application, soft, mild, and gentle 
may be applied to that which acts weakly upon others, 
or is easily acted upon by others; meek is said of that 
only which is acted upon easily by others: in this 
selse they are all employed as epithets, to designate 
either the person, or that which is personal. 

In the sense of acting weakly, but pleasantly, on 
others, soft, mild, and gentle are applied to the same 
objects, but with a slight distinciion in the sense: the 
voice of a person is either soft or mild; it is naturally 
soft, it is purposely made mild; a soft voice strikes 
agreeably upon the ear; a mild voice, when assumed 
by those who have authority, dispels all fears in the 
minds of inferiours. A person moves either softly or 
gently, but in the first case he moves with but little 
noise, in the second he moves witha slow pace. It is 
necessary to go softly in the chamber of the sick, that 
they may not be disturbed ; it is necessary for a sick 
person to move gently, when he first attempts to go 
abroad after his confinement, or at least his impatience 
under suffering ; 


Pray you tread softly, that the blind mole may not 
Hear a foot fall—SuHaksPEARE. 


Close at mine ear one call’d me forth to walk, 
With gentle voice.—MIiLTon. 


To tread softly is anart which is acquired from the 
dancing-master; to go gently is a voluntary act: we 
may go a gentle or a quick pace at pleasure. Words 
are either soft, mild, or gentle: a soft word falls 
lightly upon the person to whom it is addressed ; it 
does not excite any angry sentiment; the proverb 
says, ‘‘ A soft answer turneth away wrath.’ A re- 
proof is mild when it falls easily’ from the lips of one 
who has power to oppress and wound the feelings; a 
censure, an admonition, or a hint, is gentle, which 
bears indirectly on the offender, and does not expose 
the whole of his infirmity to view: a kind father 
always tries the efficacy of mild reproofs; a prudent 


359 


friend will always try to correct our errours by gentle 
remonstrances. 

In like manner we say that punishments are mild 
which inflict but a small portion of pain; they are op- 
posed to those which are severe: those means of cor- 
rection are gentle, which are opposed to those that are 
violent. It requires discretion to know how to inflict 
punishment with the due proportion of mzldness and 
severity ; it will be fruitless to adopt gentle means of 
correction, when there is not a power of resorting to 
those which are violent in case of necessity. Persons, 
or their manners, are termed soft, mild, and gentle, but 
still with similar distinctions : a soft address, a soft air, 
and the like, are becoming or not, according to the sex : 
in that which is denominated the softer sex, these qua 
lities of softness are characteristick excellencies; but 
even in this sex they may degenerate, by their excess, 
into insipidity : and in the male sex they are compa- 
tible only in asmall degree with manly firmness of 
carriage. Mild manners are peculiarly becoming in 
superiours, whereby they win the love and esteem of 
those who are in interiour stations; 


Nothing reserv’d or sullen was to see, 

But sweet regards, and pleasing sanctity ; 

JMild was his accent, and his action free. 
DRYDEN. 


Gentle manners are becoming in all persons who take 
a part in social life: gentleness is, in fact, that due 
medium of softness which is alike suitable to both 
sexes, and which it is the object of polite education to 
produce; ‘ He had such a gentle method of reproving 
their faults, that they were not so much afraid as 
ashamed to repeat them.’—ATTERBURY. 

In the sense of being acted on easily, the disposition 
is said to be not only soft, mild, and gentle, but also 
meek; softness of disposition and character is an in 
firmity both in the male and female, but particularly 
in the former; it is altogether incompatible with that 
steadiness and uniformity of conduct which is requisite 
for every man who has an independent part to act in 
life ; 

However sofé within themselves they are, 
To you they will be valiant by despair. 
DRyDEN. 


A man of a soft disposition often yields to the en- 
treaties of others, and does that which his judgement 
condemns; mldness of disposition unfits a man alto- 
gether for command, and is to be clearly distinguished 
from that mildness of conduct which is founded on 
principle; 

If that mild and gentle god thou be, 

Who dost mankind below with pity see. 

DRYDEN. 


Gentleness, as a part of the character, is not so much 
to be recommended as gentleness from habit; human 
life contains so much in itself that is rough, that the 
gentle disposition is unable to make that resistance 
which is requisite for the purposes of self-defence: 


Still she retains 
Her maiden gentleness, and oft at eve 
Visits the herds.—MILTon. 


Meekness is a Christian virtue forcibly recommended 
to our practice by the example and precepts of our 
blessed Saviour; it consists not only in an unresisting, 
but a forgiving temper, a temper that is unruffled by 
injuries and provocations: it is, however, an infirmity, 
if it springs from a want of spirit, or an unconscious- 
ness of what is due to ourselves: meekness, therefore, 
as a natural temper, sinks into meanness and servility; 
but when, as an acquired temper, built upon principle, 
and moulded into a habit of the mind, it is the gran 
distinctive characteristick of the religion we profess. 

Gentle and meek are likewise applied to animals; 
the former to designate that easy flow of spirits which 
fits them for being guided in their movements, and the 
latter to mark that passive temper, that submits to 
every kind of treatment, however harsh, without an 
indication even of displeasure. A horse is gentle, as 
opposed to one that is spirited; the former is devoid of 
that impetus in himself to move, which renders the 
other ungovernable: the lamb is a pattern of meekness, 
and yields to the knife of the butcher without a struggle 
or a Sroan, 


360 


How meek, how patient, the mild creature lies, 

What softness in its melancholy face, 

What dumb-complaining innocence appears! 
THOMSON. 


GENTLE, TAME. 


Gentleness lies rather in the natural disposition; 
tameness is the effect either of art or circumstances. 
Any unbroken horse may be gentle, but not tame: a 
horse that is broken in will be éame, but not always 
gentle. sks ’ 

Gentle (v. Genteel) signifies literally well-born, and 
is opposed either to the fierce or the rude; ‘ Gentleness 
and gentility are the same thing, and, if they are not 
the same words, they come from one and the same 
original, from whence likewise is deduced the word 
gentleman.’—PreeEe. Tame, in German zahm, from 
zaum a bridle, signifies literally curbed or kept under, 
and is opposed either to the wild or the spirited. 

Animals are in general said to be gentle which show 
a disposition to associate with man, and conform to his 
will: they are said to be tame, if either by compulsion 
or habit they are brought to mix with human society. 
Of the first description there are individuals in almost 
every species which are more or less entitled to the 
name of gentle; of the latter description are many 
species, as the dog, the sheep, the hen, and the like; 


This said, the hoary king no longer staid, 

But on his car the slaughter’d victims laid ; 
Then seiz’d the reins, his gentile steeds to guide, 
And drove to Troy, Antenor at his side.—Popx. 


For Orpheus’ lute could soften steel and stone, 
Make tigers tame, and huge leviathans. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


fn the moral application gentle is always employed 
tn the good, and tame in the bad sense: a gentle spirit 
needs no control; it amalgamates freely with the will 
of another: a tame spirit is without any will of its 
own; itis alive to nothing but submission; it is. per- 
fectly consistent with our natural liberty to have gen- 
tleness, but tameness is the accompaniment of slavery. 
The same distinction marks the use of these words 
when applied to the outward conduct or the language: 
gentle bespeaks something positively good; tame be- 
speaks the want of an essential good: the former is 
allied to the kind, the latter to the abject and mean 
qualities which naturally flow from the compression 
or destruction of energy and will in the agent. A 
gentle expression is devoid of all acrimony, and serves 
to turn away wrath: a tame expression is devoid of 
all force or energy, and ill calculated to inspire the 
mind with any feeling whatever. In giving counsel to 
an irritable and conceited temper, it is necessary to be 
gentle: tame expressions are nowhere such striking 
deformities as in a poem or an oration; ‘ Gentleness 
stands opposed, not to the most determined regard to 
virtue and truth, but to harshness and severity, to 
pride and arrogance.’—Buair. ‘Though all wanton 
provocations, and contemptuous insolence, are to be 
liligently avoided, there is no less danger in timid com- 
pliance and tame resignation.’—JoHNSON. 


DOCILE, TRACTABLE, DUCTILE. 


Docile, in Latin docilis, from doceo to teach, is the 
Latin term for ready to be taught; tractable, from the 
Latin traho to draw, signifies ready to be drawn; and 
ductile, from duco to lead, ready to be led. 

_ The idea of submitting to the directions of another 
is comprehended in the signification of all these terms: 
docility marks the disposition to conform our actions 
in all particulars to the will of another, and lies alto- 
gether in the will; tractability and ductility are modes 
of docility, the former in regard to the conduct, the 
latter in regard to the principles and sentiments: do- 
sility is in general applied tothe ordinary actions of the 
life, where simply the will is concerned; ‘ The Persians 
are not wholly void of martial spirit; and if they are 
not naturally brave, they are at least extremely docile, 
and might with proper discipline be made excellent 
soldiers.’—Sir Wm. Jones. Tractabdility is applicable 
to points of conduct in which the judgement is con- 
cerned; ductility to matters in which the character is 
formed: a child ought to be docile with its parents at 
all times. .A person ought to be tractable when acting 
under the direction of his suneriour:; ‘The people with- 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


out being servile, must be tractable..—Burxe. A 
young person ought to be ductile to imbibe good prin- 
ciples: the want of docility may spring from a defect 
in the disposition: the want of tractableness may 
spring either from a defect in the temper, or from self- 
conceit; the want of ductility lies altogether in a 
natural stubbornness of character: docility, being alto- 
gether independent of the judgement, is applicable to 
the krutes as well as to men; 


Their reindeer form their riches: these their tents, 
Their robes, their beds, and all their homeiy wealth, 
Supply their wholesome fare, and cheerful cups; 
Obsequious at their call, the docile tribe 

Yield to the sledge their necks —THomson. 


Tractableness and ductility are applicable mostly to 
thinking and rational objects only, though sometimes 
extended to inanimate or moral objects: the ox is a 
docile animal; the humble are tractabie; youth is 
ductile ; ‘The will was then (before the fall) ductzle 
and pliant to all the motions of right reason.’—Souru 


FLEXIBLE, PLIABLE, PLIANT, SUPPLE, 


Flexible, in Latin flexibilis, from flecto to bend, sig- 
nifies able to be bent; pliable signifies able to be plied 
or folded: pliant, plying, bending, or folding; supple, 
in French souple, from the intensive syllable sub and 
ply, signifies very pliable. 

* Flexible is used in a natural or moral sense; pliable 
in the familiar and natural sense only; pliant in the 
higher and moral application only: what can be bent 
in any degree as a stick is flexible ; what can be bent 
as wax, or folded like cloth, is pliable. Supple, whether 
in a proper or a figurative sense, is an excess of plia- 
bility; what can be bent backward and forward, like 
ozier twig, is supple. 

In the moral application, fexible is indefinite both in 
degree and application; it may be greater or less in 
point of degree: whereus pliant supposes a great de- 
gree of pliability ; and suppleness, a great degree of 
pliancy or pliabdility: it applies likewise to the outward 
actions, to the temper, the resolution, or the principles; 
but pliancy is applied to the principles, or the conduct 
dependent upon those principles; suppleness to the 
outward actions and behaviour only. A temper is 
jlexible which yields to the entreaties of others; the 
person or character is pliant when it is formed or 
moulded easily at the will of another; a person is 
supple who makes his actions and his manners bend 
according to the varying humours of another: the first 
beiongs to one in a superiour station who yields to the 
wishes of the applicant; the latter two belong to equals 
or inferiours who yield to the influence of others. 

Flexibility may be either good or bad, according to 
circumstances; when it shortens the duration of re- 
sentments it produces a happy effect; but flexibility is 
not a respectable trait in a master or a judge, who ought 
to be guided by higher motives than what the mo- 
mentary impulse of feeling suggests: pliancy is very 
commendable in youth, when it leads them to yield to 
the counsels of the aged and experienced; but it may 
sometimes make young men the more easy victims to 
the seductions of the artful and vicious: suppleness is 
in no case good, for it is flexibility either in indifferent. 
matters, or such as are expressly bad. A good-natured 
man isflexible ; a weak and thoughtless man is pliant ; 
a parasite is supple. 

Flexibility is frequently a weakness, but never a 
vice; it always consults the taste of others, sometimes 
to its own inconvenience, and often in opposition to its 
judgement; ‘ Forty-four is an age at which the mind 
begins less easily to admit new confidence, and the will 
to grow less flexible—Jounson. Pliancy is often 
both a weakness and a vice; it always yields for its 
own pleasure, though not always in opposition to its 
sense of right and wrong: ‘ As for the bending and 
forming the mind, we should doubtless do our utmost 
to render it pliable, and by no means stiff and refrae- 
tory.’—Bacon. ‘The future is pliant and ductile”— 
JoHNSON. Suppieness is always a vice, but never a 
weakness ; it seeks its gratification to the injury of 
another by flattering his passions; ‘ Charles I. wanted 
suppleness and dexterity to give way to the enereach- 
ments of a popular assembly..—Hume. Flezebility iw 
opposed to firmness ; pliancy to steadiness; supplenes 
to rigidity. 


* Vide Roubaud: “Flexible, soupile. dna#*- 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


TO ALLAY, SOOTH, APPEASE, ASSUAGE, 
MITIGATE. 


To allay is compounded of al or ad, and lay to lay 
to or by, signifying to lay a thing to rest, to abate it; 
sooth probably comes from sweet, which is in Swedish 
sét, Low German, &c. sét, and is doubtless connected 


with the Hebrew F}{D to allure, invite, compose; ap- 
pease, in French appaiser, is compounded of ap or ad 
and paix peace, signifying to quiet; asswage is com- 
pounded of as or ad and suage, from the Latin swasi, 
perfect of swadeo to persuade, signifying to treat with 
gentleness, or to render easy; mitigate, from the Latin 
mitis gentle, signifies to make gentle or easy to be 
borne. 

All these terms indicate a lessening of something 
painful. Ina physical sense a pain is allayed by an 
immediate application ; it is soothed by affording ease 
and comfort in other respects, and diverting the mind 
from the pain. Extreme heat or thirst is allayed; 
‘ Without expecting the return of hunger, they eat for 
an appetite, and prepare dishes not to allay, but to ex- 
cite it.—Appison. Extreme hunger is appeased, 


The rest 
They cut in legs and fillets, for the feast, 
Which drawn and served, their hunger they appease. 
DRYDEN 


A punishment or sentence is mitigated ; 


I undertook 
Before thee, and, not repenting, this obtain 
Of right, that I may mitigate their doom. 
MILTON. 


{fn a moral sense one allays what is fervid and vehe- 
ment; 


If by your art you have 
Put the wild waters in this war, allay them. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


One sooths what is distressed; ‘ Nature has given all 
the little arts of socthing and blandishing to the fe- 
male.’"—AppISsON. (ne appeases what is tumultuous 
and boisterous; ‘Charon is no sooner appeased, and 
the triple-headed dog iaid asleep, but Aineas makes 
his entrance into the dominions of Pluto.’.—Appison. 
One assuages grief or afflictions; ‘If I can any way 
assuage private inflammations, or allay publick fer- 
ments, [ shall apply myself to it with the utmost en- 
deavours.—Appison. One mitigates pains, or what 
is rigorous and severe; ‘All it can do is, to devise how 
that which must be endured may be mitigated.’— 
Hooxer. Nothing is so calculated to allay the fervour 
of a distempered imagination, as prayer and religious 
meditation: religion has every thing in it which can 
sooth a wounded conscience by presenting it with the 
hope of pardon, that can appease the angry passions 
by giving us a sense of our own sinfulness and need 
of God’s pardon, and that can assuage the bitterest 
griefs by affording us the brightest prospect of future 
bliss. 


——--— 


TO ALLEVIATE, RELIEVE. 


Alleviate, in Latin alleviatus, participle of allevio, 
is compounded of the intensive syllable al or ad, and 
levo to lighten, signifying to lighten by making less; 
relieve, from the Latin relevo, is re and levo to lift up, 
signifying to take away or remove. 

A pain is alleviated by making it less burdensome ; 
a necessity is relieved by supplying what is wanted. 
Alleviate respects our internal feelings only; relieve 
our external circumstances. That alleviates which 
affords ease and comfort ; that relieves which removes 
the pain. It is no alleviation of sorrow to a feeling 
mind, to reflect that others undergo the same suffer- 
ing; ‘ Half the misery of human life might be extin- 
guished, would men alleviate the general curse they 
lie under, by mutual offices of compassion, benevo- 
Jence, and humanity.—Appison. A change of posi- 
tion is a considerable relief to an invalid, wearied 
with confinement ; 


Now sinking underneath a load of grief, 
From death alone she seeks her last relief. 
Drypen. 
Condolence and sympathy tend greatly to alleviate 
the sufferings »f our fellow-creatures ; it is an essential 


361 


part of the Christian’s duty to relieve the wants of his 
indigent neighbour. 


APPEASE, CALM, PACIFY, QUIET, STILL. 


Appease, v. To allay; calm, in French calmer, from 
almus fair, signifies to make fair; pacify, in Latin 
pacifico, compounded of paz and facia, signifies to 
make peace or peaceable; quiet, in French quiet, 
Latin quietus, from quies rest, signifies to put to rest; 
still, stgnifies to make still, 

To appease is to put an end to a violent motion ; to 
calm is to produce a great tranquillity. * The wind 1s 
appeased; the seais calmed. With regard to persons 
it is necessary to appease those who are in transports 
of passion, and to calm those who are in trouble, 
anxiety, or apprehension. 

Appease respects matters of force or violence; 

A lofty city by my hand is rais’d, * 
Pygmalion punish’d, and my lord appeased 
DryDEN 


Calm respects matters of inquietude and distress; 


All-powerful harmony, that can assuage 
And calm the sorrows of the phrensied wretch 
MarsuH. 


One is appeased by a submissive behaviour, and 
calmed by the removal of danger. 

Pacify corresponds to appease, and quiet to calm 
In sense they are the same, but in application they 
differ. Appease and calm are used only in reference 
to objects of importance; pacify and quiet may be ap- 
plied to those of a more familiar nature. The uneasy 
humours of a child are pacified, or its groundless fears 
are quieted. 

Still is a loftier expression than any of the former 
terms; serving mostly for the grave or poetick style. 
It is an onomatopeyYa for restraining or putting to si 
lence that which is noisy and boisterous ; 


My breath can still the winds, 
Uncloud the sun, charm down the syrelling sea, 
And stop the floods of heaven.—BrAumMonr 


PEACE, QUIET, CALM, TRANQUILLITY. 


Peace, in Latin paz, may either come from pactio 
an agreement or compact which produces peace, or it 
may be connected with pausa, and the Greek zavw to 
cease, because a cessation of all violent action and 
commotion enters into the idea of peace; quiet, in 
Latin guietus, probably from xetyac to lie down, signi 
fies a lying posture which best promotes quiet ; calm 
signifies the state of being calm ; tranquzllécy, in Latin 
tranquillitas, from tranquiilus, that is, trans, the in- 
tensive syllable, and qguillus or guzetus, signifies alto 
gether or exceedingly quiet. 

Peace is a term of more general application, and 
more comprehensive meaning than the others; it re- 
spects either communities or individuals ; but guiet re- 
spects only individuals or small communities. Nations 
are said to have peace, but not quiet; persons or fami 
lies may have both peace and quiet. Peace implies an 
exemption from publick or private broils; quiet im- 
plies a freedom from noise or interruption. Every 
well-disposed family strives to be at peace with its 
neighbours, and every affectionate family will naturally 
act in such a manner as to promote peace among all its 
members; ‘A false person ought to be looked upon as 
a publick enemy, and a disturber of the peace of man- 
kind.”—Sournu. The quzet of a neighbourhood is one 
of its first recommendations as a place of residence, 
‘A paltry tale-bearer will discompose the guzet of a 
whole family..—SournH. 

Peace and quiet, in regard to individuals, have like 
wise a reference to the internal state of the mind; but 
the former expresses the permanent condition of the 
mind, the latter its transitory condition. Serious mat 
ters only can disturb our peace; trivial matters may 
disturb our quiet: a good man enjoys the peace of a 
good conscience; ‘Religion directs us rather to secure 
inward peace than outward ease, to be more careful 
to avoid everlasting torments than light affliction.’~. 
TiLLoTson. The best of men may have unavoidable 
cares and anxieties which disturb his guiet : 


* Vide Abbe Girard: ‘ Appaiser, calmer ”* 


362 


Indulgent quiet, pow’r serene, 
Mother of peace, and joy, and love-—Hvueuks. 


T here can be no peace where a man’s passions are per- 
petually engaged in a conflict with each other; there 
can be no guiet where a man is embarrassed in his 
pecuniary affairs. ; } : 

Calm is a species of quiet, which respects objects in 
the natural or the moral world; it indicates the ab- 
sence of violent motion, as well as violent noise; it is 
that state which more immediately succeeds a state of 
agitation. As storms at sea are. frequently preceded 
as well as succeeded, by a dead calm, so political 
storms have likewise their calms which are their at- 
tendants, if not their precursors; ‘Cheerfulness ban- 
ishes all anxious care and discontent, sooths and _com- 
poses the passions, and keeps the soul in a perpetual 
calm..—ApDDpDISON. Peace, quiet, and calm have all re- 
spect to the state contrary to their own; they are pro- 
perly cessations either from strife, from disturbance, or 
from agitation andtumult. Tranquillity, on the other 
hand, is taken more absolutely : it expresses the situa- 
tion as it exists in the present moment, independently 
of what goes before or after ; it is sometimes applicable 
to society, sometimes to natural objects, and sometimes 
to the mind. ‘The tranquillity of the state cannot be 
preserved unless the authority of the magistrates be 
upheld; the tranquillity of the air and of all the sur- 
rounding objects is one thing which gives the country 
its peculiar charms; the tranquillity of the mind in 
the season of devotion contributes essentially to pro- 
duce a suitable degree of religious fervour; ‘By a 
patient acquiescence under painful events for the pre- 
sent, we shall be sure to contract a tranquiility of 
temper.’—CUMBERLAND. 

As epithets, these terms bear the same relation to 
each other: people are peaceable as they are disposed 
to prumote peace in society at large, or in their private 
relations; they are quiet, inasmuch as they abstain 
from every loud expression, or are exempt from any 
commotion in themselves: they are calm, inasmuch as 
they are exempt from the commotion which at any 
given moment rages around them; they are tranquil, 
inasmuch as they enjoy an entire exemption from every 
thing which can discompose. A town is peaceable as 
respects the disposition of the inhabitants; it is quiet, 
as respects its external circumstances, or freedom from 
bustle and noise: an evening is calm when the air is 
Tulled into a particular stillness, which is not interrupt- 
ed by any loud sounds: ascene is tranguil which com- 
bines every thing calculated to sooth the spirits to rest. 


PEACEABLE, PEACEFUL, PACIFICK. 


Peaceable is used in the proper sense of the word 
peace, as it expresses an exemption from strife or con- 
test (v. Peace); but peaceful is used in its improper 
sense, as it expresses an exemption from agitation or 
commotion. Persons or things are peaceable; things, 
particularly in the higher style, are peaceful: a family 
is designated as peaceable, in regard to its inhabitants ; 
*T know that my peaceable disposition already gives 
me a very ill figure here’ (at Ratisbon).—Lapy W. 
Montacur. A house is designated as a peaceful 
abode, as it is remote from the bustle and hurry of a 
multitude ; 


Still as the peaceful walks of ancient night, 
Silent as are the lamps that burn in tombs. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


Pacifick signifies either making peace, or disposed to 
make peace, and is applied mostly to what we do to 
others. Weare peaceable when we do not engage in 
quarrels of our own; we are pacifick if we wish to 
keep peace, or make peace, between others. Hence the 
term peaceable is mostly employed for individual or 
privateconcerns, and pacijfick most properly for nationai 
concerns: subjects ought to be peaceable, and monarchs 
pacifick ; ‘The most peaceable way for you, if you do 
take a thief, is to let him show himself, and steal out of 
your company.’—SwHaxspeare. ‘The tragical and 
untimely death of the French monarch put an end to all 
pacifick measures with regard toScotland’.-RoBeRTSsON. 


CALM, COMPOSED, COLLECTED. 


Catm, v. To appease ; composed, from the verb com- 
pose, marks the state of being composed ; and collected, 
from collect, the state of being collected. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


These terms agree in expressing a state; but calm 
respects the state of the feelings, composed the state of 
the thoughts and feelings, and collected the state of the 
thoughts more particularly. 

Calmness is peculiarly requisite in seasons of distress, 
and amid scenes of horror; composure, in moments 
of trial, disorder, and tumult; collectedness, in moments 
of danger. Calmness is the companion of fortitude ; 
no one whose spirits are easily disturbed can have 
strength to bear misfortune: composure is an attendant 
upon clearness of understanding ; no one can express 
himself with perspicuity whose thoughts are any way 
deranged: collectedness is requisite for a determined 
promptitude of action; no one can be expected to act 
promptly who cannot think fixedly. 

It would argue a want of all feeling to be calm on 
some occasions, when the best affections of our nature 
are put to a severe trial; 


*T is godlike magnanimity to keep, 
When most provok'd, our reason calm and clear. 
THOMSON. 


Composedness of mind associated with the detection of 
guilt, evinces a hardened conscience, and an insensi- 
bility to shame; ‘A moping lover would grow a 
pleasant fellow by that time he had rid thrice about 
the island (Anticyra); and a hair-brained rake, after a 
short stay in the country, go home again a composed 
grave, worthy gentleman.’—StTrEie. Collectedness of 
mind has contributed in no small degree to the preserva 
tion of some persons’ lives, in moments of the most 
imminent peril ; 
Be collected, 
No more amazement.—SHAKSPEARE 


CALM, PLACID, SERENE. 


Calm, v. To appease ; placid, in Latin placidus, from 
placeo to please, signifies the state of being pleased, or 
free from uneasiness; serene, in Latin serenus, comes 
most probably from the Greek épyvy peace, signifying 
a state of peace. 

Calm and serene are applied to the elements; plactd 
only to the mind. Calmness respects only the state of 
the winds, serenzty that of the air and heavens: the 
weather is calm when it is free from agitation: it is 
serene When free from noise and vapour. Calm re- 
spects the total absence of all perturbation ; placid the 
ease and contentment of the mind; serene clearness 
and composure of the mind. 

As in the natural world a particular agitation of the 
wind is succeeded by a calm, so in the mind of man, 
when an unusual effervescence has been produced, it 
commonly subsides into a calm; 


Preach patience to the sea, when jarring winds 
Throw up the swelling billows to the sky' 

And if your reasons mitigate her fury, 

My soul will be as calm.—S 1TH. 


Placidity and serenity have more that is even and regu- 
lar in them; they are positively what they are. Calm 
is a temporary state of the feelings ; placid and serene 
are habits of the mind. We speak of a calm state; 
but a placid and serene temper. Placzdity is more of 
a natural gift; serenity is acquired: people with not 
very ardent desires or warmth of feeling will evince 
placidity ; they are pleased with all that passes inwardly 
or outwardly; ‘ Placid and soothing is the remembrance 
of aife passed with quiet, innocence, and elegance.’— 
Stree. Nothing contributes so much to serenity of 
mind as a pervading sense of God’s good providence. 
which checks all impatience, softens down every aspe- 
rity of humour, and gives a steady current to the feel 
ings: ‘ Every one ought to fence against the temper of 
his climate or constitution, and frequently to indulge in 
himself those considerations which may give him a 
serenity of mind.’—AnppIson. 


EASE, QUIET, REST, REPOSE. 


Ease comes immediately from the French aisé glad 
and that from the Greek ditjds young, fresh; quiet. 
in Latin quietus, comes probably from the Greek 
ketnat to lie down, signifying a lying posture; rest, ix 
German rast, comes from the Latin resto to stana 
still or make a halt; repose comes from the Latip 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


reposui, perfect of repono to place back, signifying the 
state of placing one’s self backward or downward. 

‘The idea of a motionless state iscommon to all these 
terms: ease and quiet respect action on the body; rest 
and repose respect the action of the body: we are easy 
or guiet when freed from any external agency that is 
painful; we have rest or repose when the body is no 
longer in motion. 

Ease denotes an exemption from any painful agency 
in general; guiet denotes an exemption from that in 
particular, which noise, disturbance, or the violence of 
others may cause; we are easy or at ease, when the 
body is in a posture agreeable to itself, or when no cir- 
cumjacent object presses unequally upon it: we are 
quiet when there is an agreeable stillness around: our 
ease may be disturbed either by internal or external 
causes; our guiet is most commonly disturbed by ex- 
ternal objects; we may have ease from pain, bodily or 
mental! ; we have quiet at the will of those around us : 
a sick person is often far from enjoying ease, although 
he may have the good fortune to enjoy the most perfect 
quiet: a man’s mind is often uneasy from its own 
faulty constitution; it suffers frequent disquietudes 
from the vexatious tempers of others: let a man be in 
ever such easy circumstances, he may still expect to 
meet with disquietudes in his dealings with the world: 
wealth and contentment are the great promoters of 
ease ; 


By this we plainly view the two imposthumes 
That choke a kingdom’s welfare; ease and wanton- 
ness.— BEAUMONT AND FLETCHER. 


Retirement is the most friendly to quzet : 


But easy quiet, a secure retreat, 

A harmless life that knows not how to cheat, 

With homebred plenty the rich owner bless, 

And rural pleasures crown his happiness.—DrYDEN. 


Rest simply denotes the cessation of motion; repose 
is that species of rest which is agreeable after labour ; 
we rest as circumstances require; in this sense, our 
Creator is said to have rested from the work of crea- 
tion; ‘Like the sun, it had light and agility ; it knew 
no rest but in motion, no quiet but in activity. —SouTu. 
Repose isa circumstance of necessity; the weary seek 
repose; there is no human being to whom it is not 
sometimes indispensable ; 


T all the livelong day 
Consume in meditation deep, recluse 
From human converse; nor at shut of eve 
Enjoy repose.—PHILLIPS. 


We may rest in astanding posture ; we can repose only 
in a lying position; the dove which Noah first sent out 
could not find rest for the sole of its foot; soldiers who 
are hotly pursued by an enemy, have no time nor op- 
portunity to take repose: the night is the time for rest ; 
the pillow is the place for repose. Rest may be pro- 
perly applied to things and persons ; 


The peaceful peasant to the wars is press’d, 
The fields lie fallow in inglorious rest.—DRYDEN. 


Repose may be employed figuratively in the same 
BENSE ; 
Nor can the tortur’d wave here find repose, 
But raging still amid the shaggy rocks, 
Now flashes o’er the scatter’d fragments. 
THOMSON. 


EASE, EASINESS, FACILITY, LIGHTNESS. 


Ease, (v. Ease) denotes either the abstract state of 
a person or quality of a thing; easiness, from easy, 
signifying having ease, denotes simply an abstract 
quality which serves to characterize the thing: a per- 
son enjoys ease, or he has an easiness of disposition : 
‘ Ease is the utmost that can be hoped from asedentary 
and inactive habit.—Jounson. ‘His yielding unto 
them in one thing might happily put them in hope, that 
time would breed the like easiness of condescending 
further unto them.’—Hooxer. ase is said of that 
which is borne, or that which is done; easiness and 
facility, from the Latin facilis easy, most commonly of 
that which is to be done; the former in application to 
the thing as before, the latter either to the person or the 
thing: we speak of the easiness of the task, but of a 
yerson’s facility in doing it; we judge of the easiness 


363 


of a thing by comparing it with others more difficult; 
‘ Nothing is more subject to mistake and disappoint 

ment than anticipated judgement, concerning the easi- 
ness or difficulty of any undertaking..—Jounson. We 
judge of a person’s facility by comparing -him with 
others, who are less skilful; ‘ Every one must have re- 
marked the facility with which the kindness of others 
is sonietimes gained by those to whom he never could 
have imparted his own.’—JouNson. 

Zase and lightness are both said of what is to be 
borne; the former in a general, the latter in a particu- 
lar sense. Whatever presses in any form is not easy ; 
that which presses by excess of weight is not ight: a 
coat may be easy from its make; it can be light only 
from its texture. A work is easy which requires no 
great exertion either of body or mind; ‘ The service of 
God, in the solemn assembly of saints, is a work, 
though easy, yet withal very weighty, and of great 
respect. Hooker. A work is light which requires 
no effort of the body; 


Well pleas’d were all his friends, the task was light, 
The father, mother, daughter, they invite. 
DRYDEN. 


The same distinction exists between their derivatives, 
to. ease, facilitate, and lighten ; to ease is to make easy 
or free from pain, as to ease a person of his labour; to 
facilitate is to render a thing more practicable or less 
difficult, as to facilitate a person’s progress; to lighten 
is to take off an excessive weight, as to lighten a per- 
son’s burdens. 


EASY, READY 


». Easy (v. Ease, easiness) signifies here a freedoin 
from obstruction in ourselves; ready, in German beret, 
Latin paratus, signifies prepared. 

Easy marks the freedom of being done; ready the 
disposition or willingness to do; the former refers 
mostly to the thing or the manner, the latter to the 
person: the thing is easy to be done; the person is 
ready to do it: it is easy to make professions of friend- 
ship in the ardour of the moment; but every one is 
not ready to act up to them, when it interferes with 
his convenience or interest. 

As epithets, both are opposed to difficult, but agree. 
ably to the above explanation of the terms; the former 
denotes a freedom from such difficulties or obstacles 
as lie in the nature of the thing itself; the latter an 
exemption from such as lie in the temper and character 
of the person ; hence we say a person is easy of access 
whose situation, rank, employments, or circumstances, 
do not prevent him from admitting others to his pre- 
sence; he is ready to hear when he himself throws no 
obstacles in the way, when he lends a willing ear to 
what is said. So likewise a task is said to be easy; a 
person’s wit, or a person’s reply, to be ready : a young 
man who has birth and fortune, wit and accomplish- 
ments, will find an easy admittance into any circle; 
‘ An easy manner of conversation is the most desirable 
quality amancan have.’—SrrerLe. The very name 
of a favourite author will be a ready passport for the 
works to which it may be affixed ; 


The scorpion, ready to receive thy laws, 
Yields half his region and contracts his claws. 
DRYDEN. 


When used adverbially, they bear the same relation 
to each other. A man is said to comprehend easily 
who from whatever cause finds the thing easy to ba 
comprehended ; h@pardons readily who has a temper 
ready to pardon. 


TO RECLINE, REPOSE. 


To recline is to lean back ; to repose is to place one’s 
self back: he who reclines reposes ; but we may re 
cline without reposing : when we recline we put our: 
selves into a particular position ; 


For consolation on his friend reclin’d.—F aLCONER. 


When we repose we put ourselves into that positio 
which will be most easy ; : 
‘T first awak’d, and found myself repos’d 

Under a shade, on flowers.—MILTON 


f 
hh AL A 


364 


HARD, DIFFICULT, ARDUOUS. 


Hard is here taken in the improper sense of trouble 
caused, and pains taken, in which sense it is a much 
stronger term than difizult, which, from the Latin 
difficilis, compounded of the privative dis and facilis, 
signifies merely not easy. Hard is therefore positive, 
and dificult negative. A dificult task cannot be got 
through without exertion, but a hard task requires 
great exertion. D¢ficult is applicable to all trivial 
matters which call for a more than usual portion either 
of labour or thought; ‘ As Swift’s years increased, his 
fits of giddiness and deafness grew more frequent, and 
his deafness made conversation dificult..—JOHNSON. 
Hard is applicable to those which are of the highest 
importance, and accompanied with circumstances that 
call for the utmost stretch of every power; 


Antigones, with kisses, often tried 

To beg this present in his beauty’s pride, 

When youth and love are hard to be denied. 
DRYDEN. 


It is a dificult matter to get admittance into some cir- 
cles of society ; it is a hard matter to find societies 
that are select: it is difficult to decide between two 
fine paintings which is the finest; it is a hard matter 
to. come at any conclusion on metaphysical subjects. 
A child mostly finds it dificulé to learn his letters: 
there are many passages in classical writers which are 
hard to be understood by the learned. 

Arduous, in Latin arduus lofty, from ardeo to 
burn, because flame ascends upwards, denotes set on 
high or out of reach except by great efforts; arduous 
expresses a high degree of difficulty. What is difficult 
requires only the efforts of ordinary powers to sur- 
mount ; 


Whatever melting metals can conspire, 

Or breathing bellows, or the forming fire, 

Is freely yours: your anxious fears remove, 
And think no task is difficult to love.—DrypEn. 


But what is arduous is set above the reach of common 
intellect, and demands the utmost stretch of power 
both physical and mental; ‘ The translation of Homer 
was an arduous undertaking, and the translator en- 
tered upon it with a candid confession that- he was 
utterly incapable of doing justice to Homer.’—Cum- 
BERLAND. Achild may have a difficult exercise which 
he cannot perform without labour and attention: the 
man who strives to remove the difficulties of learners 
undertakes an arduous task. It is difficult to conquer 
our own passions: it is a7duous to control the unruly 
and contending wills of others. 


HARDLY, SCARCELY. 


What is hard is not common, and in that respect 
scarce: hence the idea of unfrequency assimilates 
these terms both in signification and application. In 
many cases they may be used indifferently ; but where 
the idea of practicability predominates, hardly seems 
most proper ; and where the idea of frequency predo- 
minates, scarcely seems preferable. One can hardly 
judge of a person’s features by a single and partial 
glance; ‘I do not expect, as long as I stay in India, 
to be free from a bad digestion, the ‘‘merbus literato- 
rum,” for which there is hardly any remedy bnt ab- 
stinence from food, literary and culinary.’—Sir Wm. 
Jones. We scarcely ever see men lay aside their 
vices from a thorough conviction of their enormity ; 
‘In this assembly of princes and nobles [the Congress 
of the Hague], to which Europe has perhaps scarcely 
seen any thing equal, was formed the grand ailiance 
against Lewis.’—Jounson. But in general sentences 
it may with equal propriety be said, hardly one ina 
thousand, or scarcely one in a thousand, would form 
such a conclusion. 


TO HELP, ASSIST, AID, SUCCOUR, RELIEVE. 


Help, in Saxon helpan, German helfen, probably 
comes from the Greek é¢é\\w to do good to; assist, in 
Latin assisto, or ad and sisto, signifies to place one’s 
self by another so as to give him our strength; ad, 
in Latin adjwvo, that is, the intensive syllable ad and 
juvo, signifies to profit towards a specifick end: suc- 
cour, in Latin succurro, signifies to run to the help of 
any one; relieve, v. To alleviate. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


The idea of communicating to the advantage of 
another is common to all these terms. Help is the 
generick term; the rest specifick ; help may be substi 
tuted for the others, and in many cases where they 
would not be applicable. The first three are employed 
either to produce a positive good or to remove an evil; 
the two latter only to remove an evil. We help a 
person to prosecute his work, or help him out of a 
difficulty ; we assist in order to forward a scheme, or 
We assist a person in the time of his embarrassment; 
we aid a good cause, or we aid a person to make his 
escape ; We succour a person who is in danger; we 
relieve him in time of distress. To help and assist 
respect personal service, the former by corporeal, the 
latter by corporeal or mental labour: one servant helps 
another by taking a part in his employment; one 
author assists another in the composition of his work. 
We help up a person’s load, we assist him to rise when 
he has fallen: we speak of a helper or a helpmate in 
mechanical employments, of an assistant to a pro- 
fessional man ; 


Their strength united best may help to bear.—Porr. 


*T is the first sanction nature gave to man, 
Each other to assist in what they can.—DrnHaM. 


To assist and aid are used for services directly or 
indirectly performed ; but assist is said only of indi- 
viduals, aid may be said of bodies as well as indivi 
duals. One friend asszsts another with his purse, with 
his counsel, his interest, and the like; ‘ She no sooner 
yielded to adultery, but she agreed to assist in the 
murder of her husband..—Brownr. One person aids 
another in carrying on ascheme; or one king, or nation, 
aids another with armies and subsidies; 


Your private right, should impious power invade, 
The peers of Ithaca would rise in atd.—Pork. 


We come to the assistance of a person when he has 
met with an accident ; we come to his aid when con- 
tending against numbers. Assistance is given, aid is 
sent. 

To succour is a species of immediate asststance, 
which is given on the spur of the occasion; the good 
Samaritan went to the succour of the man who had 
fallen among thieves ; 


Patroclus on the shore, 
Now pale and dead, shall swccour Greece no more. 
Popz. 


So in like manner we may succour one who calls us by 
his cries; or we may succowr the poor whom we find 
in circumstances of distress ; 
My father 
Flying for succour to his servant Banister, 
Being distress’d, was by that wretch betrayed. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


The word relieve has nothing in common with succor 
except that they both express the removal of pain , 
but the latter does not necessarily imply any mode by 
which this is done, and therefore excludes the idea of 
personal interference. 

All these terms, except succour, may be applied ta 
things as well as persons; we may walk by the help 
of a stick; ‘A man reads his prayers out of a book, 
as a means to help his understanding and direct his 
expressions.’--STILLINGFLEET. We read with the 
assistance of glasses; ‘Acquaintance with method 
will assist one in ranging human affairs.—Warts. 
We learn a task quickly by the aid of a good memory ; 


Wise, weighty counsels aid a state distress’d.—Popr 


We obtain reléef from medicine; ‘An unbeliever 
feels the whole pressure of a present calamity, without 
being relieved by the memory of any thing that is 
past, or the prospect of any thing that is to come.’— 
ADDISON. 

To help or assist is commonly an act of good 
nature; to azd, frequently an act of policy; to sue 
cour or relieve, an act of generosity or humanity. Help 
is necessary for one who has not sufficient strength to 
perform his task ; assistance is necessary when a per- 
son’s time or talent is too much occupied to perform 
thé whole of his office; aid is useful when it serves to 
give strength and efficacy to our operations ; ‘succour 
is timely when it serves to ward off some danger; 
relief is salutary when it serves to lessen pain or want. 
When a person meets with an accident, he requires 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


the help of the by-standers, the assistance of his 
friends, and the aid of a medical man; it is noble 
to succour an enemy; it is charitable to relieve the 
wretched. 


TO SECOND, SUPPORT. 


To second is to give the assistance of a second per- 
80n ; to support is to bear up on one’s own shoulders. 
To second does not express so much as to support ; 
we second only by our presence, or our word; but we 
Support by our influence, and all the means that are 
in our power: we second a motion by a simple declara- 
tion of our assent to it; we support a motion by the 
force of persuasion; so likewise we are said always to 
second a person’s views when we give him openly our 
countenance by declaring our approbation of his mea- 
sures ; 


The blasting vollied thunder made all speed, 

And seconded thy else not dreaded spear.—M1L Ton, 
And we are said to support him when we give the as- 
sistance of our purse, our influence, or any other thing 
essential for the attainment of an end; 

Impeachments NO can best resist, 
And AYE support the civil list—Gay. 


ABETTOR, ACCESSARY, ACCOMPLICE. 


Abettor, or one that abets, gives aid and encourage- 
ment by counsel, promises, or rewards. An accessary, 
or one added and annexed, takes an active though 
subordinate part; an accomplice, from the word ac- 
complish, implies the principal in any plot, who takes 
a leading part and brings it to perfection; abdettors 
propose, accessaries assist, accomplices execute. The 
abettor and accessary, or the abettor and accom- 
plice, may be one and the same person; but not so the 
accessary and accomplice. 

In every grand scheme there must be abettors to 
set it on foot, accessaries to co-operate, and accom- 
plices to put it into execution. In the gunpowder plot 
there were many secret abettors, some noblemen who 
were accessaries, and Guy Fawkes the principal ac- 
complice ; ‘I speak this with an eye to those cruel 
treatments which men of all sides are apt to give the 
characters of those who do not agree with them. How 
many men of honour are exposed to publick obloquy 
and reproach? ‘Those therefore who are either the 
instruments or abettors in such infernal] dealings 
ought to be looked upon as persons who niake use of 
religion to support their cause, not their cause to pro- 
mote religion.—Appison. ‘Why are the French 
obliged to lend us a part of their tongue before we can 
know they are conquered? They must be made ac- 
cessaries to their own disgrace, as the Britons were 
formerly so artificially wrought in the curtain of the 
Roman theatre, that they seemed to draw it up in 
order to give the spectators an opportunity of seeing 
their own defeat celebrated on the stage.’—Appigon. 


Either he picks a purse, or robs a house, 


Or is accomplice with some knavish gang. 
CUMBERLAND. 


4 REDRESS, RELIEF. 


Redress, like address (v. Accost) in all probability 
comes from the Latin dirigo, signifying to direct or 
bring back to the former point; relzef, v. To help. ; 

Redress is said only with regard to matters of right 
and justice ; relief to those of kindness and humanity : 
by power we obtain redress; by active interference 
we obtain a relief: an injured person looks for redress 
to the government; an unfortunate person looks for 
relief to the compassionate and kind: what we suffer 
through the oppression or wickedness of others can 
only be redressed by those who have the power of 
dispensing justice; whenever we suffer, in the order 
of Providence, we may meet with some relief from 
those who are more favoured. Redress applies to pub- 
lick as well as private grievances; ‘ Instead of redress- 
ing grievances, and improving the fabrick of their 
state, the French were made to take a very different 
course. —BuRKE. Relief applies only to private dis- 

eSSeS ; 

, This one 
Relief the vanquish’d have, to hope for none. 
Drnuam 


365 


Under a pretence of seeking redress ot grievances, 
mobs are frequently assembled to the disturbance of 
the better disposed; under a pretence of soliciting 
charitable relief, thieves gain admittance into families 


TO CURE, HEAL, REMEDY 


Cure, in Latin curo, signifies to take care of, that 1s 
by distinction, to take care of that which requires par- 
ticular care, in order to remove an evil; head, in Ger- 
man heilen, comes from heil whole, signifying to make 
whole that which is unsound; remedy, in Latin re 
medium, is compounded of 7e¢ and medeor to cure or 
heal, which comes from the Greek pnddéuat and Mydia 
Media, the country which contained the greatest num- 
ber of healing plants. ‘The particle re is here but an 
intensive. 

To cure is employed for what is out of order; to 
heal for that which is broken: diseases are cured, 
wounds are healed ; the former is a complex, the latter 
is a simple process. Whatever requires to be cured is 
wrong in the system; it requires many and various 
applications internally and externally ; 


If the frail body feels disorder’d pangs, 

Then drugs medicinal can give us ease; 

The soul no Ausculapian medicine can cure 
GENTLEMAN 


Whatever requires to be healed is occasioned exter- 
nally by violence, and requires external applications. 
In a state of refinement men have the greatest number 
of disorders to be cured; in a savage state there is 
more occasion for the healing art. 

Cure is used as properly in the moral as the natural 
sense ; heal in the moral sense is altogether figurative. 
The disorders of the mind are cured with greater diffi- 
culty than those of the body. ‘The breaches which 
have been made in the affections of relatives towards 
each other can be healed by nothing but a Christian 
spirit of forbearance and forgivencss; 


Scarcely an ill to human life belongs, 

But what our follies cause, or mutual wrongs; 

Ox if some stripes from Providence we feel, 

He strikes with pity, and but wounds to heal. 
JENYNS. 


To remedy, in the sense of applying remedies, has 
a moral application, in which it accords most with 
cure. Evils are either cured or remedied, but the former 
are of a much more serious nature than the latter 
The evils in society require to be cured; an omission, 
a deficiency, or a mischief, requires to be remedied. 

When bad habits become inveterate they are put 
out of the reach of cure. It is an exercise for the in- 
genuity of man to attempt to 7emedy the various trou- 
bles and inconveniences which are daily occurring; 
‘Every man has frequent grievances which only the 
solicitude of friendship will discover and remedy ’— 
JOHNSON. 


CURE, REMEDY. 


Cure (v. To cure) denotes either the act of curing, 
or the thing that cures. Remedy is mostly employed 
for the thing that remedies. In the former sense the 
remedy is to the cwre as the means to the end; a cure 
is performed by the application of a remedy. That is 
incurable for which no remedy can be found; but a 
cure is sometimes performed without the application 
of any specifick remedy. The cure is complete when 
the evil is entirely removed; the remedy is sure which 
by proper application never fails of effecting the ewre. 
The cure of disorders depends upon the skill of the 
physician and the state of the patient; the efficacy of 
remedies depends upon their suitable choice and appli- 
cation; but a cwre may be defeated or a remedy made 
of no avail by a variety of circumstances independent 
of either. : 

Cure is sometimes employed for the thing that cures, 
but only in the sense of what infallibly cures. Quacks 
always hold forth their nostrums as infallible cures, not 
for one but for every sort of disorder ; 


Why should he choose these miseries to endure 
If death could grant an everlasting cure? 
*T is plain there ’s something whispers in his ear 


(Tho’ fain he ’d hide it) he has much to fear. 
JENYNS 


366 


Experience has fatally proved that the remedy in most 
cases where quack medicines are applied is worse than 
the disease ; ‘ The difference between poisons and re- 
medies is easily known by their effects ; and common 
reason soon distinguishes between virtue and vice.’— 
Swirt. 


HEALTHY, WHOLESOME, SALUBRIOUS, 
SALUTARY. 


Healthy signifies not only having health, but also 
causing health, or keeping in health; wholesome, like 
the German heilsam, signifies making whole, keeping 
whole or sound; salubrious and salutary, from the 
Latin salus safety or health, signify likewise contri- 
butive to health or good in general. 

These epithets are all applicable to such objects as 
have a kindly influence on the bodily constitution : 
healthy is the most general and indefinite ; it is applied 
to exercise, to air, situation, climate, and most other 
things, but food, for which wholesome is commonly 
substituted: the life of a farmer is reckoned the most 
healthy; ‘ You are relaxing yourself with the healthy 
and manly exercise of the field..—Sir Wn. Jones. 
The simplest diet is reckoned the most wholesome ; 


Here laid his scrip with wholesome viands fill’d ; 
There, listening every noise, his watchful dog. 
THOMSON. 


Healthy and wholesome are rather negative in their 
sense; salubrious and salutary are positive: that is 
healthy and wholesome which serves to keep one in 
health; that is salubrious which serves to improve the 
health ; and that is salutary which serves to remove 
a disorder: climates are healthy or unhealthy, accord- 
ing to the constitution of the person; ‘Gardening or 
husbandry, and working in wood, are fit and healthy 
recreations for a man of study or business.’-—Lockg. 
Water is a wholesome beverage for those who are not 
dropsical; bread is a wholesome diet for man; ‘ False 
decorations, fucuses, and pigments deserve the imper- 
fections that constantly attend them, being neither 
commodious in application, nor wholesome in their 
use..—Bacon. The air and climate of southern 
France has been long famed for its salubrity, and 
has induced many invalids to repair thither for the 
venefit of their health; ‘If that fountain (the heart) 
De once poisoned, you can never expect that salubrious 
streams will flow from it.,—Buair. The effects have 
not been equally salutary in all cases: it is the con- 
zern of government that the places destined for the 
publick education of youth should be in healthy situa- 
ions ; that their diet should be wholesome rather than 
delicate; and that in all their disorders care should be 
taken to administer the most salutary remedies. 

Wholesome and salutary have likewise an extended 
and moral application; healthy and salubrious are 
employed only in the proper sense: wholesome in this 
case seems to convey the idea of making whole again 
what has heen unsound; ‘So the doctrine contained 
be but wholesome and edifying, a want of exactness in 
speaking may be overlooked.’—ATTERBURY. But 
salutary retains the idea of improving the condition 
of those who stand in need of improvement; ‘A sense 
of the Divine presence exerts this salutary influence 
of promoting temperance and restraining the disorders 
incident to a prosperous state..—Briair. Correction is 
wholesome which serves the purpose of amendment 
without doing any injury to the body; instruction or 
admonition is salutary when it serves the purpose of 
strengthening good principles and awakening a sense 
of guilt or impropriety: laws and punishments are 
wholesome to the body politick, as diet is to the phy- 
sical body; restrictions are salutary in checking irre- 
gularities. 


SAFE, SECURE. 


Safe, in Latin salvus, comes from the Hebrew aby 
to be tranquil; secure, v. Certain. 

Safety implies exemption from harm, or the danger 
_of harm; secure, the exemption from danger ; a person 
. may be safe or saved in the midst of a fire, if he be 
untouched by the fire; but he is, in such a case, the 
reverse of secure. In the sense of exemption from 
danger, safety expresses much less than security: we 
may be safe without using any particular measures; 
but none can reckon on any degree of security without 


eee 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


great precaution: a person may be very safe ow .he 
top of a coach in the daytime; but if he wisn to 
secure himself, at night, from falling off, he must be 
fastened; ‘It cannot be safe for any nan to walk upon 
a precipice, and to be always on the very border of 
destruction..—Soutnu. ‘No man can rationally ac 
count himself secu7e unless he could command all the 
chances of the world.’—Sourn. 


CERTAIN, SURE, SECURE. 


Certain, in French certain, Latin certus, comes from 
cerno to perceive, because what we see or perceive 1s 
supposed to be put beyond doubt; sure and secure are 
variations of the same word, in French sur, German 
sicher, Low German seker, &c., Latin securus, this is 
compounded of se (sine) apart, and cura, signifying 
without care, requiring no care. 

Certain respects matters of fact or belief; swe and 
secure the quality or condition of things. A fact is 
certain, a person’s step is sure, a house is secure. 
Certain is opposed to dubious, sure to wavering, secure 
to dangerous. A person is certain who has no doubt 
remaining in his mind; ‘It is very certain that a man 
of sound reason cannot forbear closing with religion 
upon an impartial examination of it’—~Appison. A 
person is sure whose conviction is steady and un- 
changeable; ‘When these everlasting doors are thrown 
open, we may be sure that the pleasures and beauties 
of this place will infinitely transcend our present hopes 
and expectations, and that the glorious appearance of 
the throne of God will rise infinitely beyond whatever 
we are able to conceive of it.—Appison. A person 
feels himself secwre when the prospect of danger is 
removed ; 


Weigh well the various terms of human fate, 
And seek by mercy to secure your state. 
DRYDEN. 


When applied to things, certaix is opposed to what 
is varying and irregular; sure to. what is unerring; 
secure is used only in its natural sense. It is a defect 
in the English language, that there are at present no 
certain rules for its orthography sr pronunciation; the 
learner, therefore, is at a loss for a sure guide. 
Amid opposing statements it is difficult to ascertain 
the real state of the case. No one can ensure his life 
for a moment, or secure his property from the contin- 
gencies to which all sublunary things are exposed. 


SOUND, SANE, HEALTHY. 


Sound and sane, in Latin sanus, come probebly 
from sanguis the blood, because in that lies the seat 
of health or sickness; healthy signifies here the state 
of being in health. 

Sound is extended in its application to all things that 
are in the state in which they ought to be, so as to 
preserve their vitality; thus, animals and vegetables 
are said to be sound when in the former there is no- 
thing amiss in their limbs or vital parts, and in the 
latter in their root. By a figurative application, wood 
and other things may be said to be sound when they 
are entirely free from any symptom of decay, or mix- 
ture of corruption; in this sense the heart is said to be 
sound; ‘He hath a heart as sound as a bell, and hig 
tongue is the clapper, for what his heart thinks, his 
tongue speaks.’—-SHAKSPEARE. Sane is applicable to 
human beings, in the same sense, but with reference 
to the mind; a sane person is opposed to one that is 
insane ; 

How pregnant, sometimes, his replies are! 

A happiness that often madness hits on, 
Which sanity and reason could not be 

So prosperously delivered of—_SuHaksPraRk. 


The mind is also said to be sound when it is in a state 
to form right opinions; 


But Capys, and the rest of sounder mind, 
The fatal present to the flames design’d. 
- Drypen. 

Healthy expresses more than either sound or sane ‘ 
we are healthy in every part, but we are sound in thet 
which is essential for life; he who is sound may live. 
but he who is healthy enjoys life; ‘But the course of 
succession (to the crown) is the healthy habit of the 
British constitution.’—Burxgz. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


DISORDER, DISEASE, DISTEMPER, 
MALADY. 


Disorder signifies the state of being out of order ; 
disease, the state of being ill at ease; distemper, the 
state of being out of temper, or out of a due tempera- 
ment; malady, from the Latin malus evil, signifies 
an ill. 

All these terms agree in their application to the 
state of the animal body. Disorder is, as before 
(vw. To disorder), the general term, and the others 
specifick. In this general sense disorder is altogether 
indefinite; but in its restricted sense it expresses less 
than all the rest: it is the mere commencement of a 
disease: disease is also more general than the other 
terms, for it comprehends every serious and permanent 
disorder in the animal economy, and is therefore of 
universal application. ‘The disorder is slight, partial, 
and transitory: the disease is deep-rooted and _ per- 
manent. ‘The disorder may lie in the extremities: 
the disease lies in the humours and the vital parts. 
Occasional headaches, colds, or what is merely cuta- 
neous, are termed disorders ; fevers, dropsies, and the 
like, are diseases. Distemper is used for such par- 
ticularly as throw the animal frame most completely 
out of its temper or course, and is consequently applied 
properly to virulent disorders, such as the smail-pox. 
Malady has less of a technical sense than the other 
terms; it refers more to the suffering than to the state 
of the body. There may be many maladies where 
there is no disease; but diseases are themselves in 
general maladies.. Our maladies are frequentiy born 
with us; but our diseases may come upon us at any 
time of life. Blindness is in itself a malady, and may 
be produced by a disease in the eye. Our disorders 
are frequently cured by abstaining from those things 
which caused them; the whole science of medicine 
consists in finding out suitable remedies for our dis- 
eases; our maladies may be lessened with patience, 
although they cannot always be alleviated or removed 
by art. 

Vall these terms may be applied with a similar dis- 
tinction to the mind as well as the bedy. The dis- 
orders are either of a temporary or a permanent 
nature; but unless specified to the contrary, are un- 
derstood to be temporary ; ‘Strange disorders are bred 
in the mind of those men whose passions are not 
regulated by virtue..—Appison. Diseases consist in 
vicious habits; ‘The jealous man’s disease is of so 
malignant a nature that it converts all it takes into its 
own nourishment.’—Appison. Our distempers arise 
from the violent operations of passion; ‘ A person that 
is crazed, though with pride or malice, is a sight very 
mortifying to human nature; but when the distemper 
arises from any indiscreet fervours of devotion, it de- 
serves our compassion in a more particular manner.’— 
Appison. Our maladies lie in the injuries which the 
affections occasion; ‘ Phillips has been always praised 
without contradiction as a man modest, blameless, and 
pious, who bore narrowness of fortune without dis- 
content, and tedious and painful maladies without im- 
patience.’—Jounson. Any perturbation in the mind 
is a disorder: avarice is a disease: melancholy is a 
distemper as far as it throws the mind out of its bias; 
it is a malady as far as it occasions suffering. 


SICK, SICKLY, DISEASED, MORBID. 


Sick denotes a partial state; sickly a permanent 
state of the body, a proneness to be sick: he who is 
sick may be made well; but he who is sickly is seldom 
really well: all persons are liable to be szck, though 
few have the misfortune to be sickly: a person may be 
sick from the effect of cold, violent exercise, and the 
like; ‘For aught I see, they are as sick that surfeit 
with too much, as they that starve with nothing.’— 
SuHaksreaRe. A person is sickly only from constitu- 
tion; ‘ Both Homer and Virgil were of a very delicate 
and sickly constitution.’—W a.su. 

Sickly expresses a permanent state of indisposition ; 
but diseased expresses a violent state of derangement 
without specifying its duration; it may be for a time 
only, or for a permanency: the person, or his constitu- 
tion, is sickly; the person, or his frame, or particular 
parts, as his lungs, his inside, his brain, and the like, 
way be diseased - 


We are all diseased, 
And with our surfeiting and wanton hours 
Have brought ourselves into a burning fever. 
SHAKSPEARE, 


Sick, sickly, and diseased may all be used in a moral 
application; morbid is rarely used in any other except 
in a technical sense. Sick denotes a partial state, as 
before, namely, a state of disgust, and is always asso- 
ciated with the object of the sickness; we are sick Of, 
turbulent enjoyments, and seek for tranquillity: s¢ckly 
and morbid are applied to the habitual state of the 
feelings or character; a sickly sentimentality, a morbid 
sensibility; ‘While the distempers of a relaxed fibre 
prognosticate all the morbid force of convulsion in the 
body of the state, the steadiness of the physician is 
overpowered by the very aspect of the disease.’— 
Burke. Diseased is applied in general to individuals 
or communities, to persons or to things; a person’s 
mind is in a diseased state when it is under the in- 
fluence of corrupt passions or principles; society is in 
a diseased state when it is overgrown with wealth and 
luxury; ‘For a mind diseased with vain longings after 
unattainable advantages, no medicine can be pre 
scribed.’—JoHNSON. 


SICKNESS, ILLNESS, INDISPOSITION. 


Sickness denotes the state of being szck (v. Sick) ; 
illness that of being 72/1 (v. Evil); indisposition that 
of being not well disposed. Sickness denotes the state 
generally or particularly: zl/ness denotes it particularly 
we speak of sickness as opposed to good health; in 
sickness or in health; but of the iliness of a particular 
person: when sickness is said of the individual, it 
designates a protracted state; a person may be said to 
have much sickness in his family; ‘ Sickness is a sort 
of early old age; it teaches us a diffidence in out 
earthly state..—Popr. Illness denotes only a par 
ticular or partial sickness; a person is said to have 
had an illness at this or that time, in this or that place, 
for this or that period; ‘ This is the first letter that I 
have ventured upon, which will be written, I fear 
vacillantibus literis; as Tully says Tyro’s Letters were 
after his recovery from an illness.’---ATTERBURY 
Indisposition is a slight iliness, such a one as is ca- 
pable of deranging a person either in his enjoymenta 
or in his business; colds are the ordinary causes of in- 
disposition ; ‘It is not, as you conceive, an indisposi- 
tion of body, but the mind’s disease.’—Forp. 


INVALID, PATIENT. 


Invalid, in Latin tnvalidus, signifies literally one 
not strong or in good health; patient, from the Latin 
patiens suffering, signifies one suffering under disease. 
Invalid is a general, and patient a particular term: a 
person may be an invalid without being a patient : he 
may be a patient without being an invalid. Aninvalid 
is so denominated from his wanting his ordinary share 
of health and strength; but the patient is one who is 
labouring under some bodily suffering.’ Old soldiers 
are called invalids who are no longer able to bear the 
fatigues of warfare: but they are not necessarily 
patients. He who is under the surgeon’s hands for 
a broken limb is a patient, but not necessarily an 
invalid. F 


DEBILITY, INFIRMITY, IMBECILITY. 


Debdility, in Latin debilitas, from debilis, or de pri 
vative and hadzlis, signifies a deficiency, or not having ; 
infirmity, in Latin énfirmitas, from infirmus, or in 
privative and firmus strong, signifies the absence of 
strength ; imbecility, in Latin imbecilitas from imbe- 
cillis, or in privative, and becillis, bacallum, or baculus 
a staff, signifies not having a staff or support. 

All these terms denote a species of weakness, but 
the two former, particularly the first, respects that 
which is physical, and the latter that which is either 
physical or meptal. Debdility is constitutional, or 
otherwise; imbecality is always constitutional; in 
jirmity is accidental, and results from sickness, or & 
decay of the frame. Decbility may be either general 
or local; infirmity is always local; imbecility always 
general. Debity prevents the active performance of 
the ordinary frenctionsof nature; it is a deficiency in 
the muscular power of the body: infirmity is a nartial 


368 


want of power, which interferes with, but does not 
necessarily destroy, the activity: imbecility lies in the 
whole frame, and renders it almost entirely powerless. 

Young people are frequently troubled with debdlities 
in their ankles or legs, of which they are never cured ; 
‘As increasing years debilitate the body, so they 
weaken the ferce and diminish the warmth of the 
affections.’ —Biarr. Old age is most exposed to zn- 
jirmities ; but there is no age at which human beings 
are exempt from infirmity of some kind or another ; 
‘This is weakness, not wisdom, I own, and on that 
account fitter to be trusted to the bosom of a friend, 
where I may sately lodge all my infirmities. —ATTER- 
BuRY. The imbecility natural to youth, both in body 
and mind, would make them willing to rest on the 
strength of their elders, if they were not too often 
misled by a mischievous confidence in their own 
strength; ‘It is seldom that we are otherwise than by 
affliction awakened to a sense of our imbecility.’— 
JOHNSON. 


DECAY, DECLINE, CONSUMPTION. 


Decay, French dechoir, from the Latin decado, sig- 
nifies literally to fall off or away; decline, from the 
Latin declino, or de and clino, signifies to turn away 
or lean aside; the direction expressed by both these 
actions is very similar; it is a sideward movement, 
but decay expresses more than decline. What is de- 
cayed is fallen or gone; what declines leans towards a 
fail, or is going; when applied, therefore, to the same 
objects, a decline is properly the commencement of a 
decay. The health may experience a decline at any 
period of life froma variety of causes, but it naturally 
experiences a decay in old age; consumption (v. To 
consume) implies a rapid decay. 

* By decay things lose their perfection, their great- 
ness, and their consistency; by decline they lose their 
strength, their vigour, and their lustre; by consump- 
tion they lose their existence. Decay brings to ruin; 
decline leads to an end or expiration. There are some 
things to which decay is peculiar, and some things to 
which decline is peculiar, and other things to which 
poth deeay and decline belong. The corruption to 
which material substances are particularly exposed is 
termed decay: the close of life, when health and 
strength begin to fall away, is termed the decline; the 
decay of states in the moral world takes place by the 
same process as the decay of fabricks in the natural 
world; the decline of empires, from their state of ele- 
vation and splendour, is a natural figure drawn from 
the decline of the setting sun. Consumption is seldom 
applied to any thing but animal bodies ; 


The seas shall waste, the skies in smoke decay, 
Rocks fall to dust, and mountains melt away ; 
But fix’d his word, his saving power remains, 
Thy realm for ever lasts, thy own Messiah reteny. 
OPE. 


’ After the death of Julius and Augustus Cesar the 
Roman empire declined every day.’—Soutu. ‘By de- 
grees the empire shrivelled and pined away ; and from 
such a surfeit of immoderate prosperity passed at length 
into a final consumption. —Souru. 


WEAK, FEEBLE, INFIRM. 


Weak, inSaxon wace, Dutch wack, German schwach, 
is in all probability an intensive of wetch soft, which 
comes from weichen to yield, and this from bewegen to 
move; feeble is probably contracted from failable ; in- 
firm, v. Debility. 

The Saxon term weak is here, as it usually is, the 
familiar and universal term; feeble is suited to a more 
polished style; infirm is only a species of the weak: 
we may be weak in body or mind; but we are com- 
monly feeble and infirm only in the*body : we may be 
weak from disease, or weak by nature, it equally con- 
veys the gross idea of a defect; but the terms feeble 
and infirm are qualified expressions for weakness : a 
child is feeble from its infancy ; an old man is feeble 
from ave; the latter may likewise be infirm in conse- 
quence of sickness. We pity the weak, but their 
weakness often gives us pain ; 


* Vide Trusler: ‘Decay, decline, disease.” 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


You, gallant Vernon! saw 
The miserable scene; you pitying saw 
To infant weakness sunk the warriour’s aim. 
THOMSON 
We assist the feeble when they attempt to walk; 


Command th’ assistance of afriend, _ 
But feeble are the succours I can send.—Drypen. 


We support the infirm when they are unable to stand 

‘Atmy age, and under my infirmities, I can have nc 
relief but those with which religion furnishes me.’— 
ATTERBURY. The same distinction exists betweer 
weak and feeble in the moral use of the words: a weak 
attempt to excuse a person conveys a reproachful 
meaning ; but the efforts which we make to defend an 
other may be praiseworthy, although feeble. 


TO WEAKEN, ENFEEBLE, DEBILITATE, 
ENERVATE, INVALIDATE, 


To weaken is to make weak (v. Weak), and is, as 
before, the generick term: to enfeeble is to make feeble 
(vw. Weak); to debilitate is to cause debility (v. De- 
bility) ; to enervate is to unnerve; and to invalidate 
is to make not valid or strong: all of which are but 
modes of weakening applicable to different objects. 
To weaken may be either a temporary or permanent 
act when applied to persons; enfeeble is permanent 
either as to the body or the mind: we may be weak- 
ened suddenly by severe pain; we are enfeebled in a 
gradual manner, either by the slow effects of disease 
orage. To weaken is either a particular or a com- 
plete act; to enfeeble, to debilitate, and enervate are 
properly partial acts: what enfeebles deprives of vital 
or essential power ; 


So much hath hell debas’d, and pain 
Enfeebled me, to what I was in heav’n.—Mi.tTon. 


What debilitates may lessen power in one particular, 
though not in another; the severe exercise of any 
power, such as the memory or the attention, will tend 
to debilitate that faculty ; 


Sometimes the body in full strength we find, 
While various ails debilitate the mind.—JENYNS 


What enervates acts particularly on the nervous sys- 
tem; it relaxes the frame, and unfits the person for 
action either of body or mind; ‘ Elevated by success 
and enervated by luxury, the military, in the time of 
the emperors, soon became incapable of fatigue.’— 
Gisson. To weaken is said of things as well as per 
sons; to 7nvalidate is said of things only: we weaken 
the force of an argument by an injudicious application; 
‘No article of faith can be true which weakens the 
practical part of religion..—Appison. We invalidate 
the claim of another by proving its informality in law 
‘Do they (the Jacobins) mean to invalidate that great 
body of our statute law, which passed under those 
whom they treat as usurpers ?”—Burkeg. 


TO FLAG, DROOP, LANGUISH, PINE. 


To flag is to hang down loose like a flag ; droop, v. 
To fall; to languish is to become or continue languid 
(v. Faint) ; to pine, from the German pein pain, is to 
be or continue in pain. 

In the proper application, nothing fags but that 
which can be distended and made to flutter by the 
wind, as the leaves of plants when they are in want of 
water or ina weakly condition ; hence figuratively the 
spirits are said to flag; ‘It is variety which keeps 
alive desire, which would otherwise flag.’—SourTn. 
Things are said to dreop when their heads flag or 
drop ; the snowdrop droops, and flowers will generally 
droop from excess of drought or heat: the spirits in 
the same manner are said to droop, which expresses 
more than to flag; the human body also droops when 
the strength fails ; 


Shrunk with dry famine, and with toils declin’d, 
The drooping body will desert the mind.—Popz. 


Languish is a still stronger expression than droop, and 
is applicable principally to persons ; some languish in 
sickness, some in prison, and some ina state of dis- 
tress; ‘How finely has the poet told us that the sick 
persons langutshed under lingering and incurable dis 
tempers.’--Appison. To pine is to be in a state of 
wearing pain which is mostly of a mental nature @ 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


hild may pine when absent from al! ia friends, and 
"pposing itself deserted ; 


From beds of raging fire to starve in ice 
Their soft ethereal warmth, there to pine, 
Immoveably infix’d.—MiLron. 


FAINT, LANGUID. 


Haint, from the French faner to fade, signifies that 
which is faded or withered, which has lost its spirit; 
languid, in Latin languidus, from langueo to languish, 
signifies languished. 

Faint is less than langutd ; fatniness is in fact in 
the physical application the commencement of lan- 
guor ; we may be fatnt for a short time, and if con- 
tinued and extended through the limbs it becomes 
languor ; thus we say to speak with a faint tone, and 
have a languid frame; and in the figurative applica- 
tion to make a faint resistance, to move with alan- 
guid air; to form a faint idea, to make a languid 
effort ; 


Low the woods 
Bow their hoar head: and here the languid sun, 
Faint from the west, emits his evening ray. 
THOMSON 


PALE, PALLID, WAN. 


Pale, in French pale, and pallid, in, Latin pallidus, 
foth come from palleo to turn pale, which probably 
comes from the Greek za\Avyw to make white, and 
that from zéAn flour; wan is connected with want 
and wane, signifying i: general a deficiency or a losing 
colour. 

Pallid rises upon pale, and wan upon pallid: the 
absence of colour in any degree, where colour is a re- 
quisite or usual quality, constitutes paleness, but pal- 

dness is an excess of paleness, and wan is an unusual 

¢zree of pallidness: paleness in the countenance 
nay be temporary; but pallidness and wanness are 
permanent; fear, or any sudden emotion, may pro- 
duce paleness: but protracted sickness, hunger, and 
fatigue bring on pallidness ; and when these calami- 
ties are combined and heightened by every aggrava- 
tion, they may produce that which is peculiarly termed 
wanness. ? 

Pale is an ordinary term for an ordinary quality, 
applicable to many very different objects, to persons, 
colours, lights, and luminaries. Paleness may be 
either a natural or an acquired deficiency: a person is 
said to be pale, a colour pale, a light pale, the sun 
pale; the deficiency may be desirable or otherwise ; 
the paleness of the moon is agreeable, that of the com- 
plexion the contrary : 


Now morn, her lamp pale glimmering on the sight, 
Scatter’d before her sun reluctant night. 
FALCONER. 


Pallid isan ordinary term for an extraordinary quality: 
nothing is said to be pallid but the human face, and 
that not from the ordinary course of nature, but as the 
effect of disease; those who paint are most apt to look 
pallid ; 
Her spirits faint, 
Her cheeks assume & pallid tint.— ADDISON. 


Wan is an extraordinary serm for an ordinary pro- 
perty, it is applicable only to ghostly objects, or such as 
are rendered monstrous by unusually powerful causes: 
éhe effects of death on the human visage are fully ex- 
pressed by the term wan, when applied to an individual 
who is reduced, by sever? abstinence or sickness, to a 
state bordering on the grave; 


And with them comes a third with regal pomp, 
But faded splendovr wan.—MILToN. ‘ 


FATIGUE, WEARINESS, LASSITUDE. 


Fatigue, from the Latin fatigo, that is, fatim 
abundantly or powerfully, and ago to act, or agito to 
agitate, designates an effect from a powerful or stimu- 
ating cause; weariness, from weary, a frequentative 
of wear, marks an effect from a continued or repeated 
cause ; lassitude, from the Latin lassus, changed from 
lazus relaxed, marks a state without specifying a 
cause 

24 


369 


Fatigue is an exhaustion of the animal or menta 
powers; weariness is a wearing out of the strength, or 
breaking the spirits; lassttude is a general relaxation 
of the animal frame. The labourer experiences fatigue 
from the toils of the day; the man of business, who is 
harassed by the multiplicity and complexity of his con- 
cerns, suffers fatigue; and the student, who labours to 
fit himself fora publick exhibition of his acquirements 
is in like manner exposed to fatigue; ‘One of the 
amusements of idleness is reading without the fatigue 
of close attention.’.—Jounson. Weariness attends the 
travelier who takes a long or pathless journey; weare 
ness is the lot of the petitioner, who attends in the anti 
chamber of a great man; the critic is doomed to suffer 
weariness, who is obliged to drag through the shallow 


-but voluminous writings of a dull author: and the en 


lightened hearer will suffer no less weariness in listen- 
ing to the absurd effusions of an extemporaneous 
preacher; ‘For want of a process of events, neither 
knowledge nor elegance preserves the reader from weart 
ness.’—JOHNSON. 

* Lessitude is the consequence of a distempered sys 
tem, sometimes brought on by an excess of fatigue, 
sometimes by sickness, and frequently by the action 
of the external air; ‘The cattle in the fields show 
evident symptoms of lassttude and disgust in an un 
pleasant season.’—-CowPER. 


TO WEARY, TIRE, JADE, HARASS. 


To weary is a frequentative of wear, that is, to 
wear out the strength ; to tire, from the French tirer, 
and the Latin traho to draw, signifies to draw out the 
strength ; to jade is the same as to goad; to harass, v. 
Distress. 

Long exertion wearies; a little exertion will tzrea 
child. or a weak man; forced exertions jade ; painfw 
exertions, or exertions coupled with painful circum- 
stances, harass: the horse is jaded which is forced on 
beyond his strength; the soldier is harassed who 
marches in perpetual fear of an attack from the enemy 
We are wearied with thinking when it gives us pain to 
think any longer; ‘ All pleasures that affect the body 
must needs weary..—SouTuH. We are tired of ourem- 
ployment when it ceases to give us pleasure; ‘ Every 
morsel to a satisfied hunger is only a new labour to a 
tired digestion..—Soutu. We are jaded by incessant 
attention to business; ‘I recall the time (and am glad 
itisover) when about this hour (six in the morning) I 
used to be going to bed surfeited with pleasure, or jaded 
with business.—BoLineproke. We are harassed by 
perpetual complaints which we cannot redress; 


Bankrupt nobility, a factious, giddy, and 
Divided Senate, harass’d commonalty, 
Is all the strength of Venice.—OrTway. 


WEARISOME, TIRESOME, TEDIOUS. 


Wearisome (v. To weary) is the general and indefi- 
nite term; tiresome, v. To weary; and tedious, caus- 
ing tedium, aspecifick form of zearisomeness : common 
things may cause weariness ; that which acts painfully 
is either tiresome or tedious ; but in different degrees 
the repetition of the same sounds will grow tiresome ; 
long waiting in anxious suspense is:tedious: there is 
more of that which is physical in the tiresome, and 
mental in the tediows; ‘All weariness presupposes 
weakness, and consequently every long, importune, 
wearisome petition, is truly and properly a force upon 
him that is pursued with it.,—Sourn. 

Far happier were the meanest peasant’s lot, 

Than to be plac’d on high, in anxious pride, 

The purple drudge and slave of tzresome state. 

Wrsr 

Happy the mortal man who now, at last, 

Has through this doleful vale of mis'ry pass’é. 

Who to his destin’d stage has carried on 

The tedious load, and laid his burden down. 
PRIOR 


os 


WEIGHT, HEAVINESS, GRAVITY. 


Weight, from to weigh, is that which a thing 
weighs ; heaviness, from heavy and heave, signifies , 
the abstract quality of the heavy, or difficult to heave: 


3.0 


gravity, from the Latin gravis, likewise denotes the 
same abstract qualities. 

Weight is indefinite; whatever may be weighed has 
a weight, whether large or small: heaviness and 
gravity are the property of bodies having a great 
weight. Weight is only opposed to that which has or 
is supposed to have no weight, that is, what is incorpo- 
real or immaterial: for we may speak of the weight 
of the lightest conceivable bodies, as the weight of a 
feather: heaviness is opposed to lightness; the heavi- 
ness of lead is opposed to the lightness of a feather. — 

Weight lies absolutely in the thing; heaviness Is 
relatively considered with respect to the person: we 


estimate the weight of things according to a certain | 


measure: we estimate the heaviness of things by our 
feelings. / 

Gravity is that species of weight, which is scientifi- 
cally considered as inherent in certain bedies; the terin 
is therefore properly scientifick. 


WEIGHT, BURDEN, LOAD. o 


Weight, v. Weight; burden, from bear, signifies the 
thing borne; load, in German laden, is supposed by 
Adelung to admit of a derivation from different 
sources; but he does not suppose that which appears 
to me the most ‘natural, namely, from lay, which be- 
comes in our preterit laid, particularly since in Low 
German and Dutch laden, to load, is contracted into 
laeyen, and the literal meaning of load is to lay on or 
in any thing. 

The term weight is here considered in common with 
the other terms, in the sense of a positive weight, as 
respects the persons or things by which it is allied to 
the word burden: the weight is said either of persons 
or things; the Burden more commonly respects per- 
sons; the load may be said of either: a person may 
sink under the weight that rests upon him; a platform 
may break down from the weight upon it; a person 
sinks under his burden or load; acart breaks down 
from the load. The weight is abstractedly taken for 
what is without reference to the cause of its being 
there; burden and load have respect to the person or 
thing by which they are produced ; accident produces 
the weight; a person takes a burden upon himself, or 
has it imposed upon him; the load is always laid on; 
it is not proper to carry any weight that exceeds our 
strength; those who bear the burden expect to reap the 
fruit of theirlabour; he who carries loads must be con- 
tented to take such as are given him. 

In the moral application, these terms mark the pain 
which is produced by a pressure; but the wezght and 
load rather describe the positive severity of the pres- 
sure ; the burden respects the temper and inclinations of 
the sufferer; the Joad is in this case a very great weight : 
a minister of state has a weight on his mind at all 
times, from the heavy responsibility which attaches to 
his station; ‘With what oppressive weight will sick- 
ness, disappointment, or old age fall upon the spirits of 
that man who is a stranger to God!’"—Briair. One 
who labours under strong apprehensions or dread of 
an evil has a load on his mind; ‘ How a man can have 
a quiet and cheerful mind under a burden and load ot 
guilt, 1 know not, unlessshe be very ignorant.’—Ray. 
Any sort of employmentis a burden to one who wishes 
to be idle; and time unemployed is a burden to him 
who wishes to be always in action; 


I understood not that a grateful mind 

By owing owes not, but still pays at once; 

Indebted and discharg’d: what burden then? 
MILTON. 


HEAVY, BURDENSOME, WEIGHTY, PON- 
DEROUS. 


Heavy, from heave, signifies the causing to heave, 
or requiring to be lifted up with force; burdensome, 
having a burden; weighty and ponderous, from the 
Latin pondus a weight, both signify having a weight. 

Heaviness is the natural property of some bodies: 
burdensomeness is incidental to others. | In the vulgar 
sense, things are termed heavy which are found difficult 
to lift, in distinction from those which are light or easy 
to be lifted; but those things are burdensome which are 
too troublesome to be carried or borne: many things 
therefore are actually heavy that are never burden- 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES 


Some; and others are occasionally burdensome than are 
never heavy: that which is heavy is so whether lifted 
or not, but that which is burdensome must be burden- 
someto some one; ‘Though philosophy teaches, that 
no element is heavy in its own place, yet experience 
shows that out of its own place it proves exceeding 
burdensome’—Soutu. Hard substances are mostly 
heavy ; but toa weak person the softest substance may 
sometimes be burdensome if he is obliged to bear it. 
things are heavy according to the difficulty with which 
they are lifted; but they are wetghty according as they 
weigh other things down. The heavy is therefore in- 
definite; but the weighty is definite, and something 
positively great : what is Aeavy to one may be light to 
another; but that which is weighty exceeds the ordi 
nary Weight of other things ; 


The sable troops along the narrow tracks 
Scarce bear the weighty burden on their backs. 
DRYDEN. 


Ponderous expresses even more than weighty, for it 
includes also the idea of bulk; the ponderous there- 
fore is that which is so weighty and large that it can- 
not easily be moved ; ‘ The diligence of an idler is rapid 
and impetuous, as ponderous bodies forced into velocity 
move with violence proportionate to their weight.’— 
JOHNSON. 


TO CLOG, LOAD, ENCUMBER. 


Clog is probably changed from clot or clod, signify- 
ing to put a heavy lump in the way; load, from to 
load, in Saxon laden, Dutch, &c. laden, signifies to 
burden with a load, or lay any thing on so as to form 
a load ; encumber, compounded of en or tm and cum- 
ber, in German kummer, sorrow, signifies to burden 
with trouble. 

Clog is figuratively employed for whatever impedés 
the motion or action of a #hing, drawn from the fami- 
liar object which is used to impede the motion of ani- 
mals: load is used for whatever occasions an excess 
of weight or materials. A wheel is clogged, or a ma- 
chine is clogged; a fire may be loaded with coals, or 
a picture with colouring. ‘The stomach and memory 
may be either clogged or loaded: in the former case 
by the introduction of improper food; and in the 
second case by the introduction of an improper quan- 
tity. A memory that is clogged becomes confused, 
and confounds one thing with another; that which is 
loaded loses the impression of one object by the intro- 
duction of another; ‘ Butler gives Hudibras that pe- 
dantick ostentation of knowledge, which has no rela- 
tion to chivalry, and loads him with martial encum- 
brances that can add nothing to his civil dignity.’— 
JOHNSON. 

Clog and encumber have the common signification 
of interrupting or troubling by means of something 
irrelevant. Whatever is clogged has scarcely the 
liberty of moving at all; whatever is encumbered 
moves and acts, but with difficulty. When the roots 
of plants are clogged with mould, or any impropea 
substance, their growth is almost stopped: weeds and 
noxious plants are encumbrances in the ground where 
flowers should grow: the commands or prohibition 
of parents sometimes very fortunately clog those whose 
sanguine tempers would lead them into imprudence ; 
‘Whatsoever was- observed by the ancient philoso- 
phers, either irregular or defective in the workings of 
the mind, was all charged upon the body as its great 
clog.’—Souru. Noone can expect to proceed with 
ease to himself in any transaction, who is encumbered 
with a variety of concerns at the same time; ‘This 
minority is great and formidable. Ido not know whe- 
ther, if I aimed at the total overthrow of a kingdom, 
I should wish to be encumbered with a large body of 
partizans.’—BurRKE. : 


TO POISE, BALANCE. 


Poise, in French peser, probably comes from pes 3 
foot, on which the body is as it were poised; balance 
in French balancer, comes from the Latin bilanz, o1 
bis and lanz, a pair of scales. 

The idea of bringing into an equilibrium is commor 
to both terms; but pozse is a particular, and balanc 
a more general term: a thing is poised as respect 
itself; it is balanced as respects other .hines 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


orses a plain stick in his hand when he wants it to 
ie even; he balances the stick if it has a particular 
weight at each end: a person may poise himself, but 
he balances others: when not on firm ground, it is ne- 
cessary to poise oneself ; when two persons are situated 
one at each end of a beam, they may balance one an- 
other. These terms preserve the same distinction in 
a figurative acceptation ; 

Some evil, terrible and unforeseen, 


Must sure ensue, to poise the scale against 

This vast profusion of exceeding pleasure.—Rowe. 

This, O! this very moment let me die, 

While hopes and fears in equal balance lie. 
DryDEN. 


TO PERISH, DIE, DECAY. 


Perish, in French perir, in Latin pereo, compounded 
of per and eo, signifies to go thoroughly away ; die, v. 
To die; and decay, v. To decay. 

-To perish expresses more than to die, and is appli- 

cable to many objects; for the latter is properly ap- 
plied only to express the extinction of animal life, and 
figuratively to express the extinction of life or spirit 
in vegetables or other bodies; but the former is ap- 
plied to express the dissolution of substances, so that 
they lose their existence as aggregate bodies. What 
perishes, therefore, does not always die, although what- 
ever dies, by that very act perishes to a certain extent. 
Hence we say that wood perishes, although it does not 
die; people are said either to perish or die; but as 
the term perish expresses even more than dying, it is 
possible for the same thing to-dée and not perish ; thus 
a plant may be said to die when it loses its vegetative 
power ; but it is said to perish if its substance crum- 
bies into dust. 
” To perish expresses the end; to decay, the process 
by which this end is brought about; a thing may be 
long in decaying, but when it perishes it ceases at once 
to act or to exist: things may, therefore, perish with- 
out decaying ; they may likewise decay without perish: 
ing. Things may perish by means of water, tire, light- 
ning, and the like, which are altogether new, and have 
experienced no kind of decay: on the other hand, wood, 
iron, and other substances may begin to decay, but may 
be saved from immediately perishing by the applica- 
tion of preventives. 

In a moral or extended application of the terms they 
preserve a similar distinction: to de signifies simply 
to fall away; thus, thoughts may die in one’s breast 
which never return, or power may die with the pos- 
sessor; ‘Whatever pleasure any man may take in 
spreading whispers, he will find greater satisfaction in 
letting the secret die within his own breast.’—-Sprcra- 
Tor. With perish is always associated the manner 
and degree of the extinction, namely, that it is com- 
plete, and effected for the most part by violence ; 


Beauty and youth about to perish finds 

Such noble pity in brave English minds.—Wa.uEr. 
Decay is figuratively employed in the sense of gra- 
dually sinking into a state of non-existence ; 

The soul’s dark cottage, batter’d and decay'd, 


Lets in new light through chinks that time has made. 
WALLER. 


TO DIE, EXPIRE. 


Die, in Low German doen, Danish doe, from the 
Greek S#evy to kill, designates in general the extinction 
of being, which may be considered either as gradual 
or otherwise ; ‘ She died every day she lived.’-—Rowre. 
Expire, from the Latin e or ex and spiro to breathe 
out, designates the last action of life in certain objects, 
and is of course a momentary act; ‘Pope died in the 
evening of the thirtieth day of May, 1744, so placidly, 
that the attendants did not discern the exact time of 
his expiration.’—JOHNSON. 

* There are beings, such as trees and plants, which 
are said to live, although they have not, breath; these 
die, but do not expire; there are other beings which 
absorb and emit air, but do not live; such as the flame 
of a lamp, which does not die, but it expires. By a 
natural metaphor, the time of being is put for the life 


* Vide Trusler: ‘ Die, expire.” 


371 


of objects ; and hence we speak of the date ezprring, 
the term expiring, and the like; ‘A parliament may 
expire by length of time..—BuLackstTone. As life ig 
applied figuratively to moral objects, so may death to 
objects not having physical life; ‘A dissolution is the 
civil death of parliament.’—Biackstonr. ‘ When 
Alexander the Great died, the Grecian monarchy ez 
pired with him.’—Soutu. 


DEATH, DEPARTURE, DECEASE, DEMISE, 


Death signifies the act of dying ; departure, the act 
of departing : decease, from the Latin decedo to fall off, 
the act of falling away; demise, from demitto to lay 
down, signifies literally resigning possession. 

Death is a general or a particular term; it marks in 
the abstract sense the extinction of life, and is appli- 
cable to men or animals; tooneor many. Departure, 
decease, and demise are particular expressions suitec 
only to the condition of human beings. * Departure 
is a Christian term, which carries with it an idea of a 
passage from one life to another; decease is a techni- 
cal term in law, which is introduced into common lan 
guage to designate one’s falling off from the number 
of the living; demise is substituted for decease in 
speaking of princes, who by their death also put ou 
their earthly power; ‘So tender is the law of sup- 
posing even a possibility of the king’s death, that his 
natural dissolution is generally called his demise ’— 
BLACKSTONE. 

Death of itself has always something terrifick in it; 
but the Gospel has divested it of its terrours: the hour 
of departure, therefore, for a Christian is often the 
happiest period of his mortal existence; ‘ How quickly 
would the honours of illustrious men perish after death, 
if their souls performed nothing to preserve their fame.’ 
—Huaeues (after Xenophon). Decease presents only 
the idea of leaving life tofthe survivors. Of death it 
has been saia, that nothing is more certain than that it 
will come, and nothing’more uncertain than when it 
will come.’ Knowing that we have here no resting 
place of abode, it is the part of wisdom to look forward 
to our departure; ‘'The loss of our friends impresses 
upon us hourly the necessity of our own departure.’ 
JOHNSON. Property is in perpetual occupancy ; at the 
decease of one possessor, it passes into the hands of 
another; ‘Though men see every day people go to 
their long home, they are not so apt to be alarmed at 
that, as at the decease of those who have lived longer 
in their sight..—-STEE.e. ts 

The death of an individual is sometimes attended 


! with circumstances peculiarly distressing to those who 


are nearly related. ‘The tears which are shed at the 
departure of those we love are not always indica- 
tions of our weakness, but rather testimonies of their 
worth. 

As an epithet, dead is used collectively ; departed is 
used with a noun only; deceased generally without 
a noun, to denote one or more according to the con- 
nexion. ; 

There is a respect due to the dead, which cannot be 
violated without offence to the living; 


The living and the dead, at his command, 
Were coupled face to face, and hand to hand. 
Dryden. 

It is a pleasant reflection to conceive of departed 
spirits, as taking an interest in the concerns of those 
whom they have left; ‘ The sophistick tyrants of Paris 
are loud in their declamations against the departed 
regal tyrants, who in former ages have vexed the 
world.'.—Burxer. All the marks on the body of the 
deceased indicated that he had met with his death by 
some violence; ‘It was enacted in the reign of Ed- 
ward I., that the ordinary shall be bound to pay the 
debts of the intestate, in the same manner that exe 
cutors were bound in case the deceased left a will’ 
BLACKSTONE. 


DEADLY, MORTAL, FATAL. 

Deadly or deadlike signifies like death itself in its 
effects ; mortal, in Latin mortalis, signifies belonging 
to death; fatal, in Latin fatalis, i.e. according to fate. 

Deadly is applied to what is productive of death; 


* Vide Trusler: ‘‘ Departure, death, decease ™ 


372 


On him amid the flying numbers found, 
Eurypilus inflicts a deadly wound.—Porr. 


Mortal to what terminates in or is liable to death; 
‘For my own part, I never could think that the soul, 
while in a mortal body, lives. -Hueues (after Xeno- 
phon). Fatal applies not only to death, but every 
thing which may be of great mischief; 


O fatal change! become in one sad day 
A senseless corse! inanimated clay.—Popr. 


A poison is deadly; a wound or a wounded part is 
mortal; a step in walking, or a step in one’s conduct, 
may be fatal. Things only are deadly, creatures are 
mortal. Hatred is deadly ; whatever has life is mortal. 
There may be remedies sometimes to counteract that 
which is deadly ; but that which is mortal is past all 
cure; and that which is fatal cannot be retrieved. 


NUMB, BENUMBED, TORPID. 


Numb and benumbed come from the Hebrew num 
to sleep; the former denoting the quality, and the 
latter the state: there are but few things numb by 
nature; but there may be many things which may be 
benumbed. Torpid, in Latin torpidus, from torpeo to 
languish, is most commonly employed to express the 
permanent state of being benwmbed, as in the case of 
some animals, which lie in a torpzd state all the winter ; 
or in the moral sense to depict the benumbed state of 
the thinking faculty; in this manner we speak of the 
torpor of persons who are benwmbed by any strong 
affection, or by any strong external action; ‘ The night, 
with its silence and darkness, shows the winter, in 
which all the powers of vegetation are benumbed.’—- 
Jounson. ‘There must be a grand spectacle to rouse 
the imagination, grown torpid with the lazy enjoyment 
of sixty years’ security.,—BURKE. 


EXIT, DEPARTURE. 


Both these words are metaphorically employed for 
death, or a passage out of this life: the former is bor- 
rowed from the act of going off the stage; the latter 
from the act of setting off on a journey. The eazt 
seems to convey the idea of volition; for we speak of 
making our exit: the departure designates simply the 
event; the hour of a man’s departure is not made 
known to him. When we speak of the exit, we think 
only of the place left; when we speak of departure, 
we think not only of the object left, but of the place 
gone to. The unbeliever may talk of his exit; the 
Christian most commonly speaks of his departure ; 
‘ There are no ideas strike more forcibly upon our ima- 
ginations than those which are raised from reflections 
upon the exits of great and excellent men.’—STEELE. 
‘Happy was their good prince in his timely departure, 
which barred him from the knowledge of his son’s 
miseries.’—S1pNEY. 


oe 


TO STRENGTHEN, FORTIFY, INVIGORATE. 


Strengthen, from strength, and fortify, from fortis 
and faczo, signify to make strong ; invigorate signifies 
to put in vigour (v. Energy). 

Whatever adds to the strength, be it in ever so small 
a degree, strengthens; exercise strengthens either 
body or mind; ‘ There is a certain bias towards know- 
ledge, in every mind, which may be strengthened and 
improved.’—BuperLu. Whatever gives strength for 
a particular emergence fortifies ; religion fortifies the 
mind against adversity; ‘This relation will not be 
wholly without its use, if those who languish under 
any part of its sufferings shall be enabled to fortify 
their patience by reflecting that they feel only those 
afflictions from which the abilities of Savage sould not 
exempt him.’—Jounson. Whatever adds to the 
strength, sO as to give a positive degree of strength, 
invigorates ; morning exercise in fine weather znvi- 
gorates ; 

For much the pack 
(Rous’d from their dark alcoves) delight to stretch 
And bask in his invigorating ray.—SomMERVILLE. 


STRONG, FIRM, ROBUST, STURDY. 
Strong is in all probability a variation of strict, 


which is in German streng, because strength is alto- | possunt guia posse videntur 


a 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


gether derived from the close coutexture of bodies; 
robust, in Latin robustus, from robur, signifies lite- 
rally having the strength of oak; sturdy, like the word 
stout, steady (v. Firm), comes in all probability from 
stehen to stand, signifying capable of standing. 

Strong is here the generick term; the others are spe 
cifick, or specify strength under different circum 
stances; robust is a positive and high degree of 
strength, arising from a peculiar bodily make; sturdy 
indicates not only strength of body but also of mind 
aman may be strong from the strength of his consti- 
tution, from the power which is inherent in his frame; 


If thou hast strengih, ’t was Heaven that strength 
bestow’d.—Porx. 


A robust man has strength both from the size and tex 
ture of his body, he has a bone and nerve which is 
endowed with great power. A little man may be 
strong, although not robust; a tall, stout man, in 
full health, may be termed robust. 

A man may be strong in one part of his body and 
not in another; he may be stronger at one time, from 
particular circumstances, than he is at another: but a 
robust man is strong in his whole body; and as he is 
robust by nature, he will cease to be so only from 
disease ; 

The huntsman ever gay, robust, and bold, 
Defies the noxious vapour.—SomERVILLE. 


Sturdiness lies both in the make of the body and the 
temper of the mind: a sturdy man is capable of making 
resistance, and ready to make it; he must be naturally 
strong, and not of slender make, but he need not be 
robust: a sturdy peasant presents us with the picture 
of a man who, both by nature and habit, is formed foi 
withstanding the inroads of an enemy; 


This must be done, and I would fain see 
Mortal so sturdy as to gainsay.—HuDIBRAS. 


Sometimes this epithet is applied to those objects 
which cause a violent resistance ; 


Beneath their sturdy strokes the billows roar. 
DRYDEN 
Every object is termed strong which is the reverse 
of weak; persons only are termed robust who have 
every bodily requisite to make them more than ordi- 
narily strong; persons only are sturdy whose habits cf 
life qualify them both for action and for endurance 


SUBSTANTIAL, SOLID. 


Substantial signifies having a substance: soltd sig 
nifies having a firm substance. The substantial is. 
opposed to that which is thin and has no consistency , 
the solid is opposed to the liquid, or that which is of 
loose consistency. All objects which admit of being 
handled are in their nature substantial ; those which 
are of so hard a texture as to require to be cut are 
solid. Substantial food is that which has a consist- 
ency in itself, and is capable of giving fulness to the 
ue stomach: solid food is meat in distinction from 

rink. 

In the moral application, an argument is said to be 
substantial which has weight in itself; 


Trusting in its own native and substantial worth, 
Scorns all meretricious ornaments.—MILTOoN. 
A reason is solid which has a high degree of substan 
tiality ; 
As the swoln columns of ascending smoke, 
So solid swells thy grandeur, pigmy man. 
Youne 


ENERGY, FORCE, VIGOUR. 


Energy, in French energie, Latin energia, Greek 
évepyta trom évepyéw to operate inwardly, signifies the 
power of producing positive effects; force, v. To com 
pel; vigour, from the Latin v7geo to flourish, signifies 
unimpaired power, or that which belongs to a subject . 
in a sound or flourishing state. 

With energy is connected the idea of activity; with 
force that of capability; with vigour that of health. 
Energy lies only in the mind; force and vigour are the 
property of either body or mind. Knowledge and 
freedom combine to produce energy of character, 
‘Our powers Swe much of their energy to our hopes, 
When success seems 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


attainable, diligence is enforced.’—Jounson. Force is 
a gift of nature that may be increased by exercise; 


On the passive main 
Descends th’ ethereal force, and wiih strong gust 
Turns from its bottom the discolour’d deep. 
THOMSON., 


Vigour, both bodily and mental, is an ordinary accom- 
panimen _f youth, but is not always denied to old 
age; ‘No man at the age and vigour of thirty is fond 
of sugar-plums and rattles..—Souru. 


HARD, FIRM, SOLID. 


The close adherence of the component parts of a 
body constitutes hardness. ‘The close adherence of 
different bodies to each other constitutes firmness 
(v Fized). That is hard which will not yield to a 
zloser compression; ‘I see you labouring through all 
your inconveniences of the rough roads, the hard 
saddle, the trotting horse, and what not.’-—Popr. 
That is firm which will not yield so as to produce a 
3eparation ; 

The loosen’d ice 
Rustles no more; but to the sedgy bank 
Fast grows, or gathers round the pointed stone, 
A crystal pavement, by the breath of heaven 
Cemented jirm.—THoMSsoN. 


Ice is hard, as far as it respects itself, when it resists 
every pressure; it is firm, with regard to the water 
which it covers, when it is so closely bound as to resist 
every weight without breaking. 

Hard and solid respect the internal constitution of 
bodies, and the adherence of the component parts; 
but hard denotes a much closer degree of adherence 
than solid: the hard is opposed to the soft; the solid 
to the fluid; every hard body is by nature solid; 
although every solid body is not hard. Wood is 
always a solid body, but is sometimes hard and some- 
times soft: water, when congealed, is a solid body, 
and admits of different degrees of hardness; * A co- 
pious manner of expression gives strength and weight 
to our ideas, which frequently makes impression upon 
the mind, as iron does upon solid bodies, rather by re- 
peated strokes than a single blow.’-—Ms.LMorTu (Letters 
of Pliny). ! : j 

In the improper application, hardness is allied to in- 
sensibility ; firmness to fixedness; solidity to substan- 
tiality; a hard man is not to be acted upon by any 
tender motives; a firm man is not to be turned from 
his purpose; a solzd man holds no purposes that are 
not well founded. A man is hardened in that which 
is bad, by being made insensible to that which is good: 
aman is confirmed in any thing good or bad, by being 
rendered Jess disposed to lay it aside; his mind is con- 
solidated by acquiring fresh motives for action. 


HARD, CALLOUS, HARDENED, OBDURATE. 


Hard is here, as in the former case (v. Hard), the 
gencval term, and the rest particular: hard, in its most 
extensive and physical sense, denotes the property of 
resisting the action of external force, so as not to un- 
dergo any change in its form, or motion in its parts; 
callous is that species of the Aard,in application to the 
skin, which arises from its dryness, and the absence of 
all nervous susceptibility. Hard and callous are like- 
wise applied in the moral sense: but Aard denotes the 
absence of tender feeling, or the property of resisting 
any impression which tender objects are apt to pro- 
duce; 

Such woes 
Not e’en the hardest of our foes could hear, 
Nor stern Ulysses tell without a tear.—DryDEN. 


Callous denotes the property of not yielding to the 
force of objects acting on the senses of the mind; 
‘ Licentiousness has so long passed for sharpness of 
wit, and greatness of mind, that the conscience is 
growk vallous.’—L’ Estranex. A hard heart cannot 
be moved by the sight of misery, let it be presented in 
ever so affecting a form: a callous mind is not to be 
touched by any persuasions however powerful. 

Hard does not designate any circumstance of its 
existence or origin: we may be hard from a variety of 
causes; but callousness arises from the indulgence of 
vices, passions, and the pursuit of vicious practices 


373 


i 

When we speak of a person as hard, it simply deter- 
mines what he is: if we speak of him as callous, it 
refers also to what he was, and from what he is be- 
come so; ‘By degrees the sense grows callous, and 
loses that exquisite relish of trifles.—BerKELEy. 

Callous, hardened, and obdurate are all employed to 
designate a morally depraved character: but callous 
ness belongs properly to the heart and affections; 
hardened to both the heart and the understanding ; 
obdurate more particularly to the will. Callowsness 
is the first stage of hardness in moral depravity; it 
may exist in the infant mind, on its first tasting the 
poisonous pleasures of vice, without being acquainted 
with its remote consequences; ‘If they let go their 
hope of everlasting life with willingness, and entertain 
final perdition with exultation, ought they not to be 
esteemed destitute of common sense, and abandoned 
to a callousness and numbness of soul?’—BunrTury. 
A hardened state is the work. of time; it arises from a 
continued course of vice, which becomes as it were 
habitual, and wholly unfits a person for admitting of 
any other impressions; 


His harden’d heart, nor prayers, nor threatenings 
move; , 
Fate and the gods had stopp’d his ears to love. 
DRryDEN 


Obduracy is the last stage of moral hardness, which 
supposes the whole mind to be obstinately bent on 
vice ; 
Round he throws his baleful eyes, 
That witness’d huge affliction and dismay, 
Mix’d with obdurate pride and steadfast hate 
Miuton. 


A child discovers himself to be callous, when the tears 
and entreaties of a parent cannot awaken in him a 
single sentiment of contrition; a youth discovers him- 
self to be hardened when he begins to take a pride and 
a pleasure in a vicious career; a man shows himself 
to be obdurate when he betrays a settled and confirmed 
purpose to pursue his abandoned course, without re 

gard to consequences. 


HARDHEARTED, CRUEL, UNMERCIFUL 
MERCILESS. 


Hardhearted is here, as the word hard (v. Hard) 
the strongest of these terms: in regard to cruel, it be 
speaks a settled character; whereas that may be fre 
quently a temporary disposition, or even extend no 
farther than the action. A hardkearted man must 
always be cruel ; but it is possible to be erwel, and yet 
not hardhearted. A hardhearted parent is a monster 
who spurns from him the being that owes his existence 
to him, and depends upon him for support. A child is 
often cruel to animals from the mistaken conception 
ne they are not liable to the same sufferings as him- 
self. 

The unmerciful and merciless are both modes or 
characteristicks of the hardhearted. An unmerciful 
man is hardhearted, inasmuch as he is unwilling to ex 
tend his compassion or mercy to one who is in his 
power; a merciless man, which is more than an un- 
merciful man, is hardhearted, inasmuch as he is re- 
strained by no compunctious feelings from inflicting 
pain on those who are in his power. Avarice makes 
a man hardhearted even to those who are bound to 
him by the closest ties. .Avarice will make aman un- 
merciful to those who are in his debt. There are many 
merciless tyrants in domestick life, who show their 
disposition by their merciless treatment of their poor 
brutes; ‘Single men, though they be many times more 
charitable, on the other side, are more cruel and hard- 
hearted, because their tenderness is not so oft called 
upon.’—Bacon. 


Relentless love the crwzel mother led 
The blood of her unhappy babes to shed.—DrypeEn. 


‘Tsaw how unmerciful you were to your eyes in your 
last letter to me.’—TiLLoTson. 


To crush a merciless and cruel victor—DRYDEN 


’ 


CRUEL, INHUMAN, BARBAROUS, BRUTAL, 
SAVAGE. 


Cruel, from the Latin erudelis and crudus raw 
rough, or untutored; inkwman; compounded of the 


374 


privative zn and human, signifies not human; bar- 
barous, from the Greek BdpBapos rude or unsettled, 
all mark a degree of bad feeling which is uncontrolled 
by culture or refinement; brutal, signifying like a 
brute; and savage, from the Latin sevus fierce, and 


the Hebrew SN} a wolf, marks a still stronger degree 
of this bad passion. 

Cruel is the most familiar and the least powerful 
epithet of all these terms; it designates the ordinary 
propensity which is innate in. man, and which if not 
overpowered by a better principle, will invariably show 
itself by the desire of inflicting positive pain on others, 
or abridging their comfort: inhuman and barbarous 
are higher degrees of cruelty; brutal and savage rise 
so much in degree above the rest, as almost to partake 
of another nature. A child gives early symptoms of 
his natural cruelty by his ill-treatment of animals ; 
but we do not speak of his inhumanity, because this is 
a term confined to men, and more properly to their 
treatment of their own species, although extended in 
its sense to their treatment of the brutes : barbarity is 
but too common among children and persons of riper 
years. A person is cruel who neglects the creature 
he should protect and take care of; 


Now be thy rage, thy fatal rage resign’d, 
A cruel heart ill suits a manly mind.—Popg. 


A person is inhuman if he withhold from him the 
common marks of tenderness or Kindness which are 
to be expected from one human being to another ; 


Love lent the sword, the mother struck the blow, 
Inhuman she, but more inhuman thou.—DRyDEN. 


A person is barbarous if he find amusement in inflict- 
ing pain; 
T have found out a gift for my fair, 
I have found where the wood-pigeons breed, 
But jet me that plunder forbear, 
She will say, ’t was a barbarous deed. 
SHENSTONE. 


A person is brutal or savage according to the circum- 
stances of aggravation which accompany the act of 
torturing ; ‘The play was acted at the other theatre, 
and the brutal petulance of Cibber was confuted, 
though perhaps not shamed, by general applause.’— 
JOHNSON. 


Brothers by brothers’ impious hands are slain! 
Mistaken zeal, how savage is thy reign! 
JENYNS. 


Cruel is applied either to the disposition or the con- 
duct; inhuman and barbarous mostly to the outward 
conduct: brutal and savage mostly to the disposition. 
Cruelties and even barbarities, too horrid to relate, are 
daily practised by men upon dogs and horses, the use- 
fullest and most unoffending of brutes ; either for the 
indulgence of a naturally brutal temper, or from the 
impulse of a savage fury: we need not wonder to find 
the same men inhuman towards their children or their 
servants. Domitian was notorious for the cruelty of 
his disposition: the Romans indulged themselves in 
the inhuman practice of making their slaves and con- 
victs fight with wild beasts; but the barbarities which 
have been practised on slaves in the colonies of Eu-’ 
ropean states, exceed every thing in atrocity that is re- 
ated of ancient times; proving that, in spite of all the 
refinement which the religion of our blessed Saviour 
has introduced into the world, the possession of un- 
controlled power will inevitably brut alize the mind, and 
give a savage ferocity to the character. 


FEROCIOUS, FIERCE, SAVAGE. 


Ferocious and fierce are both derived from the Latin 
feroz, which comes from fera a wild beast: savage, 
vy. Cruel; ferocity marks the untamed character of a 
cruel disposition: fierceness has a greater mixture of 
pride and anger in it, the word fierté in French being 
taken for haughtiness: savageness marks a more per- 
manent, but not so violent, a sentiment of either cruelty 
or anger as the two former. Ferocity and fierceness 
are in common applied to the brutes, to designate their 
natural tempers: savage is mostly employed to desig- 
nate the natural tempers of man, when uncontrolled 
by the force of reason and a sense of religion. Fero- 
sity is the nature! characteristick of wild beasts: it is 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


a delight in blood that needs no outward stimulus te 
Call it into action; but it displays itself most strikingly 
in the moment when the animal is going to grasp, or 
when in the act of devouring, its prey; fierceness may 
be provoked in many creatures, but it does not dis- 
cover itself unless roused by some Circumstances of 
aggravation; many animals become fierce by being 
shut up in cages, and exposed to the view of specta- 
tors: savageness is aS natural a temper in the un- 
civilized man, as ferocity or fierceness in the brute; it 
does not wait for an enemy to attack, but is restless in 
search of some one whom it may make an enemy, and 
have an opportunity of destroying. It is an easy tran- 
sition for the savage to become the ferocious cannibal, 
glutting himself in the blood of his enemies, or the 
fierce antagonist to one who sets himself up in oppa- 
sition to hii. 

In an extended application of these terms, they bear 
the same relation to each other: the countenance may 
be either ferocious, fierce, or savage, according to Cir- 
cumstances. A robber who spends his life in the act 
of unlawfully shedding blood acquires a ferocity of 
countenance; ‘The ferocious character of Moloch 
appears both in the battle and the council with exact 
consistency.’—Jounson. A soldier who follows a pre- 
datory and desultory mode of warfare betrays the 
licentiousness of his calling, and his undisciplined 
temper, in the fierceness of his countenance; 


The tempest falls, 
The weary winds sink, breathless. But who knows 
What fiercer tempest yet may shake this night ? 
THOMSON. 

The wretch whose enjoyment consists in inflicting 
misery on his dependants or subjects, evinces the 
savageness of his temper by the savage joy with 
which he witnesses their groans and tortures ; 


Nay, the dire monsters that infest the flood, 

By nature dreadful, and athirst for blood, 

His will can calm, their savage tempers bind, 
And turn to mild protectors of mankind.—Y oune 


HARD, HARDY, INSENSIBLE, UNFEELING. 


Hard (v. Hard) may either be applied to that which 
makes resistance to external impressions, or that which 
presses with a force upon other objects: hardy, which 
is only a variation of hard, is applicable only in the 
first case: thus, a person’s skin may be hard, which ia 
not easily acted upon; but the person is said to be 
hardy who can withstand the elements; 


Ocnus was next, who led his native train 
Of hardy warriours through the watery piain. 
Drypen. 


On the other hand, hard, when employed as an active 
principle, is only applied to thu moral character; hence, 
the difference between a hardy man who endures every 
thing, and a hard man who makes others endure. Jn- 
sensible and unfeeling are but modes of the hard; 
that is, they designate the negative quality of hard- 
ness, Or its incapacity to receive impression: hard, 
therefore, is always the strongest term of the three; 
and of the two, unfeeling is stronger than insensible. 
Hard and insensible are applied physically and mo- 
rally ; unfecling is employed only as a moral charac- 
teristick. A horse’s mouth is hard, inasmuch as it is 
insensible to the action of the bit; a man’s heart is 
hard which is insensible to the miseries of others; a 
man is unfeeling who does not regard the feelings of 
others. The heart may be hard by nature, or ren- 
dered so by the influence of some passion; but the 
person is commonly unfeeling from circumstances. 
Shylock is depicted by Shakspeare as hard, from his 
strong antipathy to the Christians: people who enjoy 
an uninterrupted state of good health, are often wnjeed- 
ing in cases of sickness. 

As that which is hard mostly hurts or pains when it 
comes in contact with the soft, the term Aard is pecu- 
liarly applicable to superiours, or such as have power 
to inflict pain: a creditor may be hard towards a 
debtor ; ‘ To be inaccessible, contemptuous, and hard 
of heart, is to revolt against our own nature.’—BLaiR. 
As insensible signifies a want of sense, it may be some- 
times necessary: a surgeon, when performing an ope- 
ration, must be insensible to the present pain which he 
inflicts ; but as a habit of the mind it is always bad; 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


t is both reproachfa and criminal to have an insen- 
sible heart.'.—Buair. As unfeeling signifies a want 
of feeling, it is always taken for a want of good feel- 
eng where the removal of pain is required: the surgeon 
shows himself to be unfeeling who does not do every 
thing in his power to lessen the pain of the sufferer ; 


The father too a sordid man, 

Who love nor pity knew, 

Was all unfeeling as the rock 

From whence his riches grew.—MAt.eT. 


INDIFFERENCE, INSENSIBILITY, APATHY. 


Indifference signifies no difference; that is, having 
no difference of feeling for one thing more than an- 
other ; insensibility, from sense and able, signifies in- 
capable of feeling ; apathy, from the Greek privative 
@ and rdGog feeling, implies without feeling. 

Indifference is a partial state of the mind; apathy, 
and insensibility are general states of the mind; he 
who has indifference is not to be awakened to feeling 
by some objects, though he may by others; but he who 
has not sersibility is incapable of feeling ; and he who 
has apathy is without any feeling. Indifference is 
mostly a temporary state; znsenszbility is either a 
temporary or a permanent state; apathy is alwaysa 
permanent state: indifference is either acquired or 
accidental ; insensibility is either produced or natural; 
apathy is natural. A person may be in a state of in- 
difference about a thing the value of which ke is not 
aware of, or acquire an indifference for that which he 
knows to be of comparatively little value: he may be 
in a state of insensibility from some lethargick torpor 
which has seized his mind; or he may have an habitual 
insensibility arising either from the contractedness of 
his powers, or the physical bluntness of his under- 
standing, and deadness of his passions; his apathy is 
born with him, and forms a prominent feature in the 
constitution of his mind. 

Indifference is often the consequence of insensi- 
bility ; for he who is not senszble or alive to any feel- 
ing must naturally be without choice or preference: 
but indifference is not always insensibility, since we 
may be indifferent to one thing because we have an 
equal liking to another; ‘{f could never prevail with 
myself to exchange joy and sorrow for a state of con- 
stant tasteless indifference..—Hoapn.y. In like man- 
ner insensibility may spring from apathy, for he who 
has no feeling is naturally not to be awakened to feel- 
ing, that is, he is unfeeling or insensible by constitu- 
tion ; but since his znsenszbility may spring from other 
causes besides those that are natural, he may be insen- 
sible without having apathy; ‘I look upon Iseus not 
only as the most eloquent but the most happy of men; 
as I shall esteem you the most znsensible if you ap- 
pear to slight his acquaintance..—Mr.morn (Letters 
of Pliny). Moreover, it is observable that between 
insensibility and apathy there is this farther distinc-. 
tion, that the former refers only to our capacity for 
being moved by the outward objects that surround us; 
whereas apathy denotes an entire internal deadness 
of all the feelings: but we may be insensible to the 
present external objects from the total absorption of ail 
the powers and feelings in one distant object; ‘ To 
remain insensible of such provocations, is not con- 
stancy, but apathy.’—SourTu. 


INDIFFERENT, UNCONCERNED, 
REGARDLESS. 


Indifferent (v. Indifference) marks the want of inclina- 
tion: unconcerned, that is, having no concern (v. Care) ; 
and regardless, that is, without regard (v. Care) ; mark 
the want of serious consideration. 

Indifferent respects only the will, unconcerned either 
the will or the understanding, regardless the under- 
standing only; we are indifferent about matters of 
minor consideration: we are wnconcerned or regard- 
less about serious matters that have remote conse- 
quences ; an author will seldom be indifferent about 
the success of his work; he ought not to be wncon- 
cerned about the influence which his writings may 
have on the publick, or regardless of the estimation in 
which his own character as a man may be held. To 
se indifferent is sometimes an act of wisdom or virtue ; 


O75 


to be unconcerned or regardless is mostly an act of 
folly or a breach of duty. 

When the object is purely of a personal nature, it ia 
but treating it as it deserves if we are zndifferent about 
it; hence a wise man is indifferent about the applause 
of the multitude; ‘As an author I am perfectly indif 
-ferent to the judgement of all except the few who are 
really judicious,—Cowrrr. As religion should be 
the object of our concern, if we are unconcerned about 
any thing connected with it, the fault is in ourselves 
a good parent will never be unconcerned about the reli 
gious education of his children; 


Not the most cruel of our conquering foes, — 
So unconcern’dly can relate our woes.—DENHAM. 


Whatever tends to increase our knowledge or to add 
to the comfort of others, ought to excite our regard; 
if therefore we are regardless of these things, we be- 
tray a culpable want of feeling; a good child will 
never be regardless of the admonition of a parent; 


Regardless of my words, he no reply 
Returns.--DRYDEN. 


SENSIBLE, SENSITIVE, SENTIENT. 


All these epithets, which are derived from the same 
source (v. To feel), have obviously a great sameness 
of meaning, though not of application. *Sens7ble and 
sensitive both denote the capacity of being moved to 
feeling : sentient implies the very act of feeling. Sen- 
sible expresses either a habit of the body and mind, 
or only a particular state referring to some particular 
object ; a person may be sensible of things in general, 
or sensible of cold, or sensible of injuries, or sensible 
of the kindnesses which he has received from an indi- 
vidual ; 


And with affection wondrous sensible, 
He wrung Bassanio’s hand, and so they parted 
SHAKSPEARE. 


Sensitive signifies always an habitual or permanent 
quality; it is the characteristick of objects; a sensi- 
tive creature implies one whose sense is by distinction 
quickly to be acted upon: a sensitive plant is a pecu- 
liar species of plants, marked for the property of hav- 
ing sense or being senszble of the touch; ‘Those crea- 
tures live more alone whose food, and therefore prey, 
is upon other sensztive creatures.’—-TEMPLE. 

Sensible and sensitive have always a reference to 
external objects; but seniient expresses simply the 
possession of feeling, or the power of feeling, and ex- 
cludes the idea of the cause. Hence, the terms sen: 
sible and sensitive are applied only to persons or cor- 
poreal objects ; but sentient is likewise applicable to 
spirits; sentient beings may include angels as well as 
men; ‘This acting of the sentient phantasy is per 
formed by the presence of sense, as the horse is under 
the sense of hunger, and that without any formal syl 
logism presseth him to eat.’—Hate. 


SENSUALIST, VOLUPTUARY, EPICURE. 


The sensualist lives for the indulgence of his senses , 
the voluptuary, from voluptas pleasure, is devoted to 
his pleasures, and as far as these pleasures are the 
pleasures of sense, the voluptuary is a sensualist : the 
epicure, from the philosopher Epicurus, who is charged 
with having been the votary of pleasure, is one who 
makes the pleasures of sense his god, and in this sense 
he is a senswalist and a voluptuary. In the applica- 
tion of these terms, however, the sensualist is one who 
is a slave to the grossest appetites; ‘Let the sensualist 
satisfy himself as he is able; he will find that there is 
a certain living spark within which all the drink he 
can pour in will never be able to quench.’--Sourg. 
The voluptuary is one who studies his pleasures so as 
to make them the most valuable to himself; ‘ To fill 
up the drawing of this personage, he conceived a va- 
luptuary, who in his person should be bloated and 
blown up to the size of a Silenus; lazy, luxurious, in 
sensuality ; in intemperance a bacchanalian.’—Cum 
BERLAND. The epicure is a species of voluptuary who 
practises more than ordinary refinement in the choice 
of his pleasures ; ‘ What epicure can be always plying 
his palate ?’--SouTH. | 


376 


SENTENTIOUS, SENTIMENTAL 


Sententious signifies having or abounding in sen- 
tevces or judgements: sentimental, having sentiment 
(v. Opinion). Books and authors are termed senten- 
tious ; but travellers, society, intercourse, correspond- 
ence, and the like, are characterized as sentimental. 
Moralists like Dr. Johnson are termed sententious, 
whose works and conversation abound in moral sen- 
tences; ‘His (Mr. Ferguson’s) love of Montesquieu 
and Tacitus has led him into a manner of writing too 
short-winded and sententious.—Gray. Novelists and 
romance writers, like Mrs. Radcliffe, are properly sen- 
timental ; ‘In books, whether moral or amusing, there 
are no passages more captivating than those delicate 
strokes of sentimental morality which refer our actions 
to the determination of feeling.—Macknnziz. Sen- 
tentious books always serve for improvement ; senti- 
mental works, unless they are of a superiour order, are 
in general hurtful. 


SENTIMENT, SENSATION, PERCEPTION. 


Sentiment and sensation are obviously derived from 
the same source, namely, from the Greek cvysrivw to 
make intelligent, and evyingt to understand ; percep- 
tion, from perceive (v. Zo see), expresses the act of 
perceiving, or the impressions produced by perceiving. 

The impressions which objects make upon the per- 
s0n are designated by all these terms; but the sentz-) 
ment has its seat in the heart, the sensation is confined 
to the senses, and the perception rests in the under- 
standing. Sentiments are lively, sensations are grate- 
ful, perceptions are clear. ; 

Gratitude is a sentiment the most pleasing to the 
human mind; 


Alike to council, or the assembly came, 
With equal souls and sentiments the same.—Pope. 


The sensation produced by the action of electricity on 
the frame is generally unpleasant; ‘ Diversity of con- 
stitution, or other circumstances, vary the sensations, 
and to them Java pepper is cold.—GLANVILLE. A 
nice perception of objects is one of the first requisites 
for perfection in any art; ‘ Matter hath no life nor 
perception, and is not conscious of its own existence.’ 
—BrenTLey * The sentiment extendsto the manners 
and morals, and renders us alive to the happiness or 
misery of others a8 well as our own; ‘Tam framing 
every possible pretence to live hereafter according to 
my own taste and sentiments. —Mr.moru (Letters 
of Cicero). The sensation is purely physical; it makes 
us alive only to the effectsef external objects on our 
physical organs; ‘When we describe our sensations 
of another’s sorrows in condolence, the customs of 
the world scarcely admit of rigid veracity..—Jounson. 
Perceptions carry us into the district of science; they 
give us an interest in all the surrounding objects as in- 
tellectual observers ; 


When first the trembling eye receives the day, 
External forms on young perception play. 
LANGHORNE. 

A man of spirit or courage receives marks of honour, 
or affronts, with very different sentiments from the 
poltroon: he who bounds his happiness by the present 
fleeting existence must be careful to remove every 
painful sensation: we judge of objects as complex or 
simple, according to the number of perceptions which 
they produce in us. 


TO FEEL, BE SENSIBLE, CONSCIOUS. 


From the simple idea of a sense, the word feel has 
acquired the most extensive signification and applica- 
tion in our language, and may be employed indiffer- 
ently for all the other terms, but not in all cases: to 
feel is said of the whole frame, inwardly and out- 
wardly ; it is the accompaniment of existence: to be 
sensible, from the Latin sentio, is said only of the 
senses. It is the property of all living creatures to 
feel pleasure and pain in @ greater or a less degree: 
those creatures which have not the sense of hearing 
will not be sensible of sounds. i 

In the moral application, to feel is peculiarly the pro- 
perty or act of the heart; to be senszble is that of the 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES 


understanding : an ingenuous mind feels pain when 
it is sensible of having committed an errom: oné 
may, nowever, feel as well as be sensible by means oz 
the understanding: a person feels the value of another’ 
services, he is sensible of his kindness. 

One feels or is sensible of what passes outwardly 
one is conscious only of what passes inwardly, fron 
con Or cum and scio to know to oneself: we feel the 
force of another’s remark; ‘The devout man does not 
only believe, but feels there is a Deity.’.—Anppison 
We are sensible of the evil which must spring from 
the practice of vice; ‘There is, doubtless, a faculty in 
spirits by which they apprehend one another, as ou 
senses do material objects ; and there is no question bu. 
our souls, when they are disembodied, will, by this 
faculty, be always sensible of the Divine presence.’-- 
Appison. We are conscious of having fallen short of 
our duty; 


A creature of a more exalted kind 

Was wanting yet, and then was man design’d ; 
Conscious of thought, of more capacious breast, 
For empire form’d, and fit to rule the rest.—_DrypDEN 


FEELING, SENSATION, SENSE. 


Feeling and sensation express either the particular 
act, or the general property of feeling ; sense expresses 
the general property, or the particular mode of feeling. 
Feeling is, as before (v. To feel), the general, sensation 
and sense are the special terms: the feeling is either 
physical or moral; the sersation is mostly physical; 
the sense physical in the general, and moral in the par- 
ticular application. 

We speak either of the feeling or sensation of cold. 
the feeling or sense of virtue: itis not easy to describe 
the feelings which are excited by the cutting of cork, 
or the sharpening of a saw; ‘I am sure the natural 
feeling, as I have just said, is a far more predominan\ 
ingredient in this war, than in that of any other tha; 
was ever waged by this kingdom.’—-Burke. The sen- 
sation which pervades the frame after bathing is ex- 
ceedingly grateful to one who is aceustomed to the 
water; ‘ Those ideas to which any agreeable sensation 
is annexed are easily excited, as leaving behind them 
the most strong and permanent impressions.’-—Sompr- 
VILLE. The pleasures of sense are not comparable 
with those of intellect; 


In distances of things, their shapes, and size, 

Our reason judges better than our eyes; 

Declares not this the soul’s pre-eminence, 

Superiour to, and quite distinet from sense ? 
JENYNS. 


The term feeling is most adapted to ordinary dis- 
course; sensation is a term better suited to the grave 
or scientifick style: a child may talk of an unpleasant 
feeling ; a professional man talks of the sensation of 
giddiness, a gnawing sensation, or of sensations from 
the rocking of a vessel, the motion of a carriage, and 
the like: it is our duty to command and curb our feel- 
ings; it is folly to watch every passing sensation. 

The feeling, in a moral sense, has its seat in the 
heart ; it is transitory and variable; ‘Their king, out 
of a princely feeling, was sparing and compassionate 
towards his subjects.'—Bacon. Sense has its seat in 
the understanéing ; itis permanent and regular. We 
may have feelings of anger, ill will, envy, and the 
like, which cannot be too quickly overpowered, and 
succeeded by thos of love, charity, and benevolence ; 
although there is no feelzng, however good, which 
does not require to be kept under control by a proper 
sense of religion; ‘This Basilius having the quick 
sense of a lover took as though his mistress had given 
him a secret reprehension.’—Sipney. 


FEELING, SENSIBILITY, SUSCEPTIBILITY. 


Feeling, in the present case, is taken for a positive 
characteristick, namely, the property of feeling (v. To 
feel) in a strong degree; in this sense feeling expresses 
either a particular act, or an habitual property of the 
mind; sensibility is always taken in the sense or 4 
habit. Traits of feeling in young people are happy 
omens in the estimation of the preceptor; ‘ Gentleness 
is native feeling improved by principle. —Biair. An 
exquisite sensibility is not a desirable gift; it creates 


# Abbe Girard: ‘Sentiment, sensation, perception.” | an infinite disproportion of pains; ‘Modesty is a kind 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


ot quick and delicate feeling in the soul; it is such an 
exquisite sensibility, as warns a woman to shun the 
first appearance of any thing hurtful.,—Appison. 
This term, like that of feeling, may sometimes be 
taken in a general sense, but still it expresses the idea 
more strongly ; ‘ By long habit in carrying a burden we 
lose in great part our sensibility of its weight.’— 
Jonnson. Feeling and sensibility are here taken as 
moral properties, which are awakened as much by the 
operations of the mind within itself as by external ob- 
jects: susceptzbility, from the Latin suscipio to take 
or receive, designates that property of the body or the 
mind which consists in being ready to take an affec- 
tion from external objects; hence we speak of a per- 
son’s susceptibility to take cold, or his susceptibility 
to be affected with grief, joy, or any other passion: if 
an excess of sensibility be an evil, an excess of sus- 
ceptibility is a still greater evil; it makes us a slave to 
every circumstance, however trivial, which comes 
under our notice; ‘It pleases me to think that it was 
from a principle of gratitude in me, that my mind was 
susceptible of such generous transport (in my dreams) 
when I thought myself repaying the kindness of my 
friend.’—Byron. 


HUMAN, HUMANE. 


Though both derived from homo a man, they are 
thus far distinguished, that human is said of the genus, 
and humane of the species. The human race or hu- 
man beings are opposed to the irrational part of the 
creation; a humane race or a humane individual is 
opposed to one that is cruel and fond of inflicting pain. 
He who is not Auman is divested of the first and distin- 
guishing characteristicks of his kind; ‘ Christianity 


377 


encouraging every thing Which favours them; ‘Th 

greater part of those who live but to infuse malignity 
and multiply enemies, have no hopes to foster, no de- 
signs to promote, nor any expectations of attaining 
power by insolence.’.—Jounson. To cherish in the 
mind is to hold dear or set a value upon; as when one 
cherishes good sentiments, by dwelling upon them with 
inward satisfaction ; ‘As social inclinations are abso- 
lutely necessary to the well being of the world, it is the 
duty and interest of every individual to cherish and 
improve them to the benefit of mankind.’—BrrRKELEY 
To harbour is to allow room in the mind, and is gene- 
rally taken in the worst sense, for giving admission to 
that which ought to be excluded; as when one har 
bours resentment by permitting it to have a resting 
place in the heart ; 


This is scorn, 
Which the fair soul of gentle Athenais 
Would ne’er have harbour’d.—Lex, 


To indulge in the mind, is to give the whole mind to 


any thing, to make it the chief source of pleasure; as 


has rescued human nature from that ignominious } 


yoke, under which in former times the one-half of 
mankind groaned.’—Buiatr. He who is not humane, 
is divested of the most important and elevated charac- 
teristick that belongs to his nature ; 


Life, fill’d with grief’s distressful train, 
For ever asks the tear humane.— LANGHORNE. 


TO NOURISH, NURTURE, CHERISH. 


To nourish and nurture are but variations from the 
same Latin verb nutrio; cherish, from the French 
cher, and the Latin carus dear, to treat as something 
dear to one. 

The thing nourishes, the person nurtures and 
cherishes : to nourish is to afford bodily strength, to 
supply the physical necessities of the body; to nu7ture 
is to extend one’s care to the supply of all its physical 
necessities, to preserve life, occasion growth, and in- 
crease vigour: the breast of the mother nourishes ; 


Air, and ye elements, the eldest birth 

Of nature’s womb, thatin quaternion run 
Perpetual circle, multiform ; and mix 
And nourish all things.—M1.tTon. 


The fostering care and attention of the mother nur- 
tures ; ‘They suppose mother earth to be a great ani- 
mal, and to have nurtured up her young offspring with 
conscious tenderness.—BrenTLEY To nurture is a 
physical act; to cherish isa mental as well as a physi- 
cal act: a mother nurtures her infant while it is en- 
tirely dependent upon her; she cherishes her child in 
her bosom, and protects it from every misfortune, or 
affords consolation in the midst of all its troubles, 
when it is no longer an infant ; 


Of thy superfluous brood, she ’Il cherish kind 
The alien offspring —SomERVILLE. 


TO FOSTER, CHERISH, HARBOUR, 
INDULGE. 


To foster is probably connected with father, in the 
natural sense, to bring up with a parent’s care; to 
cherish, from the Latin carus dear, is to feed with 
affection; to harbour, from a harbour or haven, is to 
provide with a shelter and protection ; to indulge, from 
the Latin dulcis sweet, is to render sweet and agree- 
able. These terms are all employed here in the moral 
acceptation, to express the idea of giving nourshment 
to an cbject. 

Tc foster in the mind is to keep with care and posi- 
tive endeavours: as when one fosters prejudices by 


——— = SSS -OrOOmrro oon 


when one zndulges an affection, by making the will 
and the outward conduct bend to its gratifications; 
‘The king (Charles I.) would indulge no refinements 
of casuistry, however plausible, in such delicate sub- 
jects, and was resolved, that what depredations soever 
fortune should commit upon him, she never should be- 
reave him of his honour.’—Humer. 

He who fosters pride in his breast lays up for him- 
self a store of mortification in his intercourse with the 
world; it is the duty of a man to cherish sentiments 
of tenderness and kindness towards the woman whom 
he has made the object of his choice; nothing evinces 
the innate depravity of the human heart more forcibly 
than the spirit of malice, which some men harbour for 
years together ; any affection of the mind, if indulged 
beyond the bounds of discretion, will become a hurtful 
passion, that may endanger the peace of society as 
much as that of the individual. 


on 


TO CARESS, FONDLE. 


Both these terms mark a species of endearment; 
caress, like cherish, comes from the French chérir, 
and cher, Latin carus dear, signifying the expression 
of a tender sentiment; fondle, from fond, is a fre- 
quentative verb, signifying to become fond of, or ex 
press one’s fondness for. 

We caress by words or actions; we fondle by ac- 
tions only: caresses are not always unsuitable; but 
fondling, which is the extreme of caressing, is not 
less unfit for the one who receives than for the one 
who gives: animals caress each other, as the natural 
mode of indicating their affection ; fondling, which is 
for the most part the expression of perverted feeling, is 
peculiar to human beings, who alone abuse the facul- 
ties with which they are endowed. 


TO CLASP, HUG, EMBRACE. 


To clasp, from the noun clasp, signifies to lay hold 
of like a clasp ; hug, in Saxon hogan, comes from the 
German hdégen, which signifies to enclose with a hedge, 
and figuratively to cherish or take special care of; 


“embrace, in French embrasser, is compounded of en or 


im and bras the arm, signifying to take or lock in the 
arms. 

All these terms are employed to express the act of 
enclosing another in one’s arms: clasp marks this ac- 
tion when it is performed with the warmth of true 
affection ; hug is a ludicrous sort of clasping, which 
is the consequence of ignorance and extravagant feel 
ing; embrace is simply a mode of ordinary salutation : 
a parent will clasp his long-lost child in his arms on 
their remeeting ; 

Thy suppliant, 
I beg, and clasp thy knees.—MILTon. 
A peasant in the excess of his raptures would throw 
his body, as well as his arms, over the object of his 
joy, and stifle with hugging him whom he meant te 
love; 


Thyself a boy, assume a boy’s dissembled face,’ 

That when amid the fervour of the feast 

The Tyrian hugs and fonds thee on her breast, 

Thou mayest infuse thy venom in her veins. 
DRYDEN | 


378 


In the continenval parts of Europe embracing between 
males, as well as feinales, is universal on meeting after 
a long absence, or on taking leave for a length of 
time; embraces are sometimes given in England be- 
yween near relatives, but in no other case 3% The king 
at length having kindly reproached Helim for de- 
priving him so long of such a brother, embraced Bal- 
sora with the greatest tenderness.’-—ADDISON. 

Clasp may also be employed in the same sense for 
other objects besides persons; 


Some more aspiring catch the neighbouring shrub, 
With clasping tendrils, and invest her branch. 
CowPerr. 


Embrace may be employed figuratively in the sense of 
including (v. Comprehend). 


INDULGENT, FOND. 


Indulgent signifies disposed to indulge; fond, from 
to find, signifies trying to find, longing for. 

Indulgence lies more in forbearing from the exercise 
of authority ; fondness in the outward behaviour and 
endearments: they may both arise from an excess of 
kindness or love; but the former is of a less objection- 
able character than the latter. Indulgence may be 
sometimes wrong; but fondness is seldom right: an 
indulgent parent is seldom a prudent parent; buta 
fond parent does not rise above a fool: all who have 
the care of young people should occasionally relax 
from the strictness of the disciplinarian, and show an 
indulgence where a suitable opportunity offers; a fond 
mother takes away from the value of indulgences by 
an invariable compliance with the humours of her 
children: however, when applied generally or ab- 
stractedly, they are both taken in a good sense; 


God then thro’ all creation gives, we find, 
Sufficient marks of an indulgent mind —Jenyns. 


While, for a while his fond paternal care, 
Feasts us with every joy our state can bear.—JENYNs. 


AMOROUS, LOVING, FOND. 


Amorous, from amor love, signifies full of love; 
loving, the act of loving, that is, of continually 
loving; fond has the same signification as given 
under the head of Indulgent, fond. 

These epithets are all used to mark the excess or 
distortion of a tender sentiment. Amorous is taken 
in a criminal sense, loving and fond in a contemptuous 
sense: an indiscriminate and dishonourable attach- 
ment to the fair sex characterizes the amorous man; 
‘T shall range all old amorous dotards under the de- 
nomination of grinners..—STEELE. An overweening 
and childish attachment to any object marks the loving 
and fond person. 

Loving is less dishonourable than fond: men may 
be loving ; 


So loving to my mother 
That he would not let ev’n the winds of heaven 
Visit her face too roughly.—SHaksPEARE. 


Children, females, and brutes may be fond; ‘I’m a 
foolish fond wife..—Appison. Those who have not 
a Well regulated affection for each other will be loving 
by fits and starts; children and animals who have no 
control over their appetites will be apt to be fond of 
those who indulge them. An amorous temper should 
be suppressed; a loving temper should be regulated; 
a fond temper should be checked. When loving and 
fond are applied generally, they may sometimes be 
taken in a good or indifferent sense ; 


This place may seem for shepherds’ leisure made, 
So lovingly these elms unite their shade.—PuILuIPs. 


‘ My impatience for your return, my anxiety for your 
welfare, and my fondness for my dear Ulysses, were 
the only distempers that preyed upon my life..—Ap- 
DISON. 


AMIABLE, LOVELY, BELOVED. 


Amiable, in Latin amabilis, from amo and habilis, 
signifies fit to be loved; lovely, compounded of love 
and ly or like, signifies like that which we love: be- 
loved, having or receiving love. 

The first two express the fitness of an object to 
awaken the sentiment of love; the latter expresses 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


the state of being in actual possession of that love. 
The amiable designates that sentiment in its most spi 
ritual form, as it is awakened by purely spiritual ob 
jects; the lovely applies to this sentiment as it is 
awakened by sensible objects. 

One is amiable according to the qualities of the 
heart: one is lovely according to the external figure 
and manners ; one Is beloved according to the circum- 
stances that bring him or her into connexion with 
others. Hence it is that things as well as persons may 
be lovely or beloved ; but persons only, or that which 
is personal, is amiable; 


Sweet Auburn, loveliest village of the plain. 
GOLDSMITH. 


Sorrow would be a rarity most belov’d, 
If all could so become it.--SHaKsPgaRE. 


An amiable disposition, without a lovely person, 
will render a person beloved ; ‘ Tully has a very beau- 
tiful gradation of thoughts to show how amiable virtue 
is. ‘We love a virtuous man,”’ says he, “who lives 
in the remotest parts of the earth, although we are 
altogether out of the reach of his virtue, and can re- 
ceive from it no manner of benefit.””’—Appison. It 
is distressing to see any one who is lovely in person 
unamiable in character 


AMICABLE, FRIENDLY. 


Amicable, from amicus a friend, signifies able or fit 
for a friend; friendly, like a friend. The word amicus 
comes from amo to love, and friend in the northern 
languages from freganto love. Amicableand friendly 
therefore both denote the tender sentiment of good- 
will which all men ought to bear one to another; but 
amicable rather implies a negative sentiment, a free 
dom from discordance; and friendly a positive feeling 
of regard, the absence of indifference. 

We make an amicable accommodation, and a 
friendly visit. It isa happy thing when people who 
have been at variance can amicably adjust all their 
disputes. Nothing adds more to the charms of society 
than a friendly correspondence. 

Amicable is always said of persons who have been 
in connexion with each other ; friendly may be applied 
to those who are perfect strangers. Neighbours must 
always endeavour to live amicably with each other; 
‘ What first presents itself to be recommended is a dis- 
position averse to offence, and desirous of cultivating 
harmony, and amicable intercourse in society.’— 
Buair. Travellers should always endeavour to k 
up a friendly intercourse with the inhabitants, wher- 
ever they come; 


Who slake his thirst; who spread the friendly board 
To give the famish’d Belisarius food 7—Putuies. 


The abstract terms of the preceding qualities admit 
of no variation but in the signification of friendship, 
which marks an individual feeling only; to live ami- 
cably, or in amity with all men, is a point of Christian 
duty, but we cannot live in friendship with all men; 
since frzendship must be confined to a few; 


Beasts of each kind their fellows spare; 
Bear lives in amity with bear.—Jounson. 


‘Every man might, in the multitudes that swarm about 
him, find some kindred mind with which he could unite 
in confidence and friendskip.’—J OHNSON. 


AFFECTION, LOVE. 


Affection denotes the state of being kindly affected 
towards a person; love, in Low German leeve, High 
German liebe, from the English lief, Low German Zeef, 
High German lied dear or pleasing, the Latin Libet it is 
pleasing, and by metathesis from the Greek ¢é\os dear, 
signifies the state of holding a person dear. . 

These words express two sentiments of the heart 
which do honour to human nature; they are the bonds 
by which mankind are knit to each other. Both imply 
good-will: but affection is a tender sentiment that 
dwells with pleasure on the object; love is a tender 
sentiment accompanied with longing for the object: we 
cannot have love without affection, but we may have 
affection without love. 

Loveis the natural sentiment between near relations’ 
affection subsists between those who are less intimately 
connected, being the consequence either of relationship, 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


friendsnip, or long intercourse; it is the sweetener of 
human society, which carries with it a thousand 
charms, in all the varied modes of kindness which it 
gives birth to; it is not so active as love, but it diffuses 
itself wider, and embraces a larger number of objects. 

Love is powerful in its effects, awakening vivid sen- 
timents of pleasure or pain; it is a passion exclusive, 
restless, and capricious. Affection is a chastened feel- 
ing-under the control of the understanding; it promises 
no more pleasure than it gives, and has but few alloys. 
Marriage may begin with love ; but it ought to termi- 
hate in affection ; 


But thou, whose years are more to mine allied, 
No fate my vow’d affection shall divide 
From thee, heroic youth!—Drypen. | 


*T he poets, the moralists, the painters, in all their de- 
scriptions, allegories, and pictures, have represented 
love as a soft torment, a bitter sweet, a pleasing pain; or 
an agreeable distress..—ADDISON. 


AFFECTIONATE, KIND, FOND. 


Alffectionate denotes the quality of having affection 
(wv. Affection) ; kind, from the word kind kindred or 
family, denotes the quality or feeling engendered by 
the family tie; fond, from to find, denotes a vehement 
attachment to a thing. 

Affectionate and fond characterize feelings, or the 
expression of those feelings; Aznd is an epithet applied 
to outward actions, as well as inward feelings; a dis- 
position is affectionate or fond ; a behaviour is kind. 

Affection is a settled state of the’mind; kindness, a 
temporary state of feeling, mostly discoverable by some 
outward sign: both are commendable and honourable, 
as to the nature of the feelings themselves, the objects 
of the feelings, and the manner in which they display 
themselves; the understanding always approves the 
kindness which affection dictates, or that which springs 
from a iender heart. Fondness is a less respectable 
feeling; it is sometimes the excess of affection, or an 
extravagant mode of expressing it, or an attachment to 
an inferiour object. 

A person is affectionate, who has the object of his 
regard strongly in his mind, who participates in his 
pleasures and pains, and is pleased with his society. 
A person is kind, who expresses a tender sentiment, or 
does any service in a pleasant manner; ‘Our saluta- 
tions were very nearty on both sides, consisting of 
many kind shakes of the hand, and affectionate looks 
which we cast upon one another..—Appison. A per- 
son is fond, who caresses an object, or makesit a source 
of pleasure to himself; ‘ Riches expose a man to pride 
and luxury, a foolish elation of heart, and too great 
fondness for the present world.’—Anppison. 

Relatives should be affectionate to each other: we 
should be kind to all who stand in need of our kind- 
ness: children are fond of whatever affords them 
pleasure, or of whoever gives them indulgences. 


ATTACHMENT, AFFECTION, 
INCLINATION, 


Alttachment respects persons and things; affection 
(v. Affection) regards persons only ; inclination has re- 
spect to things mostly, but it may be applied to objects 
generally. 

Attachment, as it regards persons, is not so powerful 
or solid as affection. Children are attached to those 
who will minister to their gratifications: they have an 
affection for their nearest and dearest relatives. 

Attachment is sometimes a tender sentiment between 
the persons of different sexes; affection is an affair of 
the heart without distinction of sex. The passing at- 
tachments of young people are seldom entitled to serious 
notice; although sometimes they may ripen by Jong 
intercourse into a laudable and steady affection ; 
‘Though devoted to the study of philosophy, and a 
great master in the early science of the times, Solon 
mixed with cheerfulness in society, and did not hold 
back from those tender ties and attachments which con- 
nect a man to the world..—CumBeRuanp. Nothing is 
so delightful as to see affection among brothers and 
sisters; ‘ When I was sent to school, the gayety of my 
look, and the liveliness of my loquacity, soon gained 
me adinission to hearts not yet fortified against affec- 
von by artifice or interest.’.—JoHNSON. Attachment is 


379 


more powerful than inclination; the latte: is a rising 
sentiment, the forerunner of attachment, which is posi- 
tive and fixed ; ‘I am glad that he whom I must have 
loved from duty, whatever he had been, is such a one 
as I can love from inclination.’—STEELE. 

As respects things generally, attachment and inclina- 
tion are similarly distinguished. We strive to obtain 
that to which we are attached; but an inclination sel- 
dom leads to any effort for possession. Little minds 
are always betraying their attachmeai to trifles. It is 
the character of indifference not to show an tnclina- 
tion to any thing. Attachments are formed; incline 
tions arise of themselves. 

Interest, similarity of character, or habit give rise to 
attachment ; ‘The Jews are remarkable for an attach 
ment to their own country.—Apovison. A natural 
warmth of temper gives birth to various inclinations ; 
‘A mere inclination to a thing is not properly a willing 
of that thing; and yet, in matters of duty, men fre- 
quently reckon it for such.—Sovrn. 

Suppress the first inclination to gaming, lest it grows 
into an attachment. 


BENEVOLENCE, BENIGNITY, HUMANITY, 
KINDNESS, TENDERNESS. 


Benevolence, from bene and volo’ to will, signifies 
wishing well; benignity, in Latin benignitas, from 
bene and gigno, signifies the quality or disposition for 
producing good ; humanity, in French humanité, Latin 
humanitas from humanus and homo, signifies the qua- 
lity of belonging to a man, or having what is com- 
mon to man; kindness is the abstract quality of kind 
(v. Affectionate) ;-tenderness, the abstract quality of 
tender, from the Latin tener, Greek repzy. 

Benevolence and benignity lie in the will; humanaty 
lies in the heart; kindness and tenderness in the affec- 
tions: benevolence indicates'a general good-will to all 
mankind ; benignity a particular good-will, flowing 
out of certain relations; hwmanity is a general tone 
of feeling; kindness and tenderness are particular 
modes of feeling. 

Benevolence consists in the wish or intention to do 
good; it is confined to no station or object: the bene- 
volent man may be rich or poor, and his benevolence 
will be exerted wherever there is an opportunity of 
doing good: benignity is always associated with 
power, and accompanied with condescension. 

Benevolence in its fullest sense is the sum of moral 
excellence, and comprehends every other virtue; when 
taken in this acceptation, benignity, humanity, kind- 
ness, and tenderness are but modes of benevolence. 

Benevolence and benignity tend to the communi- 
cating of happiness; humanity is concerned in the 
removal of evil. Benevolence is common to the 
Creator and his creatures; it differs only in degree; 
the former has the knowledge and power as well as 
the will to do good ; man often has the will to do good 
without having the power to carry it into effect; ‘I 
have heard say, that Pope Clement XI. never passes 
through the people, who always kneel in crowds and 
ask his benediction, but the tears are seen to flow from 
his eyes. This must proceed from an imagination that 
he is the father of all these people, and that he is 
touched with so extensive a benevolence, that it breaks 
out into a passion of tears..—SrrEte. Benignity is 
ascribed to the stars, to heaven, or to princes; ignorant 
and superstitious people are apt to ascribe their good 
fortune to the benzgn influence of the stars rather than 
to the gracious dispensations of Providence; ‘A con- 
stant benignity in commerce with the rest of the world, 
which ought to run through all a man’s actions, has 
effects more useful to those whom you oblige, and is 
less ostentatious in yourself.—Stre.e. Humanity 
belongs to man only; itis his peculiar characteristick, 
and ought at all times to be his boast; when he threws 
off this his distinguishing badge, he loses every thing 
valuable in him; it is a virtue that is indispensable in 
his present suffering condrtion: humanity is as uni- 
versal in its application as benevolence; wherever 
there is distress, humanity flies to its relief ; ‘The 
greatest wits I have conversed with are men eminent 
for theirhumanity..—Awpison. Kindness and tender- 
ness are partial modes of affection, confined to those 
who know or are related to each ether: we are kind 
to friends and acquaintances, tender towards those 
who are near and dear: kindness is a mode of affec- 


380 


tion most fitted for social beings; it is what every one 
can show, and every one is pleased to receive; ‘ Bene- 
ficence, would the followers of Epicurus say, is all 
founded in weakness ; and whatever be pretended, the 
kindness that passeth between men and men is by 
every man directed to himself. This it must be con- 
fessed is of a piece with that hopeful philosophy which, 
having patched man up out of the four elements, at- 
tributes his being to chance..—Grovx. Tenderness is 
a state of feeling that is occasionally acceptable: the 
young and the weak demand tenderness from those 
who stand in the closest connexion with them, but 
this feeling may be carried to an excess so as to injure 
the object on which it is fixed; ‘Dependence is a per- 
petual call upon humanity, and a greater incitement to 
tenderness and pity than any other motive whatso- 
ever.’—ADDISON. 

There are no circumstances or situation in life which 
preclude the exercise of benevolence; next to the plea- 
sure of making others happy, the benevolent man re- 
joices in seeing them so; the benign influence of a 
benevolent monarch extends to the remotest corner of 
his dominions; benignity is a becoming attribute for a 
prince, when it does not lead him to sanction vice by 
its impunity ; it is highly to be applauded in him as far 
as it renders him forgiving of minor offences, gracious 
to all who are deserving of his favours, and ready to 
afford a gratification to all whom it is in his power to 
serve: the multiplied misfortunes to which all men are 
exposed afford ample scope for the exercise of humanity, 
which, in consequence of the unequal distribution of 
wealth, power, and talent, is peculiar to no situation of 
life; even the profession of arms does not exclude hu- 
manity from the breasts of its followers: andwhen we 
observe men’s habits of thinking in various situations, 
we may remark that the soldier, with arms by his side, 
is commonly more humane than the partisan with arms 
in his hands. Kindness is always an amiable feeling, 
and in agrateful mind always begets kindness ; but it 
is sometimes ill bestowed upon selfish people who re- 
quite it by making fresh exactions ; tenderness is fre- 
quently little better than an amiable weakness, when 
directed to a wrong end, and fixed on an improper ob- 
ject; the false tenderness of parents has often been the 
ruin of children. 


LOVE, FRIENDSHIP. 


Love (v. Affection) is aterm of very extensive im- 
port; it may be either taken in the most general sense 
for every strong and passionate attachinent, or only for 
such as subsist between the sexes; in either of which 
cases it has features by which it has been easily distin- 
guished from friendship. 

Love subsists between members of the same family ; 
it springs out of their natural relationship, and is kept 


alive by their close intercourse and constant inter- |, 


change of kindnesses: friendship excludes the idea of 
any tender and natural relationship ; nor is it, like 
love, to be found in children, but is confined to maturer 
years; it is formed by time, by circumstances, by con- 
gruity of character, and sympathy of sentiment. Love 
always operates with ardour; friendship is remarkable 
for firmness and constancy. Jove is peculiar to no 
Station itis to be found equally among the high and 
the low, the learned and the unlearned : friendship is 
of nobler growth; it finds admittance only into minds 
of a loftier make; it cannot be felt by men of an ordi- 
nary stamp. 

Both love and friendship are gratified by seeking the 
good of the object; but Joveis more selfish in its nature 
than friendship ; in indulging another it seeks its own, 
and when this is not to be obtained, it will change into 
the contrary passion of hatred; friendship, on the 
other hand, is altogether disinterested, it makes sacri- 
fices of every description, and knows no limits to its 
sacrifice. As love is a passion, it has all the errours at- 
tendant upon passion ; but friendship, which is an af- 
fection tempered by reason, is exempt from every such 
exceptionable quality. ove is blind to the faults of 
the object of its devotion; it adores, it idolizes, it is 
fond, it is foolish: friendship sees faults, and strives to 
correct them; it aims to render the object more worthy 
of esteem: and regard. Jove is capricious, humour- 
ome, and changeable ; it will not bear contradiction, 
disappointment, nor any cross or untoward circum- 
stance: friendship is stable; it withstands the rudest 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


blasts, and is unchanged by the severest shocks of a& 
versity ; neither the smiles nor frowns of fortune can 
change its form, its serene and placid countenance is 
unruffied by the rude blasts of adversity; it rejoices 
and sympathizes in prosperity ; it cheers, consoles, and 
assists in adversity. Love is exclusive in its nature: it 
insists upon a devotion to a single object ; it is jealous 
of any intrusion from others: friendship is liberal and 
communicative ; it is bounded by nothing but rules’of 
prudence; it is not confined as to the number but as to 
the nature of the objects. 

When love is not produced by any social relation, it 
hasits groundwork in sexuality, and subsists only be- 
tween persons of different sexes ; in this case it has all 
the former faults with which it is chargeable to a still 
greater degree, and others peculiar to itself; it is even 
more selfish, more capricious, more changeable, and 
more exclusive, than when subsisting between persons 
of the same kindred. Love is in this case as unreason- 
able in its choice of an object, as it is extravagant in its 
regards of the object; it is formed without examina- 
tion; it is the effect of a sudden glance, the work of a 
moment, in which the heart is taken by surprise, and 
the understanding is discarded: friendship, on the 
other hand, is the entire work of the understanding ; it 
does not admit of the senses or the heart to have any 
undue influence in the choice. A fine eye, a fair hand, 
a graceful step, are the authors of love ; talent, virtue, 
fine sentiment, a good heart, and a sound head, are the 
promoters of friendship: love wants no excitement 
from personal merit; friendship cannot be produced 
without merit. ‘Time, which is the consolidator of 


friendship, is the destroyer of love; an object impro 


vidently chosen is as carelessly thrown aside; and that 
which was not chosen for its merits, is seldom rejected 
for its demerits, the fault lying rather in the humour 
of love, which can abate of its ardour as the novelty 
of the thing ceases, and transfer itself to other ob- 
jects: friendship, on the other hand, is slow and cau- 
tious in choosing, and still more gradual in the con- 
firmation, as it rests on virtue and excellence; it grows 
only with the growth of one’s acquaintance, and ripens 
with the maturity of esteem. Lvuve, while it lasts, 
subsists even by those very means which may seem 
rather calculated to extinguish it; namely, caprice. 
disdain, cruelty, absence, jealousy, and the like; 


So every passion, but fond love, 
Unto its own redress does move.— WALLER. 


Friendship is supported by nothing artificial; it de- 
pends upon reciprocity of esteem, which nothing but 
solid qualities can ensure or render durable ; 


For naturai affection soon doth cease, 

And quenched is with Cupid’s greater flame, 

But faithful frzendship doth them both suppress, 

And them with mastering discipline doth tame. 
SPENSER. 


In the last place, Jove when misdirected is dangerous 
and mischievous ; in ordinary cases it awakens flatter- 
ing hopes and delusive dreams, which end in disap 
pointment and mortification; and in some cases it is 
the origin of the most frightful evils; there is nothing 
more atrocious than what has owed its origin to 
slighted love: but friendship, even if mistaken, will 
awaken no other feeling than that of pity; when a 
friend proves faithless or wicked, he is lamented as one 
who has fallen from the high estate to which we 
thought him entitled. 


LOVER, SUITOR, WOOER. 


Lover signifies literally one who loves, and is appli 
cable to any object; there are lovers of money, and 
lovers of wine, lovers of things individually, and things 
collectively, that is, lovers of particular women in the 
good sense, or lovers of women in the bad sense, but 
lover, taken absolutely, signifies one who feels or pro- 
fesses his love for a female: ‘It is very natural for a 
young friend, and a young lover, to think the persons 
they love have nothing to do but to please them.’ — 
Pork. The suztor is one who sues and strives after a 
thing; the term is equaily undefined as to the object, 
but may be employed for such as sue for favours from 
their superiours, or sue for the affections and person of 
a female; ‘What pleasure can it be to be thronged 
with petitioners, and those perhaps suttors for the 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


game thing ?—Sourn. ‘The wooer is only aspecies of 
lover, Who woos or solicits the kivd regards of a fe- 
male; ‘I am glad this parcel of zoovers are so reason- 
able, for there is not one of them but I dote on his very 
absence..—SHAKSPEARE. When applied to the same 
object, namely, the female sex, the dover is employed 
or persons of all ranks, who are equally alive to the 
tender passion of love: suitor is a title adapted to that 
class of life where all the genuine affections of human 
nature are adulterated by a false refinement, or entirely 
lost in other passions of a guilty nature. Wooer is a 
tender and passionate title, which is adapted to that 
class of beings that live only in poetry and romance. 
There is most sincerity in the lover, he simply proffers 
his love; there is most ceremony in the suitor, he pre- 
fers his suzt; there is most ardour in the zooer, he 
makes his vows. 


GALLANT, BEAU, SPARK. 


These words convey nothing respectful of the person 
to whom they are applied; but the first, as is evident 
from its derivation, has something in it to recommend 
it to attention above the others: as true valour is ever 
associated with a regard for the fair sex, a gallant man 
will always be a gallant when he can render the female 
any service; sometimes, however, his gallantries may 
be such as to do them harm rather than good ; 


The god of wit, and light, and arts, 
With all acquir’d and natural parts, 
Was an unfortunate gallant.—-Swirt. 


Insignificance and effeminacy characterize the beau or 
fine gentleman; he is the woman’s man—the humble 
servant to supply the place of a lacquey ; 

His pride began to interpose, 

Preferr’d before a crowd of beaux.—Swirt. 
The spark has but a spark of that which shows 
itself in impertinent puerilities; it 1s applicable to 
youth who are just broke loose from school or college, 


> and eager to display their manhood; 


Oft it has been my lot to mark 
A proud, conceited, talking spark.— MERRICK. 


MALEVOLENT, MALICIOUS, MALIGNANT. 


These words have all their derivation from malus bad : 
that is, malevolent, wishing ill; malicious (v. Malice), 
having an evil disposition; and malignant, having an 
evil tendency. 

Malevolence has a deep root in the heart, and is a 
settled part of the character; we denominate the per- 
son malevolent, to designate the ruling temper of his 
mind: maliciousness may be applied as an epithet to 
particular parts of a man’s character or conduct; one 
may have a malicious joy or pleasure in seeing the dis- 
tresses of another: malignity is not employed to 
characterize the person, but the thing; the malignity of 
a design is estimated by the degree of mischief which 
was intended to be done. Whenever malevolence has 
taken possession of the heart, all the sources of good- 
will are dried up; a stream of evil runs through the 
whole frame, and contaminates every moral feeling; 
the being who is under such an unhappy influence 
neither thinks nor does any thing but what is evil; ‘I 
have often known very lasting malevolence excited by 
unlucky censures.’.—JoHnson. <A malicious disposi- 
tion is that branch of malevolence which is the next to 
it in the blackness of its character ; it differs, however, 
in this, that malice will, in general, lie dormant, until it 
is provoked ; 


Greatness, the earnest of malicious Fate 
For future wo, was never meant a good. 
SOUTHERN. 


But malevolence is as active and unceasing in its ope- 
rations for mischief, as its opposite, benevolence, is in 
wishing and doing good. 

Malicious and malignant are both applied to things; 
but the former is applied to those which are of a per- 
sonal nature, the latter to objects purely inanimate: 
astory or tale is termed malicious, which emanates 
from a malicious disposition ; a star is termed malig- 
nant, which is supposed to have a bad or malignant 
lnfluence ; 


381 


Still horrour reigns, a dreary twilight round, 
Of struggling night and day malignant mix’d 
! THOMSON. 


MALICE, RANCOUR, SPITE, GRUDGE, PIQUE. 


Malice, in Latin malitia, from malus bad, significa 
the very essence of badness lying in the heart; ran- 
cour (v. Hatred) is only continued hatred: the former 
requires no external cause to provoke it, it is inherent 
in the mind; the latter must be caused by some per- 
sonal offence. Malice is properly the love of evil for 
evil’s sake, and is, therefore, confined to no number oz 
quality of objects, and limited by no circumstance ; 
rancour, as it depends upon external objects for its 
existence, so it is confined to such objects only as are 
liable to cause displeasure or anger: malice will impei 
aman to do mischief to those who have not injured 
him, and are perhaps strangers to him; 


If any chance has hither brought the name 

Of Palamedes, not unknown to fame, 

W ho suffer’d from the malice of the times. 
DrypDEN 


Rancour can subsist only between those who have had 
sufficient connexion to be at variance; ‘ Party spirit 
fills a nation with spleen and rancour.’—Appison. 

Spite, from the Italian dispetto: and the French 
despit, denotes a petty kind of malice, or disposition 
to offend another in trifling matters; it may be in the 
temper of the person, or it may have its source in some 
external provocation: children often show their spite 
to each other ; 


Can heav’nly minds such high resentment show, 
Or exercise their spite in human wo ?—Drypben. 


Grudge, connected with grumble and growl, and 
pique, from pike, denoting the prick of a pointed in- 
strument, are employed for that particular state of 
rancorous oY spiteful feeling which is eccasioned by 
personal offences: the grudge is that which has long 
existed ; 


The god of wit, to show his grudge, 
Clapp’d asses’ ears upon the judge.—Swirr. 


The pique is that which is of recent date; ‘ You may 
be sure the ladies are not wanting, on their side, in 
cherishing and improving these important pique, 
which divide the town almost into as many parties aa 
there are families..--Lapy M.W. Monracur. A per 
son is'said to owe another a grudge for having done 
him a disservice ; or he is said to have a pzque towards 
another, who has shown him an affront. 


IMPLACABLE, UNRELENTING, RELENTLESS, 
INEXORABLE. 


Implacable, unappeaseable, signifies not to be allayed 
nor softened ; wnrelenting or relentless, from the Latin 
lenio to soften, or to make pliant, signifies not rendered 
soft; znexorable, from oro to pray, signifies not to be 
turned by prayers. 

Inflexibility is the idea expressed in common by 
these terms, but they differ in the causes and circum- 
stance with which it is attended. Animosities are 
implacable when no misery which we occasion can 
diminish their force, and no concessions on the part of 
the offender can lessen the spirit of revenge; ‘ Impla- 
cable as the enmity of the Mexicans was, they were so. 
unacquainted with the science of war that they knew 
not how to take the proper measures for the destruc- 
tion of the Spaniards.—-RopertTson. The mind or 
character of a man is unrelenting, when it is not to be 
turned from its purpose by a view of the pain which 
it inflicts ; 

These are the realms of unrelenting fate—DryDrEn. 


A man is inexorable who turns a deaf ear to every 
solicitation or entreaty that is made to induce him te 
lessen the rigour of his sentence ; 


You are more inhuman, more znezorable, 
Oh, ten times more, than tigers of Hyrcania! 
SHAKSPEARE. 


A man’s angry passions render him implacable ; it is 
not the magnitude of the offence, but the temper of 
the offended that is here in question ; by implacability 
he is rendered insensible to the misery he occasions, 


382 


and to.every satisfaction which the offender may offer 
him: fixedness of purpose renders a man unrelenting 
or relentless ; an unrelenting temper is not less cal- 
lous to the misery produced, than an implacable tem- 
per; but it is not grounded always on resentment for 
personal injuries, but sometimes on a certain principle 
of right and a sense of necessity : the zrezorable man 
adheres to his rule, as the wrrelenting man does to 
his purpose ; the former is insensible to any workings 
of his heart which might shake his purpose, the latter 
turns a deaf ear to all the solicitations of others which 
would go to alter his decrees: savages are mostly zn- 
placable in their animosities ; Titus Manlius Torquatus 
displayed an instance of unrelenting severity towards 
his son, Minos, Atacus, and Rhadamanthus were the 
inexorable judges of hell. 

Implacable aud unrelenting are said only of animate 
beings in whom is wanting an ordinary portion of the 
tender affections: inexorable may be improperly ap- 
plied to inanimate objects ; justice and death are both | 
represented as inexorable ; 


Acca, ’t is past, he swims before my sight, 
Inexorable death, and claims his right.—DrypeEn. 


HARSH, ROUGH, SEVERE, RIGOROUS. 


These terms mark different modes of treating those 
that are in one’s power, all of which are the reverse of 
the kind. 

Harsh and rough borrow their moral signification 
from the physical properties of the bodies to which 
they belong. The harsh and the rough both act pain- 
fully upon the taste, but the former with much more vio- 
lence than the Jatter. An excess of the sour mingled 
with other unpleasant properties constitutes harsh- 
mess ; an excess of astringency constitutes roughness. 
Cheese is said to be harsh when it is dry and biting: 
roughness is the peculiar quality of the damascene. 

From this physical distinction between these terms 
we discover the ground of their moral application. 
Huarshness in a person’s conduct acts upon the feel- 
ings, and does violence to the affections: roughness 
acts only externally on the senses: we may be rough 
in the tone of the voice, in the mode of address, or in 
the manner of handling or touching an object: but we 
are harsh in the sentiment we convey, and according 
to the persons to whom it is conveyed : a stranger may 
be rough when he has it in his power to be so: a 


friend, or one in the tenderest relation, only can be 
hursh. An officer of justice deals roughiy with the 
prisoner in his charge, to whom he denies every in- 
dulgence in a rough and forbidding tone; 


Know, gentle youth, in Lybian lands there are 
A people rude in peace, and rough in war. 
DrypDen. 


A parent deals harshly with a child who refuses every 
endearment, and only speaks to command or forbid; 
‘I would rather he was a man of a rough temper, who 
would treat me harshly, than of an effeminate nature.’ 
—Appison. Harsh and rough are unamiable and 
always censurable qualities: they spring from the 
harshness and roughness of the humour; ‘ No com- 
plaint is more feelingly made than that of the harsh 
and rugged manners of persons with whom we have 
an intercourse.’-—Buiair. Severe and rigorous are not 
always to be condemned ; they spring from. principle, 
and are often resorted to by necessity. Harshness is 
always mingled with anger and personal feeling: 
severity or rigour characterizes the thing more than 
the temper of the person. 

A harsh master renders every burden which he im- 
poses doubly severe, by the grating manner in which he 
comnminicates his will: a severe master simply imposes 
the burden in a manner to enforce obedience. The 
one seems to indulge himself in inflicting pain: the 
other seems to act from a motive that is independent 
of the pain inflicted. A harsh man is therefore always 
severe, but with injustice: a severe man, however, is 
not alwaysharsh. Rigour is a high degree of severity. 
One is severe in the punishment of offences: one is 
rigorous in exacting compliance and obedieice. Se- 
verity is always more or less necessary in the army, or 
in a school, for the preservation of good order: rigour 
is essential in dealing with the stubborn will and unruly 
passions of men. A general must be severe while iving 
‘\n avarters, to prevent drunkenness and theft: but hor 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


must be rigorous when invading a foreign country, te 
prevent the ill-treatment of the inhabitants; It is 
pride which iills the world with so much harshness 
and severity. We are rigorous to offences as if we 
had never offended.’—B air. 

A measure is severe that threatens heavy conse 
quences to those who do not comply : a line of*conduct 
is rigorous that binds men down with great exactitude 
to a particular mode of proceeding. A judge is severe 
who is ready to punish and unwilling to pardon. 


AUSTERE, RIGID, SEVERE, RIGOROUS, 
STERN. 


Austere, in Latin austerus sour or rough, from the 
Greek atw to dry, signifies rough or harsh, from 
drought; rigid and rigorous, from the Latin rigeo 
and the Greek pryéw, signifies stiffness or unbending- 
ness; severe, in Latin severus, comes from sevus 
cruel; stern, in Saxon sterne, German streng strong, 
has the sense of strictness. 

Austere applies to ourselves as well as to others; 
rigid applies to ourselves only ; severe, rigorous, stern, 
apply to others only. We are austere in our manner 
of living; rig7d in our mode of thinking; austere, 
severe, rigorous, and stern in our mode of dealing 
with others. Effeminacy is opposed to austerity, plia- 
bility to rigidity. 

The austere man mottifies himself; the rigid man 
binds himself to a rule: the austerities formerly prac- 
tised among the Roman Catholicks were in many in 
stances the consequence of rigid piety: the manners of 
a man are austere when he refuses to take part in any 
social enjoyments; his probity is 7ig7d, that is, inacces- 
sible to the allurements of gain, or the urgency of ne 
cessity : an austere life consists not only in the priva- 
tion of every pleasure, but in the infliction of every 
pain: ‘ Austerity is the proper antidote to indulgence , 
the diseases of fe mind as well as body are cured by 
contraries.’—JoHNSson. Rigid justice is unbiasseu, no 
less by the fear of loss than by the desire of gain: the 
present age affords no examples of austerity, but too 
many of its opposite extreme, effeminacy; and the 
rigidity of former times, in modes of thinking, has 
been succeeded by a culpable laxity ; ‘In things which 
are not immediately subject to religious or moral con- 
sideration, it is dangerous to be too long or too rigidly 
in the right.,—Jounson. 

Austere, when taken with relation to others, is said 
of the behaviour; severe of the conduct: a parent is 
austere in his looks, his manners, and his words to his 
child; he is severe in the restraints he imposes, and the 
punishments he inflicts: an austere master speaks but 
to command, and commands so as to be obeyed; a 
severe master punishes every fault, and punishes in an 
undue measure: an austere temper is never softened ; 
the countenance of such a one never relaxes intoa 
smile, nor is he pleased to witness smiles: a severe 
temper is ready to catch at the imperfections of others, 
and to wound the offender: a judge should be a r2g7%d 
administrator of justice between man and man, and 
severe in the punishment of offences as occasion re- 
quires; but nevere austere towards those who appear 
before him; austerity of manner would ill become 
him who sits as a protector of either the innocent or 
the injured. 

Rigour is a species of great severity, namely, in the 
infliction of punishment; towards enormous offenders, 
or on particular occasions where an example is requi- 
site, rigour may be adopted, but otherwise it mark 
a cruel temper. A man is austere in his manners, 
severe in his remarks, and rigorous in his discipline; 
‘If you are hard or contracted in your judgements, 
severe in your censures, and oppressive in your deal 
ings; then conclude with certainty that what you had 
termed piety was but an empty name.’—Brair. ‘It 
is not by rigorous discipline and unrelaxing austerzty 
that the aged can maintain an ascendant over youthful 
minds.’—B.LaIR. 

Austerity, rigidity, and severity may be habitual ; 
rigour and sternness are occasional. Sternmess is a 
species of severity more in manner than in direc? 
action; a commander may issue his commands sternly. 
or a despot may issue his stern decrees; 


A man severe he was, and stern to view, 
I knew him well, and every truant knew 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES 


Yet he was kind, or if severe in aught, 
The love he bore to learning was in fault. 
GOLDSMITH. 


It is stern criticism to say, that Mr. Pope’s is not a 
translation of Homer.’—CUMBERLAND. 


ACRIMONY, TARTNESS, ASPERITY, 
HARSHNESS. 


These epithets are figuratively employed to denote 
sharpness of feeling corresponding to the quality in 
natural bodies. 

Acrimony, in Latin acrimonia, from acer sharp, is 
the characteristick of garlick, mustard, and pepper, 
that is, a biting sharpness; tartness, from tart, is not 
improbably derived from tartar, the quality of which 
it in some degree resembles, expressing a high degree 
of acid peculiar to vinegar; asperity, in Latin aspe- 
ritas, from asper, comes from the Greek dezpos fallow, 
without culture and without fruit as applied to land 
that is too hard and rough to be tilled; harshness, 
from harsh, in German and Teutonick herbe, herbisch, 
Swedish kerb, Latin acerbus, denrtes the sharp, rough 
taste of unripe fruit. 

A. quick sense produces acrimcny: it is too frequent 
among disputants, who imbitter each other’s feelings. 
An acute sensibility, coupled with quickness of intel- 
lect, produces tartness: it is too frequent among fe- 
males. ~ Acrimony is a transient feeling that discovers 
itself by the words; ‘The genius even when he en- 
deavours only to entertain or instruct, yet suffers per- 
secution from innumerable criticks, whose aerimony is 
excited merely by the pain of seeing others pleased.’— 
Jounson. Tariness is an habitual irritability that 
mingles itself with the tone and looks; ‘When his 
humours grew tart, as being now in the lees of fa- 
vour, they brake forth into certain sudden excesses.’— 
Worton. An acremonious reply frequently gives rise 
to much ill-will; a éa7t reply is often treated with in- 
difference, as indicative of the natural temper, rather 
than of any unfriendly feeling. 

Asperity and harshness respect one’s conduct to in- 
feriours; the latter expresses a strong degree of the 
former. Asperity is opposed to mildness and forbear- 
ance; harshness to kindness. A reproof is conveyed 
with asperity, when the words and looks convey strong 
displeasure; ‘ The charity of the one, like kindly ex- 
halations, will descend in showers of blessings ; but 
the rigour and asperity of the other, in a severe doom 
upon ourselves. —GOVERNMENT OF THE TonouE. A 
treatment is harsh when it wounds the feelings, and 
does violence to the affections : 


Thy tender hefted nature shall not give 

Dhee o'er to harshness: her eyes are fierce, but 
thine 

Do comfort and not burn.—SHAKsPEARE. 


Mistresses sometimes chide their servants with as- 
perity; parents sometimes deal harshly with their 
children. 

Harshness and asperity are also applied to other 
objects: the former to sounds or words, the latter figu- 
ratively to the atmosphere; ‘Cowley seems to have 
possessed the power of writing easily beyond any other 
of our poets, yet his pursuit of remote thoughts led 
him often into harshness of expression.’—JOHNSON. 
‘The nakedness and asperity of the wintery world 
always fills the beholder with pensive and profound 
astonishment.’—JOHNSON. 


TO SATISFY, PLEASE, GRATIFY. 


To satisfy (v. Contentment) is rather to produce plea- 
sure ndirectly; to please (v. Agreeable) is to produce 
it directly: the former is negative, the latter positive, 
pleasure: as every desire is accompanied with more or 
less pain, satisfaction which is the removal of desire 
is itself to a certain extent pleasure; but what satisfies 
is not always calculated to please; nor is that which 
pleases, that which will always satisfy: plain food 
satisfies a hungry person but does not please him 
when he is not hungry; social enjoyments please, but 
they are very far from satisfying those who do not 
restrict their indulgencies ; ‘ He who has run over the 
whole circle of earthly pleasures will be forced to 
complain that either they were not nleasures o~ that 


383 


pleasure was not satisfaction..—Soutu. To gratify 
is to please in a high degree, to produce a vivid plea- 
sure; we may be pleased with trifles, but we are com- 
monly gratified with such things as act strongly either 
on the senses or the affections: an epicure is gratified 
with those delicacies which suit his taste; an amateur 
in musick will be gratified with hearing a piece of 
Handel’s composition finely performed ; ‘ Did we con- 
sider that the mind of a man is the man himself, we 
should think it the most unnatural sort of self-muder 
to sacrifice the sentiment of the soul to gratify the 
appetites of the body.’-—Srex.e. 


TO SATISFY, SATIATE, GLUT, CLUx. 


To satisfy is to take enough; satiate is a frequenta 
tive formed from satzs enough, signifying to have more 
than enough; glut, in Latin glutio, from gula the 
throat, signifies to take down the throat; cloy is a 
variation of clog. 

Satisfaction brings pleasure; it is what nature de- 
mands; and nature therefore makes a suitable return ° 
satiety is attended with disgust; it is what appetite 
demands; but appetite is the corruption of nature and 
produces nothing but evil: glutting is an act of in- 
temperance; it is what the inordinate appetite de- 
mands; it greatly exceeds the former in degree both 
of the cause and the consequence ; cloying is the con- 
sequence of glutting. Every healthy person satisfies 
himself with a regular portion of food; children if 
unrestrained seek to satiate their appetites, and cloy 
themselves by their excesses ; brutes, or men debased 
into brutes, glut themselves with that which is agree- 
able to their appetites. 

The first three terms are employed in a moral appli- 
cation; the last may also be used figuratively; we 
satisfy desires in general, or any particular desire; 
‘The only thing that can give the mind any solid satis- 
faction is a certain complacency and repose in the 
good providence of God.’—Herrine. We satiate the 
appetite for pleasure or power ; 


*T was not enough, 
By subtle fraud to snatch a single life; 
Puny impiety! whole kingdoms fell, 
To sate the lust of power.—PorRTEUs. 


One gluts the eyes or the ears by any thing that is 
horrid or extravagant; ‘If the understanding be de- 
tained by occupations less pleasing, it returns again to 
study with greater alacrity than when it is glutted 
with ideal pleasures.—Jounson. We may be cloyed 
oy an uninterrupted round of pleasures; ‘ Religious 
pleasure is such a pleasure as can never cloy or over 
work the mind.’—Souru. 


ENJOYMENT, FRUITION, GRATIFICATION. 


Enjoyment, from enjoy to have the joy or pleasure, 

signifies either the act of enjoying, or the pleasure 
itself derived from that act; fruition, from fruor to 
enjoy, is employed only for the act of enjoying. 
. We speak either of the enjoyment of any pleasure, 
or of the enjoyment as a pleasure: we speak of those 
pleasures which are received from the fruition, in 
distinction from those which are only in expectation. 
The enjoyment is either corporeal or spiritual, as the 
enjoyment of musick, or the enjoyment of study; ‘The 
enjoyment of fame brings but very little pleasure, 
though the loss or want of it be very sensible and 
afflicting..—Appison. Fruition mostly relates to sen- 
sible, or at least to external objects ; hope intervenes 
between the desire and the fruztion ; ‘Fame is a good 
so Wholly foreign to our natures that we have no faculty 
in the soul adapted to it, nor any organ in the body to 
relish it; an object of desire placed out of the possi- 
bility of fruztzon.’,—AnppIson. 

Gratification, from the verb to gratify make grate- 
ful or pleasant, signifies either the act of giving plea- 
sure, or the pleasure received. Enjoyment springs 
from every object which is capable of yielding plea- 
sure ; by distinction however from moral and rationa 
objects; ‘His hopes and expectations are bigger thar 
his enjoyments.—TILLoTson. But the gratification, 
which is a species of enjoyment, is obtained through 
the medium of the senses; ‘The man of pleasure little 
knows the perfect joy he loses for the disappointing 


eratificatiane which ha nnreanes 1 Annan m 


384 


enjoyment is not so vivid as the gratification: the 
gratification is not so permanent as the enjoyment. 
Domestick life has its peculiar enjoyments ; brilliant 
spectacles afford gratification. Our capacity for enjoy- 
ments depends upon our intellectual endowments; our 
gratification depends upon the tone of our feelings, 
and the nature of our desires. 


CONTENTMENT, SATISFACTION. 


Contentment, in French contentment, from content, 
‘m Latin contentus, participle of contineo to contain or 
hold, signifies the keeping one’s self to a thing; satzs- 
faction, in Latin satisfacio, compounded of satis and 
facio, signifies the making or having enough. __ 

Cantentment lies in ourselves: satisfaction is de- 
rived from external objects; one is contented when 
one wishes for no more: one is satisfied when one has 
obtained what one wishes; the contented man has 
always enougn ; the satisfied man receives enough. 

The cantented man will not be dissatisfied; but he 
who iooks fox satisfaction will never be contented. 
Contentment ig the absence of pain; satisfaction is 
positive pleasure. Contentment is accompanied with 
the enjoyinent of what one has; satisfaction is often 
quickly followed with the alloy of wanting more. A 
contented man can never be miserable; a satisfied 
man can scarcely be long happy. Contentment is a 
permanent and Labitual state of mind ; it is the restric- 
tion of all our thoughts, views, and desires within the 
compass of present possession and enjoyment ; 


True happiness is to no place confin’d, 
But still is found in a contented mind.—ANONYMOUS. 


Satisfaction is a partial and turbulent state of the 
feelings, which awakens rather than deadens desire ; 
‘ Women who have been married some time, not hav- 
ing it in their heads to draw after them a numerous 
train of followers, find their satisfaction in the pos- 
session of one man’s heart.’--SpecTaTor. Content- 
ment is suited to our present condition; it accommo- 
dates itself to the vicissitudes of human life: satisfac- 
tion belongs to no created being; one satisfied desire 
engenders another that demands satisfaction. Con- 
tentment is within the reach of the poor man, to 
whom it is a continual feast; but satisfaction has 
never been procured by wealth, however enormous, or 
ambition, however boundless and successful. We 
should therefore look for the contented man, where 
there are the fewest means of being satisfied. Our 
duty bids us be contented ; our desires ask to be satis- 
fied; but our duty is associated with our happiness ; 
our desires are the sources of our misery. 


PLAY, GAME, SPORT. 


Play, from the French plaire to please, signifies in 
general what one does to please one’s self; game, in 
Saxon gaming, very probably comes from the Greek 
yapéw to.marry, which is the season for games; the 
word yapéw, itself, comes from yaiw to be buoyant or 
boasting, whence comes our word gay; sport, in 
German spass or posse, comes from the Greek raiGw 
to jest. 

Play and game both include exercise, corporeal or 
mental, or both ; but play is an unsystematick, game a 
systematick, exercise ; children play when they merely 
run after each other, but this is no game ; on the other 
hand, when they exercise with the ball according to 
any rule, this is a game; every game therefore is a 
play, but every play is not a game: trundling a hoop 
is a play, but not a game: cricket is both a play and 
agame. One person may have his play by hfmself, 
but there must be more than one to have a game. 
Play is adapted to infants; games to those who are 
more advanced. Play is the necessary unbending of 
the mind to give a free exercise to the body: game is 
the direction of the mind to the lighter objects of in- 
tellectual pursuit. An intemperate love of play, 
though prejudicial to the improvement of young 
people, is not always the worst indication which they 
can give; it is often coupled with qualities of a better 
kind; ‘ Play is not unlawful merely as a contest.’— 
HawxeswortrH. When games are pursued with too 
much ardour, particularly for the purposes of gain, 
they are altogether prejudicial to the understanding, 
and ruinous to the morals: 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


What arms to use, or nets to frame, 
Wild beasts to combat or to tame, 
With all the mysteries of that game —WaLLER 


Sport is a bodily exercise connected with the prose 
cution of some object; it is so far, therefore, distinet 
from either play or game: for play may be purely 
corporeal; game, principally intellectual; but sport 
is a mixture of both. The game comprehends the 
exercise of an art, and the perfection which is attained 
in that art is the end or source of pleasure ; the sport 
is merely the prosecution of an object which may be, 
and mostly is, attainable by one’s physical powers 
without any exercise of art: the game, therefore, is 
intellectual both in the end and the means; the sport 
only in the end. Draughts, backgammon, cards, and 
the like, are games; but hunting, shooting, racing, 
bowling, quoits, &c. are termed more properly sports ; 
there are, however, many things which may be deno 
minated either game or sport according as it has more 
or Jess of art. in it. Wrestling, boxing, chariot-racing, 
and the like, were carried to such perfection by the 
ancients that they are always distinguished by the 
name of games ; of which we have historical accounts 
under the different titles of the Olympick, the Pythian, 
the Nemean, and the Isthmian games. Similar exer- 
cises, when practised by the rusticks in England, have 
been commonly denominated rural sports. Upon this 
ground game is used abstractedly for the part of the 
game in which the whole art lies: ‘ There is no man 
of sense and honesty but must see and own, whether 
he understands the game or not, that it is an evident 
folly for any people, instead of prosecuting the old 
honest methods of industry and frugality, to sit down 
to a publick gaming table, and play off their money 
to one another.’—BERKELEY. Sport is used for the 
end of the sport or the pleasure produced by the attain- 
ment of that end: thus we say that the game is won or 
lost; tobe clever or inexpert at a game; to have much 
sport, to enjoy the sport, or to spoil the sport; 


Now for our mountain sport up to yon hill: 
Your legs are young.—_ SHAKSPEARE, 


Game is sometimes used figuratively for any scheme 
or course of conduct pursued ; 


War! that mad game the world so loves to play. 
Swirr. 


Sport is sometimes used for the subject of sport tc 
another ; 


Commit not thy prophetick mind 
To flitting leaves, the sport of every wind, 
Lest they disperse in air.—DRYDEN. 


Why on that brow dwell sorrow and dismay, 
Where loves were wont to sport, and smiles to play ? 
SwIrFT. 


The epithets playful, gamesome, and sportive bear a 
very similar distinction. Playfulis taken in a general 
sense for a disposition to play, and applies peculiarly 
to children; ‘He is scandalized at youth for being 
lively, and at childhood for being playful.’--A pp1son. 
Gamcsome denotes a disposition to indulge in jest, but 
is seldom employed in a good sense; 


Belial in like gamesome mood.—-MitTon. 


Sportive, which denotes a disposition to sporting or 
carrying on a sport, is a term of stronger import than 
playful ; 
T am not in a sportive humour new: 
Tell me, and dally not, where is the money ? 
SHAKSPEARE. 


FREAK, WHIM. 


Freak most probably comes from the German frechk 
bold and petulant. Whim, from the Teutonick wimmen 
to whine or whimper: but they have at present some- 
what deviated from their original meaning; fora freak 
has more of childishness and humour than boldness in 
it, a whim more of eccentricity than of childishness. 
Fancy and fortune are both said to have their freaks, 
as they both deviate most widely in their movements 
from all rule ; but whims are at most but singular devia - 
tions of the mind from its ordinary and even course 
Females are most liable to be seized with freaks, which 
are in their nature sudden and not to be calculate¢ 
upon: men are apt to indulge themselves in whims 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


waich ate in their nature strange and often laughable. 
We should call ita freak for a female to put on the 
habit of a male, and so accoutred to sally forth into the 
streets ; 


But the long pomp, the midnight masquerade, 

With all the freaks of wanton wealth array’d, 

In these, ere trifles half their wish obtain, 

The toiling pleasure sickens into pain ——GoLpsMITH. 


Weterm it a whim in a man who takes a resolution 
never to shave himself any more; 


”T iz all bequeath’d to publick uses, 
To publick uses! There’s a whim! 
What had the publick done for him ?—Swirr 


#ANCIFUL, FANTASTICAL, WHIMSICAL, 
CAPRICIOUS. 


Fanciful signifies full of fancy (v. Conceit) ; fantas- 
tical signifies belonging to the phantasy, which is the 
immediate derivative from the Greek; whimsical sig- 
nifies either like a whim, or having a whim; capricious 
signifies having caprice. 

Fanciful and fantastical are both employed for per- 
sons and things; whimsical and capricious are mostly 
employed for persons, or what is personal. Fanciful, 
in regard to persons, is said of that which is irregular 
in the taste or judgement; fantastical is said of that 
which violates all propriety, as well as regularity; the 
former may consist of a simple. deviation from rule; 
the latter is something extravagant. A person may, 
therefore, sometimes be advantageously fanciful, 
although he can never be fantastical but to his dis- 
credit. Liveiy minds will be fanciful in the choice of 
their dress, furniture, or equipage; ‘There is some- 
thing very sublime, though very fanciful, in Plato’s 
description of the Supreme Being, that ‘truth is his 
body, and light his shadow.” ’~-Appison. The affecta- 
tion of singularity frequently renders people fantas- 
tical in their manners as well as their dress; 


Methinks heroick poesy, till now, 
Like some fantastick fairy land did show. 
CowLeEy. 


Faneifud is said mostly in regard to errours of opi- 
nion or taste; it springs from an aberration of the 
mind: whimsical is a species of the fanciful in regard 
to one’s likes or dislikes : capricious respects errours 
of temper, or irregularities of feeling. The fanciful 
does not necessarily imply instability ; but the capri- 
cious excludes the idea of fixedness. One is fanciful 
by attaching a reality to that which only passes in 
one’s own mind; one is whimsical in the inventions 
of the fancy ; one is capricious by acting and judging 
without rule or reason in that which admits of both. 
A person discovers himself to be fanciful who makes 
difficulties and objections which have no foundation in 
the external object, but in his own mind; ‘The Eng- 
lish are naturally fanczful..— Appison. A person dis- 
covers himself to be capricious when he likes and dis- 
likes the same thing in quick succession ; ‘Many of 
the pretended friendships of youth are founded on 
capricious liking.’ —Buarr. A person discovers him- 
self to be whimsical who falls upon unaccountable 
modes, and imagines unaccountable things; 


’T is this exalted power, whose business lies 

fn nonsense and impossibilities : : 

This made a whimsical philosopher 

Before the spacious world a tub prefer. 
ROCHESTER. 


Sick persons are apt to be fanciful in their food; 
females, whose minds are not well disciplined, are apt 
to be capricious; the English have the character of 
being a whimsical nation. In application to things, 
the terms fanciful and fantastical preserve a similar 
dtstinction; what is fanciful may be the real and just 
combination of a well regulated fancy, or the unreal 
combination of a distempered fancy ; the fantastical 
is not only the unreal, but the distorted combination of 
a disordered fancy. In sculpture or painting drapery 
may be fancifully disposed: the airiness and showiness 
which wouid not be becoming even in the dress of a 
young female, would be fantastical in that of an old 
woman 
29 


385 


FASTIDIOUS, SQUEAMISH. 


Fastidious, in Latin fastidiosus, from fustus pride 
signifies proudly, nice, not easily pleased: squeamish, 
changed from quaimish or weak-stomached, signifies, 
in the moral sense, foolishly sick, easily disgusted. 

A female is fastidious when she criticises the dress 
or manners of her rival; ‘ The perception as well as 
the senses may be improved to our own disquiet ; and 
we may by diligent cultivation of the powers of dislike 
raise in time an artificial fastidiousness.’—JOHNSON 
She is squeamish in the choice of her own dress, com 
pany, words, &c. Whoever examines his own imper 
fections will cease to be fastidious ; 


Were the fates more kind, 
Our narrow luxuries would soon grow stale; 
Were these exhaustless, nature would grow sick, 
And, cloy’d with pleasure, sgueamishly complain 
That all is vanity, and life a dream.— ARMSTRONG. 


Whoever restraias humour and caprice will cease te 
be squeamish. 


—$_—___ 


PARTICULAR, SINGULAR, ODD, ECCEN 
TRICK, STRANGE. 


Particular, in French particulier, Latin particu 
laris, from particula a particle, signifies belonging to 
a particle or a very small part; singular, in French 
singulier, Latin singularis, from singulus every one, 


which very probably comes from the Hebrew Sip 
peculium, or private property; odd is probably changed 
from add, signifying something arbitrarily added; eccen 
trick, from ex and centre, signifies out of the centre or 
direct line; strange, in French étrange, Latin extra, 
and Greek é out of, signifies out of some other part, 
or not belonging to this part. 

All these terms are employed either as characteris- 
ticks of persons or things. What is particular belongs 
tosome smal! particle or point to which it is confined ° 
what is singular is single, or the only one of its kind; 
what is odd is without an equal or any thing with 
which it is fit to pair; what is eccentrick is not to be 
brought within any rule or estimate, it deviates to the 
right and the left; what is strange is different from 
that which one is accustomed to see, it does not admit 
of comparison or assimilation. A person is particular 
as it respects himself; he is singular as it respects 
others; he is particular in his habits or modes of 
action; he is singular in that which is about him; 
Wwe may be particular or singular in our dress; in the 
former case we study the minute points of our dress to 
please ourselves ; in the latter case we adopt a mode 
of dress that distinguishes us from all others. 

One is odd, eccentrick, and strange more as it re 
spects established modes, forms, and rules, than indivi- 
dual circumstances: a person is odd when his actions 
or his words bear no resemblance to that of others, 
he is eccentrick if he irregularly departs from the cus 
tomary modes of proceeding ; he is strange when that 
which he does makes him new or unknown to those 
who are about him. Particularity and singularity 
are not always taken in a bad sense; oddness, eccen- 
tricity, and strangeness are never taken in a good 
one. A person ought to be particular in the choice 
of his society, his amusements, his books, and the like; 
he ought to be singular in virtue, when vice is unfor 
tunately prevalent: but particularity becomes ridicn 
lous when it respects trifles; and singularity becomes 
culpable when it is not warranted by the most impe 
rious necessity. As oddness, eccentricity, and strange- 
ness consist in the violation of good order, of the de- 
cencies of human life, or the more important points of 
moral duty, they can never be justifiable, and often 
unpardonable. An odd man, whom no one can asso 
ciate with, and who likes to associate with no one, is 
an outcast by nature, and a burden to the society 
which is troubled with his presence. An eccentrick 
character, who distinguishes himself by nothing but 
the breach of every established rule, is a being who 
deserves nothing but ridicule, or the more serious treat 
ment of censure or rebuke. A strange person, whoa 
makes himself a stranger among those to whom he 
is bound by the closest ties, is a being as unfortunate 
as he is worthless. Purticularity, in the bad sense, 
arises either from a naturally frivolous character, or 
the want of more serious objects to engage the mind ; 
‘There is such a particularity for ever affected by 


386 


great beauties, that they are encumbered with their 
charms in all they say or do..—HueueEs. Singularity, 
which is much oftener taken in the bad than in the 
good sense, arises from a preposterous pride which 
thirsts after distinction even in folly ; ‘ Singularity is 
only vicious, as it makes men act contrary to reason.’ 
—Appison. Oddness is mostly the effect of a dis- 
torted humour, attributable to an unhappy frame of 
mind ; 


So proud, I am no slave, 
So i: :pudent, I own myself no knave, 
So odd, my country’s ruin makes me grave.—Pore. 


Eccentricity, which is the excess of singularity, arises 
commonly from the undisciplined state of strong 
powers; ‘That acute, though eccentrick observer, 
Rousseau, had perceived that to strike and interest 
the publick, the marvellous must be produced.’ -- 
Burke. Strangeness, which is a degree of oddness, 
has its source in the perverted state of the heart; ‘A 
strange, proud return you may think I make you, 
madam, when I tell you, it is not from every body I 
would be thus obliged.,—Suckuine.  ‘‘ Artists, who 
propose only the imitation of such a particular person, 
without election of ideas, have been often reproached 
for that omission.—DryDEn. 


So singular a madness 
Must have a cause as strange as the effect. 
DrENnHAM. 


When applied to characterize inanimate objects 
they are mostly used in an indifferent sense, but some- 
times in a bad sense: the particular serves to define 
or specify, it is opposed to the general or indefinite ; 
& particular day or hour, a particular case, a particu- 
lar person, are expressions which confine one’s atten- 
tion to one precise object in distinction from the rest ; 
singular, like the word particular, marks but one ob- 
ject, and that which is clearly pointed out in distinc- 
tion from the rest ; but this term differs from the former, 
inasmuch as the particular is said only of that which 
one has arbitrarily made particular, but the singular 
is so from its own properties: thus a place is particu- 
lar when we fix upon it, and mark it out in any man- 
ner so that it may be known from others; a place is 
singular if it have any thing in itself which distin- 
guishes it from others. Odd, in an indifferent sense, 
is opposed to even, and applied to objects in general; 
an odd number, an odd person, an odd book, and the 
like: but it is also employed ina bad sense, to mark 
objects which are totally dissimilar to others, as an 
odd idea, an odd conceit, an odd whim, an odd way, 
an odd place; ‘ History is the great looking-glass, 
through which we may bebold with ancestral eyes, 
not only the various actions of past ages, and the odd 
accidents that attend time, but also discern the differ- 
ent humours of men.’—HoweE.u. Eccentrick is ap- 
plied in its proper sense to mathematical lines or cir- 
cles, which have not the same centre, and is never 
employed in regard to things in an improper sense: 
strange, in its proper sense, marks that which is un- 
known or unusual, as a strange face, a strange figure, 
a strange place; but in the moral application it is 
like the word odd, and conveys the unfavourable idea 
of that which is uncommon and not worth knowing ; 
a strange noise designates not only that which has not 
been heard before, but that which it is not desirable 
to hear; a strange place may signify not only that 
which we have been unaccustomed to see, but that 
which has also much in it that is objectionable ; ‘Is it 
not strange that a rational man should worship an 
ox ?—Soutu. 


STRANGER, FOREIGNER, ALIEN. 


Stranger, in French étranger, Latin extraneus or 
extra, in Greek 2, signifies out of, that is, out of an- 
other country ; foreigner, from foris abtoad, and alien, 
from alienus another’s, have obviously the same ori- 
ginal meaning. They have, however, deviated in 
their acceptations. Stranger is a general term, and 
applies to one not known or not an inhabitant, whe- 
ther of the same or another country; foreigner is ap- 

lied only to strangers of another country ; and alien 
fs a technical term applied to foreigners as subjects or 
residents, in distinction from natural-born subjects. 
Ulysses after his return from the Trojan war, was a 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


stranger in hisc wn house. The French are foreagners 
in England, and the English in France. Neither can 
enjoy, as aliens, the same privileges in a foreign coun 
try as they do in theirown. The laws of hospitality 
require us to treat strangers with more ceremony than 
we do members of the same family, or very intimate 
friends. The lower orders of the English are apt to 
treat foreigners with an undeserved contempt. Every 
alien is obliged in time of war to have a license for re- 
siding in England. ; 

The term stranger is sometimes employed to denote 
one not acquainted with an object, or not having ex- 
perienced its effects, as to be a stranger to sorrow, or 
to be a stranger to any work or subject; I was no 
stranger to the original; I had also studied Virgil’s 
design, and his disposition of it. Foreigner is used 
only in the above-mentioned sense; but the epithet 
foreign sometimes signifies not belonging to an object ; 


All the distinctions of this little life 
Ayre quite cutaneous, quite forezgn to the man. 
; Youne, 


Alien is sometimes employed by the poets in the sense 
of foreigner ; 


Like you an alien in a land unknown, 
T learn to pity woes so like my own.—DrvyDEN. 


From stranger and alien come the verbs to estrange 
and alienate, which are extended in their meaning and 
application ; the former signifying to make the under 
standing or mind of a person strange to an object, and 
the latter to make the heart or affections of one person 
strange toanother. ‘Thus we may say that the mind 
becomes alienated to one object, when it has fixed its 
affectious on another; ‘The manner of men’s writing 
must not alienate our’ hearts from the truth.’— 
Hooxrer. Or a person estranges himself from his 
family ; ‘ Worldly and corrupt men estrange them 
selves from all that is divine.’—Brair. 


FINICAL, SPRUCE, FOPPISH. 


These epithets are applied to such as attempt at 
finery by improper means. The jintcal is insignifi- 
cantly fine ; the spruce is laboriously and artfully fine; 
the foppish is fantastically and affectedly fine. The 
finical .is said mostly of manners and speech; the 
spruce is said of the dress; the foppish of dress and 
manners. 

A finical gentleman clips his words and screws his 
body into as small a compass as possible to give him- 
self the air of a delicate person; a spruce gentlemar 
strives not to have a fold wrong in his frill or cravat, 
nor a2 hair of his head to lie amiss; a foppish gentle- 
man seeks, by extravagance in the cut of his clothes, 
and by the tawdriness in their ornaments, to render 
himself distinguished for finery. A little mind, full of 
conceit of itself, will lead a man to be finical ; ‘I can- 
not hear a finica? fop romancing how the king took . 
him aside at such a time; what the queen said to him 
at another.’—L’Estranex. A vacant mind that is 
anxious to be pleasing will not object to the empsoy 
ment of rendering the person spruce ; 


Methinks I see thee spruce and fine, 
With coat embroider’d richly shine-—Swirr. | 


A giddy, vain mind, eager after applause, impels. a man 
to every kind of foppery ; 

The learned, full of inward pride, 

The fops of outward show deride.—Gay. 


Finical may also be applied in the same sense as an 
epithet for things; ‘ At the top of the building (Blen- 
heim house) are several cupolas and little turrets that 
have but an ill effect, and make the building look at 
once finical and heavy.’—Porn. 


HUMOUR, CAPRICE. 


Humour (v. Humour) is general; caprice (». Fan 
tastical) is particular: humour may be good or bad, 
caprice is always taken in a bad sense. Humour is 
always independent of fixed principle; it is the feeling 
or impulse of the moment: caprice is always opposed 
to fixed principle, or rational motives of actiag; it is 
the feeling of the individual setting at nought all rule, 
and defying all reason. The feeling only is perverted 
when the humour predominates ; 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


You lt ask me, why [rather choose to have 
A weight of carrion flesh than to receive 
Three thousand ducats; [’ll not answer that, 
But say, it is my humour.—SHAKSPEARE. 


I'he judgement and will are perverted by caprice: a 
child shows its humour in fretfulness and impatience ; 
a mar. betrays his caprice in his intercourse with 
others, in the management of his concerns, in the 
choice of his amusements; ‘Men will submit to any 
rule by which they may be exempted from the tyranny 
of caprice and chance.’—Jounson. 

Indulgence renders children and subordinate persons 
kRumorsome: ‘Tam glad that though you are incredu- 
lous you are not humorsome too..—Goopman. Pros- 
perity or unlimited power is apt to render a man capri- 
ctous ; ‘A subject ought to suppose that there are rea- 
sons, although he be not apprized of them, otherwise he 
must tax his prince of capriciousness, inconstancy, or 
ill design.—Swirt. A humorsome person commonly 
objects to be pleased, or is easily displeased ; a ca- 
prictous person likes and dislikes, approves and disap- 
proves the same thing in quick succession. Jwmour, 
when applied to things, has the sense of wit; whence 
the distinction between humorsome. and humorous : 
the former implying the existence of humour or per- 
verted feeling in the person ; the latter implying the ex- 
istence of Awmour or wit in the person or thing; 


Thy humorous vein, thy pleasing folly 

Lies all neglected, all forgot, 

And pensive, wayward, melancholy, 

Thou dread’st and hop’st thou know’st not what. 
PRIOR. 


Caprice is improperly applied to things to designate 
their total irregularity and planlessness of proceeding ; 
as, in speaking of fashion, we notice its caprice, when 
that which has been laid aside is again taken into use: 
diseases are termed capricious which act in direct 
opposition to all established rule; ‘Does it imply that 
our language is in its nature irregular and capricious ?’ 
LowTH. 


HUMOUR, TEMPER, MOOD. 


Humour literally signifies moisture or fluid, in which 
gense it isused for the fluids of the human body; and 
as far as these humowrs or their particular state is con- 
nected with, or has its influence on, the animal spirits 
and the meral feelings, so far is humour applicable to 
moral agents; temper (v. Disposition) is less specifick 
in its signification; itmay with equal propriety, under 
the changed form of temperament, be applicable to the 
general state of the body or the mind; mood, which is 
but a change from mode or manner, has an original 
signification not less indefinite than the former ; it is 
applied only to the mind. 

As the Aumours of the body are the most variable 
parts of the animal frame, humour in regard to the 
mind denotes but a partial and transitory state when 
compared with the temper, which is a general and 
habitual state. The humour is so fluctuating that it 
varies in the same mind perpetually ; but the temper is 
so far confined that it always shows itself to be the 
same whenever it shows itself at all: the hwmour 
makes a man different from himself; the temper makes 
him different from others. Hence we speak of the 
humour of the moment; of the temper of the youth or 
of old age: so likewise we say, to accommodate one’s 
self tothe humour of aperson; to manage his temper : 
to put one into a certain humour; to correct or sour 
the temper. Humour is not less partial in its nature 
than in its duration; it fixes itself often on only one 
object, or respects only one particular direction of the 
feelings: temper extends to all the actions and opinions 
as well as feelings of a man; it gives a colouring to all 
he says, does, thinks, and feels: ‘There are three or 
four single men who suit my temper to a hair.’— Cow- 
PER. We may be ina humour for writing, or reading; 
for what is gay or what is serious; for what is noisy or 
what is quiet: but our temper is discoverable in our 
daily conduct; we may be in a good or ill humour in 
company, but in domestic life and in our closet rela- 
tions we show whether we are good or ill tempered. A 
man shows his humour in different or trifling actions ; 
be shows his temper ix the most important actions : it 


387 


| may be a man’s humour to sit while others stand, or to 


go unshaven while others shave; but he shows his 
temper as a Christian or otherwise in forgiving injuries 
or harbouring resentments; in living peaceably, or in- 
dulging himself in contentions ; 


It is the curse of kings to be attended 

By slaves, that take their hwmowrs for a warrant 

To break into the bloodhouse of life. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


‘This, I shall call it evangelical, temper is far from 
being natural to any corrupt son of Adam.’-—Ham- 
MOND. ‘ 

The same distinction is kept up between the terms 
when applied to bodies of men. A nation may have 
its humour and its temper as much as an individual; 
the former discovers itself in the manners and 
fashion ; the latter in its publick spirit toyvards its go- 
vernment or other nations. It has been the most un- 
lucky humour of the present day to banish ceremony, 
and consequently decency, from all companies; ‘True 
modesty is ashamed to do any thing that is opposite to 
the humour of the company.’—Appison. The temper 
of the times is somewhat more sober now than it was 
during the heat of the revolutionary mania; ‘ All irre- 
gular tempers in trade and business are but like irregu 
lar tempers in eating and drinking.’—Law. 

Humour and mood agree in denoting a particular and 
temporary state of feeling ; but they differ in the cause. 
the former being attributable rather to the physical 
state of the body; and the latter to the moral frame of 
the mind: the former therefore is independent of all 
external circumstances, or at all events, of any that are 
reducible to system; the Iatter is guided entirely by 
events. Humour is therefore generally taken in a bad 
sense, unless actually qualified by some epithet te the 
contrary ; 


Their humours are not to be won 
But when they are imposed upon.—Hupipras 


Mood is always taken in an indifferent sense; ‘Strange 
as it may seem, the most ludicrous lines I. ever wrote 
have been written in the saddest mood.’—Cowper. 
There is no calculating on the humour of a man; it 
depends upon his mood whether he performs ill or well: 
it is necessary to suppress humour in achild; we dis- 
cover by the melancholy mood of a man that sometl ing 
distressing has happened to him. 


j 


DISPOSITION, TEMPER. 


Disposition, from dispose (v. To dispose), signifies 
here the state of being disposed ; temper, like tempera. 
ment, from the Latin temperamentum and tempero to 
temper or manage, signifies the thing modelled or 
formed. 

These terms are both applied to the mind and its 
bias; but disposition respects the whole frame and 
texture of the mind: temper respects only the bias or 
tone of the feelings. 

Disposition is permanent and settled; ‘My friend 
has his eye more upon the virtue and disposition of his 
children than their advancement or wealth.’—StTre.z. 
Temper is transitory and fluctuating ; ‘The man who 
lives under an habitual sense of the Divine presence 
keeps up a perpetual cheerftiIness of temper.’—Appt- 
son. The disposition comprebends the springs and 
motives of action; the temper influences the actions 
for the time being: it is possible and not unfrequent to 
an a good disposition with a bad temper, and vice 
versa. 

A good disposition makes a man a useful member of 
society, but not always a good companion; ‘ Akenside 
was a young man warm with every notion that by 
nature or accident had been connected with the sound 
of liberty, and by an eccentricity which such disposi- 
tions do not easily avoid, a lover of contradiction, and 
no friend to any thing established.’—Jounson. <A good 
temper renders a man acceptable to all and peaceable 
with all, but essentially useful to none; ‘In coffee- 
houses a man of my temper is in his element, for 
if he cannot talk he can be still more agreeable to his 
company as well as pleased in himself in being a 
hearer’—Srurite. A good disposition will go far 
towards correcting the errours of temper; but where 
there is a bad disposition there are no hopes of amend- 
ment. 


38F 


DISPOSITION, INCLINATION, 


Disposition in the preceding section is taken for the 
general frame of the mind; in the present case for ils 
particular frame; inclination, v. Attachment. 

Disposition is more positive than inclination. We 
may always expect a man to do that which he is dis- 
posed todo: but we cannot always calculate upon his 
executing that to which he is merely ¢nclined. 

Weindulge a disposition ; we yield to an inclination. 
The disposition comprebends the whole state of the 
mind at the time; ‘It is the duty of every man who 
would be true to himself, to obtain if possible a disposi- 
tion to be pleased.’—StTreLe. An inclination is parti- 
cular, referring always to a particular object; ‘There 
never was a time, believe me, when I wanted an znclz- 
nation to cultivate your esteem, and promote your in- 
terest..—_MrbLmorn’s (Letters uf Cicero). After the 
performance ®f a serious duty, no one is expected to be 
in a disposition for laughter or merriment: it is~be- 
coming to suppress our ¢nclination to laughter in the 
presence of those who wish to be serious; we should 
be careful not to enter into controversy with one who 
shows a disposition to be unfriendly. When a young 
person discovers any inclination to study, there are 
hopes of his improvement. 


TEMPERAMENT, TEMPERATURE. 


Temperament and temperature are both used to ex- 
press that state which arises from the tempering of op- 
posite or varying qualities; the temperament is said of 
animal bodies, and the temperature of the atmosphere. 
Men of asanguine temperament ought to be cautious 
in their diet; ‘Without a proper temperament for the 
particular art which he studies, his utmost pains will 
be to no purpose.’—BupeELu. All bodies are strongly 
affected by the temperature of the air; ‘O happy Eng- 
land, where there is such a rare temperature of heat 
and cold.’,—Howe.u. 


FRAME, TEMPER, TEMPERAMENT, CON- 
STITUTION. 


Frame in its natural sense is that which forms the 
exteriour edging of any thing, and consequently deter- 
mines its form; it is applied to man physically or men- 
tally, as denoting that constituent portion of him which 
seems to hold the rest together; which by an extension 
of the metaphor is likewise put for the whole contents, 
the whole body, «r the whole mind; temper and tem- 
perament, in Latin temperamentum, from tempero to 
govern or dispose, signify the particular modes of being 
disposed or organized; constitution, trom constitute or 
appoint, signifies the particular mode of being consti- 
tuted or formed. 

Frame, when applied to the body, is taken in its most 
universal sense; as when we speak of the frame being 
violently agitated, or the human frame being wonder- 
fully constructed: when applied to the mind it will 
admit either of a general or restricted signification ; 


The soul 
Contemplates what she is, and whence she came, 
And almost comprehends her own amazing frame. 
JENYNS. 


Temper, which is applicable only to the mind, is taken 
for the general or particular state of the individual; 
’T is he 
Sets superstition high on virtue’s throne, 
Then thinks his Maker’s temper like his own. 
JENYNS. 


Lhe frame comprehends either the whole body of 
mental powers, or the particular disposition of those 
powers in individuals; the temper comprehends. the 
general or particular state of feeling as well as thinking 
in the individual. The mental frame which receives 
any violent concussion is liable to derangement; 


Your steady soul preserves her frame, 
In good and evil times the same.—Swirr. 


It is necessary for those who govern to be well ac- 
quainted with the temper of those whom they govern; 
‘The brain may devise laws for the blood, but a hot 
temper leaps o’er a cold decree.’—Suaksprary. By 
reflection on the various attributes of the Divine Being, 
a man may easily bring his mind into a frame of 
devotion; ‘There is a great tendency to cheerfulness 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


in religion; and such a frame of mind is not only 
the most lovely, but the most commendable in a vir 
tuous person.’— Appison. By the indulgence of a fret- 
ful, repining temper, a man destroys: his own peace of 
mind, and offends his Maker; ‘The sole strength of 
the sound from the shouting of multitudes so amazeg 
and confounds the imagination. that the best esta- 
blished tempers can scarcely forbear being borne down.’ 
—BuRKE. "7 

Temperament and constitution mark the general 
state of the individual; the’ former comprehends a 
mixture of the physical and mental; the Jatter has a 
purely physical application, A man with a warm tem- 
perament owes his warmth of character to the rapid 
impetus of the blood; a man with a delicate constitu- 
tion is exposed to great fluctuations in his health; ‘T 
have always more need of a Jaugh than a cry, being 
somewhat disposed to melancholy by my temperament.’ 
—Cowrper. ‘How little our constitution is able to 
bear a remove into parts of this air, not much higher 
than that we commonly breathe in!’—Locks. 

The whole frame of a new-born infant is peculiarly 
tender. Men of fierce tempers are to be found in all 
nations; men of sanguine tempers are more frequent 
in warm climates; the constitutions of females are 
more tender than those of the male, and their frames 
are altogether more susceptible. 


TO QUALIFY, TEMPER, HUMOUR. 


Qualify, compounded of the Latin qualis and facto, 
signifies to make a thing what it ought to be; to tem- 
per, from tempero, is to regulate the temperament; to 
humour is to suit to the humour. 

Things are qualified according to circumstances: 
what is too harsh must be qualified by something that 
is soft and lenitive; things are tempered by nature so 
that things perfectly discordant should not be com- 
bined; things are humoured by contrivance: what is 
subject to many changes requires to be humoured ; & 
polite person will qualify his refusal of a request by 
some expression of kindness; ‘It is the excellency of 
friendship to rectifie or at least to qualifie the malignity 
of these surmises..—Souru. Providence has tempered 
the seasons so as to miX something that is pleasant in 
them all: ‘God in his mercy has so framed and tem- 
pered his word, that we have for the most part a re- 
serve of mercy wrapped upin acurse.—Sourn. Na- 
ture itself is sometimes to be hwmoured when art is 
employed: but the tempers of men require still more 
to be humoured; ‘Our British gardeners, instead of 
humouring nature, love to deviate from it as much as 
possibls ’—Appison. 


GOOD-NATURE, GOOD-HUMOUR. 


Good-nature and good-humour both imply the dis- 
position to please and be pleased: but the former is 
habitual and permanent, the latter is temporary and 
partial: the former lies in the nature and frame of the 
mind; the latter in the state of the humours or spirits. 
A good-natured man recommends himself at all times 
by his good-nature; a goed-humoured man recom- 
mends himself particularly as a companion: good- 
nature displays itself by a readiness in doing kind 
offices; ‘ Affability, mildness, tenderness, and a word 
which I would fain bring back to its original significa- 
tion of virtue, I mean good-nature, are of daily use.’— 
Appison. Good-humour is confined mostly to the 
ease and cheerfulness of one’s outward deportment in 
social converse ; ‘There was but one who kept up his 
good-humour to the Land’s End.’—Appison. Good- 
nature is apt to be guilty of weak compliances: good- 
humour is apt to be succeeded by fits of peevishness 
and depression. Good-nature is applicable only to the 
character of the individual; good-humour may be said 
of a whole company: it isa mark of good-nature in a 
man not to disturb the good-humour of the company he 
is in, by resenting the affiont that is offered him by 
another. E 

Good-nature qualifies every thing we say or do, so 
as to render even reproof bearable; ‘1 concluded, 
however unaccountable the assertion iight appear at 
first sight, that good-nature was an essential quality in 
a satirist. —Appison. Good-humour takes off from the 
personality of every remark ; ‘When Virgil said “ He 
that did not hate Bavius might love Mevius,’”’ he was 
in perfect good-humour.’—ADDISON. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


JEALOUSY, ENVY, SUSPICION. 


Jealousy, in French jalousie, Latin zelotypia, Greek 
snAotunia, compounded of [Ao and réarw to strike or 
fill, signifies properly filled with a burning desire; envy, 
in French envie, Latin invidia, from invideo, com- 
pounded of ¢n privative and video to see, signifies not 
looking at, or looking at in a contrary direction. 

We are jealous of what is our own, we are envious 
of what is another’s. Jeaiousy fears to lose what it 
has; envyis pained at seeing another have. Princes 
are jealous of their authority; subjects are jealous of 


their rights: courtiers are envious of those in favour; 


tvomen are envious of superior beauty. 

The jealous man has an object of desire, something 
to get and something to retain: he does not look beyond 
the object that interferes with his enjoyment ; a jealous 
husband may therefore be appeased by the declaration 
of his wife’s animosity against the object of his jea- 
lousy. ‘The envious man sickens at the sight of enjoy- 
ment; he is easy only in the misery of others: all en- 
deavours, therefore, to satisfy an enviows man are 
fruitless. Jealousy is a noble or an ignoble passion, 
according to the object: in the former case it is emula- 
tion sharpened by fear, in the latter case it is greediness 
stimulated by fear; ‘ Every man is more jealous of his 
natural than his moral qualities. —HawkESWORTH. 


*T is doing wrong creates such doubts as these, 
Renders us jealous, and destroys our peace. 
WALLER. 


Envy is always a base passion, having the worst pas- 
sions in its train; ‘The enviows man is in pain upon 
all occasions which should give him pleasure.’— 
ADDISON. 

Jealous is applicable to bodies of men as well as 
individuals; envious to individuals only. Nations are 
jealous of any interference on the part of any other 
power in their commerce, government, or territory; 
‘While the people are so jealous of the clergy’s am- 
bition, I do not see any other method left them to reform 
the world, than by using all honest arts to make them- 
selves acceptable to the laity.—Swirr. Individuals 
are envious of the rank, wealth, and honours of each 
other; ‘A woman does not envy a man for fighting 
courage, nor a man a woman for her beauty.’— 
DOLLIER. 

Jealousy and suspicion both imply a fear of an- 
other’s will, intentions, or power, to dispossess one of 
some object of desire: but m jealousy there is none of 
the jistrust which belongs to suspicion. The jealous 
man does not dispute the integrity or sincerity of his 
opponent; the suspicious man thinks ill of both. 
Jealousy exists properly between equals, or those who 
may without direct injustice make pretensions to the 
same thing; rival lovers are jealous of each other: 
suspicion fixes on the person who by fraud or circum- 
vention is supposed to aim at getting what he has no 
right to; men suspect those who have once cheated 
them. Jealousy is most alive when the person’s in- 
tentions are known; suspicion can only exist while the 
views of the party are concealed. According to this 
distinction Lord Clarendon has erroneously substituted 
the word jealousy for that of suspicion when he says, 
‘The obstinacy in Essex, in refusing to treat with the 
king, proceeded only from his jealousy, that when the 
king had got him into his hands, he would take revenge 
upon him.’—There can be no jealousy between a sub- 
ject and a king, or between parties entering into a treaty ; 
but there may be suspicion of the good faith of either 
side towards the other; 


Though wisdom wake, suspicion sleeps 

At wisdom’s gate; and to simplicity 

Resigns her charge; while goodness thinks no ill 
Where no ill seems. 


INVIDIOUS, ENVIOUS. 


fnvidious in Latin invediosus, from -invidia and 
invideo not to look at, signifies looking at with an evil 
eye; envious is literally only a variation of invidious. 
Invidious in its common acceptation signifies’ causing 
il will; enviows signifies having ill will. 

A task is znvidious that puts one in the way of 
giving offence; a look is envious that is full of envy. 
/nvidious qualifies the thing; envious qualifies the 
emp. of the mind Jt is invidious for one author to 


389 


be judge against another who has written on the same 
subject; 
For I must speak what wisdom would conceal, 
And truths zzvidious to the great reveal.—Pork. 


A man is envious when the prospect of another’s hap- 
piness gives him pain; ‘They that desire to excel in 
too many matters out of levity and vainglory, are ever 
envious.’—Bacon. 


LIVELY, SPRIGHTLY, VIVACIOUS, 
SPORTIVE, MERRY, JOCUND. 


Lively signifies having lite, or the animal spirits 
which accompany the vital spark; sprightly, con- 
tracted from sprightfully or spiritfully, signifies full 
of spirits; vévactous, in Latin vivaz, from vivo to live, 
has the same original meaning as lively ; sportive, fond 
of or ready for sport; merry, v. Cheerful ; jocund, in 
Latin jocundus, from jucundus and juvo to delight or 
please, signifies delighted or pleased. 

The activity of the heart when it beats high with a 
sentiment of gayety is strongly depicted by all these 
terms: the lively is the most general and literal in its 
signification ; J7fe, as a moving or active principle, is 
supposed to be inherent in spiritual as well as material 
bodies; the feeling, as well as the body which has 
Within a power of moving arbitrarily of itself, is said 
to have lzfe, and in whatever object this is wanting, 
this object is said to be dead: in like manner, accord 
ing to the degree or circumstances under which this 
moving principle displays itself, the object is denomi 
nated lively, sprightly, vivacious, and the like. Live- 
liness is the property of childhood, youth, or even 
maturer age; sprightliness is the peculiar property 
of youth; wivactty is a quality compatible with the 
sobriety of years: an infant shows itself to be lively 
or otherwise in a few months after its birth; a female, 
particularly in her early years, affords often a pleasing 
picture of sprightliness ; a vivacious companion re- 
commends himself wherever he goes. Sportiveness is 
an agcompaniment of liveliness or sprightliness: a 
sprightly child will show its sprightliness by its sport- 
ive humour: mirth and jocundity are the forms of 
liveliness which display themselves in social life; the 
former is a familiar quality, more frequently to be dis- 
covered in vulgar than in polished society: jocundity 
is a form of liveliness which poets have ascribed to 
nymphs and goddesses, and other a@rial creatures of 
the imagination. : 

The terms preserve the same sense when applied to 
the characteristicks or-actions of persons as when ap 
plied to the persons themselves: imagination, wit, con 
ception, representation, and the like, are lively ; ‘One 
study is inconsistent with a lively imagination, another 
with a solid judgement.’—Jounson. | A person’s air, 
manner, look, tune, dance, are sprightly ; 


His sportive lambs, 
This way and that convolv’d, in friskful glee 
Their frolicks play. And now the sprightly race 
Invites them forth T'Homson. 


A conversation, a turn of mind, a society, is nivacious ; 
‘ By every victory over appetite or passion, the mind 
gains new strength to refuse those solicitations by 
which the young and vivacious are hourly assaulted.’ 
—Jonnson. The muse, the pen, the imagination, is 
sportive ; the meeting, the laugh, the song, the con 
ceit, is merry ; 

Warn’d by the streaming light and merry lark, 

Forth rush the joliy clans.—SomERvILLeE. 


The train, the dance, is jocund ; 


Thus jocund fleets with them the winter night. 
; THOMSON. 


CHEERFUL, MERRY, SPRIGHTLY, GAY. 


Cheerful signifies full of cheer, or of that which 
cheers (v. To animate); merry, in Saxon merig, is 
probably connected with the word mare, and the Latin 
meretriz a strumpet; sprightly is contracted from 
spiritedly; gay is connected with joy and jocund, in 
Latin jocundus, from juvo to delight; cheerful marks 
an unruffled flow of spirits; with mzrth there is more 
of tumult and noise; with sprightliness there is more 
buoyancy; gayety comprehends mirth and indulgence 
A cheerful person smiles: the merry novenn Teouat- 


—_———. 


390 


the sprightly person dances; the gay person takes his 
pjeasure. ; 

The cheerful countenance remains cheerful; it 
marks the contentment of the heart, and its freedom 
from pain: the merry face will ofien look sad; a trifle 
will turn mirth into sorrow: the sprightliness of youth 
is often succeeded by the listlessness of bodily in- 
firmity, or the gloom of despondency: gayety is as 
transitory as the pleasures upon which it subsists; it 
is often followed by sullenness and discontent. 

Cheerfulness is an habitual state of the mind ; mirth 
is an occasional elevation of the spirits; sprightliness 
Yes in the temperature and flow of the blood; guyety 
depends altogether on external circumstances. Re- 
ligion is the best promoter of cheerfulness: it makes 
its possessor pleased with himself and all around him; 
‘lL have always preferred cheerfulness to mirth: the 
latter I consider as an act, the former as a habit of 
the mind. Mirth is short and transient; cheerfulness 
fixed and permanent.’-—Appison. Company and wine 
are but too often the only promoters of mirth; ‘Man- 
kind may be divided into the merry and the serious, 
who both of them make a very good figure in the 
species so long as they keep their respective humours 
from degenerating into the neighbouring extreme.’— 
Appison. Youth and health will naturally be attended 
With sprightliness ; 


But Venus, anxious for her son’s affairs, 

New counsels tries, and new designs prepares: 

That Cupid should assume the shape and face 

Of sweet Ascanius, and the sprightly grace. 
DRYDEN. 


A succession of pleasures, an exemption from care, 
and the banishment of thought, will keep gayety alive. 

Sprightly and merry are seldom employed but in the 
proper sense as respects persons: but cheerful and 
gay are extended to different objects; as a cheerful 
prospect, a cheerful room, gay attire, a gay scene, gay 
colours, &c.; 

To kinder skies, where gentler manners reign, 

7 turn; and France displays her bright domain. 

Gay, sprightly land of mirth and social ease, 

Pleas’d with thyself, whom all the world can please. 

GOLDSMITH. 


LIGHTNESS, LEVITY, FLIGHTINESS, 
VOLATILITY, GIDDINESS. 


Lightness, from light, signifies the abstract quality; 
levity, in Latin levitas, from levis light, signifies the 
same; volatility, in Latin volatilitas, from volo to fly, 
signifies flitting, or ready to fly swiftly on; flightiness, 
from flighty and jy, signifies the readiness to fly ; gid- 
diness, from giddy, in Saxon gidig, is probably con- 
nected with the verb gehen to go, signifying a state of 
going unsteadily. 

Lightness is taken either in the natural or meta- 
phorical sense; the rest only in the moral sense: 
lightness is said of the outward carriage, or the in- 
ward temper; levity is said only of the outward car- 
riage; a light minded man treats every thing lightly, 
be it ever so serious; the ghtness of his mind is evi- 
dent by the lightness of his motions. Lightness is 
common to both sexes; levity is peculiarly striking in 
females; and in respect to them, they are both ex- 
ceptionable qualities in the highest degree: when a 
woman has lightness of mind, she verges very near 
towards direct vice ; when there is levity in her con- 
duct she exposes herself to the imputation of crimi- 
nality; ‘Innocence gives a lightness to the spirits, ill 
imitated and ill supplied by that forced levity of the 
Vicious.’—Buair. . Volatility, flightiness, and giddi- 
ness are degrees of lightness, which rise in significa- 
tion on one another ; volatility being more than light- 
ness, and thé others more than volatility: lightness 
and volatility are defects as they relate to age; those 
only who ought to be serious or grave are said to be 
light or volatile. When we treat that as light which 
is weighty, when we suffer nothing to sink into the 
mind, or make any impression, this is a defective 
tightness of character; when the spirits are of a 
buoyant nature, and the thoughts fly from one object 
to another, without resting on any for a moment, 
this lightness becomes volatility; ‘If we see people 
slancing, even in wooden shoes, and a fiddle always a* 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


their hee's, we are soon convinced of the volatzle 
spirits of those merry slaves..—SomMERVILLE. A ligh# 
minded person sets care at a distance; a wolatile 
person catches pleasure from every passing object. 
Flightiness and giddiness are the defects of youth; 
they bespeak that entire want of command over one’s 
feelings and animal spirits which is inseparable from 
a state of childhood: a flighty child, however, only 
fails from a want of attention; but a giddy child, like 
one whose head is in the natural sense giddy, is unable 
to collect itself so as to have any consciousness of 
what passes; a flighty person conimits improprieties , 
‘Remembering many jlightinesses in her writing, j 
know not how to behave myself to her.’.—RicHarp- 
SON. A giddy person commits extravagances ; 


The giddy vulgar, as their fancies guide, — 
With noise, say nothing, and in parts divide. 
DRYDEN. 


FROLICK, GAMBOL, PRANK. 


Frolick, in German, &c. fréhlich cheerful, comes 
from froh merry, and freude joy; gambol signifies 
literally leaping into the air, from the Italian gamba, 
in French jamb the leg; prank is changed from prance, 
which literally signifies to throw up the hind feet after 
the manner of a horse, and is most probably connected 
with the German prangen to make a parade or fuss, 


and the Hebrew J953 to set free, because the freedom 
indicated by the word prank is more or less discover 

able in the sense of all these terms. The frolick is a 
merry, Joyous entertainment; the gambol is a dancing, 
light entertainment; the prank is a freakish, wild en- 
tertainment. Laughing, singing, noise, and feasting 
constitute the frolick of the careless mind; it belongs 
to a company: conceit, levity, and trick, in movement. 
gesture, and contrivance, constitute the gambol ; it 
belongs to the individual: adventure, eccentricity, and 
humour constitute the prank; it belongs to one or 
many. One has a frolick; one plays a gambol, or a 
prank. Frolick is the mirth rather of vulgar minds; 
servants have their frolicks in the kitchen while their 
masters have pleasures abroad; ‘I have heard of some 
very merry fellows, among whom the frolick was 
started and passed by a great majority, that every 
man should immediately draw a tooth.—Srerre. 
Gambols are the diversions of youth; the Christmas 
season has given rise to a variety of gambols for the 
entertainment of both sexes. The term gambol may 
also be applied to the tricks of animals; 


The monsters of the flood 
Gamboi around him in the wat’ry way, 
And heavy whales in awkward measures play 
PoPE. 


And in the same sense the term may be applied figura 
tively ; 


What are those crested locks 
That make such wanton gambols with the wind ? 
SHAKSPEARE. 


Pranks are the diversions of the undisciplined; the 
rude schoolboy broke loose from sehool spends his 
time in molesting a neighbourhood with his mis- 
chievous pranks ; ‘Some time afterward (1756), some 
young men of the college, whose chambers were near 
his (Gray’s), diverted themselves by frequent and trou- 
blesome noises, and, as is said, by pranks yet more 
offensive and contemptuous.’—Jounson. F'rolick is 
the diversion of human beings only; gambol and 
prank are likewise applicable to brutes ; a kitten gam- 
bols ; a horse, a monkey, and a squirrel will play 
pranks. 


TO AMUSE, DIVERT, ENTERTAIN. 


To amuse is to occupy the mind lightly, from the 
Latin musa a song, signifying to allure the attention 
by any thing as light and airy as a song; divert, in 
French divertir, Latin diverto, is compounded of di 
and verto to turn aside, signifying to turn the mind 
aside from an object ; entertain, in French entretenir, 
compounded of extre, inter, and tenir, or the Latin 
gee to keep, signifies ta keep the mind fixed on a 
thing. 

We amuse or entertain by engaging the attention on 
some present occupation; we divert by drawing the 


ENGLISH 


atiention from a present object; all this proceeds by 
the means of that pleasure which the object produces, 
which in the first case is less vivid than in the second, 
and in the second case is less durable than in the third. 
Whatever amuses serves to kill time, to lull the facul- 
ties, and banish reflection; it may be solitary, se- 
dentary, and lifeless, but also sociable or intellectual, 
according to the temper of the person; ‘I yesterday 
passed a whole afternoon in the churchyard, the 
cloisters, and the church, amusing myself with the 
tombstones and inscriptions that | met with in those 
several regions of the dead.—Appison. Whatever 
diverts causes mirth, and provokes laughter; it will 
be active, lively, and sometimes tumultuous; ‘ His 
diversion on this occasion was to see the cross-bows, 
mistaken signs, and wrong connivances that passed 
amid so many broken and refracted rays of sight.’— 
Appison. Whatever entertains acts on the senses, 
and awakens the understanding ; it must be rational, 
and is mostly social; ‘Will Honeycomb was very 
entertaining, the other night at the play, to a gentle- 
man who sat on his right-hand, while [ was at his 
left. The gentleman believed Will was talking to 
himself’—-Appison. The bare act of walking and 
changing place may emuse; the tricks of animals 
divert; conversation entertains. We sit down to a 
card-table to be amused; we go to a comedy or pan- 
tomime to be diverted ; we go to a tragedy to be enter- 
tained. Children are amused with looking at pictures: 
ignorant people are diverted with shows; intelligent 
people are entertained with reading. 

The dullest and most vacant, as well as the most in- 
telligent, minds may be amused; the most volatile are 
diverted ; the most reflective are entertained: the em- 
perour Domitian amused himself with killing flies: the 
emperour Nero diverted himseif with appearing before 
' his subjects in the characters of gladiator and cha- 
rioteer; Socrates entertained himself by discoursing 
on the day of his execution with his friends on the 
iunmortality of the soul. 


TO AMUSE, BEGUILE. 


Amuse signifies the same as in the preceding article; 
beguile is compounded of be and guile signifying to 
overreach with guile. As amuse denotes the occupa- 
tion of the mind, so beguzle expresses an effect or con- 
sequence of amusement. 

When amuse and degutle express any species of de- 
ception, the former indicates what is effected by per- 
sons, and the latter that which is effected by things. 
To amuse is to practise a fraud upon the understand- 
ing; to beguile is to practise a fraud upon the memory 
and censeiousness. We are amused by a false story; 
our misfortunes are beguiled by the charms of fine 
music or fine scenery. To suffer one’s self to be 
amused is an act of weakness; to be beguéled is a relief 
and a privilege. Credulous people are easily amused 
by any idle tale, and thus prevented from penetrating 
the designs of the artful; ‘In latter ages pious frauds 
were made use of to amuse mankind.’—ADDISON. 
Weary travellers beguale the tedium of the journey by 
lively conversation ; 


With seeming innocence the crowd beguil’ d, 
ut made the desperate passes when he smil’d. 
DRYDEN. 


AMUSEMENT, ENTERTAINMENT, DIVER- 
SION, SPORT, RECREATION, PASTIME. 


Amusement signifies here that which serves to amuse 
(». To amuse, divert); entertainment, that which 
serves to entertain (v. To amuse); diversion, that 
which serves to divert (v. To amuse, divert) ; sport, 
that which serves to give sport ; recreation, that which 
serves to recreatr, from -recreatus, participle of recreo 
or ve and creo to create or make alive again; pastime, 
that which serves to pass time. 

The first four of these terms are either applied to 
objects which specifically serve the purposes of plea- 
sure, or to such as may accidentally serve this purpose; 
the last two terms are employed only in the latter sense. 

ihe distinction between the first three terms are 
very similar in this as in the preceding case. Amuse- 
ment is a general term, which comprehends little more 
than the common idea of pleasure, whether small or 
great; 


SYNONYMES. 


391. 


As Atlas groan’d 
The world beneath, we groan beneath an hour; 
We cry for mercy to the next amusement. 
The next amusement mortgages our fields. 
Youne. 


Entertainment is a species of amusement which is 
always more or less of an intellectual nature; ‘The 
stage might be made a perpetual source of the most 
noble and useful entertainments, were it under proper 
regulations. —Appison. Diversions and sports area 
species of amusements more adapted to the young and 
the active, particularly the latter: the theatre or the 
concert is an entertainment: fairs and publick ex- 
hibitions are diversions; ‘ When I was some years 
younger than [ am at present, I used to employ myself 
in a more laborious diversion, which I learned from a 
Latin treatise of exercises that is written with great 
erudition; it is there called the oxsopaxia, or the 
fighting with a man’s own sbadow.’—-ADDISON. 
Games of racing or cricket, bunting, shooting, and the 
like, are sports ; ‘ With great respect to country sports, 
I may say this gentleman could pass his time agree- 
ably, if there were not a fox or a hare in his county.’— 
STEELE. 

Recreation and pastime are terms of relative import ; 
the former is of use for those who labour; the latter 
for those who are idle. A recreation must partake 
more or less of the nature of an amusement, but it is 
an occupation which owes its pleasure to the relaxation 
of the mind from severe exertion: in this manner gar- 
dening may be a recreation to one who studies; ‘ Plea- 
sure and recreation of one kind or other are absolutely 
necessary to relieve our minds and bodies from too 
constant attention and labour: where therefore publick 
diversions are tolerated, it behooves persons of dis- 
tinction, with their power and example, to preside over 
them.’—Srmzie. Company is a recreation to aman 
of business: the pastime is the amusement of the leisura 
hour; it may be alternately a diversion, a sport, or & 
simple amusement, as circumstances require; ‘ Your 
microscope brings to sight shoals of living creatures in 
a spoonful of vinegar; but we, who can distinguish 
them in their different magnitudes, see among them 
several huge Leviathans that terrify the little fry of 
animals about them, and take their pastime as in ayn 
ocean.’—ADDISON. 


ns 


MIRTH, MERRIMENT, JOVIALITY, JOLLITY, 
HILARITY. 


These terms all express that species of gayety or joy 
which belongs to company, or to men in their social 
intercourse. 

Mirth refers to the feeling displayed in the outward 
conduct: merriment, and the other terms, refer rather 
to the external expressions of the feeling, or the causes 
of the feeling, than to the feeling itself: mzrth shows 
itself in laughter, in dancing, singing, and noise; mer- 
riment consists of such things as are apt to excite 
nirth ; the more we are disposed to laugh, the greater 
sour mirth; the more there is to create laughter, the 
greater is the merriment: the tricks of Punch and his 
wife, or the jokes of a clown, cause much mzrth among 
the gaping crowd of rustics; the amusements with the 
swing, or the roundabout, afford much merriment to the 
visitants of a fair. Mirth is confined to no age or 
station; but merriment belongs more particularly to 
young people, or those of the lower station; mirth may 
be provoked wherever any number of persons is assem 
bled; ‘The highest gratification we receive here from 
company is mirth, which at the best is but a fluttering, 
unquiet motion..—Popr. Merriment cannot go for- 
ward any where so properly as at fairs, or common and 
publick places; ‘He who best knows our natures by 
such afflictions recalls our wandering thoughts from 
idle merriment.—GrRay. Joviality or jollity, and hila- 
rity, are species of merriment which belong to the con- 
vivial board, or to less refined indulgences: jovzality or 
jollity is the unrefined, unlicensed indulgence in the 
pleasures of the table, or any social entertainments ; 


Now swarms the village o’er the jovial mead. 
THOMSON 


With branches we the fanes adorn, and waste 
In jollity the day ordain’d to be the last. 
DRYDEN. 


Hilarity is the same thing qualified by the cultivatioe 


392 


and good sense of the company: we may expect to find 
much joviality and jollity at a publick dinner of me- 
chanicks, watermen, or labourers: we may expect to 
find hilarity at a publick dinner of noblemea: eating, 
drinking, and noise constitute the joviality ; the con- 
versation, the songs, the toasts, and the publick spirit of 
the company contribute to hzlarity; ‘He that contri- 
butes to the hilarity of the vacant hour will be wel- 
comed with ardour.’--JoHNSON. 


FESTIVITY, MIRTH. 


“Phere is commonly mirth with festiwity, but there 
may be frequently mirth without festivity. ‘Vhe fes- 
tivity lies in the outward circumstances: mith in the 
temper of the mind. Festivity is rather the producer 
of mirth than the mirth itself. Festivtty includes the 
social enjoyments of eating, drinking, dancing, sards, 
and other pleasures; ‘ Pisistratus, fearing that the fes- 
tivity of his guests would be interrupted by the mis- 
conduct of Thrasippus, rose from his seat, and entreated 
him to stay.—CuMBERLAND. Mirth includes in it 
the buoyancy of spirits which is engendered by a far- 
ticipation in such pleasures ; 


Low lies that house where nut-brown draughts in- 
spir’d 
Where eraybeard mirth and smiling toil retir’d. 
GOLDSMITH. 


oo 


GRAVE, SERIOUS, SOLEMN. 


Grave, in Latin gravis heavy, denotes the weight 
which keeps the mind or person down, and prevents 
buoyancy; it is opposed to the light; serzows, in Latin 
serus late or slow, marks the quality of slowness or 
considerateness, either in the mind, or that which 
eccupies the mind: it is opposed to the jocose. 

Grave expresses more than serious; it does not 
merely bespeak the absence of mirth, but that heavi- 
ness of mind which is displayed in all the movements 
of the body; seriousness, on the other hand, bespeaks 
no depression, but simply steadiness of action, and a 
refrainment from all that is jocular. A man may be 
grave in his walk, in his tone, in his gesture, in his 
looks, and all his exteriour; he is serious only in his 
general air, his countenance, and demeanour. Gravity 
is produced -by some external circumstance; serious- 
ness Springs from the operation of the mind itself, or 
from circumstances. Misfortunes or age will produce 
gravity; seriousness is the fruit of reflection. Gravity 
is, in the proper sense, confined to the person, as a 
characteristick of his temper ; 


If then some grave and pious man appear, 
They hush their noise, and lend a \istening ear. 
_Drypen. 


Serious, on the other hand, is a characteristick either of 
persons or things; ‘In our retirements every thing dis- 
poses us to be serious.’—Appison. Hence we should 
speak of a grave assembly, not a serious assembly, of 
old men; grave senators, not serious senators; of a 
grave speaker, not a serious speaker: but a serious, 
not a grave sermon; a serious, not a grave writer; a 
serious, Not a grave sentiment ;.a serious, not properly 
a grave objection: grave is, however, sometimes ex- 
tended to things in the sense of weighty, as when we 
speak of grave matters of deliberation. Gravity is 
peculiarly ascribed to a judge, from the double cause, 
that much depends upon his deportment, in which 
there ought to be gravity, and that the weighty con- 
cerns which press on his mind are most apt to produce 
gravity: on the other hand, both gravity and serious- 
ness may be applied to the preacher; the former only 
as it respects the manner of delivery; the latter as it 
respects especially the matter of his discourse: the 
person may be grave or sericus ; the discourse only is 
serious. 

Solemn expresses more then either grave or serious, 
from the Latin solennis yearly; as anvlied to the stated 
religious festivals of the Romans, it has acquired the 
collateral meaning of religious gravity: like serious, 
it is employed not so much to characterize the person 
as the thing: a judge pronounces the solemn sentence 
6f condemnation in a solemn manner; a preacher de- 
livers many solemn warnings to his hearers. Gravity 
may be the effect of corporeal habit, and seriousness of 
mental habit; but solemnity is something occasional 


nn 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


and extraordinary ; ‘The necessary business vi: a man 3 
calling, with some, will not afford much time for set and 
solemn prayer.’—W HOLE Di ty or Man. Some children 
discover a remarkable gravity as soon as they begin to 
observe; a regular attention to religious worship will 
induce a habit of seriousness; the admonitions of a 
parent on his death-bed will have peculiar solemnity ; 
‘The stateliness and gravity of the Spaniards shows 
itself in the solemnity of their language.’—Appison. 
‘In most of our long words which are derived from the 
Latin, we contract the length of the syllables, that gives 
them a grave and solemn air in their own language.’— 
ADDISON. 


Li 


EAGER, EARNEST, SERIOUS. 


Eager signifies the same as in the preceding article; 
earnest most probably comes from the thing earnest, in 
Saxon thornest a pledge, or token of a person’s real in- 
tentions, whence the word has been employed to qualify 
the state of any one’s mind, as settled or fixed; serious, 
in Latin serius or sine risu, signifies without laughter. 

Eager is used to qualify the desires or passions; 
earnest to qualify the wishes or sentiments: the former 
has either a physical or moral application, the latter 
altogether a moral application: a child is eager to get 
a plaything; a hungry person is eager to get food; a 
covetous man is eager to seize whatever comes within 
his grasp: a person is earnest in solicitation; earnest 
in exhortation; earnest in devotion. 

Eagerness is mostly faulty ; it cannot be 1oo early 
restrained; we can seldom have any substantial reason 
to be eager ; 


With joy the ambitious youth his mother heard, 
And, eager for the journey, soon prepar’d., 
Drypen. 


Whence this term is applied with particular propriety 
to brutes ; ; 


The panting steeds impatient fury breathe, 

But snort and tremble at the gulf beneath; 

Eager they view’d the prospect dark and deep, 

Vast was the leap, and headlong hung the ie 
OPE. 


Earnestness is always taken in a good sense ; it denotea 
the inward conviction of the mind, and the warmth of 
the heart when awakened by important objects; 


Then even superiour to ambition, we 
With earnest eye anticipate those scenes 
Of happiness and wonder.—THomson. 


A person is said to be earnest, or in earnest ; a person 
or thing is said to be serious : the former characterizes 
the temper of the mind, the latter characterizes the object 
itself. In regard to persons, in which alone they are to 
be compared, earnest expresses more than serous ; the 
former is opposed to lukewarmness, the lattex ¢0 uncon- 
cernedness: we are earnest astoour wishes, or / prayers, 
or our persuasions; ‘He which prayeth in due sort, is 
thereby made the more attentive to hear; and he which 
heareth, the more earnest to pray for the time "which we 
hestow, as well in the one as the other.’—Hugazer. We 
are serious as to our intentions, or the temper of mind 
with which we set about things; ‘It is haraly possible 
to sit down to the serious perusal of Virgil’s works, but 
aman shall rise more disposed to virtue amd goodness.’ 
—WatsH. The earnestness with which we address 
another depends upon the force of our conviction; the 
seriousness With which we address them depends upon 
our sincerity, and the nature of the subject: tae preacher 
earnestly exhorts his hearers to lay aside their sins; hu 
seriously admonishes those who are guilty of irregu 
larities. 


SOBER, GRAVE. 


Sober (v. Abstinent) expresses the absence of asl 
exhilaration of spirits; grave (v. Grae) expresses 4 
weight in the intellectual operations which makes 
them proceed slowly. Sebriety is therefore a more 
natural and ordinary state for the Fuman mind than 
gravity ; it behooves every man to be seer in all situe 
tions; but those who fill the most im~ortant gjations of 
life must be grave. Even in our pleasures we may 
observe sobriety, which keeps us frora «very unseemly 
ebullition of mirth; but en particular occaaions where 
the importance of the subject ought te weigh or the 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


mind {t becomes us to be yrrave. Ata feast we have 
need of sobriety ; ata funeral we have need of gravity: 
sobriety extends to many more objects than gravity ; 
we must be sober in our thoughts and opinions, as well 
as in our outward conduct and behaviour; ‘These 
confusions disposed men of any sober understanding 
to wish for peace.—CLargenpon. Wecan be grave, 
properly speaking, only in our looks and our outward 
deportment ; 


So spake the Cherub, and his grave rebuke, 
Severe in youthful beauty, added grace 
Invincible-—Mi. Ton. 

Sober is often poetically and figuratively applied; 


Now came still ev’ning on, and twilight gray 
Had in her sober liv’ry all things clad.— Mi. Ton. 


GLAD, PLEASED, JOYFUL, CHEERFUL. 


Glad is obviously a variation of glee and glow; 
pleased, from to please, marks the state of being 
pleased ; joyful bespeaks its own meaning, either as 
full of joy or productive of great joy; cheerful, v. 
Cheerful. 

Glad denotes either a partial state, or a permanent 
and habitual sentiment: in the former sense it is most 
nearly allied to pleased ; in the latter sense to joyful and 
merry. 

Glad and pleased are both applied to the ordinary 
occurrence of the day; but the former denotes rather 
alively and momentary sentiment, the latter a gentle 
but rather more lasting feeling; we are. glad to seea 
friend who has been long absent; we are glad to have 
good intelligence from our friends and relatives; we 
are glad to get rid of a troublesome companion ; 


O Sol, in whom my thoughts find all repose, 
My glory, my perfection! glad I see 
Thy face, and morn return’d.—MILTon. 


We are pleased to have the approbation of those we 
esteem: we are pleased to hear our friends well spoken 
of ; we are pleased with the company of an intelligent 
and communicative person; ‘The soul has many dif- 
ferent faculties, or, in other words, many different 
ways of acting, and can be intensely pleased or made 
happy by ail these different faculties or ways of acting.’ 
—ADDISON. 

Glad, joyful, and cheerful, all express more or less 
lively sentiments; but glad is less vivid than joyful, 
_and more so than cheerful. Gladness seems to rise 
as much from physical as mental causes; wine is said 
to make the heart glad: joy has its source in the mind, 
as it is influenced by external circumstances ; instances 
of good fortune, either for ourselves, our friends, or our 
country, excite joy: cheerfulness is an even tenour of 
the mind, which it may preserve of itself independently 
of all external circumstances: religious contemplation 
produces habitual cheerfulness. 

A comfortable meal to an indigent person gladdens 
his heart: a nation rejoices at the return of peace after 
a long protracted war: a traveller is cheered in a soli- 
tary desert by the sight of a human being, or the sound 
of avoice; or a sufferer is cheered by his trust in Divine 
Providence. 

Glad is seldom employed as an epithet to qualify 
things, except in the scriptural or solemn style, as, glad 
tidings of great joy ; 

Man superiour walks 
Amid the glad creation, musing praise—THoMsON. 


Joyful is seldomer used to qualify persons than things; 
hence we speak of joyful news, a joyful occurrence, 
joyful faces, joyful sounds, and the like ; 


Thus joyful Troy maintain’d the watch of night, 
While fear, pale comrade of inglorious flight, 
And heaven-bred horrour, on the Grecian part, 
Sat on each face, and sadden’d every heart.—Porr. 


Cheerful is employed either to designate the state of 
the mind or the property of the thing: we either speak 
ofa cheerful disposition, a cheerful person, a cheerful 
society, or a cheerful face, a cheerful sound, a cheerful 
aspect, and the like; 


No sun e’er gilds the gloomy horrours there, 
No cheerful gales refresh the lazy air.—Poprr. 
When used to qualify a person’s actions, they all 
bespeak the temper of the mind: glad4y denotes a high 


393 


degree of willingness as opposed to aversion; one who 
is suffering under excruciating pains gladly submits to 
any thing which promises relief; 

For his particular [Il receive him gladly, 

But not one follower.—SHAKSPEARE. 


Joyfully denotes unqualified pleasure, unmixed with 
any alloy or restrictive consideration; a convert to 
Christianity joyfully goes through all the initiatory 
ceremonies which entitle him to all its privileges, 
spiritual and temporal; 


Never did men more joyfully obey, 

Or sooner understood the sign to flie ; 

With such alacrity they bore away, 

As if to praise them all the states stood by. 
DRYDEN 


Cheerfully denotes the absence of unwillingness, it is 
opposed to reluctantly; the zealous Christian cheer- 
fully submits to every hardship to which he is exposed 
in the course of his religious profession; ‘ Doctrine is 
that which must prepare men for discipline; and men 
never go on so cheerfully, as when they see where they 
go.’—SoutTu. 


——_—_ 


JOY, GLADNESS, MIRTH. 


The happy condition of the soul is designated by all 
these terms (v. Pleasure); but joy and gladness lie 
more internally; mirth, or the feeling of being merry, 
(v. Glad) is the more immediate result of external cir- 
cumstances. What creates joy and gladness is of a 
permanent nature; that which creates mirth is tempo- 
rary: joy is the most vivid sensation in the soul; ggad 
ness is the same in quality, but inferiour in degree: joy 
is awakened in the mind by the most important evénts 
in life; gladness springs up in the mind on ordinary 
occasions: the return of the prodigal son awakened 
joy in the heart of his father; a man feels gladness at 
being relieved from some distress or trouble: publick 
events of a gratifying nature produce universal joy ; 


His thoughts triumphant, heav’n alone employs, 
And hope anticipates his future joys.—_Jmnyns. 


Relief from either sickness or want brings gladness to 
an oppressed heart; ‘ None of the poets have observed 
so well as Milton those secret overflowings of gladness, 
which diffuse themselves through the mind of the be- 
holder upon surveying the gay scenes of nature.’— 
Appison. He whois absorbed in his private distresses 
is ill prepared to partake of the mirth with which he ia 
surrounded at the festive board. 

- Joy is depicted on the countenance, or expresses 
itself by various demonstrations: gladness is a more 
tranquil feeling, which is enjoyed in secret, and seeks 
no outward expression: mirth displays itself in laugh- 
ter, singing, and noise. ‘Most of the appearing mirth 
in the world, is not mirth, but art. The wounded spirit 
is not seen, but walks under a disguise.’--SoutH. 


PLEASURE, JOY, DELIGHT, CHARM 


Pleasure, from the Latin placeo to please or give 
content, is the generick term, involving in itself the 
common idea of the other terms ; joy, v. Glad ; delight, 
in Latin delicteg, comes from delicio to allure, signify 
ing the thing that allures the mind. 

Pleasure is a term of most extensive use; it em- 
braces one grand class of our feelings or sensations, 
and is opposed to nothing but pain, which embraces 
the opposite class or division: joy and delight are but 
modes or modifications of pleasure, differing as to the 
degree, and as to the objects or sources. Pleasure, in 
its peculiar acceptation, is smaller in degree than either 
joy or delight, but in its universal acceptation it defines 
no degree: the term is indifferently employed tor the 
highest as well as the lowest degree; whereas joy and 
delight can only be employed to express a positively 
high degree. Pleasure is produced by any or every 
object; every thing by which we are surrounded acts 
upon us more or less to produce it; we may nave 
pleasure either from without or from within: pleasure 
from the gratification of our senses, from the exercise 
of our affections, or the exercise of our understand 
ings ; pleasures from our own selves, or pleasures from 
others: but joy is derived from the exercise of the 
affections ; and delight either from the affections or the 
understanding. [In this manner we distinguish the 


394 


pleasures af the table, social pleasures, or intellectual 
pleasares, the joy of meeting an old friend; or the 
delight of ,ursuing a favourite object. 

Pleasures are either transitory or otherwise ; they 
may arise from momentary circumstances, or be 
attached 9 some permanent condition: all earthly 
pleasure is in its nature fleeting ; and heavenly plea- 
sure, on tue contrary, lasting; ‘ Thatevery day has its 
pains and sorrows is universally experienced; but if 
we look impartially about us, we shall find that every 
day has likewise its pleasures and its 7oys.’—JouN- 
son. Joy is in its nature commonly of short duration, 
it springs from particular events; it is pleasure at high 
tide, but if may come and go as suddenly as the events 
which caused it: one’s joy may be awakened and 
damped in quick succession; earthly joys are pecu- 
liarly of this nature, and heavenly joys are not alto- 
gether divested of this characteristick ; they are sup- 
posed to spring out of particular occurrences, when the 
spiritual and holy affections are peculiarly called into 
action ; 

While he who virtue’s radiant course has run, 

Descends like a serenely setting sun; 

His thoughts triumphant heav’n alone employs, 

And hope anticipates his future joys.—JENYNs. 


Delight is not so fleeting as joy, but it may be less so 
than simple pleasure; delight arises from a state of 
outward circumstances which is naturally more dura- 
ble than that of joy; but it is a state seldomer attain- 
able, and not so much at one’s command as pleasure : 
this last is very seldom denied in some form or another 
to every human being, but those only are susceptible 
ef delight who have acquired a certain degree of 
mental refinement; we must have a strong capacity for 
enjoyment before we can find delight in the pursuits 
of literature, or the cultivation of the arts. Pleasures 
are often calm and moderate ; they do not depend upon 
a man’s rank or condition; they are within the reach 
of all, more or less, and more or less at one’s com- 
mand: joys are buoyant; they dilate the heart for a 
time, but they must and will subside; they depend 
likewise on casualties which are under no one’s con- 
trol: delights are ardent and excessive; they are 
within the reach of a few only, but depend less on 
external circumstances than on the temper of the 
receiver. 

Pleasure may be had either by reflection’on the 
past, or by anticipation of the future; joy and delight 
can be produced only by the present object: we have 
a pleasure in thinking on what we have once enjoyed, 
or what we may again enjoy; we experience joy on 
the receipt of particularly good news; one may expe- 
rience delight from a musical entertainment. Pleasure 
and delight may be either individual or social; joy is 
rather of a social nature: we feel a pleasure in soli- 
tude when locked up only in our own contemplations; 
Wwe experience delight in the prosecution of some great 
end; we feel joy in the presence of those whom we 
love, when we see them likewise happy. Pleasures 
are particularly divided intc selfish or benevolent; 
joys and delights fiow commonly from that which im- 
mediately interests ourselves, but very frequently 
spring from the higher source of interest in the hap- 
pinessof others: the pleasure of serving a friend, or of 
relieving a distressed object, has always been esteemed 
by moralists as the purest of pleasures ; we are told 
that in heaven there is more joy over one sinner that 
repenteth, than over the ninety and nine that need no 
repentance; the delight which a parent feels at seeing 
the improvement of his child is one ef those enviable 
sorts of pleasures which all may desire to experience, 
but which many must be contented to forego. 

Pleasure, joy, and delight are likewise employed for 
the things which give pleasure, joy, or delight. 

Charm (wv. Attraction) is used only in the sense of 
what charms, or gives a high degree of pleasure; but 
not a degree equal to that of joy or delight, though 
greater than of ordinary pleasure: pleasure intoxi- 
cates; the joys of heaven are objects of a Christian’s 
Sursuit; the delights of matrimony are lasting to those 
who are susceptible of true affection; ‘ Before the day 
of departure (from the country), a week is always ap- 
propriated for the payment and reception of ceremonial 
visits, at which nothing can be mentianed but the de- 
lights of London.’—Jounson. The charms of rural 
scenery never fail of their effect whenever they ofter 
themselves to the eye ; 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


When thus creation’s charms around combine, 
Amid the store should thankless pride repine ? 
GoLDsMITH 


—_—_—_ 


HAPPINESS, FELICITY, BLISS, BLESSED- 
NESS, BEATITUDE. 


Happiness signifies the state of being happy; fels 
city, in Latin felicitas, from feliz happy, most pro 
bably comes from the Greek #\:t youth, which is the 
age of purest enjoyment; bliss, blessedness, signify 
the state or property of being blessed; bdeatitude, from 
the Latin beatus, signifies the property of being happy 
in a superiour degree. 

Happiness comprehends that aggregate of plea 
surable sensations which we derive from external ob- 
jects; it is the ordinary term which is employed alike 
in the collgquial or the philosophical style: felicity is 
a higher expression, that comprehends inward enjoy- 
ment, or an aggregate of inward pleasure, without 
regard to the source whence they are derived: bliss is 
a still higher term, expressing more than either happi 
ness or felicity, both as to the degree and nature of 
the enjoyment. Happiness is the thing adapted to 
our present condition, and to the nature of our being, 
as a compound of body and soul; it is impure in its 
nature, and variable in degree; it is sought for by 
various means and with great eagerness; but it often 
lies much more within our reach than we are apt to 
imagine: it is not to be found in the possession of 
great wealth, of great power, of great dominions, of 
great splendour, or the unbounded indulgence of any 
one appetite or desire ; but it is to be found in mode- 
rate possessions, with a heart tempered by religion and 
virtue, for the enjoyment of that which God has be- , 
stowed upon us: it is, therefore, not so unequally dis- 
tributed as some have been led to conclude. 

Happiness admits of degrees, since every individual 
is placed in different circumstances, either of body or 
mind, which fit him to be more or less happy ; 


Ah! whither now are fled 
Those dreams of greatness? those unsolid hopes 
Of happiness ?—THoMSON. 


Felicity is not regarded in the same light; it is that 
which is positive and independent of all circumstances: 
domestick felicity, and conjugal felicity, are regarded 
as moral enjoyments, abstracted from every thing 
which can serve as an alloy; ‘ No greater felicity can 
genius attain than that of having purified intellectual 
pleasure, separated mirth from indecency, and wit 
from licentiousness.’-—Jounson. Bliss is that which 
is purely spiritual; it has its source in the imagination, 
and rises above the ordinary level of human enjoy- 
ments: of earthly bliss little is known but in poetry ; 
of heavenly bliss we form but an imperfect conception 
from the utmost stretch of our powers; 


The fond soul, 
Wrapp'd in gay visions of unreal bliss, « 
Still paints th’ illusive form.—THomson. 


‘In the description of heaven and hell we are surely 
interested, as we are all to reside hereafter either in the 
regions of horrour or of bliss..—Jounson. Blessedness 
is a term of spiritual import which refers to the happy 
condition of those who enjoy the Diyine favour, and 
are permitted to have a foretaste of heavenly bliss, by 
the exaltation of their minds above earthly happiness ; 
‘So solid a comfort to men, under all the troubles and 
afflictions of this world, is that firm assurance which 
the Christian religion gives us of a future happiness, 
as to bring even the greatest miseries which in this life 
we are liable to, in some sense, under the notion of 
blessedness..—TiLLOTSON. Beatitude denotes that 
quality or degree of happiness only which is most ex- 
alted; namely, heavenly happiness ; ‘ As in the next 
world, so in this, the only solid blessings are owing to 
the goodness of the mind, not the extent of the capa- 
city ; friendship here is an emanation from the same 
source as beatitude there.’—Porn. 


HAPPY, FORTUNATE, 


Happy and fortunate are both applied to the exter~ 
nal circumstances of a man; but the former conveys 
the idea of that which is abstractedly good, the latter 
implies rather what is agreeable to one’s wishes. A 
man is happy in his marriage, in his children, in hr 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


connexions, and the like: he is fortunate in his trading 
concerns. Happy excludes the idea of chance; for- 
tunate excludes the idea of personal effort: a man is 
happy in the possession of what he gets; he is fortu- 
nate in getting it. 

In the improper sense they bear a similar analogy. 
A happy thought, a happy expression, a happy turn, 
a happy event, and the like, denote a degree of posi- 
tive excellence ; 


O happy, if he knew his happy state, 
The swain, who, free from business and debate, 
Receives his easy food from nature’s hand, 
And just returns of cultivated land.—DryDENn. 


A fortunate idea, a fortunate circumstance, a fértu- 
nate event, are all relatively considered, with regard 
to the wishes and views of the individual; ‘ Visit 
the gayest and most fortunate on earth only with 
sleepless nights, disorder any single organ of the 
senses, and you shall (will) presently see his gayety 
vanish.’—BLaiR. 


TO FELICITATE, CONGRATULATE. 


Felicitate, from the Latin feléz happy, signifies to 
make happy, and is applicable only to ourselves; con- 
gratulate, from gratus, pleasant or agreeable, is to 
make agreeable, and is applicable either to ourselves 
or others: we felicitate ourselves on having escaped 
the danger; we congratulate others on their good for- 
tune; ‘The astronomers, indeed, expect her (night) 
with impatience, and felicttate themselves upon her 
arrival’—Jounson. ‘The fierce young hero who had 
overcome the Curiatii, instead of being congratulated 
by his sister for his victory, was upbraided by her for 
having slain her lover.’--ADDISON. 


FORTUNATE, LUCKY, FORTUITOUS, 
PROSPEROUS, SUCCESSFUL. 


Fortunate signifies having fortune (v. Chance, for- 
tune) ; lucky, having luck, which is in German gluck, 
and in all probability comes from gelingen or lingen to 
succeed; fortuitous, after the manner of fortune ; pros- 
perous, having prosperity ; successful, i.e. full of suc- 
cesa, enabled to succeed. 

The fortunate and lucky are both applied to that 
which happens without the control of man; but lucky, 
which is a collateral term, describes the capricious 
goddess Fortune in her most freakish humours, and 
fortunate represents her in her most sober mood: in 
other words, the fortunate is more according to the 
ordinary course of things; the lucky is something 
sudden, unaccountable, and singular: a circumstance 
is said to be fortunate which turns up suitably to our 
purpose; it is gaid to be lucky when it comes upon us 
unexpectedly at the moment that it is wanted ; 


This lucky moment the sly traitor chose, 
Then starting from his ambush up he rose. 
DRYDEN. 


Hence we speak of a man as fortunate in his business, 
and the ordinary concerns of life; ‘Several of the 
Roman emperours, as is still to be seen upon their 
medals, among their other titles, gave themselves that 
of Felix or fortunate..—Appison. A man is lucky in 
the lottery or in games of chance: a fortunate year 
will make up for the losses of the past year ; 


O fortunate old man, whose farm remains 
For you sufficient, and requites your pains. 
DRYDEN. 


A lucky hit may repair the ruined spendthrift’s for- 
tune, ouly to tempt him to still greater extravagances ; 


Riches are oft by guilt or baseness earn’d, 
Or dealt by chance to shield a lucky knave. 
ARMSTRONG. 


Fortunate and lucky are applied to particular circum- 
stances of fortune and luck; but fortuitous is em- 
ployed only in matters of chance generally; ‘A wender 
it must be, that there should be any man found so 
stupid as to persuade himself that this most beau- 
tiful world could be produced by the fortuitous con- 
course of atoms.’—Ray. 

Prosperous and successful seem to exclude the idea 
of what is fortuitous, although prosperity and success 
sre both greatly aided by good fortune, Fortunate 


395 


and lucky are applied as mucn to the removal of evil 
as to the attainment of good ; prosperous and success 
ful are concerned only in what is good, or esteemed as 
such: we may be fortunate in making our escape; 
we are prosperous in the acquirement of wealth. 
Fortunate is employed for single circumstances; pros- 
perous only for a train of circumstances; a man may 
be fortunate in meeting with the approbation of a 
superiour ; he is prosperous in his business; ‘Pros 
perous people (for happy there are none) are hurried 
away with a fond sense of their present condition, and 
thoughtless of the mutability of fortune.—STEELE 
Prosperity is extended to whatever is the object of our 
wishes in this world; success is that degree of pros- 
perity which immediately attends our eudeavours: 
wealth, honours, children, and all outward circum- 
stances, constitute prosperity; whence the epithet pros- 
perous may be applied to the winds as far as they 
favour our designs; 


Ye gods, presiding over lands and seas, 

And you who raging winds and waves appease, 

Breathe on our swelling sails a prosp’rous wind.. 
DryDEn. 


The attainment of any object constitutes the success ; 
* The Count d’Olivares was disgraced at the court of 
Madrid, because it was alleged against him that he 
had never success in his undertakings.’-—Appison. 
The fortunate and lucky man can lay no claim to 
merit, because they preclude the idea of exertion; 
prosperous and successful may claim a share of merit 
proportioned to the exertion. 


TO FLOURISH, THRIVE, PROSPER. 


Flourish, in French fleurir, florissant, Latin floresce 
or florco, from flos a flower, signifies to have the vigour 
and health of a flower in bloom; thrive signifies pro- 
perly to drive on; prosper, in Latin prosper, pros- 
perus, compounded of pro and spero and spes hope, 
signifies to be agreeable to the hopes. 

To jiourish expresses the state of being that which 
is desirable; to thrive, the process of becoming so. 

In the proper sense, flourish and thrive are applied 
to the vegetation: the former to that which is full 
grown; the Jatter to that which is in the act of grow- 
ing: the oldest trees are said to flourish, which put 
forth their leaves and fruits in full vigour; young trees 
thrive when they increase rapidly. towards their full 
growth. 

Flourish and thrive are taken likewise in the moral 
sense ; prosper is employed only in this sense : flourish 
is said either of individuals or communities of men; 
thrive and prosper only of individuals. To flourish 
is to be in full possession of one’s powers, physical, 
intellectual, and incidental; an author flourishes at a 
certain period; an institution flourishes ; literature or 
trade flourishes ; a nation flourishes. To thrive is to 
carry on one’s concerns to the advantage of one’s cir- 
cumstances; it isa term of familiar use for those who 
gain by positive labour: the industrious tradesman 
thrives. To prosper is to be already in advantageous 
circumstances: men prosper who accumulate wealth 
agreeably to their wishes, and beyond their expecta 
tions. 

Flourish and thrive are always taken in the gocd 
sense: nothing flourishes but what ought to flourish ; 
the word bespeaks the possession of that which ought 
to be possessed: when a pest flourishes he is the orna- 
ment of his country, the pride of human nature, the 
boast of literature: when a city flourishes it attains all 
the ends of civil association ; itis advantageous not only 
to its own members, but to the world at large; ‘ There 
have been times in which no power has been brought 
so low as France. Few have ever flourished in greater 
glory.’—Burke. No one thrives without merit: what 
is gained by the thriving man is gained by those 
qualities which entitle him to all he has; ‘ Every 
thriving grazier can think himself but ill dealt with, 
if within his own country he is not courted.’—-SouTH 
To prosper admits of a different view : one may pros- 
per by that which is bad, or prosper in that which is 
bad, or become bad by prospering ; the attainment of 
one’s ends, be they what they may, constitutes the 
prosperity; & man may prosper by means of fraud 
and injustice; he may prosper in the attainment of 
inordinate wealth or power; and he may become 


396 


proud, unfeeling, and selfish, by his prosperity: so 
great an enemy has prosperity been considered to the 
virtue of man, that every good man has trembled to 
be in that condition; ‘Betimes inure yourself to ex- 
amine,how your estate prospers.—WENTWORTH. 


WELL-BEING, WELFARE, PROSPERITY, 
HAPPINESS. 


Well-being may be said of one or many, but more 
generally of a body; the well-being of society depends 
upon a due subordination of the different ranks of 
which it is composed; ‘ Have free-thinkers been au- 
thors of any inventions that conduce to the well-being 
of mankind ?—BrrKeLey. Welfare, or faring well, 
from the German fahren to go, respects the good con- 
dition of an individual; a parent is naturally anxious 
for the welfare of his child ; 


For his own sake no duty he can ask, 
The common welfare is our only task.—JENYNS. 


Well-being and welfare consist of such things as 
more immediately affect our existence: prosperity, 
which comprehends both well deing and welfare, in- 
cludes likewise all that can add to the enjoyments of 
man. The prosperity of a state, or of an individual, 
therefore, consists in the increase of wealth, power, 
bonours, and the like; ‘Religion affords to good men 
peculiar security in the enjoyment Of their prosperity.’ 
—Buarr. As outward circumstances more or less 
affect the happiness of man, happiness is, therefore, 
often substituted for prosperity; but it must never 
be forgotten that happiness properly lies only in the 
mind, and that consequently prosperity may exist with- 
out happiness : but happiness, at least as far as respects 
a body of men, cannot exist without some portion of 
prosperity. 


TO ACQUIRE, OBTAIN, GAIN, WIN, EARN. 


Acquire, in French acquirer, Latin acquiro, is com- 
pounded of ac or ad and quero to seek, signifying to 
seek or get to one’s self; obtain, in French obdtenir, 
Latin obtineo, is compounded of ob and teneo to hold, 
signifying to lay hold or secure within one’s reach; 
gain and win are derived from the same source; 
namely, the French gagner, German gewinnen, Saxon 
winnen, from the Latin vinco, Greek xatvupat or virw 
to conquer, signifying to get the mastery over, to get 
into one’s possession; earn comes from the Saxon 
tharnan, German erndten, Frieslandish arnan to reap, 
which is connected with the Greek dovupar to take or 

et. 

: The idea of getting is common to these terms, but 
the circumstances of the action vary. We acquire by 
our own efforts; we obtain by the efforts of others, as 
well as of ourselves; we gain or win by striving ; we 
earn by labour. Talents and industry are requisite 
for acquiring ; what we acquire comes gradually to us 
in consequence of the regular exercise of our abilities; 
in this manner, knowledge, honour, and reputation 
are acquired; ‘It is Sallust’s remark upon Cato, that 
the less he coveted glory, the more he acquired it.’— 
Appison. Things are obtained by all means, honest 
or dishonest; whatever comes into our possession 
agreeable to our wishes is obtained; favours and re- 
guests are always obtained ; ‘Were not this desire of 
fame very strong, the difficulty of obtaining it, and the 
danger of losing it when obtained, would be sufficient 
to deter a man from so vain a pursuit.,—Appison. 
Fortune assists in both gaining and winning, but par- 
ticularly in the latter case: a subsistence, a superiority, 
a victory or battle, an advantage, or a pleasure, is 
gained ; ‘He whose mind is engaged by the acquisi- 
tion or improvement of a fortune, not only escapes the 
insipidity of indifference and the tediousness of in- 
activity, but gains enjoyments wholly unknown to 
those who live lazily on the toils of others.’—Jonnson. 
A game or a prize in the lottery is literally won ; 


An honest man may freely take his own; 
The goat was mine, by singing fairly won. 
DRYDEN. 
But we may win many things, in the gaining of which 
fortune is more concerned than one’s own exertions ; 
‘Where the danger ends, the hero ceases: when he 
has won an empire, or gained his mistress, the rest of 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


his story is not worth relating.’—Strr#ite. A good 
constitution and full employment are all that is neces- 
sary for earning a livelihood ; ‘They who have earned 
their fortune by a laborious and industrious Jife are 
naturally tenacious of what they have painfully ae- 
quired.’—Buatr., Fortunes are acquired after a course 
of years; they are obtained by inheritance, or gained 
in trade; they are sometimes won at the gaming table, 
but seldom earned. 

What is acquired is solid, and produces lasting bene 
fit; what is obtained may often be injurious to one’s 
health, one’s interest, or one’s morals; what is gained 
or won is often only a partial advantage, and transie 
tory in itsnature; it is gained or won only to be lost: 
what is earned serves only to supply the necessity of 
the moment; it is hardly got and quickly spent. Scho- 
lars acquire learning, obtain rewards, gain applause, 
and wn prizes, which are often hardly earned by the 
loss of health. 


TO ACQUIRE, TO ATTAIN 


To acquire (v. To acquire) is a progressive and 
permanent action; to attain, from the Latin attineo, 
compounded of ac or ad and teneo to hold, signifying 
to rest at a thing, is a perfect and finished action; we 
always go on acquiring; but we stop when we have 
attained. What is acquired is something got into the 
possession; what is attained is the point arrived at. 
We acquire a language; we attain to a certain degree 
of penton. 

y abilities and perseverance we may acquire a con- 
siderable fluency in speaking several languages ; but 
we can scarcely expect to «ttain to the perfection of a 
native in any foreign language. Ordinary powers, 
coupled with diligence, will enable a person to acquire 
whatever is useful; ‘ A genius is never to be acquired 
by art, but is the gift of nature.—Gay. We cannot 
attain to superiority without extraordinary talents and 
determined perseverance ; ‘ Inquiries after happiness, 
and rules for attaining it, are not so necessary and 
useful to mankind as the arts of consolation, and sup- 
porting one’s self under affliction.’.—-SHEPHARD. c- 
quirements are always serviceable ; attainments al. 
ways creditable. 


——— 


ACQUIREMENT, ACQUISITION, 


Are two abstract nouns from the same verb, denot 
ing the thing acquired. 

Acquirement implies the thing acquired for and by 
ourselves; acquisition that which is acquired for an- 
other, or to the advantage of another. 

People can expect to make but slender acquirements 
without a considerable share of industry ; ‘ Men of 
the greatest application and acquirements can look 
back upon many vacant spaces and neglected parts of 
time.’—Hueurs. Men of slender acquirements will 
be no acquisition to the community to which they have 
attached themselves ; ‘ To me, who have taken paing 
to look at beauty, abstracted from the consideration of 
its being an object of desire; at power only as it sits 
upon another, without any hopes of partaking any 
share of it; at wisdom and capacity without any pre- 
tension to rival or envy its acquisitions ; the world is 
not only a mere scene, but a pleasant one.’—STEELE. 

Acquirement respects rather the exertions employed ; 
acquisition, the benefit or gain accruing. To learna 
language is an acquirement ; to gain a class or a de- 
gree, an acquisition. The acquirements of literature 
far exceed in value the acquisitions of ‘fortune. 


TO GET, GAIN, OBTAIN, PROCURE. 


To get signifies simply to cause to have or possess 
it is generick, and the rest specifick ; to gain (v. To 
acquire) is to get the thing one wishes, or that is for 
one’s advantage: to obtain is to get the thing aimed 
at or striven after: to procure, from pro and curo to 
care for, is to get the thing wanted or sought for. 

Get is not only the most general in its sense, but in 
its application : it may be substituted in almost every 
case for the other terms, for we may say to get or gain 
a prize, to get or obtain a reward, to get or procure a 
book ; and it is also employed in numberless familiar 
cases, where the other terms would be less suitable, 
for what this word gains in familiarity it loses in dig. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


nity : hence we may with propriety talk ofa servant's | 
vetting some water, or a person getting a book olla 
shelf or getting meat from the butcher, with nunber- 
less similar cases in which the other terms could not 
be employed without losing their dignity. Moreover, 
get is promiscuously used for whatever comes to the 
hand, whether good or bad, desirable or not desirable, 
sought for or not; ‘The miser is more industrious 
than the saint: the pains of getteng, the fears of losing, 
and the inability of enjoying ms wealth, have been the 
mnark of satire in all ages. —Srectratror. Gain, obtain, 
and procure always include cither the wishes, or the 
instrumentality of the agent, or both together. .Thus 
a person is said to get a cold, or a fever, a good or an 
ill name, without specifying any of the circumstances 
of the action: but he is said to gain that approbation 
which is gratifying to his feelings ; to obtain a recom- 
pense which is the object of his oxertions ; to procure 
a situation which is the end of his endeavours. 

The word gain is peculiarly applicable to whatever 
comes to us fortuitously ; what we gain constitutes our 
good fortune ; we gain a victory, or we gain a cause ; 
the result in both cases may be independent of our 
exertions ; ‘ Neither Virgil nor Horace would: have 
gained so great reputation in the world, had they not 
been the friends and admirers of each other.’—Appt- 
son. To obtain and procure exclude the idea of 
chance, and suppose exertions directed to a specifick 
end: but the former may include the exertions of 
others ; the latter is particularly employed for one’s 
own personal exertions. A person obtains a situation 
through the recommendation of a friend ; he procures 
a situation by applying for it. Obtain is likewise 
employed only in that which requires particular ef- 
forts, that which is not immediately within our reach ; 


All things are blended, changeable, and vain! 
No hope, no wish, we perfectly obtain.— Jenyns. 


Procure is applicable to that which is to be got with 
ease, by the simple exertion of a walk, or of asking 
for; ‘ Ambition pushes the soul to such actions as are 
apt to procure honour and reputation to the actor’.— 
ADDISON. 


GAIN, PROFIT, EMOLUMENT, LUCRE. 


Gain signifies in general what is gained (v. To ac- 
guire) ; profit, in French profit, Latin profectus, par- 
ticiple of proficio, i. e. pro and facto, signifies that 
which makes for one’s good; emolument, from emolior, 
signifies to work out or get by working ; lwere is in 
Latin lucrum gain, which probably comes from luo to 
pay, signifying that which comes to a man’s purse. 

Gain is here a general term, the other terms are 
specifick : the gain is that which comes to a man: it is 
the fruit of his exertions, or agreeable to his wish: the 
profit is that which accrues from the thing. Thus 
when applied to riches that which increases a man’s 
esiate are his gains ; ‘The gains of ordinary trades 
and vocations are honest and furthered by two things, 
chiefly by diligence and by a good name.’—Bacon. 
That which flows out of his trade are his profits ; that 
is, they are his gains upon dealing; ‘ Why may nota 
whole estate, thrown into a kind of garden, turn as 
much to the profit as the pleasure of the owner ?—Ap- 
pIsON. Emolument is a species of gain from labour, 
or a collateral gazn ; of this description are a man’s 
emoluments from an office ; ‘ Except the salary of the 
Laureate, to which King James added the office of 
Historiographer, perhaps with some additional emolu- 
ments, Dryden’s whole revenue seems to have been 
casual.’—Jounson. A man estimates his gains by 
what he receives in the year; he estimates his profits 
by what he receives on every article; he estimates his 
emoluments according to the nature of the service which 
he has to perform: the merchant talks of his gazns ; 
the retail dealer of his profits; the place-man of his 
emoluments. 

Guin and profit are also taken in an abstract sense ; 
lucre is never used otherwise ; but the latter always 
conveys a bad meaning ; it is, strictly speaking, un- 
nallowed gain ; an immoderate thirst for gain is the 
vice of men who are always calculating profit and 
loss ; athirst for Jucre deadens every generous feeling 
of the mind ; 

O sacred hunger of pernicious gold ! 

What bands of faith can impious lucre hold 2? 

DRYDEN. 


397 


Gain and profit may be extended to other objects, 
and sometinies opposed to each other; for as that 
which we gain is what we wish only, it is often the 
reverse of profitable; hence the force of that import. 
ant question in Scripture, What shall it profit aman 
if he gain the whole world and lose his own soul 2 


GOOD, GOODNESS. ° 


Good, which under different forms runs through ak 
the northern languages, and has a great affinity to the 
Greek dyads, is supposed by Adelung to be derived 
from the Latin gaudeo, Greek yyGém, and Hebrew 
ThIP}, signifying to be joyful, joy or happiness being 
derived from that which is good. 

Good and goodness are abstract terms, drawn from 
the same word ; the former to denote the thing that is 
good, the Jatter the inherent good property of a thing. 
All good comes from God, whose goodness towards 
his creatures is unbounded. 

The good we do is determined by the tendency of 
the action ; but our goodness in doing it is determined 
by the motives of our actions. Good isof a two-fold 
nature, physical and moral, and is opposed to evil; 
Goodness is applicable either to the disposition of mo- 
ral agents or the qualities of inanimate objects ; it is 
opposed to badness. By the order of Providence the 
most horrible convulsions are made to bring about 
good ; ' 


Each form’d for all, promotes through private care 
The publick good, and justly takes its share. 
JENYNS. 


Tbe ~vdness or badness of any fruit depends upon 
its fitness to be enjoyed; ‘ The reigning errour of his life 
was, that Savage mistook the love for the practice of 
virtue, and was indeed not so much a good man as the 
friend of goodness.’ JOHNSON. 


GOOD, BENEFIT, ADVANTAGE. 


Good is an abstract universal term, which in its un 
limited sense comprehends every thing that can be 
conceived of, as suited in all its parts to the end pro 
posed. In this sense Jenefit and advantage, as well 
as utility, service, profit, &c. are all modifications of 
good; but the term good has likewise a limited ap- 
plication, which brings it to a just point of comparison 
with the other terms here chosen; the common idea 
which allies these words to each other is that of good 
as it respects a particular object. Good is here em- 
ployed indefinitely ; benefit and advantage are speci- 
fied by some collateral circumstances, Good is done 
without regard to the person who does it, or him to 
whom it is done ; but benefit has always respect to the 
relative condition of the giver and receiver, who must 
be both specified. Hence we say of a charitable man, 
that he does much good, or that he bestows benefits 
upon this or that individual. In like manner, when 
speaking of particular communities or society at large, 
we may say that it is for the good of society or for the 
good of mankind that every one submits to the sacri- 
fice of some portion of his natural liberty ; but it is 
intended for the benefit of the poorer orders that the 
charitably disposed employ so much time and money 
in giving them instruction. 

Good is limited to no mode or manner, no condition 
of the person or the thing; it is applied indiscrimi- 
nately ; ; 


Our present good the easy task is made, 
T’o earn superiour bliss when this shall fade. 
JENYNS. 


Benefit is more particularly applicable to the external 
circumstances of a person, as to his heaith, his im 
provement, his pecuniary condition, and the like: it is 
likewise confined in its application to persons only ; we 
may counsel] another for his good, although we do not 
counsel him for his benefit; but we labour for the 
benefit of another when we set apart for him the fruits 
of our labour: exercise is always attended with some 
good to all persons; itis of particular benefit to those 
who are of a lethargick habit: an indiscreet zeal does 
more harm than good to the cause of religion ; a pa- 
tient cannot expect to derive benefit from a medicine 
when he counteracts its effects; ‘Unless men were 
endowed by nature with some sense of dutv or moral 


398 


obligation, they could reap no benefit from revelation.’ 
—Barr. 

God 3s mostly employed for some positive and direct 
good; advantage for an adventitious and indirect 
good; the good is that which would be good to all; the 
advantage is that which is partially good, or good only 
in particular cases: it is good for a man to exert his 
talents; itis an advantage to him if in addition to his 
own efforts he has the support of friends: it may how- 
ever frequently happen that he who has the most ad- 
vantages derives the least good: talents, person, voice, 
powerful interest, a pleasing address, are all advan- 
tages; but they may produce evil instead of good if 
they are not directed to the right purpose; ‘ The true 
art of memory is the art of attention. No man will 
read with much advantage who is not able at pleasure 
to evacuate his mind.’—JoHnson. 


ADVANTAGE, PROFIT. 


Advantage, in French avantage, probably comes 
from the Latin adventwm, participle of advenio, com- 
pounded of ad and venio to come to, signifying to come 
to any one according to his desire, or agreeable to his 
purpose; profit, in French profite, Latin profectus, 
participle of proficto, signifies that which makes for 
one’s good. 

The idea common to these terms is of some good 
received by a person. Advantage is general; it re- 
spects every thing which can contribute to the wishes, 
wunts, and comforts of life: profit in its proper sense 
is specifick; it regards only pecuniary advantage. 
Situations have their advantages ; trade has its profits. 

Whatever we estimate as an advantage is so to the 
individual; but profits are something real; the former 
is a relative term, it depends on the sentiments of the 
person: what is an advantage to one may be a dis- 
advantage to another; 


For he in all his am’rous battles 
N’ advantage finds like goods and chattels. 
BUTLER. 


The latter is an absolute term: profit is alike to all 
under all circumstances; ‘He does the office of a 
counsellor, a judge, an executor, and a friend, to all his 
acquaintance, without the profits which attend such 
offices.’ —-STRrEeLu. 


ADVANTAGE, BENEFIT, UTILITY, SERVICE, 
AVAIL, USE. 


Advantage has the same signification as in the pre- 
ceding article; benefit, in French bienfait, Latin bene- 
factum, compounded of bene well, and factum done, 
signifies done or made to one’s wishes; utility, in 
French witiliié, Latin utilitas and wéilés useful, from 
utor to use, signifies the quality of being able to be 
used, which is also the meaning of use; service, in 
French service, Latin servitium, from servio to serve, 
signifies the quality of serving one’s purpose; avazl 
compounded of aor ad and valeo to be strong, signi- 
fies to be strong for a purpose. 

Aidvantage respects external or extrinsick circum- 
stances of profit, honour, and convenience; benefit 
respects the consequences of actions and events; 
utility and service respect the good which can be drawn 
from the use of any object. Utzlity implies the intrin- 
sick good quality which renders a thing fit for use; 
service the actual state of a thing which may fit it for 
immediate use: a thing has its utility and is made of 
service. 

A large house has its advantages ; suitable exercise 
is attended with benefit: sun-dials have their utility in 
ascertaining the hour precisely by the sun; and may 
be made serviceable at times in lieu of watches. 
Things are sold to advantage, or advantages are de- 
rived from buying and selling: ‘It is the great advan- 
tage of a trading nation, that there are very few in it 
so dull and heavy, who may not be placed in stations 
of life which may give them an opportunity of making 
their fortunes.--Appison. Persons ride or walk for 
the benefit of their health; ‘ For the benefit of the gentle 
reader, [ will show what to turn over unread, and what 
to peruse.—STrELEe. Things are purchased for their 
utility; ‘If the gibbet does not produce virtue, it is yet 
of such incontestible utility, that I believe those gen- 
tlemen would be very unwilling that * should be re- 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


moved, who are notwithstanding so zealous to ste¢4 
every breast against damnation.—HawxkrsworrTn. 
Things are retained when tney are found serviceable ; 
‘His wisdom and knowledge are serviceable to all who 
think fit to make use of them.’—StTrx ez, 

A good education has always its advantages, al 
though every one cannot derive the same benefit froni 
the cultivation of his talents, as all have not the happy 
art of employing their acquirements to the right ob- 
jects: riches are of no utility unless rightly employed; 
and edge-tools are of no service which are not pro- 
perly sharpened. It is of great advantage to young 
people to form good connexions on their entrance into 
life: it is no less beneficial to their morals to be under 
the guidance of the aged and experienced, from whom 
they may draw many useful directions for their future 
conduct, and many serviceable hints by way of admo- 
nition. 

Utility, use, service, and avail, all_express the idea 
of fitness to be employed to advantage. Utility is ap- 
plied mostly in a general sense for that which may be 
used, and use for that which actually is used; thus 
things may be said to be of general utility, or of par- 
ticular use; ‘Those things which have long gone 
together are confederate; whereas new things piece 
not so well; but, though they help by their wtzlzty, yet 
they trouble by their inconformity.,—Bacon. ‘When 
will my friendship be of use to you? —Puriies 
Use comprehends in it whatever is éstived from the 
use of a thing; service may imply that wich serves 
for a particular purpose; avail implies that kind of 
service which may possibly be procured from any ob- 
ject, but which also may not besprocured; it is there- 
fore used in problematical cases, or ina negative sense 
Prudence forbids ts to destroy any thing that can be 
turned toause; ‘A man with great talents, but void of 
discretion, is like Polyphemus in the fable, strong and 
blind, endued with an irresistible force, which for want 
of sight is of no use to him.’—Appison. Economy 
enjoins that we should not throw aside a thing so long 
as it is fit for service ; ‘The Greeks in the heroick age 
seem to have been unacquainted with the use of iron, 
the most serviceable of all the metals..—RoBERTSON 
When entreaties are found to be of no avail, females 
sometimes try the force of tears; ‘What does it avail, 
though Seneca had taught as good morality as Christ 
himself from the mount ?’-—CuMBERLAND. 

The intercession of a friend may be availadle to 
avert the resentment of one who is offended: useful 
lessons of experience may be drawn from all the events 
of life: whatever is of the best quality will be found 
most serviceable. 


TO EMPLOY, USE. 


Employ, from the Latin implico, signifies to impli 
cate, or apply for any special purpose; use, from the 
Latin wsus and utor, signifies to enjoy or derive 
benefit from. 

Employ expresses less than use; it is in fact a spe- 
cies of partial using : we always employ when we use os 
but we do not always wse when we employ. We em- 
ploy whatever we take into our service, or make sub- 
servient to our convenience for a time; we use what- 
ever we entirely devote to our purpose. Whatever ig 
employed by one person may, in its turn, be employed 
by another, or at different times be employed by the 
same person; but what is used is frequently consumed 
or rendered unfit for a similar use. What we employ 
may frequently belong to another; but what one uses 
is supposed to be his exclusive property. On this 
ground we may speak of employing persons as well as 
things; but we speak of using things only, and not 
persons, except in the most degrading sense. Persona, 
time, strength, and power are employed ; 


Thou godlike Hector! all thy force employ ; 
Assemble all th’ united band of Troy.—Porr 


Houses, furniture, and all materials, of which either 
necessities Or conveniences are composed, are used ; 


Straight the broad belt, with gay em-broid’ry grac’d, 
He loos’d, the corslet from his breast unbrac’d, 
Then suck’d the blood, and sov’reign balm infus’d, 
Which Chiron gave, and Aisculapius us’d.—Porr. 
It is a part of wisdom to employ well the short portion 
of time which is allotted to us in this sublunary state, 
and to use the things of this world so as not to abuse 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


tmem No one is exculpated from the guilt of an im- 
moral action, by suffering himself to be employed as 
@n instrument to serve the purposes of another: we 
pught to use our utmost endeavours to abstain from all 
connexion With such as wish to implicate us in their 
guilty practices. 


INSTRUMFNT, TOOL. 


Instrument, in Latin 7i7.strumentum, from instruo, 
signifies the thing by which an effect is produced; tool 
comes probably from toz, signifying the thing with 
which one toils. ‘These terms are both employed to 
express the means of producing an end; they differ 
paIncipally in this, that the former is used in a good or 
an indifferent sense, the latter only in a bad sense, for 
persons. Individuals in high stations are often the 
instruments in bringing abomt great. changes in nations; 
‘Devotion has often been found a powerful instrument 
tn humanizing the manners of men.’—Buarr. Spies 
and informers are the worthless tools of government; 


Poor York! the harmless tool of others’ hate, 
He sues for pardon, and repents too late.-—Swirt. 


TO ABUSE, MISUSE. 


Abuse, in Latin abusus, participle of abutor, com 
pounded of ad from and utor to use, signifies to use 
away or wear away with using; in distinction from 
misuse, Which signifies to use amiss. Every thing is 
abused which receives any sort of injury ; it is misused, 
if not used at all, or turned to a wrong use. 

Young people are too prone to abuse books for want 
of setting a proper value on their contents ; ‘1 know no 
evil so great as the abuse of the understanding, and yet 
there is no one vice more common.’--STEELE. People 
misuse books when they read for amusement only 
instead of improvement; ‘ 


You misuse the reverence of your place, - 
As a false favourite doth his prince’s name, 
In deeds dishon’rable.—SHAKSPEARE. 


Money is abused when it is clipped, or its value any 
way lessened; it is misused when it is spent in excess 
and debauchery. 


TREATMENT, USAGE. 


Treatment implies the act of treating, and usage that 
of using: treatment may be partial or temporary; but 
usage is properly employed for that which is permanent 
or continued: a passer-by may meet with ill treatment ; 
but children or domesticks are liable to meet with ill 
usage. Al\l persons may meet with treatment from others 
with whom they casually come inconnexion: ‘By pro- 
mises of more indulgent treatment, if they would unite 
with him (Cortez) against their oppressors, he prevailed 
onthe people to supply the Spanish, camp with provi- 
sions.—RoBERTSON. Usage is applied more properly 
to those who are more or less in the power of others: 
children may receive good or ill wsage from those who 
have the charge of them, servants from their masters, 
or wives from their husbands; ‘If we look further into 
the world, we shall find this wsege (of our Saviour 
from hisown) not so very strange; for kindred is not 
friendship.’—Souru. 


TO PROVIDE, PROCURE, FURNISH, SUPPLY. 


Provide,in Latin provideo, signifies literally to see be- 
fore, but figuratively to get in readiness for some future 
purpose ; procure, v.To get; furnish, in French four- 
nir, may possibly be connected with the Latin ferro to 
bring; supply, in French supplecr, Latin suppleo, from 
sub and pleo, signifies to fill up a deficiency, or make up 
what is wanting. 

Provide and procure are both actions that have a 
special reference to the future; furnish and supply are 
employed for that which is of immediate concern: one 
provides a dinner in the contemplation that some per- 
sons are coming to partake of it; one procures help in 
the contemplation that it may be wanted ; one furnishes 
a room, as we find it necessary forthe present purpose ; 
one supplies a family with any article of domestick 
use. Calculation is necessary in providing ; one does 
not wish to provide too much or too little; ‘A rude 
hand may build walls, form roofs, and lay floors, and 
provide all that warmth ad security require.’—Joun- 


Sus 


son. Labour and management are requisite in procur 
ing; when the thing is not always at band, or not easily 
come at, one must exercise one’s strength or ingenuity 
to procure it; ‘Such dress as may enable the body to 
endure the different seasons, the most unenlightened na- 
tions have been able to procure.'.—JoHNSON. Judge- 
ment is requisite in furnishing ; what one furnishes 
ought to be selected with due regard to the circum- 
stances of the individual who furnishes, or for whom 
itis furnished; ‘ Auria having driven the Turks from 
Corone, both by sea and land, furnished the city with 
corn, wine, victual, and powder.’—Kno.urs. Care 
and attention are wanted in supplying ; we must be 
careful to know what a person really wants, in order to 
supply him to his satisfaction ; 


Although [ neither lend nor borrow, 
Yet, to supply the ripe wants of my friend, 
Ill break a custom.—SHAKSPRARE. 


One provides against all contingencies; one procures all 
necessaries; one furnishes all comforts; one supplies 
all deficiencies. Provide and procure are the acts of 
persons only ; furnish and supply are the acts of uncon- 
scious agents. A person’s garden and orchard may be 
said to furnish hiin with delicacies; the earth supplies 
us with food. Soin the improper application: the daily 
occurrences of a great city furnish materials for a , 
newspapey; a newspaper, to an Englishman, supplies 
almost every other want; ‘ Your ideas are new, and 
borrowed from a mountainous country, the only one 
thatcan furnish truly picturesque scenery.’—GRay. 


And clouds, dissolv’d, the thirsty ground supply. 
DryYDEN 


RS ee ah Se ES 


oe 


PROVIDENCE, PRUDENCE, 


Providence and prudence are both derived from the 
verb to provide; but the former expresses the particular 
act of providing; the latter the habit of providing. 
The former is applied both to animals and men; the 
latter is employed only as*a characteristick of men. 
We may admire the providence of the ant in laying up 
a store for the winter ; 


In Albion’s isle, when glorious Edgar reign’d, 
He, wisely provident, from her white cliffs 
Launch’d half her forests.—_SoMERVILLE. 


The prudence of a parent is displayed in his concern 
for the future settlement of his child; ‘ Prudence 
operates on life, in the same mazner as rules on com 
position ; it produces vigilance rather than elevation.’—- 
Jounson. Itis provident ina person toadopt measures 
of escape for himself, in certain situations of peculiar 
danger; it is prudent to be always prepared for all con- 
tingencies. 


PRUDENT, PRUDENTIAL, 


Prudent (v. Judgement) characterizes the person or 
the thing; prudential characterizes only the thing 
Prudent signifies having prudence; prudential, ac- 
cording to the rules of prudence, or as respects pru- 
dence. The prudent is opposed to the imprudent and 
inconsiderate; the providential is opposed to the volun- 
tary; the counsel is prudent which accords with the 
principles of prudence ; 


Ulysses first in publick care she found, 
For prudent counsel like the gods renown’d. 
PoPrE 


The reason or motive is prudential, as flowing out of 
circumstances of prudence or necessity ; ‘hose who 
possess elevated understandings, are naturally apt to 
consider all prudential maxims as below their regard. 
—JouHNsON. Every oneis called upon at certain times 
to adopt prudent measures; those who are obliged te 
consult their means in the management of their ex 
penses, must act upon prudential motives 


FORESIGHT, FORETHOUGHT, FORECAST, 
PREMEDITATION. 


Foresight, from seeing before, and forethought, from 
thinking beforehand, denote the simple act of the mind 
‘in seeing a thing before it happens: forecast, from 
casting the thoughts onward, signifies coming at the 
knowledge of a thing beforehand by means of calcula 
tion: premeditation from pre before, and meditate 


400 


signifies obtaining the same knowledge by force of 
meditating, or reflecting deeply on a thing beforehand. 
Foresight and forethought are general and indefinite 
terms; we employ them either on ordinary or extraor- 
dinary occasions; but forethought is of the two the 
most familiar term ; forecast and premeditation mostly 
in the latter case: all business requires foresight ; state 
concerns require forecast: foresight and forecast 
respect what is to bappen; they are the operations 
of the mind in calculating futurity: premeditation 
respects what is to be said or done; it is a preparation 
of the thoughts and designs for action: by foresight 
and forecast we guard against evils and provide for 
contingencies; by premeditation we guard against 
errours of conduct. A man betrays his want of fore- 
sight who does not provide against losses in trade ; 


The wary crane foresees it first, and sails 
Above the storm, and leaves the lowly vales. 
DRYDEN. 


A person shows his want of forecast who does not 
provide against old age; 
Let him forecast his work with timely care, 


Which else is huddled, when the skies are fair. 
DRYDEN. 


Aman shows his want of premeditation who acts or 

"speaks on the impulse of the moment; the man_there- 
fore who does a wicked act without premeditation 
lessens his guilt; ‘Thetongue may fail and falter in 
her sudden extemporal expressions, but the pen having 
a greater advantage of premeditation is not so subject 
to errour.’—Howe.. 


JUDGEMENT, DISCRETION, PRUDENCE. 


These terms are all employed to express the various 
modes of practical wisdom, which serve to regulate the 
conduct of menin ordinary life. The judgement is 
that faculty which enables a person to distinguish right 
and wrong in general; discretion and prudence serve 
the same purpose in particular cases. ‘he judgement 
is conclusive; it decides by positive inference ; it en- 
ablesa person to discover the truth: discretion is in- 
tuitive (v. Discernment); it discerns or perceives what 
is in all probability right. The judgement acts bya 
fixedrule; it admits of no question or variation: the 
discretion acts according to circumstances, and is its 
own rule. The judgement determines in the choice 
of what is good: the discretion sometimes only guards 
against errour or direct mistakes; it chooses what is 
nearest to the truth. The judgement requires know- 
‘edge and actual experience; the discretion requires 
reflection and consideration: a general exercises his 
judgement in the disposition of his army, and in the 
mode of attack; while he is following the rules of 
military art he exercises his discretion in the choice of 
officers for different posts, in the treatment of his men, 
in his negotiations with the enemy, and various sther 
measures which depend upon contingencies ; ‘Ifa man 
have that penetration of judgement as he can discern 
what things are to be laid open, and what to be secreted, 
to him a habit of dissimulation is a hindrance and a 
poorness.’— Bacon. 


Let your own 
Discretion be your tutor. Suit the action 
To the words.— SHAKSPEARE. 


Discretion looks to the present; prudence, which is 
the same as providence or forethought calculates on 
the future: discretion takes a wide survey of the case 
that offers; it looks to the moral fitness of the thing, 
as well as the consequences which may follow from it; 
it determines according to the real propriety of the 
thing, as well as the ultimate advantages which it may 
produce; prudence looks only to the good or evil 
which may result from the thing; it is, therefore, but 
a mode or accompaniment of discretion; we must 
have prudence when we have discretion, but we may 
have prudence where there is no occasion for discre- 
tion. ‘Uhose who have the conduct or direction of 
athets require discretion ; those who have the manage- 
ment of their own concerns require prudence. For 
want of cescretion the master of a school, or the 
general of an army, may lose his authority: for want 
of prudence the merchant may involve himself in 
ruin; or the man of fortune may be brought to beg- 
gary ; ‘ The ignorance in which we are left concerning 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


| good ana evil, is not such as to supersede prudence im 

{ conduct.’—BLaiR. . 

i As epithets, judicious is applied to things oftene 
| than to persons; discreet is applied to persons rathe; 
than to things; prudent is applied to both: a remark 
or a military movement is judicious ; it displays the 
judgement of the individual from whom they emanate; 


So bold, yet so judiciously you dare, 
That your least praise is to be regular.—DrypENn 


A matron is discreet, who, by dint of years, experience, 
and long reflection, is enabled to determine on what is 
befitting the case ; 


To elder years to be discreet and grave, 
Then to old age maturity she gave-—Dznman. 


A person is prudent who does not inconsiderately ex- 
pose himself to danger; g measure is prudent that 
guards against the chances of evil; 


The monarch rose, preventing all reply, 
Prudent lest, from his resolution rais’d, 
Others among the chiefs might offer.—MiLTon. 


Counsels will be injudicious which are given by those 
who are ignorant of the subject: it is dangerous to 
intrust a secret to one who is indiscreet: the impe- 
tuosity of youth naturally impels them to be impru 
dent ; an imprudent marriage is seldom followed by 
prudent conduct in the parties that have involved 
themselves in it. 


WISDOM, PRUDENCE. 


Wisdom (v. Wit) consists in speculative knowledge; 
prudence (v. Prudent) in that which is practical: the 
former knows what is past; the latter by foresight 
knows what is to come; many wise men are remark- 
able for their want of prudence ; and those who are 
remarkable for prudence have frequently no other 
knowledge of which they can boast; ‘ Two things 
speak much the wisdom of a nation: good laws, and 
a prudent management of them.’--STILLINGFLEET. 


FOLLY, FOOLERY. 


Folly is the abstract of foolish, and characterizes 
the thing; foolery the abstract of fool, and character- 
izes the person: we may commit an act of folly with- 
out being chargeable with weakness or folly; but 
none are guilty of foolertes who are not themselves 
fools, either habitually or temporarily: young people 
are perpetually committing follies if not under proper 
control; ‘ This peculiar ill property has folly, that it 
enlarges men’s desires while it lessens their capacities.’ 
—Souru. Fashionable people only lay aside one foolery 
to take up another; ‘If you are so much transported 
with the sight of beautiful persons, to what ecstasy 
would it raise you to behold the original beauty, not 
filled up with flesh and blood, or varnished with a 
fading mixture of colours, and the rest of mortal 
trifles and fooleries.’—-W aLsH. 


FOOL, IDIOT, BUFFOON. 


Fool is doubtless connected with our word fowl, in 
German faul, which is either nasty or lazy, and the 
Greek gatos which ‘signifies worthless or good for 
nothing ; idiot comes from the Greek ldudrns, signify- 
ing either a private person or one that is rude and un- 
skilled in the ways of the world; buffoon, in French 
bouffon, is in all probability connected with our wore 
beef, buffalo, and bull, signifying a senseless fellow. 

The fool is either naturally or artificially a fool ; 


Thought’s the slave of life, and life’s time’s fool. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


The idiot isa natural fool; ‘Idiots are still in request 
in most of the courts of Germany, where there is not 
a prince of any great magnificence who has not two 
or three dressed, distinguished, undisputed fools in his 
retinue.’—Appison. The buffoon is an artificial fool ; 
‘Homer has described a Vulcan that is a buffoon 
among his gods, anda Thersites among his mortals.’— 
Appison. Whoever violates common sense in hig 
actions is a fool ; whoever is unable to act according 
to common sense is an idiot ; whoever intentionally 
violates common sense is a buffoon. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


SIMPLE, SILLY, FOOLISH. 


oemplé, v. Simple ; silly is but a variation of szmple ; 
feolish signifies like a fool (v. Fool). 

The simple, when applied to the understanding, im- 
Fee such a contracted power as is incapable of com- 

ination; stly and foolish rise in sense upon the 
former, signifying either the perversion or the total 
deficiency of understanding; the behaviour of a per- 
gon may be silly, who from any excess of feeling loses 
his sense of propriety ; the conductof a person will be 
foolish who has not judgement to direct himself. 
Country people may be simple owing to their want of 
knowledge ; 


And had the simple natives 
QObserv’d his sage advice, 

Their wealth and fame some years ago 
Had reach’d above the skies.—Swirt. 


Children will be szlly in company if they have too 
much liberty given to them; 


Two gods a szlly woman have undone.—DryDeEn. 


There are sofhe persons who never acquire wisdom 
enough to prevent them from committing foolish er- 
rours; ‘ Virgil justly thought it a foolish figure for a 
grave man to be overtaken by death, while he was 
weighing the cadence of words and measuring verses.’ 
—WéALSH. 


es 


STUPID, DULL. 


Stupid, in Latin stupidus, from stupeo to be amazed 
or bewildered, expresses an amazement which is 
equivalent to a deprivation of understanding; dudl, 
through the medium of the German toll, and Swedish 
stollig, comes from the Latin stultus simple or foolish, 
and denotes a simple deficiency. Stupzdity in its pro- 
per sense is natural to a man, although a particular 
circumstance may havea similar effect upon the under- 
standing; he who is questioned in the presence of 
others may appear very stupid in that which is other- 
wise very familiar to him; ‘A stupid butt is only fit 
for the conversation of ordinary peaple.’—Appison. 
Dull is an incidental quality, arising principally from 
the state of the animal spirits. A writer may some- 
times be dull who is otherwise vivacious and pointed ; 
a person may be dull in a large circle while he is very 
lively in private intercourse; ‘It is the great advan- 
tage of a trading nation that there are very few in it 
so dull ang heavy who may not be placed in stations 
of life which may give them an opportunity of making 
their fortunes.’—Appison. 


YOUTHFUL, JUVENILE, PUERILE. 


Youthful signifies full of youth, or in the complete 
state of youth ; juvenile, from the Latin juvenis, sig- 
nifies the same; but puerile, from puer a boy, signifies 
literally boyish. Hence the first two terms are taken 
in an indifferent sense; but the Jatter ina bad sense, 
or at least always in the sense of what is suitable to a 
boy only: thus we speak of youthful vigour, youthful 
etaployments, juvenile performances, juvenile years, 
and the like: but pwerile objections, pwerile conduct, 
and the like. Sometimes juvenile is taken in the bad 
sense when speaking of youth in contrast with men, as 
juvenile tricks; but puerile is a much stronger term of 
reproach, and marks the absence of manhood in those 
who ought to be men. We expect nothing from a 
youth but what is juvenile ; we are surprised and dis- 
satisfied to see what is puertie in aman; 

Chorebus then, with youthful hopes beguil’d, 

Swoln with success, and of a daring mind, 

This new invention fatally design’d.— Dryprn. 
‘Raw juvenile writers imagine that, by pouring forth 
figures often, they render their compositions warm and 
animated.'--Biair. ‘After the common course of 
puerile studies, he was put an apprentice to a brewer.’ 
—JOHNSON. 


CHILDISH, INFANTINE. 


Childish is in the manner of a child; infantine is in 
the manner of an infant. 

What children do is frequently simple or feelish; 
«vat infants do is commonly pretty and engaging ; 


401 


therefore childish is taken in the bad, and tnfantine in 
the good or indifferent sense. Childish manners are 
very offensive in those who have ceased according to 
their years to be children; ‘it may frequently be re- 
marked of the studious and speculative, that they are 
proud of trifles, and that their amusements seem frivo- 
lous and childish.—Jounson. ‘The infantine actions 
of some children evince a simplicity of character, 
‘The sole comfort of his declining years, almost in — 
infantine imbecility.’.—Burkg. 


PBNETRATION, ACUTENESS, SAGACITY 


As characteristicks of mind, these terms have much 
more in them in which they differ than in what they 
agree: penetration is a necessary property of mind; 
it exists to a greater or less degree in every rational 
being that has the due exercise of its rational powers: 
acuteness is an accidental property that belongs to the 
mind only, under certain circumstances. As penetra- 
tion (v. Discernment) denotes the process of entering 
into substances physically or morally, so acuteness 
which is the same as sharpness, denotes the fitness of 
the thing that performs this process; and as the mind 
is in both cases the thing that is spoken of, the terms 
penetration and acuteness are in this particular closely 
allied. It is clear, however, that the mind may have 
penetration without having acuteness, although one 
cannot have acuteness without penetration. If by 
penetration we are commonly enabled to get at the 
truth which lies concealed, by acuteness we succeed 
in piercing the veil that hides it from our view ; the 
former is, therefore, an ordinary, and the latter an ex- 
traordinary gift; ‘ Fairfax, having neither talents him- 
self for cabal, nor penetration to discover the cabals 
of others, had given his entire confidence to Crom- 
well.’--Humeg. ‘ Chillingworth was an acute disputant 
against the papists..—Hume. 

Sagacity, in Latin sagacitas and sagio to perceive 
quickly, comes in all probability from the Persian sag 
a dog, whence the term has been peculiarly applied te 
dogs, and from thence extended to all brutes which 
discover an intuitive wisdom, and also to children, or 
uneducated persons, in whom there is more penetration 
than may he expected from the narrow compass of 
their knowledge; hence, properly speaking, sagacity 
is natural or uncultivated acuteness ; ‘Activity to 
seize, not sagacity to discern, is the requisite which 
youth value.’—BLair. 


———r 


SAGE, SAGACIOUS, SAPIENT. 


Sage and sagacious are variatious from the Latin 
sagaz and sagio (v. Penetration) ; sapient is in Latin 
sapiens, from sapio, Which comes probably from the 
Greek cogds wise. 

The first of these terms has a geod sense, in appli 
Cation to men, to denote the faculty of discerning im- 
mediately, which is the fruit of experience, and very 
similar to that dow in brutes which instinctively 
perceives the truth of a thing without the deductions 
of reason ; ‘ 


So strange they will appear, but so it happen’d, 

That these most sage academicians sate 

In solemn consultation—on a cabbage. 
CUMBERLAND. 


Sagacious all to trace the emallest game, 
And bold to seize the greatest —Youna. 


Sapient, which has very different meanings, in the 
original, is now employed only with regard to animals 
which are trained up to particular arts; its use is 
therefore mostly burlesque. 


ACUTE, KEEN, SHREWD. 


Acute, in French acute, Latin acutus, from acus a 
needle, signifies the quality of sharpness and pointed 


ness peculiar to a needle; keen, in Saxon cene, pro-* ~ 


bably comes from snidan to cut; signifying the quality 
of being able to cut; shrewd, probably from the 
Teutonick beschkreyen to enchant, signifies inspired or 
endowed with a strong portion of intuitive intellect. 
In the natural sense, a fitness to pierce is predomi. 
nant in the word *<se ; and that of cutting, or a fitness 


402 


for cutting, in the word keex, ‘The same difference is 
observable in their figurative acceptation. 

An acute understanding is quick at discovering truth 
in the midst of falsehood; it fixes itself on a single point 
with wonderful celerity; ‘His acuteness was most 
eminently signalized at the masquerade, where he 
discovered his acquaintance through their disguises 
with such wonderful facility.—JoHNson. <A keen 
understanding outs or removes away the artificial veil 
under which the truth lies hidden from the view; 
‘The village songs and festivities of Bacchus gave a 
scope to the wildest extravagancies of mummery and 
grimace, mixed with coarse but keen raillery..—Cum- 
BERLAND. A shrewd understanding is rather quick at 
discovering new truths, than at distinguishing truth 
from falsehood ; 


You statesmen are so shrewd in forming schemes! 
JEFFREY. 


Acuteness is requisite in speculative and abstruse 
discussions; keenness in penetrating characters and 
springs of action; shrewdness in eliciting remarks and 
new ideas. The acute man detects errours, and the 
keen man falsehoods. The shrewd man exposes follies. 
Arguments may be acute, reproaches keen, and replies 
or retorts shrewd. <A polemick, or a lawyer, must be 
acute, a satirist keen, and a wit shrewd. 


SHARP, ACUTE, KEEN. 


The general property expressed by these epithets is 
that of skarpness or an ability to cut. The term 
sharp, from the German scharf and scheren to cut, 
is generick and indefinite: the two others are modes 
of sharpness differing in the circumstance or the de- 
gree: the acute (v. Acute) is not only more than sharp 
in the common sense, but signifies also sharp pointed : 
a knife may be sharp ; but a needle is properly acute. 
Things are sharp that have either a long or a pointed 
edge; but the keen is applicable only to the long edge ; 
and that in the highest degree of sharpness : acommon 
knife may be sharp; but a razor or a lancet are pro- 
perly said to be keen. These terms preserve the same 
distinction in their figurative use. Every painis sharp 
which may resemble that which is produced by cutting; 
‘Be sure you avoid as much as you can to ihquire after 
those that have been sharp in their judgements towards 
me.’—EaruL OF STRAFFORD. A pain is acute when it 
resembles that produced by piercing deep; 

Wisdom’s eye 
Acute for what? To spy more miseries.—Younea. 


Words are keen when they cut deep and wide; 


To this great end keen instinct stings him on. 
- Youne. 


TO PENETRATE, PIERCE, PERFORATE, 
BORE. 


Penetrate, v. Discernment ; pierce,in French percer, 
comes probably from the Hebrew pw. to break or 


rend; perforate, from the Latin forts a door, signifies 
to make a door through; bore, in Saxon borzan, is pro- 
bably changed from fore or foris a door, signifying to 
make a door or passage. 

To penetrate is simply to make an entrance into any 
substance; to pierce is to go still deeper; to perforate 
and to bore are to go through, or at all events to make 
a considerable hollow. To penetrate is a natural and 
gradual process ; in this manner rust penetrates iron, 
water penetrates wood: to pierce is a violent, and 
commonly artificial, process; thus an arrow or a bullet 
pierces through wood. The instrument by which the 
act of penetration is performed is in no case defined; 
but that of piercing commonly proceeds by some 
pointed instrument: we may penetrate the earth by 
means of a spade, a plough, a knife, or various other 
instruments; but one pierces the flesh by means of a 
needle, or one pierces the ground or a wall by means 
of a mattock. 

To perforate and bore are modes of piercing that 
vary in the circumstances of the action, and the objects 
acted upon: to pierce, in its peculiar use, is a sudden 
action by which a hollow is produced in any substance; 
but to perforate and bore are commonly the effect of 
mechanical art. The body of an animal is pierced by 
a dart; but cannon is made by perforating or boring 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


the iron: channels are formed under ground by per 
forating the earth; holes are made in the ear hy 
perforation; ‘Mountains were perforated, and bold 
arches thrown over the broadest and most rapid 
streams (by the Romans).’—Gipeon. Holes are made 
in leather, or in wood, by boring ; 

But Capys, and the graver sort, thought fit, 

'The Greeks’ suspected present to commit 

To seas or flames, at least to search or bore 

The sides, and what that space contains t’ explore. 

DennaM. 


These last two words do not differ in sense, but in ap- 
plication ; the Jatter being a term of vulgar use. 

To penetrate and pierce are likewise employed in an 
improper sense; to perforate and bore are employed 
only in the proper sense. 'The first two bear the same 
relation to each other as in the former: penetrate is, 
however, only employed as the act of persons; pierce 
is used in regard to things. There is a power in the 
mind to penetrate the looks and actions, so as justly ta 
interpret their meaning ; 


For if when dead we are but dust or clay, 
Why think of what posterity shall say ? 
Their praise or censure cannot us concern, 
Nor ever penetrate the silent urn.—JEnyns. 


The eye of the Almighty is said to pierce the thickest 
veil of darkness ; 


Subtle as lightning, bright, and quick, and fierce, 
Gold through doors and walls did pierce 
Cownky. 


Affairs are sometimes involved in such mystery, that 
the most enlightened mind is unable to penetrate either 
the end or the beginning; the shrieks of distress are 
sometimes so loud as to seem to pierce the ear. 


ORIFICE, PERFORATION. 


Orifice, in Latin orificium or orifaciwm, from os ang 
factum, signifies a made mouth, that is, an opening 
made, as it were; perforation, in Latin perferatio, 
from perforo, signifies a piercing through. 

These terms are both scientifically employed by 
medical men, to designate certain cavities in the hu- 
man body; but the former respects that which is 
natural, the latter that which is artificial: all the 
vessels of the human body have their orifices, which 
are so constructed as to open or close of themselves. 
Surgeons are frequently obliged to make perforations 
into the bones. Sometimes the term perforation may 
describe what comes from a natural process, but it 
denotes a cavity made through a solid substance ; but 
the orifice is particularly applicable to such openings 
as most resemble the mouth in form and use. In this 
manner the words may be extended in their applica- 
tion to other bodies besides animal substances, and in 
other sciences besides anatomy: hence we speak of 
the orifice of atube, the orifice of any flower, and the 
like; or the perforation of a tree, by means of a 
cannon bail cr an iron instrument. 


OPENING, APERTURE, CAVITY. 


Opening signifies in general any place left open, 
without defining any circumstances; the aperture is 
generally a specifick kind of opening which is consi- 
dered scientifically: there are openings ina wood when 
the trees are partly cut away: openings in streets by 
the removal of houses; or openings in a fence that 
has been broken down ; 


The scented dew 

Betrays her early labyrinth, and deep 

In scattercd sullen openings far behind, 

With every breeze she hears the coming storm 

THOMSON. 

Anatomists speak of apertures in the skull or in the 
heart, and the naturalist describes the apertures in the 
nests of bees, ants, beavers, and the like; ‘In less than 
a minute he had thrust his little person through the 
aperture, and again and again perches upon his neigh 
bour’s cage. —Cowrrr. The opening or aperture is 
the commencement of an enclosure; the cavity is the 
whole enclosure; hence the first two are frequently as 
a part to the whole: many animals make a cavity in 
the earth for their nest with only a small aperture for 
their egress and ingress ; ‘In the centre of every floor, 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


from top to bottom 1 the chief room, of no great 
extent, round which there are narrow cavities or 
recesses ’—JOHNSON. 


—— 


GULF, ABYSS. 


Gulf, in Greek xéAros from koi)os hollow, is applied 
literally in the sense of a deep concave receptacle for 
water, asthe gulf of Venice; abyss, in Greek dBuacos, 
compounded of a@ privative and Buoods a bottom, sig- 
nifies literally a bottomless pit. 

One is overwhemed in a gulf; it carries with it the 
idea of liquidity and profundity, into which one in- 
evitably sinks never to rise: one is lost in an abyss; it 
carries with it the idea of immense profundity, into 
which he who is cast never reaches a bottom, nor is 
able to return to the top: an insatiable voracity is the 
characteristick idea in the signification of this term. 

A gulf is a capacious bosom, which holds within 
itself and burries all objects that suffer themselves to 
sink into it, without allowing them the possibility of 
escape; hell is represented as a fiery gulf, into which 
evil spirits are plunged, and remain perpetually over- 
whelmed: a guilty mind may be said, figuratively, to 
be plunged into a gulf @f wo or despair, when filled 
with the horrid sense of its enormities; 


Sin and death amain 
Following his track, such was the will of heav’n, 
Pav’d after him a broad and beaten way 
Over the dark abyss, whose boiling gulf 
Tamely endur’d a bridge of wondrous length, 
From hell continued.—MiiTon. 


An abyss presents nothing but an interminable space, 
which has neither beginning nor end; he does wisely 
who does not venture in, or who retreats before he has 
plunged too deep to retrace his footsteps: as the ocean, 
in the natural sense, is a great ubyss, so are metaphy- 
sicks an immense abyss, into which the human mind 
precipitates itself only to be bewildered ; 


His broad wing’d vessel drinks the whelming tide, 
Hid in the bosom of the black abyss.—THomson. 


LABYRINTH, MAZE. 


Intricacy is common to both the objects expressed by 
these terms; but the term labyrinth has it to a much 
greater extent than maze; the labyrinth, from. the 
Greek \aGdrvOes, was a work of antiquity which sur- 
passed the maze in the same proportion as the ancients 
surpassed the moderns in all other works of art: it 
was constructed on so prodigious a scale, and with so 
many windings, that wnen a person was once entered, 
he could not find his way out without the assistance of 
a clue or thread. Maze, probably from the Saxon 
mase a guif, is a modern term for a similar structure 
on asmaller scale, which is frequently made by way 
of ornament in large gardens. From the proper mean- 
ing of he tw words we may easily see the ground of 
their metxphorical application: political and polemical 
discussions are com;ared to a labyrinth; because the 
mind that is once entangled in them is unable to extri- 
sate itself by any efforts of its own; e 


From the slow mistress of this school, Experience, 
And her assistant, pausing, pale Distrust, 
Purchase a dear-bought clue to lead his youth 
Through’ serpentine obliquities of human life, 

And the dark labyrinth of human hearts.—Youne. 


On the other hand, that perplexity and confusion into 
which the mind is thrown by unexpected or inexpli- 
cable events, is termed a maze; because, for the time, 
itis bereft of its power to pursue its ordinary func- 
tions of recollection and combination ; 


To measur’d notes, while they advance, 
He in wild maze shall lead the dance. 
CUMBERLAND. 


WONDER, ADMIRATION, SURPRISE, ASTO- 
NISHMENT, AMAZEMENT. 


Wonder, in German. wunder, is in all probability a 
variation of wander, because wonder throws the mind 
off its bias ; admiration, from the Latin miror, and the 


Hebrew IND Vision, or looking at, signifies looking 
at attentively : surprise, compounded of sur and prize, 


or the Latin prehendo, signifies to take on Sudden ; 


403 


astonish, from the Latin attonitus, and tonttrw thun 
der, signifies to strike, as it were, with the overpow- 
ering noise of thunder ; amaze signifies to bein amaze. 
so as not to be able to collect one’s self. 

That particular feeling which any thing unusual 
produces on our minds is expressed by all these terms, 
but under various modifications. Wonder is (he most 
indefinite in its signification or application, hut it is 
still the least vivid sentiment of all; it amounts to lit- 
tle more than a pausing of the mind, a suspension of 
the thinking faculty, an incapacity to fix on a discern- 
ible point in an object that rouses our curiosity: it is 
that state which all must experience at times, but none 
so much as those who are ignorant; they wonder at 
every thing because they know nothing ; ‘The reader 
of the “ Seasons” wonders that he never saw before 
what Thomson shows him.’—JoHnson. Admiration 
is wonder mixed with esteem or veneration; the ad- 
mirer suspends his thoughts, not from the vacancy but 
the fulness of his mind: he is riveted to an object 
which for a time absorbs his faculties: nothing but 
what is great and good excites admiration, and none 
but cultivated minds are susceptible of it; an ignorant 
person cannot admire, because he cannot appreciate 
the value of any thing ; 


With eyes insatiate, and tumultuous joy, 
Beholds the presents, and admires the boy. 
DRYDEN. 


Surprise and astonishment both arise from that which 
happens unexpectedly ; they are a species of wonder 
differing in degree, and produced only by the events of 
life: the surprise, as its derivation implies, takes us 
unawares ; we are surprised if that does not happen 
which we calculate upon, as the absence of a friend 
whom we looked for; or we are surprised if that hap- 
pens which we did not calculate upon; thus we are 
surprised to see a friend Yeturned whom we supposed 
was on his journey: astonishment may be awakened 
by similar events which are more unexpected and more 
unaccountable ; thus we are astonished to find a friend 
at our house whom we had every reason to suppose 
Was many hundred miles off; or we are astonished to 
hear that a person has got safely through a road which 
we conceived to be absolutely impassable; ‘ So little 
do we accustom ourselves to consider the effects of 
time, that things necessary and certain often surprise 
us like unexpected contingencies.’-—Jounson. ‘Ihave 
often been astonished, considering that the mutual in- 
tercourse between the two countries (France and Eng- 
land) has lately been very great, to find how little you 
seem to know of us.’—BuRKE. 

Surprise may for a moment startle ; astonishment 
may stupify and cause an entire suspension of the fa- 
culties; but amazement, has also a mixture of pertur- 
bation. We may be surprised and astonished at things 
in which we have no particular interest : we are mostly 
amazed at that which immediately concerns us. We 
may be surprised agreeably or otherwise ; we may 
be astonished at that which is agreeable, although as- 
tonishment is not itself a pleasure ; but we are amazed 
at that which happens contrary to our inclination. 
We are agreeably surprised to see our friends: we 
are astonished how we ever got through the difficulty : 
Wwe are amazed at the sudden and unexpected events 
which have come upon us to our ruin. A man of 
experience will not have much to wonder at, for his 
observations will supply him with corresponding ex- 
amples of whatever passes : a wise man will have but 
momentary surprises ; ashe has estimated the uncer- 
tainty of human life, few things of importance will 
happen contrary to his expectations: a generous mind 
will be astonished at gross instances of perfidy in 
others: there is no mind that may not sometimes be 
thrown into amazement at the awful dispensations of 
Providence; 


Amazement seizes all; the general cry 
Proclaims Laocoon justly doom’d to die—DrypDEn. 


WONDER, MIRACLE, MARVEL, PRODIGY 
MONSTER. 


Wonder is that which causes wonder (v. Wonder) ; 
miracle, in Latin miraculum, from mirror 10 wonder, 
has the same signification, signifying that which strikes 
the sense; marvel is a variation of miracle; prodigy 
in Latin prodigium, from prodigo, or procul and ago 


404 


to launch forth, signifies the thing launching forth; 
monster, in Latin monstrum, comes from monstro to 
point out, and moneo to advise or give notice; because 
among the Romans any unaccountable appearance was 
considered as an indication of some future event. 

Wonders are natural; miracles are supernatural. 
The whole creation is full of wonders; the Bible con- 
tains an account of the miracles which happened in 
those days. Sometimes the term miracle or mtracu- 
lous may be employed hyperbolically for what is ex- 
ceedingly wouderful ; ; 

Murder, though it have no tongue, will speak 

With most mzrac’lous organ.—SHAKSPEARE. 


Wonders are real; marvels are often fictitious; pro- 
digtes are extravagant and imaginary. Natural history 
is full of wonders ; 


His wisdom such as once it did appear 
Three kingdoms wonder, and three kingdoms fear. 
DENHAM. 


Travels abound in marvels or in marvellous stories, 
which are the inventions either of the artful or the 
ignorant and credulous: ancient history contains num- 
berless accounts of prodigies. Wonders are agree- 
‘able to the laws of nature; they are wonderful only 
as respects ourselves: monsters are violations of the 
laws of nature. The production of atree from a grain 
of seed is a wonder; but the production of a calf with 
two heads is a ynonster ; 
Ill omens may the guilty tremble at, 


Make every accident a prodigy, 
And monsters frame where nature never err’d.— LEE. 


DISADVANTAGE, INJURY, HURT, DETRI- 
MENT, PREJUDICE. 


Disadvantage implies the absence of an advantage 
(o. Advantage) ; injury, in Latin injuria, from jus, 
properly signifies what is contrary to right or justice, 
but extends in its sense to every loss or deficiency 
which is occasioned; Aurt signifies in the northern 
languages beaten or wounded; detriment, in Latin 
detrimentum, from detritum and deterrere to wear 
away, signifies the effect of being worn out; prejudice, 
in the improper sense of the word (v. Bias), implies 
the ill which is supposed to result from prejudice. 

The disadvantage is rather the absence of a good; 
the injury is a positive evil: the want of education 
may frequently be a disadvantage to a person by re- 
tarding his advancement; ‘ Even the greatest actions 
of a celebrated person labour under this disadvantage, 
that however surprising and extraordinary they may 
be, they are no more than what are expected from him.’ 
—Appison. The ill word of another may be an in- 
jury by depriving us of friends; ‘The places were 
acquired by just title of victory, and therefore in keep- 
ing of them no injury was offered.’—Haywarp. The 
disadvantage, therefore, is applied to such things as 
are of an adventitious nature: the injury to that which 
is of essential importance. The hurt, detriment, and 
prejudice are allspecies of injuries. Injury, in general, 
implies whatever ill] befalls an object by the external 
action of other objects, whether taken in relation to 

«physical or moral evil to persons or to things; hurt is 
that species of injury which is produced by more di- 
rect violence; too close application to study is znju- 
rious to the health; reading by an improper light is 
hurtful to the eyes: so in a moral sense, the light read- 
ing which a circulating library supplies is often inju- 
rious to the morals of young people; ‘ Our repentance 
s not real, because we have not done what we can to 
undo our faults, or at least to hinder the injurious con- 
sequences of them from proceeding..—TILLoTSON. 
All violent affections are hurtful to the mind; ‘The 
number of those who by abstracted thoughts become 
useless is inconsiderable, in respect of them who are 
furtful to mankind by an active and restless dispo- 
sition.”—BaRTLETT. The detriment and prejudice are 
species of injury which affect only the outward cir- 
cumstances of a person; the former implying what may 
lessen the value of an object, the latter what may 
lower it in the esteem of others. Whatever affects 
the stability of a merchant’s credit is highly detri- 
mental to his interests; ‘In many instances we clearly 
perceive that more or less knowledge dispensed to man 
would have proved detrimental to his siate ’—Buatir. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


Whatever 1s prejudicial to the character of a mag 
should not be made the subject of indiscriminate con 
versation: ‘That the heathen have spoken things te 
the same sense of this saying of our Saviour is so far 
from being any prejudice to this saying, that it isa 
great commendation of it,,—TILLoTson. 

It is prudent to conceal that which will be to our 
disadvantage unless we are called upon to make the 
acknowledgment, ‘There is nothing material that is 
not exposed to the injuries of time, if not to those of 
actual violence. Excesses of every kind carry their 
own punishment with them, for they are always Aurt- 
ful to the body. The price of a book is often detri- 
mental to its sale. The intemperate zeal, or the in 
consistent conduct of religious professors is highly 
prejudicial to the spread of religion. 


TO LOSE, MISS. 


Lose, in all probability, is but a variation of loose, 
because what gets‘loose or away from a person is lost 
to him; to mss, probably from the particle més, im- 
plying a defect, signifies to lose by mistake. 

What is lost is not at hand; what is missing is not 
to be seen; it does not depend upon ourselves to re 
cover what is lost; it is supposed to be irrevocably 
gone; what we miss at one time we may by diligence 
and care recover at another time. A person loses liis 
health and strength by a decay of nature, and must 
submit patiently to the Joss which cannot be repuired ; 
‘Some ants are so unfortunate as to fall down with 
their load when they almost come home; when this 
happens they seldom Jose their corn, but carry it up 
again. Appison. If a person misses the opportu- 
nity of improvement in his youth, he will never have 
another opportunity that is equally good ; 

For a time caught up to God, as once 

Moses was in the mount, and missing long 

MILTON 


LOSS, DAMAGE, DETRIMENT. 


Loss signifies the act of losing or the thing lost, 
damage, in French dommage, Latin damnum, from 
demo, to take away, signifies the thing taken away. 
detriment, v: Disadvantageous. 

Loss is here the generick term; damage and deir:- 
ment are species or modes of loss. The person sus- 
tains the loss, the thing suffers the damage or detri- 
ment. Whatever is gone from us which we wish to 
retain is a loss; hence we may sustain a loss in our 
property, in our reputation, in our influence, in our 
intellect, and every other object of possession; ‘ What 
trader would purchase such airy satisfaction (as the 
charms of conversation) by the loss of solid gain.’— 
Jounson. Whatever renders an object less service 
able or valuable, by any external violence, is a damage; 
as a vessel suffers a damage in a storm; ‘The ants 
were still troubled with the rain, and the next day they 
took a world of pains to repair the damage.’ AppIsSon. 
Whatever is calculated to cross a man’s purpose is @ 
detriment; the bare want of a good name may bea 
detrimant to a young tradesman; the want of pru- 
dence is always a great detriment to the prosperity of 
a family ; ‘The expenditure should be with the least 
possible detriment to the morals of those who expend’ 
—BvuRKE. 


INJURY, DAMAGE, HURT, HARM, MISCHIEF. 


The idea of making a thing otherwise than it ought 
is common to these terms. Injury (v. Disadvantage) 
is the most general term, simply implying what hap- 
pens contrary to right; the rest are but modes of in-- 
jury: damage, from the Latin damnum loss, is the 
injury Which takes away from the value of a thing: 
hurt (v. Disadvantage) is the injury which destroys 
the soundness or wholeness of a thing: harm (v. Evil) 
is the injury which is attended with trouble and incon- 
venience: mischief is the injury which interrupts the 
order and consistency of things. The injury is appli- 
cable to all bodies physical and moral: damage is ap- 
plicable only to physical bodies. Trade may suffer an 
injury ; a building may suffer an injury: but a build- 
ing, a vessel, a merchandise, suffers damage. When 
applied both to physical bodies, the injury compre: 
hends every thing which makes an object otherwise 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 404 


than it ought to be that is to say, all collateral cir- 
tumstances which are connected with the end and pur- 
pose of things; but damage implies that actual injury 
which affects the structure and materials of the object : 
the situation of some buildings is an injury to them; 
the falling of a chimney, or the breaking of a roof, is 
a damage; the injury may not be easily removed; the 
damage may be easily repaired. 

Injury and hurt are both applied to persons; but the 
injury may either affect their bodies, their circum- 
stances, or their minds; the hurt in its proper sense 
affects only their bodies. We may receive an injury 
or ahurt bya fall; but the former is employed when 
the health or spirits of a person suffer, the latter when 
any-fracture or wound is produced. A person some- 
times sustains an injury froma falt, either by losing the 
use of a limb, or by the deprivation of his senses ; 
‘Great injuries mice and rats do in a field.—Mort1- 
MER. A sprain, a cut, and a bruise are little hurts 
which are easily cured ; 


No plough shall hurt the glebe, no pruning hook the 
. Vine.—-DRYDEN. 


The hurt is sometimes figuratively employed as it re- 
spects the circumstances of a man, where the idea of 
inflicting a wound or a pain is implied; asin hurting a 
man’s good name, hurting his reputation, hurting his 
morals, and other such cases, in which the specifick term 
hurt may be substituted for the general term znjury ; 


In arms and science ’t is the same, 
Our rival’s hurt creates our fame.—PRIOR. 


The injury, harm, and mischief are allemployed for 
the circumstances of either things or men; but the 
injury comprehends cause and effect; the harm and 
mischief respect the evil asitis. If we say that the 
injury is done, we always think of either the agent by 
which it is done, or the object to which it is done, or 
both; ‘ Many times we do injury to a cause by dwell- 
ing upon trifling arguments.—WatTtrs. When we 
speak of the harm and mischief, we only think of the 
nature and measure of the one or the other. It is an 
injury to society to let publick offenders go free ; young 
yeople do not always consider the harm which there 
may be in some of their most imprudent actions; 
‘ After their young are hatched, they brood them under 
their wings, lest the cold, and sometimes the heat, 
should harm them.’—Ray. The mischief of dissemi- 
nating free principles among the young and the igno- 
rant has now been found to exceed all the good which 
might result from the superiour cultivation of the 
numan mind, and the more extended diffusion of 
knowledge; 


But furious Dido, with dark thoughts involv’d, 
Shook at the mighty mischief she resolv’d.—DryYDEN. 


.TO IMPAIR, INJURE. 


Impair comes from the Latin im and pejoro or pejor 
worse, signifying to make worse; injure, from in and 
jus against right, signifies to make otherwise than it 
jught to be. 

Impair seems to be in regard to injure as the species 
to the genus; what is impaired is injured, but what is 
injured is not necessarily impaired. To impair is a 
progressive mode of injuring: an injury may take 
place either by degrees, or by an instantaneous act: 
straining of the eyes impairs the sight, but a blow zn- 
jures rather than impairs the eye. A man’s health 
may be impaired or injured by his vices, but his limbs 
are injured rather than impaired by a fall. A person’s 
circumstances are impaired by a succession of misfor- 
tunes; they are injured by a sudden turn of fortune. 
The same distinction is preserved in their figurative 
application; ‘Itis painful to consider that this sublime 
enjoyment of friendship may be impaired by innu- 
merable causes.’— JOHNSON. 

Who lives to nature rarely can be poor. 

O what a patrimony this! a being 

Of such inherent strength and majesty, 

Not worlds possess’d can raise it; worlds destroy’d 

Can’t injure.—Youne. 


IMMINENT, IMPENDING, THREATENING. 


Imminent, in Latin imminens, from in and maneo to 
remain, signifies resting or coming upon; impending, 


from the Latin pendeo to hang, signifies hanging ; 
threatening is used in the sense of the verb to 
threaten. 

All these terms are used in regard to some evil that 
is exceedingly near: imminent conveys no idea of 
duration ; impending excludes the idea of what is mo- 
mentary. A person may be in.imminent danger of 
losing his life in one instant,and the danger may be 
over the next instant; but an impending danger is tha, 
which has been long in existence, and gradually ap- 
proaching ; ‘There was an opinion, if we may believe 
the Spanish historians, almost universal among the 
Americans, that some dreadful calamity was tmpend- 
ing over their heads.’.—-Rogpertson. We can seldom 
escape imminent danger by any efforts of one’s own ; 
but we may be successfully warned to escape from an 
impending danger. Imminent and impending are said 
of dangers that are not discoverable; but a threatening 
evil gives intimations of its own approach; we per- 
ceive the threatening tempest in the blackness of the 
sky ; we hear the threatening sounds of the enemy’s 
clashing swords; ‘The threatening voice and fierce 
gestures with which these words were uttered, struck 
Montezuma. He saw his own danger was zmminent, 
the necessity unavoidable.’—RoBERTSON. 


THREAT, MENACE. 
Threat is of Saxon origin; menace is of Latin ex- 
traction. They do not differin signification ; but, as is 
frequently the case, the Saxon is the familiar term, 


‘and the Latin word is employed only in the higher 


style. We may be threatened with either small or 
great evils; but we are menaced only with great evils 
One individual threatens to strike another: a generat 
menaces the enemy with anattack. We are threatened 
by things as well as persons: we are menaced by per- 
sons only; a person is threatened with a look; he is 
menaced with a prosecution by his adversary; 


By turns put on the suppliant and the lord; 
Threaten’d this moment, and the next implor’d. 
PRIOR 


Of the sharp axe 


Regardless, that o’er his devoted head 
Hangs menacing.—SoMERVILLE. 


EVIL OR ILL, MISFORTUNE, HARM, 
MISCHIEF. 


Evil in its full sense comprehends every quality 
which is not good, and consequently the othertterms 
express only modifications of evil. 

The word is however more limited in its application 
than its meaning, and admits therefore of a just com- 
parison with the other words here mentioned. They 
are all taken in the sense of evils produced by some 
external cause, or evils inherent in the object and aris- 
ing out of it. The evzi, or, in its contracted form, the 
ill, befalls a person; the misfortune comes upon him; 
the harm is taken, or he receives the harm; the mzs- 
chief isdone him. vil in its limited application is 
taken for evils of the greatest magnitude; it is that 
which is evil without any mitigation or qualification of 
circumstances. The misfortune is a minor evil; it 
depends upon the opinion and circumstances of the 
individual; what is a misfortune in one respect may 
be the contrary in another respect. Anuntimely death, 
the fracture or loss of a limb, are denominated evils ; 
the loss of a vessel, the overturning of a carriage, and 
the like, are misfortunes, inasmuch as they tend to the 
diminution of property ; but as all the casualties of 
life may produce various consequences, it may some- 
times happen that that which seems to have come upon 
us by our z// fortune turns out ultimately of the greatest 
benefit; in this respect, therefore, the misfortune is 
but a partial evil: of evil it is likewise observable, 
that it has no respect to the sufferer as a moral agent, 
but misfortune is used in regard to such things as are 
controllable or otherwise by human foresight ; 


Misfortune stands with her bow ever bent 
Over the world; and he who wounds another, 
Directs the goddess by that part where he wounds 


There to strike deep her arrows in himself. 
Youne. 


The evil which befalls a man is opposed only to th« 


406 


good which he in general experiences ; but the misfor- 
twne is opposed to the good fortune or the prudence of 
the ‘individual. Sickness is an evil, let it be endured 
or caused by whatever circumstances it may; itisa 


misfortune for an individual to come in the way of | 


having this evil brought on himself: his‘own relative 
condition in the scale of being is here referred to. 

The harm and mischief are species of minor evils ; 
the former of which is much less specifick than the 
latter, both in the nature and cause of the evil. A 
person takes harm from circumstances that are not 
known; the mischief is done to him from some posi- 
tive and immediate circumstance. He who takes cold 
takes harm; the cause of which, however, may not be 
known or suspected: a fall from a horse is attended 
with mischief, if it occasion a fracture or any evil to 
the body. Evzl and misfortune respect persons. only 
as the objects; harm and mischief are said of inanimate 
things as the object.. A tender plant takes harm from 
being exposed to the cold air: mischief is done to it 
when its branches are violently broken off or its roots 
are laid bare. , 

Misfortune is the incidental property of persons 
who are its involuntary subjects; but evil, harm, and 
mischief are. the inherent and active properties of 
things that flow out of them as effects from their 
causes: evil is said either to lie in a thing or attend 
it as a companion or follower; ‘A miggry is not to 
be measured from the nature of the evil, but from the 
temper of the sufferer..—Appison. Harm properly 
lies in the thing ; 


To me the labours of the field resign ; 

Me Paris injured: all the war be mine, 

Fall he that must beneath his rival’s arms, 

And leave the rest secure of future Meet 
OPE. 


Mischief properly attends the thing as a consequence; 


To mourn a mischief that is past and gone, 
Is the next way to draw new mischief on. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


In political revolutions there is evzl in the thing and 
eval from the thing; ev2l when it begins, evz when it 
ends, and evil long after it has ceased ; 


Yet think not thus, when freedom’s zJls I state, 
I mean to flatter kings or court the great. 
GOLDSMITH. 


It is a dangerous question for any young person to put 
to himself—what harm is there in this or that indul- 
gence? He who is disposed to put this question to 
himself will not hesitate to answer it according to his 
own wishes. The mischiefs which arise from the 
unskilfulness of those who undertake to be their own 
coachmen are of so serious a nature, that in course of 
time they will probably deter men from performing 
such unsuitable offices. 


on 


HURTFUL, PERNICIOUS, NOXIOUS, 
NOISOME. 


Hurtful signifies full of hurt, or causing much hurt ; 
pernicious, v. Destructive ; noxious and noisome, from 
the Latin nozius and noceo to hurt, signifies the same 
originally as hurtful. 

Between hurtful and pernicious there is the same 
distinction as between hurting and destroying: that 
which is hurtful may hurt in various ways; 


The hurtful hazel in thy vineyard shun. 
DRYDEN. 


That which is pernicious necessarily tends to destruc- 
tion: confinement is hurtful to the health: bad com- 
pany is pernicious to the morals; or the doctrines of 
freethinkers are pernicious to the well-being of so- 
eiety ; 

Of strength, pernicious to myself, I boast, 

The powers I have were given me to my cost. 

Lewis. 


Noxious and noisome are species of the hurtful: 
things may be hurtful both to body and mind; nozious 
and notsome only to the body: that which is noxious 
inflicts a direct injury ; 

The serpent, subtlest beast of all the field, 

Of huge extent sometimes, with brazen eyes, 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


And hairy mane, terrifick, though to thee 
Not noxious, but obedient at thy call.: 
. Minton. 


That which is noisome inflicts the injury indirectly ; 
noxious insects are such as wound; noisome vapoure 
are such as tend to create disorders; 


The only prison that enslaves the soul 
Is the dark habitation, where she dwells 
As in a noisome dungeon.—BELLINGHAM. 


Ireland is said to be free from every noxious weed or 
animal; where filth is brought together, there will 
always be noisome smells. 


CALAMITY, DISASTER, MISFORTUNE 
MISCHANCE, MISHAP. 


Calamity, in French calamit¢, Latin calamitas, from 
calamus a stalk; because hail or whatever injured the 
stalks of corn was termed a calamity; disaster, in 
French désastre, is compounded of the privative des or 
dis and astre, in Latin astrum a star, signifying what 
came from the adverse influence of the stars; misfor- 
tune, mischance, and mishap naturally express what 
comes amiss. 

The idea of a painful event is common to all these 
terms, but they. differ in the degree of importance, 

A calamity is a great disaster or misfortune; a mis 
fortune a great mischance or mishap: whatever is 
attended with destruction is a calamity; whatever 
occasions mischief to the person, defeats or interrupts 
plans, is a disaster; whatever is accompanied with a 
loss of property, or the deprivation of health, is a mis- 
fortune ; whatever diminishes the beauty or utility of 
objects is a mischance or mishap: the devastation of 
a country by hurricanes or earthquakes, or the desola 
tion of its inhabitants by famine or plague, are great 
calamities ; the overturning of a carriage, and the frac- 
ture of a limb, are disasters ; losses in trade are mis 
fortunes ; the spoiling of a book is, to a greater or Jess 
extent, a mischance Or mishap. 

A calamity seldom arises trom the direet agency of 
man; the elements, or the natural course of things 
are mostly concerned in producing this source of 
misery to men; the rest may be ascribed to chance 
as distinguished from design; ‘They observed thy 
several blessings had degenerated into calamities, ant 
that several calamitées had improved into blessings 
according as they fell into the possession of wise ox 
foolish men.’—AppISsoN. Disasters mostly arise frow. 
some specifick known cause, either the carelessness of 
persons, or the unfitness of things for their use; aa 
they generally serve to derange some preconcerted 
scheme or undertaking, they seem as if they were 
produced by some secret influence ; 


There in his noisy mansion, skill’d to rule, 

The village master taught his little school: 

A man severe he was, and stern to view, 

I knew him well, and every truant knew. 

Well had the boding tremblers learn’d to trace 

The day’s disasters in his morning face. 
GoLDsMITH. 


Misfortune is frequently assignable to no specifick 
cause, it is the bad fortune of an individual; a link 
in the chain of his destiny; an evil independent of 
himself, as distinguished from a fault; ‘She daily 
exercises her benevolence by pitying every misfor- 
tune that happens to every family within her circle 
of notice.—Jounson. JMischance and mishap are 
misfortunes of comparatively so trivial a nature, that 
it would not be worth while to inquire into their cause,. 
or to dwell upon their consequences; 


Permit thy daughter, gracious Jove, to tell, 
How this mischance the Cyprian queen befell. 
Pope. 
For pity’s sake tells undeserv’d mishaps, 
And their applause to gain, recounts his claps. 
CHURCHILL. 

A calamity is dreadful; a disaster melancholy; a 
misfortune grievous or heavy; a mischance or mishap 
slight or trivial. 

A calamity is either publick or private, but more fre 
quently the former : a disaster is rather particular than 
private ; it affects things rather than persons ; journeys 
expeditions, and military movements are commonly 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


attended with daeasters: misfortunes are altogether 
personal; they immediately affect the interests of the 
individual: mischances and mishaps are altogether 
domestick. We speak of a. calamitous period, a 
disastrous expedition, an unfortwnate person, little 
mischances or miskaps. 


ADVERSITY, DISTRESS. 


Adversity, v. Adverse; distress, from the Latin dis- 
tringo, compounded of dis twice, and stringo to bind, 
signifies that which binds very tight, or brings into a 
great strait. 

Adversity respects external circumstances; distress 
regards either external circumstances or inward feel- 
ings, Adversity is opposed to prosperity; distress to 
ease. 

Adversity is a general condition, distress a parti- 
cular state. Distress is properly the highest degree 
of adversity. When a man’s affairs go altogether 
adverse to his wishes and hopes, when accidents de- 
ptive him of his possessions or blast his prospects, he 
is said to be in adversity; ‘The other extreme which 
these considerations should arm the heart of a man 
against, is utter despondency of mind in a time of 
pressing adversity..—SoutH. Whena mantis reduced 
fo a state of want, deprived of friends and all prospect 
of relief, his situation is that of real distress ; ‘Most 
men, who are at length delivered from any great dis- 
tress, indeed, find that they are so by ways they never 
thought of’—Soura. 

Adversity is trying, distress is overwhelming. 
Every man is liable to adversity, although few are re- 
duced to distress but by their own fault. 


DISTRESS, ANXIETY, ANGUISH, AGONY. 


Distress, v. Adversity; anxiety, in French anzieté, 
and anguish, in French angoisse, both come from the 
Latin ango, an2zi to strangle; agony, in French agonie, 
Latin agonia, Greek dy@via, from dywv{w to contend 
A strive, signifies a severe struggle with pain and suf- 

ering. 

Distress is the pain felt when in a strait from which 
we see no means of extricating ourselves; anziety is 
that pain which one feels on the prospect of an evil. 
The distress always depends upon some outward 
cause; the anziety often lies in the imagination. 
The distress is produced by the present, but not 
always immediate, evil; 


How many, rack’d with honest passions, droop 
In deep retir’d distress! How many stand 
Around the death-bed of their dearest friends, 
And point the parting anguish.—THOMSON. 


The anxiety respects that which is future; ‘If you 
have any affection for me, let not your anzzety, on my 
account, injure your health.—Mr.mora (Letters of 
Cicero). Anguish arises from the reflection on the 
evil that is past; ‘In the anguish of his heart, Adam 
expostulates with his Creator for having given him an 
unasked existence.”—-AppDISON. Agony springs from 
Witnessing that which is immediate or before the eye; 


These are the charming agonies of love, 
Whose misery delights. But through the heart 
Should jealousy its venom once diffuse, 

°T is then delightful misery no more, 

But agony unmixed.—TuHomson. 


Distress is not peculiar to any age, where there is a 
consciousness of good and evil, pain and pleasure; it 
will inevitably arise from some circumstance or an- 
‘other. Anziety, anguish, and agony belong to riper 
years: infancy and childhood are deemed the happy 
periods of human existence; because they are exempt 
from the anzieties attendant on every one who has a 
station to fill, and duties to discharge. Anguish and 
agony are species of distress, of the severer kind, 
which spring altogether from the maturity of reflec- 
tion, and the full consciousness of evil. A child is in 
distress when it loses its mother, and the mother is 
also in distress when she misses her child. The sta- 
tion of a parent is, indeed, that which is most pro- 
ductive, not only of distress, but anxiety, anguish, and 
agony. the mother has her peculiar unzieties for the 
child, while rearing it in its infant state; the father 
bas his anziety for its welfare on its entrance into the 


407 


world: they both suffer the deepest anguisk when the 
child disappoints their dearest hopes, by running a 
career of vice, and finishing its wicked course by an 
untimely, and sometimes ignominious, end: not unfre- 
quently they are doomed to suffer the agony of seeing 
a child encircled in flames from which he cannot be 
snatched, or sinking into a watery grave from which 
he cannot be rescued. 


TO DISTRESS, HARASS, PERPLEX. 


Distress, v. Distress ; harass, in French harasser 
probably from the Greek dedoow to beat; perplex, in 
Latin perpleaus, participle of perplector, compounded 
of per and plector, signifies to wind round and en- 
tangle. 

A person is distressed either in his outward circum- 
stances or his feelings; he is harassed mentally or 
corporeally; he is perplexed in his understanding, 
more than in his feelings: a deprivation distresses ; 
provocations and hostile measures harass ; stratagems 
and ambiguous measures perplex: abesieged town is 
distressed by the cutting off its resources of water and 
provisions; 

O friend! Ulysses’ shouts invade my ear; 

Distress’d he seems, and no assistance near. 

PoPz 


The besieged in a town are harassed by perpetual 
attacks; ‘Persons who have been long harassed with 
business and care, sometimes imagine that when life 
declines, they cannot make their retirement from the 
world too compiete..— Biair. The besiegersofatown 
are sometimes perplexed in all their manceuvres and 
plans, by the counter-manceuvres and contrivances of 
their opponents; or a person is perplexed by the con 
tradictory points of view in which an affair appears to 
him; atale of wo distresses: continual alarms and 
incessant labour harass’ unexpected obstacles and 
inextricable difficulties perplex ; 


Would being end with our expiring breath, 

How soon misfortunes would be puff’d away ! 

A trifling shock can shiver us to the dust, 

But th’ existence of the immortal soul, 

Futurity’s dark road perplexes still—_GruNTLEMAN. 


We are distressed and perplexed by circumstances; 
we are harassed altogether by persons, or the inten- 
tional efforts of others: we may relieve another in 
distress, or may remove a perplexily; but the harass- 
ing ceases only with the cause which gave rise to it. 


PAIN, PANG, AGONY, ANGUISH. 


Pain is to be traced, through the French and 
northern languages, to the Latin and Greek zouwh 
punishment, mévos labour, and zévoya; to be poor or in 
trouble. Pang is but a variation of pain, contracted 
from theTeutonick peinigen to torment ; agony comes 
from the Greek éywrw to struggle or contend, signi- 
fying the labour or pain of a struggle; anguish comes 
from the Latin ango, contracted from ante and ago, to 
act against, or in direct opposition to, and signifies the 
pain arising from severe pressure. 

Pain, which expresses the feeling that is most re- 
pugnant to the nature of all sensible beings, is here the 
generick, and the rest specifick terms: pain and agony 
are applied indiscriminately to what is physical and 
mental; pang and anguish mostly respect that which 
is mental: pazn signifies either an individual feeling or 
a permanent state; pang is only a particular feeling; 
agony is sometimes employed for the individual feeling, 
but more commonly for the state; anguish is always 
employed for the state. Pazn is indefinite with regard 
to the degree; it may rise to the highest, or sink to the 
lowest possible degree; the rest are positively high de- 
grees of pain: the pang isa sharp pain; the agony is 
a severe and permanent pain; the anguish is an over- 
whelming pazn. 

The causes of pain are as various as the modes of 
pain, or as the circumstances of sensible beings ; it 
attends disease, want, and sin, in an infinite variety 
of forms; ‘We should pass on from crime to crime, 
heedless and remorseless, if misery did not stand in 
our way, and our own pains admonish us of our folly.’ 
—Jounson. The pangs of conscience frequently 
trouble the man who is not yet hardened in guilt: the 


4038 


pangs of disappointed love are among the severest to 
e borne; 


What pangs the tender breast of Dido tore! 
DryvDEN. 


Agony and anguish are produced by violent causes; 
and disease in its most terrible shape: wounds and 
torments naturally produce corporeal agony; a guilty 
conscience that is awakened toa sense of guilt will 
suffer mental agony ; 
Thou sbalt behold him stretch’d in all the agonies 
Of a turmenting and a shameful death.—OrTway. 


Anguish arises altogether from moral causes; the 
miseries and distresses of others, particularly of those 
who are nearly related, are most calculated to excite 
anguish; a mother suffers anguish when she sees her 
child labouring under severe pain, or in danger of 
tosing its life, without having the power to relieve it; 


Are these the parting pangs which nature feels, 
When anguish rends the heart-strings Rowe. 


TORMENT, TORTURE. 


Torment (v. To tease) and torture both come from 
torqueo to twist, and express the agony which arises 
from a violent twisting or griping of any part; but the 
latter, which is more immediately derived from the 
verb, expresses much greater violence and consequent 

ain thanthe former. Torture isan excess of torment. 

e may be tormented by a variety of indirect means; 
but we are tortured only by the direct means of the 
track, or similar instruments. Torment may be perma- 
nent: torture is only for atime, or on certain occasions. 
It is related in history that a person was once tormented 
to death, by a violent and incessant beating of drums 
in his prison: the Indians practise every species of tor- 
ture upon their .prisoners. A guilty conscience may 
torment a man all his life; 


Yet in his empire o’er thy abject breast, 

His flames and torments only are express’d.—Prior. 
The horrours of an awakened conscience are a torture 
to one who is on his death-bed ; 

To a wildsonnet or a wanton air, 
Offence and torture to a sober ear.—PRi0R. 


TO AFFLICT, DISTRESS, TROUBLE. 

Afflict, in Latin affictus, participle of affligo, com- 
pounded of af or ad and ftigo,in Greek 6\/Gw to press 
hard, signifies to bear upon any one; distress, v. Ad- 
versity ; trouble signifies to cause a tumult, from the 
Latin turba, Greek ripfn or OdpuBos @ tumult. 

When these terms relate to outward circumstances, 
the first expresses more than the second, and the second 
more than the third. 

People are afflicted with grievous maladies ; 


A melancholy tear afflicts my eye, 
And my heart labours with a sudden sigh.—Prior. 


The mariner is distressed for want of water in the 
midst of the wide ocean, or an embarrassed tradesman 
is distressed for money to maintain his credit; 


I often did beguile her of her tears, 
When I did speak of some distressful stroke, 
That my youth suffered.—SHaksPrEaRE. 


The mechanick is troubled for want of proper tools, or 
the head of a family for want of good domesticks ; 


The boy so troubles me, 
*T is past enduring. —_-SHAKSPEARE. 


When they respect the inward feelings, afflict con- 
veys the idea of deep sorrow: distress that of sorrow 
mixed with anxiety; trouble that of pain in a smaller 
degree. The death of a parent afflicts; ‘We last 
night received a piece of ill news at our club which 
very sensibly afflicted every one of us. I question not 
but my readers themselves wiil be troubled at the 
hearing of it. To keep them no longer in suspense, 
Sir Roger de Coverly is dead’—Appison. The mis- 
fortunes of our family and friends distress ; ‘ While 
the mind contemplates distress, it is acted upon and 
never acts, and by indulging in this contemplation it 
becomes more and more unfit for action.’—Cratica. 
Crosses in trade and domestick inconveniences trouble. 

In the season of affliction prayer affords the best 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


consolation and surest supports. The assistance cnd 
sympathy of friends serve to relieve distress. We 
may often help ourselves out of our troubles, and re 
move the evil by patience and perseverance, 

Afflictions may be turned to benefits if they lead a 
man to turn inwardly into himself, and examine the 
state of his heart and conscience in the sight of his 
Maker. The distresses of human life often serve only 
to enhance the value of our pleasures when we regain 
them. Among the troubles with which we are daily 
assailed, many of them are too trifling fer us to be 
troubled by them. 


AFFLICTION, GRIEF, SORROW 


Affliction, v. To afflict ; grief, from grieve, inGerman 
grémen, Swedish gramga, &c.; sorrow, in German 
sorge, &c. signifies care, as well as sorrow. 

All these words mark a state of suffering which 
differs either in the degree or the cause, orin both, _ 

Affliction is much stronger than grief, it lies deeper 
in the soul, and arises from a more powerful cause ; 
the loss of what is most dear, the continued sickness 
of our friends, or a reverse of fortune, will all cause 
affliction ; ‘Some virtues are only seen in affliction, 
and some in prosperity.—Appison. The mistortunes 
of others, the failure of our favourite schemes, the 
troubles of our country, will occasion us grief; ‘The 
melancholy silence that follows hereupon, and con- 
tinues until he has recovered himself enough to reveal 
his mind to his friend, raises in the spectators a grief 
that is inexpressible.’—Appison. 

Sorrow is less than grief; it arises from the unto 
ward circumstances which perpetually arise in life. 
disappointment, the loss of a game, our own mistake, 
or the negligences of others, cause sorrow. If more 
serious objects awaken sorrow, the feeling is less 
poignant than that of grief; ‘The most agreeable 
objects recall the sorrow for her with whom he used 
to enjoy them.’—Avpison. 

Affliction lies too deep to be vehement; it discovers 

itself by no striking marks in the exteriour: it is lasting 
and does not cease when the external cause ceases to 
act; grief may be violent, and discover itself by loud 
and indecorous signs; it is transitory, and ceases even 
before the cause which gave birth to it; sorrow dis- 
covers itself by a simple expression; it is still more 
transient than grief, not existing beyond the moment 
in which it is produced. 
’ A person of a tender mind is afficted at the remem- 
brance of his sins; he is grieved at the consciousness 
of his fallibility and proneness to errour; he is sorry 
for the faults which he has committed: 

Affliction is allayed; grief subsides; sorrow ia 
soothed. j 


TO GRIEVE, MOURN, LAMENT. 


Grieve, v. Affliction; mourn, like moan and murmur, 
is probably but an imitation of the sound which is pro- 
duced by pain. = 

To grieve is the general term; mourn the particular 
term. To grieve, in its limited sense, is an inward 
act; to mourn is an outward act: the grief lies alto- 
getherin the mind; the mourning displays itself by 
some outward mark. A man grieves for his sins; he 
mourns for the loss of his friends. One grieves for that 
which immediately concerns one’s self; 


Achates, the companion of his breast, 
Goes grieving by his side, with equal cares oppress’& 
DRYDEN 
One mourns for that which concerns others ; 


My brother’s friends and daughters left behind, 

False to them all, to Paris only kind; 

For this I mourn till grief or dire disease 

Shall waste the form whose crime it was to please. 

Pops. 
One grieves over the loss of property; one mourns the 
fate of a deceased relative. 

Grieve is the act of an individual; mourn. may be 
the common act of many; a nation mourns, though it 
does not grieve, for a publick calamity. To grieve ig 
applicable to domestick troubles; mourn may refer to 
publick or private ills. Every good Frenchman has 
had occasion to grieve for the loss of that which is 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


immediately dear to himself, and to mourn over the 
misfortunes which have overwhelmed his country. 
Grieve and mourn are permanent sentiments ; la- 
ment (v. To bewail) is a transitory feeling: the former 
produced by substantial causes, which come home to 
the feelings; the latter respects things of a more par- 
tial, oftentimes of a more remote and indifferent, na- 
ture. A real widow mourns all the remainder of her 
days for the loss of her husband; we lament a thing 
to-day which we may forget to-morrow. Mourn and 
lament are both expressed by some outward sign: but 
the former is composed and free from all noise ; the 
latter displays itself either in cries or simple words; 


So close in poplar shades, her children gone, 
The mother nightingale laments alone.—DRYDEN. 


In the moment of trouble, when the distress of the 
mind is at its height, it may break out into loud lamenta- 
tion; butcommonly grieving and mourning commence 
when lamentation ceases. 

As epithets, grievous, mournful, and lamentable 
have a similar distinction. What presses hard on 
persons, their property, connexions, and circumstances, 
is grievous; what touches the tender feelings, and 
tears asunder the ties of kindred and. friendship, is 
mournful ; whatever excites a painful sensation in our 
minds is lamentable. Famine is a grievous calamity 
for a nation ; the violent separation cf friends by death 
is a mournful event at all times, but particularly so 
for those who are in the prime of life and the fulness 
of expectation; the ignorance which some persons 
discover even in the present cultivated state of society 
is truly lamentable. Grievous misfortunes come but 
seldom, although they sometimes fall thickly on an 
individual ; 4 mournful tale excites our pity from the 
persuasion of its veracity; but lamentable stories are 
often fabricated for sinister purposes. 


GRIEVANCE, HARDSHIP. 


Grievance, from the Latin gravis, heavy or burden- 
some, implies that which lies heavy at heart; hard- 
ship, from the adjective hard, denotes that which 
presses or bears violently on the person. 

Grievance is in general taken for that which is done 
by another to grieve or distress: hardship is a par- 
ticular kind of grievance, that presses upon indivi- 
duals. There are national grievances, though not 
national hardships. 

An infraction of one’s rights, an act of violence or 
oppression, are grievances to those who are exposed 
to them, whether as individuals or bodies of men: an 
unequal distribution of labour, a partial indulgence of 
one to the detriment of another, constitute the hard- 
ship. A weight of taxes levied by an unthinking go- 
vernment, will be esteemed a grievance ; the partiality 
and caprice of tax-gatherers or subordinates in office 
in making it fall with unequal weight upon particular 
persons will be regarded as a peculiar hardship. Men 
seek a redress of their grievances from some higher 
power than that by which they are afflicted: they 
endure their Aardships until an opportunity offers of 
getting them removed ; ‘ It is better private men should 
have some injustice done them, than a publick griev- 
ance should not be redressed. This is usually pleaded 
in defence of all those hardships which fall on par- 
ticular persons, in particular occasions which could not 
be foreseen when the law was made.’—SPECTATOR. 


TO COMPLAIN, LAMENT, REGRET. 


Complain, in French complaindre or plaindre, Latin 
plango to beat the breast as a sign of grief, in Greek 
mdjyw to beat; lament, v. To bewail; regret; com- 
pounded of re privative and gratus grateful, signifies 
to have a feeling the reverse of pleasant. 

Complaint marks most of dissatisfaction; lamenta- 
tion most of regret; regret most of pain. Complaint 
is expressed verbally ; lamentation either by words or 
signs; regret may be felt without being expressed. 
Complaint is made of personal grievances; lamenta- 
tion and regret may be made on account of others as 
well as ourselves. We complain of our itl health, of 
our inconveniences, or of troublesome circumstances ; 
we lament our inability to serve another; we regret 
the absence of one whom we love. Selfish people 
have the most to compiazn of, as they demand the most 
‘af others, and are most liable to be disappointed ; 


409 

e 
anxious people are the must liable to Lament, as they 
feel every thing strongly; the best regulated mind may 
have occasion to regret some Circuinstances which give 
pain to the tender affections of the heart. 

The folly of complainé has ever been the theme of 
moralists in all ages; it has always been regarded 
as the author and magnifier of evils; it dwells on 
little things until they become great; ‘We all of us com- 
plain of the shortness of time, saith Seneca, and yet 
have much more than we know what to do with.’— 
Appison. Lamentations are not wiser though more 
excusable, especially if we lament over the misfortunes 
of others; ‘Surely to dread the future is more rea- 
sonable than to lament the past.—JoHNSON. Regret 
is frequently tender, and always moderate; hence it is 
allowable to mortals who are encompassed with. trou- 
bles to indulge in regret; ‘ Regret is useful and vir- 
tuous when it tendsto the amendment of life..—JoHn- 
son. Wemay complain without any cause, and lament 
beyond what the cause requires; but regret will 
always be founded on some real cause, and not exeeed 
the cause in degree. It would be idle for a man to 
complain of his want of education, or lament over the 
errours and misfortunes of his youth; but he can never 
look back upon mispent time without sincere regret. 


TO COMPLAIN, MURMUR, REPINE. 


Complain, v. To complain; murmur, in German 
murmeln, conveys both in sound and in sense the idea 
of dissatisfaction ; repine is compounded of re and pine, 
from tbe English pain, Latin pena punishment, and 
the Greek reiva hunger, signifying to convert into pain. 

The idea of expressing displeasure or dissatisfaction 
is common to these terms. Complaint is not so loud 
as murmuring, but more so than repining. 

We complain or murmur by some audible method ; 
we may repine secretly. Complaints are always ad- 
dressed to some one; murmurs and repinings are 
often addressed only to one’s self. Complaints are 
made of whatever creates uneasiness, without regard 
to the source from which they flow; murmurings are 
a species of complaints made only of that which is 
done by others for our inconvenience; when used in 
relation to persons, complaint is the act of a superiour ; 
murmuring that of an inferiour; repining is always 
used in relation to the general disposition of things. 
When the conduct of another offends, it calls for 
complaint ; when a superiour aggrieves by the impo- 
sition of what is burdensome, it occasions murmuring 
on the part of the aggrieved; when disappointments 
arrive, or ambition is thwarted, men repine at their 
destiny. 

Complaints and murmurs may be made upon every 
trivial occasion ; repiningss only on matters of moment. 
Complaints, especially such as respect one’s self, are 
at best but the offspring of an uneasy mind; they 
betray great weakness, and ought to be suppressed; 
murmurs are culpable; they violate the respect and 
obedience due to superiours; those who murmur have 
seldom substantial grounds for murmuring ; repinings 
are sinful, they arraign the wisdom and the goodness 
of an infinitely wise and good Being. It will be difficult, 
by the aid of philosophy, to endure much pain without 
complaining ; religion only can arm the soul against 
all the ills of life ; 

1’ll not complain ; 

Children and cowards rail at their misfortunes. 

TRAPP. 


The rebellious Israelites were frequently guilty of 
murmurings, not only against Moses, but even against 
their Almighty Deliverer, notwithstanding the repeated 
manifestations of his goodness and power ; 


Yet, O my soul! thy rising urmurs stay, 

Nor dare th’ ALLWISE DISPOSER to arraign; 
Or against his supreme decree, 

With impious grief complain.--LYTTLETON. 


A want of confidence in God is the only cause of 
repinings ; he who sees the hand of God in all things 
cannot repine ; 

Would all the deities of Greece combine, 

In vain the gloomy thunderer might repine ; 

Sole should he sit, with scarce a god to friend, 

And see his Trojans to the shades descerd.—Porg,, 


10 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


TO BEWAIL, BEMOAN, LAMENT, DEPLORE. ' what causes this painful sentiment. The difference in 


Bewail is compounded of be and wail, which is 
probably connected with the word wo, signifying to 
express sorrow; bemoan, compounded of be and moan, 
signifies to indicate grief with moans; lament, in 
French lamenter, Latin lamentor or lamentum, comes 
probably from the Greek xAatya and xAalw to cry out 
with grief; deplore, in Latin deploro, i. e. de and 
ploro or plango, signifies to give signs of distress with 
the face or mouth. 

All these terms mark an expression of pain by some 
external sign. Bcwail is not so strong as bemoan, but 
stronger than lament; bewail and bemoan are expres- 
sions of unrestrained grief or anguish: a wretched 
mother dewails the loss of her child; a person in deep 
distress bemoans his hard fate: lamentation may arise 
from simple sorrow or even imaginary grievances; a 
sensualist laments the disappointment of some ex- 
pected gratification. 

Bewail and bemoan are always indecorous, if not 
sinfu), expressions of grief, which are inconsistent with 
the profession of a Christian; they are common among 
the uncultivated, who have not a proper principle to 
restrain the intemperance of their feelings. There is 
nothing temporal which is so dear to any one that he 
ought to bewail its loss: nor any condition of things so 
distressing or desperate as to make a man bemoan his 
lot. Lamentations are sometimes allowable; the mi- 
series of others, or our own infirmities and sins, may 
justly be lamented. 

Deplore is a much stronger expression than lament ; 
the former calls forth tears from bitterness of the 
heart ; 


The wounds they washed, their pious tears they shed, 
And laid along their oars deplor’d the dead.—Porps. 


The latter excites acry from the warmth of feeling ; 


But let not chief the nightingale lament 

Her ruin’d care, too delicately fram’d 

To brook the harsh confinement of the cage. 
THOMSON. 


The deplorable indicates despair ; the lamentable marks 
only pain or distress. 

Among the poor we have deplorable instances of 
poverty, ignorance, vice, and wretchedness combined. 
Among the higher classes we have often lamentable 
instances of people involving themselves in trouble by 
their own imprudence. A field of battle or a city 
overthrown by an earthquake is a spectacle truly de- 
plorable. It is lamentable to see beggars putting on 
sll the disguises of wretchedness in order to obtain 
what they might earn by honest industry. The con- 
dition of a dying man suffering under the agonies of 
an awakened conscience is deplorable; the situation 
of the relative or friend who witnesses the agony, with- 
out being able to afford consolation to the sufferer, is 
truly lamentable. 


TO GROAN, MOAN. 


Groan and moan are both an onomatopela, from the 
sounds which they express. Groan is a deep sound 
produced by hard breathing: moan is a plaintive, long- 
drawn sound produced by the organs of utterance. 
The groan proceeds involuntarily as an expression of 
severe pain, either of body or mind: the moan proceeds 
often from the desire of awakening attention or ex- 
citing compassion. Dying groans are uttered in the 
agonies of death: the moans of a wounded sufferer are 
sometimes the only resource he has left to make his 
destitute case known ; 


The plain ox, whose toil, 
Patient and ever ready, clothes the land 
With all the pomp of harvest, shall he bleed, 
And struggling groan beneath the cruel hands 
F’en of the clown he feeds ?—-THomson. 
The fair Alexis lov’d, but lov’d in vain, 
And underneath the beechen shade, alone, 
Thus to the woods and mountains made his moan 
DRYDEN. 


MOURNFUL, SAD. 


Mournful signifies full of what causes mourning ; 
ead (v. Dull) signifies either a painful sentiment, or 


the sentiment is what constitutes the difference between 
these epithets: the mournful awakens tender and sym- 
pathetick feelings: the sad oppresses the spirits and 
makes one heavy at heart; a mournful tale contains 
an account of others’ distresses ; 


Upon his tomb 
Shall be engrav’d the sack of Orleans ; 
The treacherous manner of his mournful death. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


A sad story contains an account of one’s own distress; 


How sad a sight is human happiness 
To those whose thoughts can pierce beyond an hour' 
Youne 


A mournful event befalls our friends and relatives; a 
sad. misfortune befalls ourselves. Selfish people find 
nothing mournful, but many things sad; tender-hearted 
people are always affected by what is mournful, and 
are less troubled about what is sad. 


DULL, GLOOMY, SAD, DISMAL. 


Dull may probably come from the Latin dolor, su 
nifying generally that which takes off from the bright 
ness, vivacity, or perfection of any thing; gloomy, 
from the German glumm muddy, signifies the same as 
tarnished ; sad is probably connected with shade, to 
imply obscurity, which is most suitable to sorrow ; 
dismal, compounded of dis and mal or malus, signifies 
very evil. 

When applied to natural objects they denote the 
want of necessary light: in this sense metals are more 
or less dull according as they are stained with dirt: 
the weather is either dull or gloomy in different de 
grees; that is, dull when the sun is obscured by 
clouds, and gloomy when the atmosphere is darkened 
by fogs or thick clouds. A room is dull, gloomy, or 
dismal, according to circumstances: it is dull if the 
usual quantity of light and sound be wanting; it is 
gloomy if the darkness and stillness be very consider- 
able; it is dismal if it be deprived of every conveni- 
ence that fits it for a habitation; in this sense a dun: 
geon is a dismal abode; ‘ While man is a retainer to 
the elements and a sojourner in the body, it (the soul) 
must be content to submit its own quickness and spi 
rituality to the dulness of its vehicle.—Sourn. 


Achilles’ wrath, to Greece the direful spring 

Of woes unnumber’d, heav’nly goddess, sing ! 
That wrath which hurl’d to Pluto’s gloomy reign 
The souls of mighty chiefs untimely slain.—Poprx. 


For nine long nights, through all the dusky air 
The pyres thick flaming shot a dismal glare.—Popr. 


Sad is not applied so much to sensible as moral ob 
jects, in which sense the distressing events of human 
life, as the loss of a parent or a child, is justly deno- 
minated sad; ‘Henry If. of France, by a splinter un- 
happily thrust into his eye at a solemn justing, was sent 
out of the world by a sad but very accidental death.’ 
—Souru. : 

In regard to the frame of mind which is designated 
by these terms, it will be easily perceived from the 
above explanation. As slight circumstances produce 
dulness, any change, however small, in the usual flow 
of spirits may be termed dull ; 


: A man 
So duil, so dead in look, so wo-begone. 
SHAKSPEDRE. 


Gloom weighs heavy on the mind, and gives a turn to the 
refiections and the imagination: desponding thoughts 
of futurity will spread a gloom over every other cb 
jéct; ‘ Neglect spreads gloominess upon theiz humour 
and makes them grow sullen and unconversable’— 
Cotuizr. The word dismal is seldom used except as 
an epithet to external objects. Sadness indicates a 
wounded state of the heart; feelings of unmixed pain: 


Six brave companions from each ship we lost ; 
With sails outspread we fly the unequal strife, 
Sad for-their loss, but joyful of our life—Popr. 


GLOOM, HEAVINESS. 


Gloom has its source internally, and is often in 
dependent of outward circumstances ; heaviness is @ 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


weight upon the spirits, produced by a foreign cause : 
the former belongs to the constitution; the latter is 
occasional. People of a melancholy habit have a par- 
ticular gloom hanging over their minds which pervades 
all their thoughts; those who suffer under severe disap- 
pointments for the present, and have gloomy prospects 
for the future, may be expected to be heavy at heart; 
we may sometimes dispel the gloom of the mind by 
the force of reflection, particularly by the force of reli- 
gious contemplation: heaviness of spirits is itself a 
temporary thing, and may be succeeded by vivacity or 
lightness of mind when the pressure of the moment 
has subsided ; ‘If we consider the frequent reliefs we 
receive from laughter, and how often it breaks the 
gloom which is apt to depress the mind, one would 
take care not to grow too wise for so great a pleasure 
of life.—Appison. ‘Worldly prosperity flattens as life 
descends. He who lately overflowed with cheerful 
spirits and high hopes, begins to look back with heavi- 
ness on the days of former years.’—BuarrR. 


GLOOMY, SULLEN, MOROSE, SPLENETICK. 


All these terms denote a temper of mind the reverse 
of easy or happy: gloomy lies either in the general 
constitution or the particular frame of the mind; szl- 
len lies in the temper: a man of a gloomy disposition 
is an involuntary agent; it is his misfortune, and 
renders him in some measure pitiable: the sullen man 
yields to his evil humours ; sullenness is his fault, and 
renders him offensive. The gloomy man distresses 
himself most; his pains are all his own: the sullen 
man has a great share of discontent in his composition ; 
he charges his sufferings upon others, and makes them 
suffer in common with himself. A man may be ren- 
dered gloomy for a time by the influence of particular 
circumstances; but sullenness creates pains for itself. 
when all external circumstances of a painful nature 
are wanting ; 

Th’ unwilling heralds act their lord’s commands, 
Pensive they walk along the barren sands; 
Arriv’d, the hero in his tent they find, 

With gloomy aspect, on his arm reclin’d.—Popk. 


At this they ceased; the stern debate expir’d: 
The chiefs in sullen majesty retir’d.—Pornr. 


Sullenness and moroseness are both the inherent 
properties of the temper; but the former discovers 
itself in those who have to submit, and the latter in 
those who have to command: sullenness therefore be- 
trays itself mostly in early life; moroseness is the 
peculiar characteristick of age ; ‘ The morose philoso- 
pher is so much affected by these and some other au- 
thorities, that he becomes a convert to his friend, and 
desires he would take him with him when he went to 
his next ball’—Bupers.. The sullen person has 
many fancied hardships to endure from the control of 
others; the morose person causes others to endure 
many real hardships, by keeping them under too severe 
acontrol. Sullenness shows itself mostly by an un- 
seemly reserve; moroseness shows itself by the hard- 
ness of the speech, and the roughness of the voice. 
Sulienness is altogether a sluggish principle, that leads 
more or less to inaction ; moroseness is a harsh feeling, 
that is not contented with exacting obedience unless it 
inflicts pain. 

Moroseness is a defect of the temper; but spleen, 
from. splen, is a defect in the heart: the one betrgys 
itself in behaviour, the other more in conduct.“ A 
morose man is an unpleasant companion ; a splenetick 
man is a bad member of society: the former is ill- 
natured to those about him, the latter is ill-humoured 
with all the world. Moroseness vents itself in tem- 
porary expressions: spleen indulges itself in perpetual 
bitterness of expression: ‘ While in that splenetick 
mood, we amused ourselves in a sour critical specula- 
tion of which we ourselves were the objects, a few 
ee effected a tota) change in our variable minds.’ 
—BuRKE. 


PITEOUS, DOLEFUL, WOFUL, RUEFUL. 


Piteous signifies moving pity (v. Pity) ; doleful, or 
full of dole, in Latin dolor pain, signifies indicative of 
much pain; woful, or full of wo, signifies likewise in- 
dicative of wo, which from the German weh implies 
pain; rueful, or full of rwe, from the German reuen to 

epent, signifies indicative of much sorrow 


411 


The close alliance in sense of these words one to an 
other is obvious from the above explanation ; piteous 
is applicable to one’s external expression of bodily o1 
mental pain ; a child makes piteous lamentations when 
it suffers for hunger, or has lost its way ; 


With pond’rous clubs 

As weak against the mountain heaps they push 

Their beating breast in vain and ptteous bray, 

He lays them quivering on th’ ensanguin’d plain 

THOMSON. 

Doleful applies to those sounds which convey the idea 
of pain; there is something doleful in the tolling of a 
funeral bell, or in the sound of a muffled drum ; 


Entreat, pray, beg, and raise a doleful cry —DRyYDEN. 


Woful applies to the circumstances and situations of 
men; a scene is woful in which we witness a large 
family of young children suffering under the compli- 
cated horrours of sickness and want; ‘A brutish 
temptation made Samson, from a judge of Israel, a 
woful judgement upon it.—Soutu. Rueful applies to 
the cutward indications of inward sorrow depicted 
in the looks or countenance. The term is commonly 
applied to the sorrows which spring from a gloomy or 
distorted imagination, and has therefore acquired a 
somewhat ludicrous acceptation; hence we find in 
Don Quixote, the knight. of the rueful countenance 
introduced. The term is however used in poetry ina 
serious sense ; 

Cocytus nam’d, of lamentation loud, 

Heard on the rueful stream.—MILTon. 


MEAN, PITIFUL, SORDID. 


The moral application of these terms to the charac- 
ters of men, in their transactions with each other, is 
what constitutes their common signification. What 
ever a man does in common with those below him is 
mean; it evinces a temper that is prone to sink rather 
than to rise in the scale of society: whatever makes 
him an object of pity, and consequently of contempt 
for his sunken character, makes him pitiful: what 
ever makes him grovel and crawl in the dust, licking 
up the dross and filth of the earth, is sordid, from the 
Latin sordeo to be filthy and nasty. JMeanness.is in 
many cases only relatively bad as it respects the dis- 
posal of our property: for instance, what is meanness 
in one, might be generosity or prudence in another: 
the due estimate of circumstances is allowable in all, 
but it is meanness for any one to attempt to save, at the 
expense of others, that which he can conveniently 
afford either to give or pay: hence an undue spirit of 
seeking gain or advantage for one’s self to the detri- 
ment of others, is denominated a mean temper: of 
this temper the world affords such abundant examples, 
that it may almost seem unnecessary to specify any 
particulars, or else I would say it is mean in those who 
keep servants, to want to deprive them of any fair 
sources of emolument: it is mean for ladies in their 
carriages, and attended by their livery servants, to 
take up the time of a tradesman by bartering with him 
about sixpences or shillings in the price of his articles. 
it is mean for a gentleman to do that for himself which, 
according to his circumstances, he might get another to 
do for him; 


Can you imagine I so mean could prove, 
To save my life by changing of my love? 
‘ DRYDEN. 


Pitifulness goes farther than meanness: it is not 
merely that which degrades, but unmans the person; 
it is that which is bad as well as low: when the fear 
of evil or the love of gain prompts a man to sacrifice 
his character and forfeit his veracity he becomes truly 
pitiful: Blifield in Tom Jones is the character whom 
all pronounce to be pitiful; ‘The Jews tell us of a 
two-fold Messiah, a vile and most pitiful fetch, in 
vented only to evade what they cannot answei ’— 
Pripeaux. Sordidness is peculiarly applicat'e to 
one’s love of gain: although of a more corrupt, yet 
it is not of so degrading a nature as the two former: 
the sordid man does not deal in trifles like the mean 
man; and has nothing so low and vicious in him as 
the pitiful man. A continual habit of getting money 
will engender a sordid love of it in the human mind: 
but nothing short of a radically contemptible character 
leads a man to be pitiful. A mean man is thought 


412 


lightly of: a pttzful man is held in profound contempt: 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


an unhappy man whom nobody likes, and who likes 


a sordid man is hated) Meanness descends to that | nobody; every criminal! suffering the punishment of 


which is insignificant and worthless ; 


Nature, I thought, perform’d too mean a part, 
Forming her movements to the rules of art. _ 
Swirt. 


Pitifulness sinks into that which is despicable; 

Those men who give themselves airs of bravery on 
refleeting upon the last scenes of others, may behave 
the most p7ztifully in their own.’—RicHarpson. Sor- 
didness contaminates the mind with what is foul; ‘It 
is strange, since the priest’s office heretofore was always 
splendid, that it is now looked upon as a piece of reli- 
gion, and to make it low and sordid.’—Soutu. 


This my assertion proves, he may be old, 
And yet not sordid, who refuses gold. 
DENHAM. 


SORRY, GRIEVED, HURT. 


Sorry and grieved are epithets somewhat differing 
from their primitives sorrow and grief (v. Affliction), 
inasmuch as they are applied to ordinary subjects. 
We speak of being sorry for any thing, however 
wtivial, which concerns ourselves ; 


The ass, approaching next, confess’d 

That in his heart he lov’d a jest; 

One fault he hath, is sorry for ’t, 

His ears are half a foot too short.—Swirr. 


We are commonly grieved for that which concerns 
others ; 


's The mimick ape began to chatter, 
How evil tongues his name bespatter; 
He saw, and he was griev’d to see’t, 
His zeal was sometimes indiscreet—Swirt. 


[ am sorry that I was not at home when a person 
called upon me; [ am grieved that it is not in my 
power to serve a friend who stands in need.’ Both 
these terms respect only that which we do ourselves: 
kurt (v. To displease and To jure) respects that 
which is done to us, denoting a painful feeling from 
hurt or wounded feelings ; we are hurt at being treated 
with disrespect; ‘No man is hurt, at least few are so, , 
by hearing his neighbour esteemed a worthy man.’— 
Bair. 


UNHAPPY, MISERABLE, WRETCHED. 


Unhappy is literally not to be happy; this is the 
negative condition of many who might be happy if 
they pleased. Miserable, from misereor to pity, sig- 
nifies to deserve pity, which is to be positively and 
extremely unhappy: this is the lot only of a com- 
paratively few. Wretched, from our word wreck, the 
Saxon wrecca an exile, and the like, signifies cast 
away or abandoned; that is, particularly miserable, 
which is the lot of still fewer. As happiness lies pro- 
perly in the mind, unhappy is taken in thes+proper 
sense, with regard to the state of the feelings, but 
is figuratively extended to the outward circumstances 
which occasion the painful feelings; we lead an un- 
happy life, or are in an unhappy condition: as that 
which excites the compassion of others must be ex- 
ternal, and the state of abandonment must of itself be 
an outward state, miserable and:wretched are properly 
applied to the outward circumstances which cause the 

ain, and improperly to the pain which is occasioned. 

e can measure the force of these words, that is to 
say, the degree of unhappiness which they express, 
only by the circumstance which causes the unhappi- 
ness. Unhappy is an indefinite term; as we may be 
unhappy from slight circumstances, or from those 
which are important; a child may be said to be un- 
happy at the loss of a plaything; a man is unhappy 
who leads a vicious life :miserable and wretched are 
more limited in their application; a child cannot be 
either miserable or wretched; and he who is so, has 
some serious cause either in his own mind or in his 
circumstances to make him so: a man is miserable 
who is tormented by his conscience; a mother will be 
wretched who sees her child violently torn from her. 

The same distinction holds good when taken to de- 
signate the outward circumstances themselves; he is 


his offences is an unhappy man; 


Such is the fate unhappy woimen find, 
And such the curse entail’d upon our kind. 
Rows. 


The condition of the poor is particularly miserable in 
countries which are not blessed with the abundance 
that England enjoys; 


These miseries are more than may be borne. 
SHAESPEARE, 


Philoctetes, abandoned by the Greeks in the island of 
Lemnos, a prey.to the most poignant grief and the 
horrours of indigence and solitude, was a wretched 
man; 

’T is murmur, discontent, distrust, 

That makes you wretched.—Gay. 


Unhappy is only applicable to that which respecta 
the happiness of man; but miserable and wretched 
may be said of that which is mean and worthless in its 
nature; a writer may be either miserable or wretched 
according to the lowness of the measure at which he is 
rated; so likewise any performance may be miserable 
or wretched, a house may be miserable or wretched, 
and the like. 


TO EMBARRASS, PERPLEX, ENTANGLE 


Embarrass (v. Difficult) respects a person's manners 
or circumstances; perplex (v. To distress) his views 
and conduct; entangle (v. To disengage) is said of par- 
ticular circumstances. Embarrassments depend alto 
gether on ourselves; the want of prudence and pre- 
sence of mind are the common gauses: perplexitics 
depend on extraneous circumstances as well as our- 
selves; extensive dealings with others are mostly at- 
tended with perplexities ; entanglements arise mostly 
from the evil designs of others. 

That embarrasses which interrupts the even course 
or progress of one’s actions; ‘Cervantes had so much 
kindness for Don Quixote, that however he em 
barrasses him with absurd distresses, he gives him 
so much sense and virtue as may preserve our es- 
teem.’—Jounson. ‘That perplexes which interferes 
with one’s opinions; ‘It is scarcely possible, in the 
regularity and composure of the present time, to image 
the tumult of absurdity and clamour of contradiction 
which perplexed doctrine, disordered practice, and dis- 
turbed both publick and private quiet in the time 
of the rebellion..—Jounson. That entangles which 
binds a person in his decisions; ‘I presume you do not 
entangle yourself in the particular controversies. be- 
tween the Romanists and us.’.—C.Larenpon. Pecu- 
niary difficulties embarrass, or contending feelings pro- 
duce embarrassment: contrary counsels or interests 
perplex: law-suits entangle. Steadiness of mind pre 
vents embarrassment in the outward behaviour 
Firmness of character is requisite in the midst of 
perplexities: caution must be employed to guard 
against entanglements. : 


———e 


TO TROUBLE, DISTURB, MOLEST. 


Whatever uneasiness or painful sentiment is pro 
duced in the mind by outward circumstances is effected 
either by trouble (v. Affliction), by disturbance (v. Com- 
motion), or by molestation (v. To inconvenience) 
Trouble is the most general in its application; we may 
be troubled by the want of a thing, or trowbdled by that 
which is unsuitable; we are disturbed and molested 
only by that which actively trowbles. Pecuniary 
wants are the greatest troubles in life; the perverse- 
ness of servants, the indisposition or ill behaviour of 
children, are domestick troubles; ‘Ulysses was ex- 
ceedingly troubled at the sight of his mother (in the 
Elysian fields).—Appison. The noise of children 
is a disturbance, and the prospect of want disturbs 
the mind. Trouble may be permanent; disturbance 
and molestation are temporary, and both refer to the 
peace which is destroyed: a disturbance ruffles or 
throws out of a tranquil state; a molestation burdens 
or bears hard either on the body or the mind: noise is 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 413 


aways a disturbance to one who wishes to think or; to produce dejection in persons of the greatest equa 


. 


to remain in quiet; 
No buzzing sounds disturb their golden sleep. 
DRYDEN. 
Lalking, or any noise, is a molestation to one who is 
in an irritable frame of body or mind; 
Both are doom’d to death; 
And the dead wake not to molest the living. 
Rowe. 


TROUBLESOME, IRKSOME, VEXATIOUS. 


These epithets are applied to the objects which create 
trouble or vexation. 

Irksome is compounded of irk and some, from the 
German arger vexation, which probably comes from 
the Greek dpyés; troublesome (v. To afflict) is here, as 
before, the generick term; irksome and vexatious are 
species of the troublesome : what is troublesome creates 
either bodily or mental pain; what is irksome creates a 
mixture of bodily and mental pain; and what is veza- 
tious creates purely mental pain. What requires great 
exertion, or a too long continued exertion or exertions, 
coupled with difficulties, is trowblesome; in this sense 
the laying in stores for the winter is a troublesome 
work for the ants, and compiling a dictionary is a 
troublesome labour to some writers; ‘The incursions of 
troublesome thoughts are often violent and importu- 
nate.’-—Jounson. What requires any exertion which 
We are unwilling to make, or interrupts the quiet 
which we particularly long for, is irksome; in this 
sense giving and receiving of visits is zrksome to some 
persons; travelling is zrksome to others ; 


For not to zrksome toil, but to delight he made us. 
Mitton. 


What comes across our particular wishes, or disap- 
points us in a particular manner, is veratious ; in this 
sense the loss of a prize which we had hoped to gain 
may be vexatious : 
The pensive goddess has already taught 
How vain is hope, and how vexatious thought. 
PRIOR. 


DIFFICULTIES, EMBARRASSMENTS, 
TROUBLES. 


These terms are all applicable to a person’s concerns 
in life; but difficulties relate to the difficulty (v. Diffi- 
culty) of conducting a business; embarrassments re- 
late to the confusion attending a state of debt; and 
trouble to the pain which is the natural consequence 
of not fulfilling engagements or answering demands. 
Of the three, difficultzessexpresses the least, and trou- 
bles the most. A young man on his entrance into the 
world will unavoidably experience dificulties, if not 
provided with ample means in the outset; ‘ Young 
Cunningham was recalled to Dublin, where he con- 
tinued for four or five years, and of course experienced 
all the difficulties that attend distressed situations.’— 
Jounson. Let a man’s means be ever so ample, if he 
have not prudence and talents fitted for business, he 
will hardly keep himself free from embarrassments ; 
‘Few men would have had resolution to write books 
with such embarrassments (as Milton laboured under).’ 
—Jounson. There are no troubles so great as those 
which are produced by pecuniary difficulties, which are 
the greatest troubles that can arise to disturb the peace 
of a man’s mind; ‘ Virgil’s. sickliness, studies, and the 
troubles he met with, turned his hair gray before the 
usual time ’"—WatsH. 


ed 


DEJECTION, DEPRESSION, MELANCHOLY. 


Dejection, from dejicio to cast down, and depression, 
from deprimo to press or sink down, have both regard 
tothe state of the animal spirits; melancholy, from the 
Greek pedayxoXla biack bile, regards the state of the 
humours in geaeral, or of the particular humour called 
tie bile. 

Dejection and depression are occasional, and depend 
on oftward circumstances; melancholy is perinanent, 
and lies in the constitution. Depression is but a de- 
gree of dejection: slight circumstances may occasion 
a depression; distressing events occasion a dejection : 
the death of a near and dear relative may be expected 


nimity ; 
So bursting frequent from Atrides’ breast, 
Sighs following sighs his inward fears confess d; 
Now o’er the fields dejected he surveys, 
From thousand Trojan fires the mountain blaze. 
Pops. 


Lively tempers are most liable to depressions ; ‘1 will 
only desire you to allow me that Hector was in an ab- 
solute certainty of death, and depressed over and above 
with the conscience of being in an ill cause.’—Porg 
Melancholy is a disease which nothing but clear views 
of-veligion can possibly correct; ‘I have read some- 
where in the history of ancient Greece, that the womer 
of the country were seized with an unaccountable 
melancholy, which disposed several of them to maks 
away with themselves.’— ADDISON. 


DESPAIR, DESPERATION, DESPONDEN cy. 


Despair and desperation, from the French desespoir, 
compounded of the privative de and the Latin spes 
hope, signifies the absence or the annihilation of ‘all 
hope; despondency, from despond, in Latin despondeo, 
compounded of the privative de and spondeo to promise, 
signifies literally to deprive in a solemn manner, or cut 
off from every gleam of hope. 

Despair is a state of mind produced by the view of 
external circumstances; desperation and despondency 
may be the fruit of the imagination; the former there- 
fore always rests on some ground, the latter are some- 
times ideal: despazr lies mostly in reflection; despeta 
tion and despondency in the feelings; the former marks 
a state of vehement and impatient feeling, the latter 
that of fallen and mournful feeling. Despair is often 
the forerunner of desperation and despondency, but it 
is not necessarily accompanied with effects so poweér- 
ful; the strongest mind may have occasion to despair 
when circumstances warrant the sentiment; men of 
an impetuous character are apt to run into a state of 
desperation; a weak mind full-of morbid sensibility is 
most liable to fall into desyondency. 

Despair interrupts or checks exertion 

Despair and grief distract my lab’ring mind ; 

Gods! what a crime my impious heart design’d. 

Porr 


Desperation impels to greater exertions; ‘It may be 
generally remarked of those who squander what they 
know their fortune is not sufficient to allow, that in 
their most jovial moments there always breaks out 
some proof of discontent and impatience ; they either 
scatter with a wild desperation, or pay their money 
with a peevish anxiety..—-Jounson. Despondency 
unfits for exertion; ‘‘'homsen submitting his produc- 
tions to some who thought themselves qualified to 
criticise, he heard of nothing but faults; but finding 
other judges more favourable, he did not suffer himself 
to sink into despondence.’—Jounson. When a phy- 
sician despairs of making a cure, he lays aside the ap- 
plication of remedies; when a soldier sees nothing but 
death or disgrace before him, he is driven to despera 
tion, and redoubles his efforts; when a tradesman 
sees before him nothing but failure for the present, and 
want for the future, he may sink into despondency. 
despair is justifiable as far as it is a rational calcula 
tion into futurity from the present appearances: des 
peration may arise from extraordinary circumstances 
or the action of strong passions; in the former case it 
is unavoidable, and may serve to rescue from great 
distress; in the latter case it is mostly attended wit 
fatal consequences: despondency is a disease of the 
mind, which nothing but a firm trust in the goodness 
of Providence can obviate. 


DESPERATE, HOPELESS. 


Desperate (v. Despair) is applicable to persons o 
things; hopeless to things only: a person makes ¢ 
desperate effort ; he undertakes a hopeless task. 

Desperate, when applied to things, expresses more 
than hopeless ; the latter marks the absence of hope an 
to the attainment of good, the former marks the absence 
of hope as to the removal of an evil: a person who ig 
in a desperate condition is overwhelmed with actual 
trouble for the present, and the prospect of its cone 


414 


tinuance for the future; he whose case is hopeless is 
without the prospect of effecting the end he has in 
view: gamesters are frequently brought into desperate 
situations when bereft of every thing that might pos- 
sibly serve to lighten the burdens of their misfortunes ; 


Before the ships a desperate stand they made, 
And fir’d the troops, and call’d the gods to aid. 
PopPE. 


it is a hopeless undertaking to endeavour to reclaim 
men who have p!Junged themselves deep into the laby- 
“inths of vice; 


Th’ Eneans wish in vain their wanted chief, 
Hopeless of flight, more hopeless of relief. 
DRYDEN. 


HOPE, EXPECTATION, TRUST, CONFIDENCE. 


Anticipation of futurity is the common idea ex- 
pressed by all these words. Hope, in German hoffen, 
probably from the Greek démimedw to look at with plea- 
sure, is welcome; expectation (v. To await) is either 
welcome or unwelcome : we hope only for that which 
is good; we expect the bad as well as the good. In 
bad weather we hope it will soon be better; but ina 
bad season we expect a bad harvest, and in a good 
season a good harvest. Hope is simply a presentiment; 
it may vary in degree, more according to the temper 
of the mind than the nature of the circumstances, 
some hope where there is no ground for hope, and others 
despair where they might hope: expectation is a con- 
viction that excludes doubt ;* we expect in proportion 
as that conviction is positive: we hope that which may 
be or can possibly be; we expect that which must be 
or which ought to be. The young man hopes to live 
many years; the old man expects to die in a few years. 
Hope is a precious gift to man; it is denied to no one 
under any circumstances; it is a solace in affliction, 
and a support under adversity; it throws a ray of light 
over the darkest scene: expectation is an evil rather 
than a good; whether we ezpect the thing that is 
agreeable or otherwise, it is seldom attended with any 
thing but pain. Hope is justified by the nature of our 
condition; since every thing is changing, we have also 
reason to hope that a present evil, however great, may 
be succeeded by something less severe; 


Regions of sorrow, doleful shades, where peace 
And rest can never dwell; ope never comes, 
That comes to all.—MILTon. 


Expectation is often an act of presumption, in which 
the mind outsteps its own powers, and estimates the 
future as if it were present; since every thing future 
is uncertain, but death, there is but that one legitimate 
subject of expectation ; 


All these within the dungeon’s depth remain, 
Despairing pardon, and expecting pain.—DrypDEN. 


Hope may be deferred, but never dies; it is a pleasure 
as lasting as it is great: expectation is swallowed up in 
certainty; it seldom leaves any thing but disappoint- 
ment. 

Trust (v. Belief) and confidence (v. To confide) 
agree with hope in regard to the objects anticipated ; 
they agree with expectation in regard to the certainty 
of the anticipation : expectation, trust, and confidence, 
when applied to some future good, differ principally in 
the grounds on which this certainty or positive convic- 
tion rests. Expectation springs either from the cha- 
racter of the individual or the nature of the event 
which is the subject of anticipation: in the former it 
is a decision ; in the latter a rational conclusion: trust 
springs altogether from a view of the circumstances 
connected with the event, and is an inference or con- 
clusion of the mind drawn from the whole ; 


Our country’s gods, in whom our trust we place. 
Drypen. 
Confidence arises more from the temper of the mind, 
than from the nature of the object; it is rather an in- 
stantaneous decision than a rational conclusion ; 
His pride 
Hambled by such rebuke, so far beneath 
His confidence to equal God in pow’r.—MItTon. 


* See Eberhardt: “ Hoffnung, Erwartung, Vertrauen, 
Zuversicht. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


Expectation and confidence therefore are often errome 
ous, and mostly unwarrantable; the latter still more 
frequently than the former: trust, like hope, is alwaya 
warrantable, even though it may sometimes be de- 
ceived. 

If we expect our friends to assist us in time of need, 
it may be a reasonable expectation founded upon their 
tried regard for us and promises of assistance; or it 
may be an extravagant expectation founded upon our 
self-love and selfishness: if we trust that an eminent 
physician will cure us, it is founded upon our know- 
ledge of his skill, and of the nature of our case; if we 
indulge a confident expectation that our performances 
will meet With universal approbation, it is founded 
upon our vanity and ignorance of ourselves. The 
most modest man is permitted to hope that his endea 
vours to please will not fail of success ; and to t7-ust so 
far in his own powers as to be encouraged to proceed : 
a prudent man will never think himself authorized to 
expect success, and still less to be confident of it, when 
a thousand contingencies may intervene to defeat the 
proposed end. 


TO CONFIDE, TRUST. 


Both these verbs express a reliance on the fidelity 
of another, but confide, in Latin confide, compounded 
of con and fido, signifying to place a trust in a person, 
is to. trust (v. Belief) as the species to the genus; we 
always trust when we confide, but not vice versa. 
We confide to a person that which is of the greatest 
importance to ourselves; we trust to him whenever 
we rest on his word for any thing. We need rely only 
on a person’s integrity when we trust to him, but we 
rely also on his abilities and mental qualifications 
when we place confidence ; it is an extraordinary trust, 
founded on a powerful conviction in a person’s favour. 

Confidence frequently supposes something secret as 
well as personal ; ¢rusé respects only the personal in- 
terest. A king confides in his ministers and generals 
for the due execution of his plans, and the administra- 
tion of the laws; one friend confides in another when 
he discloses tc him all his private concerns: a mer- 
chant trusts to his clerks when he employs them in 
his business ; individuals trust each other with por- 
tions of their property ; 


Men live and prosper but in mutual trust, 
A confidence of one another’s truth. SouTueRn 


f Hence, credit 
And publick trust *twixt man and man are broken. 
Rowe. 


A breach of test evinces a want of that commen 
principle which keeps human society together; but a 
breach of confidence betrays a more than ordinary share 
of baseness and depravity. 


——— ee 


CONFIDENT, DOGMATICAL, POSITIVE. 


Confident, from confide (v. To confide), marks the 
temper of confiding in one’s self; dogmatical, from 
dagma a maxim or assertion, signifies the temper of 
dealing in unqualified assertions; positive, in Latin 
positivus, from positus, signifies fixed to a point. 

The first two of these words denote an habitual or 
permanent state of mind; the latter either a partial or 
an habitual temper. There is much of confidence in 
dogmatism and positivity, but it expresses more than 
either. Confidence implies a general reliance on one’s 
abilities in whatever we undertake; dogmatism im- 
plies a reliance on the truth of our opinions ; positivity 
a reliance on the truth of our assertions. A confident 
man is always ready to act, as he is sure of succeeding ‘ 
a dogmatical man is always ready to speak, as he is 
sure of being heard; a posative man is determined tc 
maintain what he has asserted, as he is convinced that 
he has made no mistake. 

Confidence is opposed to diffidence ; dogmatism tc 
skepticism ; posttivity to hesitation. A confident man 
mostly fails for want of using the necessary means to 
ensure success; ‘People forget how little it is that 
they know and how much less it is that they can do, 


_when they grow confident upon any present state of 


things.—Soutn. A dogmatical man is mostly in 
errour, because he substitutes his own partial opinions 
for such as are established ; ‘If you are neither dogma- 
tical, nor show either by your words or your actions 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


that you are full of yourself, all will the more heartily 
rejoice at your victory. —BupGELL. A positive man 
is mostly deceived, because he trusts more to his own 
senses and memory than he ought; ‘ Positive as you 
now are in your opinions, and confident in your asser- 
tions, be assured that the time approaches when both 
men and things will appear to you in a different light.’ 
—Buair. Self-kKnowledge is the most effectual cure 
for self-confidence; an acquaintance with men and 
things tends to lessen dogmatism. The experience of 
having been deceived one’s self, and the observation 
that others are perpetually liable to be deceived, ought 
to check the folly of being postive as to any eyent or 
circumstance that is past. 


ASSURANCE, CONFIDENCE. 


Assurance implies either the act of making another 
sure (v. To affirm), or of being sure one’s self; confi- 
dence implies simply the act of the mind in confiding, 
which is equivalent to a feeling. 

Assurance, as an action, is to confidence as the means 
tothe end. We give a person an assurance in order 
to inspire him with confidence. 

Assurance and confidence, as a sentiment in our- 
selves, may respect either that which is external of us, 
or that which belongs to ourselves; in the first case 
they are both taken in an indifferent sense: but the 
feeling of assurance is much stronger than that of con- 
fidence, and applies to objects that interest the feel- 
ings; ‘I appeal to posterity, says Auschylus; to pos- 
terity I consecrated my works, in the assurance that 
they will meet that reward from time which the par- 
tiality of my contemporaries refuses to bestow.’—Cum- 
BERLAND. Confidence, on the other hand, applies only 
to such objects as exercise the understanding ; * All the 
arguments upon which a man, who is telling the pri- 
vate affairs of another, may ground his confidence of 
security, he must, upon reflection, know to be uncer- 
tain, because he finds them without effect upon him- 
self.—Jounson. Thus we have an assurance of a 
life to come ; an assurance of a blessed immortality : 
we have a confidence in a person’s integrity. As re- 
apects ourselves exclusively, assurance is employed to 
designate either an occasional feeling, or a habit of 
the mind; confidence is for the most part an occa- 
sional feeling: assurance, therefore, in this sense, 
may be used indifferently, but in general it has a bad 
acceptation ; but confidence has an ind ‘fferent or a good 
sense. 

Assurance is a self-possession of the mind, arising 
from the conviction that all in ourselves is right; ‘I 
never sit silent im company when secret history is 
talking, but [am reproached for want of assurance.’— 
Jounson. Confidence is self-possession only in parti- 
cular cases, grounded on the reliance we have in our 
abilities. or our character; ‘The hope of fame is neces- 
sarily connected with such considerations as must 
abate the ardour of confidence, and repress the vigour 
of pursuit.’—JoHNnson. 

The man of assurance never loses himself under any 
circumstances, however trying; he is calm and easy 
when another is abashed and confounded: the man 
who has conjidence will generally have it in cases that 
warrant him to trust to himself. 

A liar utters his falsehoods with an air of assurance, 
in order the more effectually to gain belief; conscious 
innocence enables a person to speak with confidence 
when interrogated. 

Assurance shows itself in the behaviour, confidence 
in the conduct. Young pcople are apt to assert every 
thing with a tone of assurance; ‘ Modesty, the daugh- 
ter of Knowledge, and Assurance, the offspring of 
Ignorance, met accidentally upon the road; and as 
both had a long way to go, and had experienced from 


former hardships that they were alike unqualified to} 


pursue their journey alone, they agreed, for their mu- 
tual advantage, to travel together.’—Moorr. Noman 
should undertake any thing without a certain degree 
of confidence in himself; ‘I must observe that there 
is a vicious modesty which justly deserves to be ridi- 
euled, and which those very persons often discover, 
who value themselves most upon a well-bred confi- 
dence. This happens when a man is ashamed to act 
up to his reason, and would not, upon any considera- 
aon, be surprised in the practice of those duties for 


415 


the performance of which he was sent into the world’ 
— ADDISON. 


ASSURANCE, IMPUDENCE. 


Assurance (v. Assurance), and impudence, which 
literally implies shamelessness, are so closely allied to 
each other, that assurance is distinguished from impu- 
dence more in the manner than the spirit; for impu- 
dence has a grossness attached to it which does not be- 
long to assurance. 

Vulgar people are impudent because they have assu- 
rance to break through all the forms of society ; but 
those who are more cultivated will have their assu- 
rance controlled by its decencies and refinements ; ‘A 
man of assurance, though at first it only denoted a 
person of a free and open carriage, is now very usually 
applied to a profligate wretch, who can break through 
all the rules of decency and morality without a blush. 
I shall endeavour, therefore, in this essay, to restore 
these words to their true meaning, to prevent the idea 
of modesty from being confounded with that of sheep- 
ishness, and to hinder zmpudence from passing fox 
assurance.’ —BUDGELL. 


TO AWAIT, WAIT FOR, LOOK FOR, 
EXPECT. 


Await and wait, in German warten, comes froin 
wakren to see or look after; expect, in Latin expecto 
or exspecto, compounded of ex and specto, signifies te 
look out after. 

All these terms have a reference to futurity, and our 
actions with regard to it. GAG . 

Await, wait for, and look for mark a calculation 
of consequences and 2 preparation for them; and 
expect simply a calculation; we often expect with- 
out. awaiting, waiting, or looking for, but never the 
reverse. 

Await is said of serious things; zat and look for 
are terms in familiar use; expect is employed either 
seriously or otherwise. 

A person expects to die, or awaits the hour of his 
dissolution; he expects a letter, watts for its coming, 
and looks for it when the post is arrived. 

Await indicates the disposition of the mind; wait 
for the regulation of the outward conduct. as well as 
that of the mind; look for is a species of waiting 
drawn from the physical action of the eye, and may be 
figuratively applied to the mind’s eye, in which latter 
sense it is the same as expect. 

It is our duty, as well as our interest, to await the 
severest trials without a murmur; 


This said, he sat, and expectation held 

His looks suspense, awaiting who appeared 
To second, or oppose, or undertake 

The perilous attempt—Mu.Ton. 


Not less resolv’d, Antenor’s valiant heir 
Confronts Achilles, and awaits the war.—Popr. 


Prudence requires us to wart patiently for a suitable 
opportunity, rather than be premature in our attempts 
to obtain any objects; ‘ Wait till thy being shall be 
unfolded.’—Buarr. When children are too much in 
dulged and caressed, they are apt to look for a repe- 
tition of caresses at inconvenient seasons; ‘If you 
look for a friend, in whose temper there is not to be 
found the least inequality, you look for a pleasing 
phantom.’—Brarr. It is in vain to look for or expect 
happiness from the conjugal state, which is not founded 
on a cordial and mutual regard ; ‘ We are not to expect, 
from our intercourse with others, all that satisfaction 
which we fondly wish.’—Buatir. 


TO CONSIGN, COMMIT, INTRUST. 


Consign, in French consigner, Latin consigno, com 
pounded of con and signo, signifies to seal for a speci 
fick purpose, also to deposite ; commit, in French cam- 
mettre, Latin committo, compounded of com and mztto 
to put together, signifies to put into a person’s hands; 
intrust, compounded of in and trust, signifies to put 
in trust. 

The idea of transferring from one’s self to the care 
of another iscommon to these terms. What is con 
signed is either given absolutely away from one’s self 
or only conditionally for one’s own purpose : 


4 


416 


And oft I wish, amid the scene, to find 
Some spot to real happiness consign’d.—GOLDSMITH. 


What is committed or intrusted is given conditionally. 
A person consigns his property over to another by a 
deed in law; a merchant consigns his goods to an- 
ather, to dispose of them for his advantage; he com- 
mits the management of his business to his clerks, and 
intrusts them with the care of his property. 

Consign expresses @ more positive measure than 
commit, but intrusting is more or less positive or im- 
portant, according to the nature of the thing tntrusted. 
When a child is consigned to the care of another, it is 
an unconditional surrender of one’s trust into the 
hands of another; 


Atrides, parting for the Trojan war, 
Consign’'d the youthful consort to his care.—Pors. 


Any person may be committed to the care of another 
with various limitations; ‘In a very short time Lady 
Macclesfield removed her son from her sight, by com- 
mitting him to the care of a poor woman.’—JoHNSsON 
(Life of Savage). When a person is intrusted to the 
eare of another, it is botha partial and temporary mat- 
ter, referring mostly to his personal safety, and that 
only for a limited time.» A parent does most wisely 
to consign the whole management of his child’s edu- 
cation to one individual, in whom he can confide ; if 
he commit it in part only to any one’s care, the defi- 
ciency in the charge is likely to remain unsupplied; in 
infancy children must be more or less intrusted to the 
care of servants, but prudent parents will diminish the 
frequency of these occasions as much as possible. 

In this sense the word zntrust may be applied to 
other minor objects. In an extended application of 
the terms, papers are said to be consigned to an editor 
of a work for his selection andarrangement. The in- 
spection of any publick work is committed to proper 
officers. A person is intrusted with a secret, but he 
may also be intrusted with the lives of others, and 
every thing else which they hold; on the same ground 
power is intrusted by the Almighty to kings, or, ac- 
cording to republican phraseology, it is intrusted by the 
commonwealth to the magistrate; ‘Supposing both 
equal in their natural integrity, I ought in common 
prudence to fear foul play from an indigent person 
rather than from one whose circumstances seem to 
have placed him above the base temptation of money. 
This reason makes the commonwealth regard her 
richest subjects as the fittest to be cntrusted with her 
highest employments.’—ApDISON. 

Cuxsign and commit are used in the figurative sense. 
Athing is consigned to destruction, or committed to 
the flames. Death consigns many to an untimely 
grave: a writer commits his thoughts to the press; 
‘At the day of general account, good men are then to 
be consigned over to another state, a state of everlast- 
ing love and charity..--ATTERBURY. 


Js my muse controll’d 
By servile awe? Born free, and not be bold! 
At least I ’ll dig a hole within the ground, 
And to the trusty earth commit the sound.—DrypeEn. 


ad 


* 


DEPENDENCE, RELIANCE. 


Dependence, from the Latin dependo, de and pendo 
to hang from, signifies literally to rest one’s weight by 
hanging from that whichis held; rely, compounded of 
re and ly or lie, signifies likewise to rest one’s weight 
by lying or hanging back from the object held. 

Dependence is the general term; reliance is a spe- 
cies of dependence: we depend either on persons or 
things; we rely on persons only: dependence serves 
for that which is immediate or remote; reliance serves 
for the future only. We depend upon a person for that 
which we are obliged to receive or led to expect from 
him: we rely upon a person for that which he has 
given us reason to expect from him. 

Dependence is an outward condition, or the state of 
exturnal circumstances; reliance is a state of the feel- 
ings with regard to others.. We depend upon God for 
all that we have orshall have; ‘A man who uses his 
best endeavours to live according to the dictates of 
virtue and right reason has two perpetual sources of 
cheerfulness, in the consideration of his own nature, 
and of that Being on whom he has a dependence.’-- 
Appison. We rely upon the word of wan for that 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


which he has promised to perform; ‘They afforded a 
sufficient conviction of this truth, and a firm reliance 
on the promises contained in it.—Rocrrs. We may 
depend upon a person’s coming from a variety of 
causes; but we rely upon it only in reference to hig 
avowed intention. This latter term may also denote 
the act of things in the same sense; 


The tender twig shoots upward to the skies, 
And on the faith of the new sun relies.—DRyYDEN 


FAITHFUL, TRUSTY. 


Faithful signifies full of faith or fidelity (v. Faith, 
fidelity) ; trusty~signifies fit or worthy to be trusted 
(vw. Belief). 

Faithful respects the principle altogether ; it is suited 
to all relations and stations, publick and private: 
trusty includes not only the principle, but the mental 
qualifications in general; it applies to those in whom 
particular trust is to be placed. It is the part of a 
Christian to be faithful to all his engagements; it is 4 
particular excellence in a servant to be trusty; 


The steeds they left their trusty servants hold. 
Pork. 


Faithful is applied in the improper sense to an uncon- 
scious agent; trusty may be applied with equal pro- 
priety to things as to persons. We may speak of a 
faithful saying, or a faithful picture; a trusty sword 
or a trusty weapon; 
What we hear 
With weaker passion will affect the heart, 
Than when the faithful eye beholds the part. 
FRANCES 


He took the quiver from the trusty bow 
Achates used to bear.—DrypDEN. 


FAITH, FIDELITY. 


Though derived from the same source (v. Belief), 
they differ widely in meaning: faith here denotes a 
mode of action, namely, an acting true to the faith 
which others repose in us; fidelity, a disposition of the 
mind to adhere to that faith which others repose in us. 
We keep our faith, we show our fidelity. 

Faith isa publick concern, it depends on promises ; 
fidelity is a private or personal concern, it depends upon 
relationships and connexions. A breach of faith isa 
crime that brings a stain on a nation; for fazth ought 
to be kept even with an enemy. A breach of fidelity 
attaches disgrace to the individual; for fidelity is due 
from a subject to a prince, or from a servant to his 
master, or from married people one to another. No 
treaty can be made with him who will keep no faith; 
no confidence can be placed in him who discovers no 


fidelity. The Danes kept no faith with the English; 


The pit resounds with shrieks, a war succeeds, 
For breach of publick faith and unexampled deeds. 
DrypeEn.. 


Fashionable husbands and wives in the present day 
seem to think there is no fidelity due to each other; 
‘When one hears of negroes who upon the death of 
their masters hang themselves upon the next tree, who 
can forbear admiring their fidelity, though it expresses 
itself in so dreadful a manner ?—Appison. 


DISTRUSTFUL, SUSPICIOUS, DIFFIDENT. 


Distrustful signifies full of distrust, or not putting 
trust in (v. Belief); suspicious signifies having sus- 
picion, from the Latin suspicio, or sub and specio to 
look at askance, or with a wry mind; difident, from 
the Latin difido or disfido, signifies having no faith. 

Distrustful is said either of ourselves or others; 
suspicious is said only of others; diffident only of our’ 
selves: to be distrustful of a person, is to impute no 
good to him; to be suspicious of a person, is to impute 
positive evil tohim: he who is distrustful of another’s 
honour or prudence, will abstain from giving him his 
confidence ; he whois susvicious of another’s honesty, 
will be cautious to have no dealings with him Dis- 
trustful is a particular state of feeling; suspicious an 
habitual state of feeling: a person is distrustful of ar- 
other, owing to particular circumstances; he may be 
suspicious from his natural temper z 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


As applied to himself, a person is distrustful of his 
awn powers to execute an office assigned, or he is 
generally of a diffident disposition: it is faulty to das- 
trust that in which we ought to trust; there is nothing 
more criminal than a distrust in Providence, and no- 
thing better than a distrust in our own powers to with- 
stand temptation ; ‘Before strangers, Pitt had some- 
thing of the scholar’s timidity and distrust.’—Jonn- 
son. Suspicion is justified more or jess according to 
circumstances; but a too great proneness to suspicion 
is liable to lead us into many acts of injustice towards 
others; ‘ Nature itself, after it has done an injury, 
will for ever be suspicious, and no man can love the 
person he suspects. —Souts. Difidence is becoming 
in youth, so long as it does not check their laudable 
exertions; ‘As an actor, Mr. Cunningham obtained 
little reputation, for his difidence was too great to be 
overcome.’—JOHNSON. 


—_——_ 


TO DISTURB, INTERRUPT. 


Disturb, v. Commotion; interrupt, from the Latin 
inter and rumpo, signifies to break in between so as to 
stop the progress. 

We may be disturbed either inwardly or outwardly ; 
we are interrupted only outwardly ; our minds may be 
disturbed by disquieting reflections, or we may be dis- 
turbed in ourrest or in our business by unseemly noises ; 
but we can be interrupted only in our business or pur- 
euits; the disturbance therefore depends upon the cha- 
racter of the person; what disturbs one man will not 
disturb another: an interruption is however something 
positive; what interrupts one person will ixterrupt 
another: the smallest noises may disturb one who is 
in bad health ; illness or the visits of friends will inter- 
rupt a person inany of his business. 

The same distinction exists between these words 
when applied to things as to persons: whatever is put 
out of its order or proper condition is disturbed; thus 
water which is put into motion from a state of rest is 
disturbed ; 

If aught dzsturd the tenour of his breast, 
*T' is but the wish to strike before the rest—Popr. 


Whatever is stopped in the evenness or regular'ty of 
its course is interrupted; thus water which is turned 
out of its ordinary channel. is interrupted ; ‘The 
foresight of the hour of death would continually zater- 
rupt the course of human affairs.’—Bvair. 


COMMOTION, DISTURBANCE. 


Commotion, compounded of com or cum and motion. 
expresses naturally a motion of several together; dis- 
turbance signifies the state of disturbing or being 
disturbed (v. To trouble). 

Yhere is mostly a commotion where there is a dis- 
turbance; but there is frequently no disturbance where 
there is a commotion ; commotion respects the physica! 
movement; disturbance the mental agitation. Com- 
motion is said only of large bodies of men, and is occa- 
sioned only by something extraordinary ; disturbance 
may be said of a few, or even of a single individual : 
whatever occasions a. bustle, awakens general inquiry, 
and sets people or things in motion, excites a commeo- 
tion; 

Ocean, unequally press’d, with broken tide 
And blind commotion heaves.—THoMson. 


Whatever interrupts the peace and quiet of one o 
many produces a disturbance ; ‘A species of men to 
whom a state of order would become a sentence of 
obscurity;, are nourished into a dangerous magnitude 
by the heat of intestine disturbances” —BuRKE. Any 
wonderful phenanenon, or unusually interesting intel- 
ligence, may throw the publick into a commetion; 
‘ Nothing can be more absurd than that perpetual con- 
test for wealth which keeps the world in commotion.’ 
—Jounson. Drunkenness is a common cause of dis- 
turbances in the streets or in families: civil commo- 
tions are above all others the most to be dreaded; 
they are attended with disturbances general and 
partial. 


——— 


TO INCONVENIENCE, ANNOY, MOLEST. 


To inconvenience is to make not convenient; to 
nnoy, from the Latin noceo to hurt, is to do some 
27 


41% 


hurt to; to molest, from the Latin moles a mass a, 
weight, signifies to press with a weight. 

We inconvenience in small matters, or, by omitting 
such things as might be convenient; we annoy or 
molest by doing that which is positively painful; we 
are inconvenienced by a person’s absence ; we are an- 
noyed by his presence if he renders himself offensive : 
we are inconvenienced by what is temporary; we are 
annoyed by that which is either temporary or durable; 
we are molested by that which is weighty and op- 
pressive: we are inconvenienced simply in regard to 
our circumstances; we are annoyed mostly in regard 
to our corporeal feelings; we are molested mostly in 
regard to our minds: the removal of a seat or a book 
may *~convenience one who is engaged in business; 
‘T have often been tempted to inquire what happiness 
is to be gained, or what incunvenience to be avoided, 
by this stated recession from the town in the summer 
season.’—Jounson. The buzzing of a fly, or the 
stinging of a gnat may annoy ; 

Against the Capitol I met a lion, 
Who glar’d upon me and went surly by, 
Without annoying me.—SuakKsPEARE. 


The impertinent freedom, or the rude insults of ill 
disposed persons may molest ; 


See all with skill acquire their daily food, 

Preduce their tender progeny and feed, 

With care parental, while that care they need, 

In these lov’d offices completely blest, 

No hopes beyond them, nor vain fears molest. 
JENYNS. 


COMMODIOUS, CONVENIENT, SUITABLE 


Commodious, from the Latin commodus, or con and 
modus, according to the measure and degree required , 
convenient, from the Latin conveniens, participle of 
con and venio to come together, signifies that which 
comes together with something else as it ought. 

Both these terms convey the idea of what is cal 
culated for the pleasure of a person. Commodious 
regards the physical condition, and convenience the 
circumstances or mental feelings ; 


Within an ancient forest’s ample verge, 
There stands a lonely but a healthful dwelling, 
Built for convenience and the use of life.-—Rowe. 


That is commodious which suits one’s bodily ease, 
that is convenient which suits one’s purpose. A house 
or a chair is commodious; ‘Such a place cannot be 
commodious to live in; for being so near the moon, it 
hed been too near the sun.’—Ratuieu. A time, an 
opportunity, a season. or the arrival of any person, is 
convenient. A noise incommodes; the staying or 
going of a person may inconvenience. A person 
wishes to sit commodiously, and to be conventently 
situated for witnessing any spectacle. 

Convenient regards the circumstances of the indi- 
vidual; suitable (v. Conformable) respects the esta- 
blished opinions of mankind, and is closely connected 
with moral propriety: nothing is convenient which 
does not favour one’s purpose; nothing is suitable 
which does not suit the person, place, and thing: 
whoever has any thing to ask of another must take a 
convenient opportunity in order to ensure success; ‘If 
any man think it convenient to seem good, let him be 
so indeed, and then his goodness will appear to every 
body’s satisfaction. —TiLLoTson. The address of a 
suitor on such an occasion would be very unsuztable, 
if he affected to claim as a right what he ought to so 
licitasa favour; ‘ Pieasure in general is the consequent 
apprehension of a suitable object, suttably applied to 
a rightly disposed faculty.’—Sourn. 


“NECESSARY, EXPEDIENT, ESSENTIAL, 
REQUISITE. 


Necessary, (v. Necessity), from the Latin necesse 
and ne cedo, signifies not to be departed from; expe 
dient signifies belonging to, or forming a part of, ex- 
pedition; essential, containing that essence or property 
which cannot be omitted; requisite, i. e. literally re- 
quired (v. To demand). : 3 

Necessary is a general and indefinite term; things 
may be necessary in the course of nature; It 1s neces- 
sary for all men once to die; they may be necessary 
according to the circumstances of the case, or our views 


418 


of necesszty; in this manner we conceive it necessary 
to call upon a persor. 

Expedient, essential, and requisite are modes of 
relative necessity; the expedience of a thing is a matter 
éf discretion and calculation, and, therefore, not so 
setf-evidently necessary as many things which we so 
denominate; ‘One tells me he thinks it absolutely ne- 
cessary for women to have true notions of right and 
equity.’--Appison. It may be expedient for a person 
to consult another, or it may not, according as circum- 
stances may present themselves; ‘It is highly eape- 
dient that men should, by some settled scheme of duties, 
be rescued from the tyranny of caprice.—JoHNSON. 
The requisite and the essential are more obviously 
necessary than the expedient; but the former is less so 
than the latter: what is requisite may be requisite only 
in part or entirely; it may be requisite to complete a 
thing when begun, but not to begin it; the essential, 
on the contrary, is that which constitutes the essence, 
and without which a thing cannot exist. It is requi- 
site for one who will have a good library to select only 
the best authors; exercise is essential for the preserva- 
tion of good health. In all matters of dispute it is ex- 
pedient to be guided by some impartial judge; it is 
requisite for every member of the community to con- 
tribute his share to the publick expenditure as far as he 
is able; ‘It is not enough to say that faith and piety, 
joined with active virtue, constitute the requzsite pre- 
paration for heaven; they in truth begin the enjoyment 
of heaven.’—Buair. It is essential to a teacher, par- 
ticularly a spiritual teacher, to Know more than those 
he teaches; ‘The English do not consider their church 
establishment as convenient, but as essential to their 
state.’—BURKE. 


EXPEDIENT, FIT. 


Expedient, from the Latin expedio to get in readiness 
for a given occasion, supposes a certain degree of ne- 
cessity from circumstances; fit (v. Fit), i.e. made for 
the purpose, signifies simply an agreement with, or 
suitability to, the circumstances; what is expedient 
must be jit, because it is called for; what is fit need 
be expedient, for it may not be required. The expe- 
diency of a thing depends altogether upon the outward 
circumstances; the jitness is determined by a moral 
rule; it is imprudent not todo that which is eapedient ; 
it is disgraceful to do that which is unfit; it is expe- 
dient for him who wishes to prepare for death, occa- 
sionally to take an account of his life; ‘To far the 
greater number it is highly expedient that they should 
by some settled scheme of duties be rescued from the 
tyranny of caprice.’-—Jounson. It is not fit for him 
who is about to die to dwell with anxiety on the things 
of this life; 


Salt earth and bitter are not fit to sow, 
Nor will be tam’d and mended by the plough. 
DRYDEN. 


OCCASION, OPPORTUNITY. 


Occasion, in Latin occasio, from oc or ob and cado 
to fall, signifies that which falls in the way so as to 
produce some change ; opportunity, in Latin opportu- 
nitas, from opportunis fit, signifies the thing that hap- 
pens fit for the purpose. 

These terms are applied to the events of life; but 
the occasion is that which determines our conduct, and 
seaves us no choice; it amounts to a degree of neces- 
sity: the opportunzty is that which invites to action ; 
it tempts us to embrace the moment for taking the 
step. We do things,'therefore, as the occasion requires, 
or as the opportunity offers. There are many occa- 
sion3 on which a man is called upon to uphold his 
opinions. There are but few opportunities for men 
in general to distinguish themselves. The occasion 
obtrudes upon us} the opportunity is what we seek or 
desire. On particular occasions it is necessary for a 
commander to be severe; ‘ Waller preserved and won 
his life from those who were most resolved to take it, 
and in an occasion in which he ought to have been 
ambitious to have lost it (to lose it).’—CLARENDON. 
A man of a humane disposition will profit by every 
spportunity to show his lenity to offenders; ‘Every 
man is obliged by the Supreme Maker of the universe 
to improve all the opportunities of good which are 
afforded him.’—JoHNSON. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


OCCASION, NECESSITY. 


Occasion (v. Occasion) includes, necessity (v. Weces 
sity) excludes, the idea of choice or alternative. We 
are regulated by the occasion, and can exercise our own 
discretion; we yield or submit to the necessity, without 
even the exercise of the will. On the death of are 
lative we have occasion to go into mourning, if we wall 
not offer an affront to the family, but there is no express 
necessity ; 


A merrier man 
Within the limit of becoming mirth, 
T never spent an hour’s talk withal; 
His eye begets occasion for his wit. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


In case of an attack on our persons. there is a necessety 
of self-defence for the preservation of life; ‘ Where 
necessity ends curiosity begins.’—JOHNSON. 


OCCASIONAL, CASUAL. 


These are both opposed to what is fixed or stated ; 
but occasional carries with it more the idea of unfre 
quency, and casual that of unfixedness, or the absence 
of all design 

A minister is termed an occasional preacher, who 
preaches only on certain occasions ; his preaching at a 
particular place, or a certain day may be casual. Our 
acts of charity may be occasienal ; but they ought not 
to be casual; ‘The beneficence of the Roman empe 
rours and consuls was merely occasicnal.’—JOHNSON 

What wonder if so near 
Looks intervene, and smiles, or object new, 
Casual discourse draws on.—MILTon. 


TO ADD, JOIN, UNITE, COALESCE. 


Add, in Latin addo, compounded of ad and do, signi- 
fies to put to an object; join, in French joindre, Latin 
jungo, comes from jugum a yoke, and the Greek 
tetyw to yoke, signifying to bring into close contact ; 
unite, in Latin unitus, participle of unzo, from wnus 
one, implies to make into one: coalesce, in Latin 
coalesco, compounded of co or con, and alesco for 
cresco, signifies to grow or form one’s self tugether. 

We add by affixing a part of one thing to another 
so as to make one whole; we join by attaching one 
whole to another, su that they may adhere in part; 
we unite by putting one thing to another, so that all 
their parts may adhere to each other; things coalesce 
by coming into an entire cohesion of all their parts. 

Adding is either a corporeal or spiritual action; 
joining is mostly said of corporeal objects: uniting 
and coalescing of spiritual objects. We adda wing 
to a house by a mechanical process, or we add quant! 
ties together by calculation , 


Now, best of kings, since you propose to send 
Such bounteous presents to your Trojan friend, 
Add yet a greater at our joint request, 

One which he values more than all the rest; 

Give him the fair Lavinia for his bride.—Drypzn. 


We join two houses together, or two armies, by placing 
them on the same spot; ‘The several great bodies 
which compose the solar system are kept from joining 
together at the common centre of gravity by the recti 
linear motions the Author of nature has impressed on 
each of them.’—BERKELEY. People are united who 
are bound to each other by similarity of opinion, senti- 
ment, condition, or circumstances; ‘Two Englishmen 
meeting at Rome or Constantinople soon run into fami- 
liarity. And in China or Japan, Europeans would 
think their being so a sufficient reason for their uniting 
in particular converse. —BERKELEY. Parties coalesce 
when they agree to lay aside their leading distinctions 
of opinior so as to co-operate; ‘The Danes had been 
established during a longer period in England than in 
France ; and though the similarity of their original lan- 
guage to that of the Saxons invited them to a more 
early coalition with the natives, they had found as yet 
so little example of civilized manners among the 
allay that they retained all their ancient ferocity.”’— 

UME. 

Nothing can be added without some agent to perform 
the act of adding ; but things may be joined by casually 
coming in contact; and things will unite of themselves 
which have an aptitude to accordance, coalition is that 

° 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


species of union which arises mostly from external 
agency. The addition of quantities produces vast 
sums; the junction of streams forms great rivers; the 
union of families or states constitutes the’r principal 
strength; by the coalition of sounds, dipnthongs are 
formed. Bodies are enlarged by the addition of other 
bodies; people are sometimes joined in matrimony 
who are not united in affection; no two things can 
coalesce, between which there is an essential difference, 
or the slightest discordance. 

Addition is opposed to subtraction; junction and 
union, to division; coalition, to distinction. 


TO CONNECT, COMBINE, UNITE. 


The idea of being put together is common to these 
terms, but with different degrees of proximity. ‘To 
connect, from the Latin connecto, compounded of con 
and necto, signifying to knit together, is more remote 
than to combine (v. Association), and this than to write 
(v. To add). 

What is connected and combined remains distinct, 
but what is wnzted loses all individuality. 

Things the most dissimilar may be connected or 
combined; things of the same kind only can be united. 

Things or persons are connected more or less re- 
motely by some common property or circumstance that 
serves as atie; ‘A right opinion is that which connects 
distant truths by the shortest train of intermediate pro- 
positions.’ —JoHNson. Things or persons are combined 
by aspecies of juncture; ‘Fancy can combine the ideas 
which memory has treasured.—HaAwkrsworRTH. 
Things or persons are united by a coalition; ‘A friend 
is he with whom our interest is wnited.--HawKEs- 
wortu. Ilouses are connected by means of a common 
passage : the armies of two nations are combined ; two 
armies of the same nation are united. 

Trade, marriage, and general intercourse create a 
connexion between individuals; co-operation and simi- 
larity of tendency are grounds for combination: entire 
accordance leads to a union. It is dangerous to be 
connectea with the wicked in any way; our reputation, 
if not our mouzals, must be the sufferers thereby. The 
most obncxious :xsembers of society are those in whom 
wealth, talents, influence, and a lawless ambition are 
combined. United is an epithet that sreuld apply 
equally to nations and families; the same obedience 
to laws should regulate every man who lives under the 
same government; the same heart shouid animate 
every breast; the same spirit should dictate every 
action of every member in the community, who has a 
sommon interest in the preservation of the whole. 


CONNECTED, RELATED. 


Connected, v. To connect; related, from relate, in 
Latin relatus, participle of refero to bring back, sig- 
nifies brought back to the same point. 

These terms are employed in the moral sense, to 
express an affinity between subjects or matters of 
thought. 

Connexion marks affinity in an indefinite manner; 
‘It is odd to consider the connexion between despotism 
and barbarity, and how the making one person more 
than man, makes the rest less..—Appison. Relation 
denotes affinity in a specifick manner: ‘ All mankind 
are so related, that care is to be taken, in things to 
which all are liable, you do not mention what concerns 
one in terms which shall disgust another.’—STre.e. 
A connexion may be either close or remote; a relation 
direct or indirect. What is connected has some com- 
mon principle on which it depends: what is related 
has some likeness with the object to which it is related : 
it is a part of some whole. 


ro AFFIX, SUBJOIN, ATTACH, ANNEX. 


Affz,in Latin afizus, participle of afigo, compounded 
of af or ad and figo to fix, signifies to fix to a thing ; 
subjoin is compounded of sub and join, signifying to 
join to the lower or farther extremity of a body, 
attach, v. To adhere; annex, in Latin annezus, parti- 
giple of annecto, compounded of an or ad and necto to 
knit, signifies to knit or tie to a thing. 

To afiz isto put any thing as an essential to any 
whole; to subjoin is to put any thing as a subordinate 
eart to a whole: inthe former case the part Lshad a 


? 


419 


it is put is not specified; in the latter the syilable sub 
specifies the extremity as the part: to attach isto make 
one thing adhere to another as an accompaniment ; to 
annez is to bring things into a general connexion with 
each other. 

A title is afized to a book; a few lines are sub 
joined to a letter by way of postscript; we attach 
blame to a person; a certain territory is annexed to a 
kingdom. 

Letters are affixed to words in order to modify their 
sense, or names are affized to ideas; ‘ He that has set- 
tled in his mind deterinined ideas, with names affixed 
to them, will be able to discern their differences one 
from another..—Locxsr. It is necessary to subjoin re- 
marks to what requires illustration; ‘In justice to the 
opinion which I would wish to impress of the amiable 
character of Pisistratus, | subjotn to this paper some 
explanation of the word tyrant.—CumBERLanp. We 
are apt from prejudice or particular circumstances to 
attach disgrace to certain professions, which are not 
only useful but important; ‘As our nature is at pre- 
sent constituted, attached by so many strong con 
nexions to the world of sense, and enjoying a commu- 
nication so feeble and distant with the world of spirits, 
we need fear no danger from cultivating intercourse 
with the latter as much as possible.’—Biair. Papers 
are annexed by way of appendix to some important 
transaction. 

It is improper to afiz opprobrious epithets to any com- 
munity of persons on account of their calling in life. 
Men are not always scrupulous about the means of 
attaching others to their interest, when their ambitious 
views are tobe forwarded. Every station in life, above 
that_of extreme indigence, has certain privileges an- 
nexed to it, but none greater than those which are en- 
joyed by the middling classes; ‘The evils inseparably 
annexed to the present condition are numerous and 
afflictive.’—JoHNSON. 


TO STICK, CLEAVE, ADHERE. 


Stick, in Saxon stican, Low German. steken, 1s 
connected with the Latin stigo, Greek siyw to prick; 
cleave, in Saxon cleofen, Low German kiiven, Danish 
klaeve, is connected with our words glue and lime, 
in Latin gluten, Greek xé\Xa lime; adhere, v. To 
attach. 

To stick expresses more than to cleave, and cleave 
than adhere: things are made to stzck either by inci- 
sion into the substance, or through the intervention of 
some glutinous matter; they are made to cleave and 
adhere by the intervention of some foreign body; what 
sticks, therefore, becomes so fast joined as to render 
the bodies inseparable; what cleaves and adheres is 
less tightly bound, and more easily separable. 

Two pieces of clay will stick together by the in 
corporation of the substance in the two parts; paper 
is made to stick to paper by means of glue: the 
tongue in a certain state will cleave to the roof of 
the mouth: paste, or even occasional moisture, will 
make soft substances adhere to each other, or to hard 
bodies. Animals stick to bodies by means of their 
claws; persons in the moral sense cleave to each other 
by never parting company: ard they adhere to each 
other by uniting their interests. 

Stick is employed for the must part on familiar sub- 
jects, but is sometimes applied to moral objects 


Adieu, then, O my soul’s far better part, 

Thy image sticks so close 

That the blood follows from my rending heart. 
; DrypeEn. 


Cleave and adhere are peculiarly proper in the mora 
acceptation ; 
Gold and his gains no more employ his mind, 
But, driving o’er the Lillows with the wind, 
Cleaves to one faithful plank, and leaves the rest 
behind.— Rowe. 
That there’s a God from nature’s voice is clear; 


And yet, what errours to this truth adhere? 
JENYNS 


FOLLOWER, ADHERENT, PARTISAN. 
A follower is one who follows a person generally ; 
an adherent is one who adheres to his cause; a partisan 
is the follewer of a party: the follower follows either 


420 


the person, the interests, or the principles of any one; 
thus, the retinue of a nobleman, or the friends of a 
statesman, or the friends of any man’s opinions may 
be styled his foliowers ; 


The mournful followers, with assistant care, 
The groaning hero to his chariot bear.—Porx. 


The adherent is that kind of follower who espouses 
the interests of another, as the adherents of Charles L; 
‘ With Addison, the wits, his adherents and followers, 
were certain to concur.’—JoHnson. A follower fol- 
lows near or at a distance; but the adherent is always 
near at hand; the partisan hangs on or keeps at a cer- 
tain distance: the follower follows from various mo- 
tives; the adherent adheres from a personal motive; 
the partisan, from a partial motive; ‘They (the Ja- 
cobins) then proceed in argument, as if all those who 
disapprove of their new abuses must of course be par- 
tisans of the old.’—Burxs. Charles I. had as many 
adherents as he had followers; the rebels had a3 many 
partisans as they had adherents. 


TO ADDUCE, ALLEGE, ASSIGN, ADVANCE. 


Adduce, in Latin adduco, compounded of ad and 
duco to Jead, signifies to bring forwards, or for a thing; 
allege, in French alleguer, in Latin allego, com- 
pounded of al or ad and lego, in Greek \éyw to speak, 
signifies to speak for a thing; assign, in French as- 
signer, Latin assigno, compounded of as or ad and 
signo to sign or mark out, signifies to set apart for a 
purpose; advance comes from the Latin advenio, com- 
pounded of ad,and vento to come, or cause to come, 
signifying to bring forward a thing. 

An argument is adduced; a fact or a charge is 
alleged; a reason is assigned; a position or an 
opinion is advanced. What is adduced tends to cor- 
roborate or invalidate; ‘I have said that Celsus ad- 
duces neither oral nor written authority against Christ’s 
miracles. CUMBERLAND. What.is alleged tends to 
criminate or exculpate; ‘The criminal alleged in his 
defence, that what he had done was to raise mirth, 
and to avoid ceremony.’--Appison. What is assigned 
tends to justify; ‘If we consider what providential 
reasons may be assigned for these three particulars, 
we shall find that the numbers of the Jews, their dis- 
persion and adherence to their religion, have furnished 
every age, and every nation of the world, with the 
strongest arguments for the Christian faith.—Appt- 
son. What is advanced tends to explain and illus- 
trate; ‘I have heard of one that, having advanced 
some erroneous doctrines of philosophy, refused to see 
the experiments by which they were confuted.’--JoHn- 
son. Whoever discusses disputed points must have 
arguments to adduce in favour of his principles: cen- 
sures’ should not be passed where nothing improper 
can be alleged: a conduct is absurd for which no 
reason can be assigned: those who advance what 
they cannot maintain expose their ignorance as much 
as their folly. 

‘The reasoner adduces facts in proof of what he has 
advanced. The accuser alleges circumstances in 
support of his charge. The philosophical investigator 
assigns causes for particular phenomena. 

We may controvert what is adduced or advanced ; 
we may deny what is alleged, and question what is 
assigned. 


TO ADHERE, ATTACH. 


Adhere, from the French adherer, Latin adhereo, is 
compounded of ad and hereo to stick close to; attach, 
in French attacher, is compounded of at or ad and 
tach or touch, both which come from the Latin tango 
to touch, signifying to come so near as to touch. 

A thing is adherent by the union which nature pro- 
duces; it is attached by arbitrary ties which keep it 
close to another thing. Glutinous bodies are apt to 
adhere to every thing they touch: a smaller building 
is sometimes attached to a larger by a passage, or some 
other mode of communication. 

What adheres to a thing is closely joined to its out- 
ward surface; but what is attached may be fastened 
4 it by the intervention of a third body. There is a 
universal adhesion in all the particles of matter one to 
another: the sails of a vessel are attached to a mast 
ky means of ropes; ‘The play which this pathetick 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


prologue was attached to, was a comedy, in whick 
Laberius took the character of a slave.--CumBer- 
LAND. 

In a figurative sense, the analogy is kept up in the 
use of these two words. Adherence is a mode of 
conduct; attachment a state of feeling. We adhere 
to opinions which we are determined not to renounce ; 
‘The firm adherence of the Jews to their religion is ne 
less remarkable than their numbers and dispersion.’— 
Appison. We are attached to opinions for which our 
feelings are strongly prepossessed. It is the character 
of obstinacy to adhere to a line of conduct after it is 
proved to be injurious: some persons are not to be 
attached by the ordinary ties of relationship or friend- 
ship; ‘The conqueror seems to have been fully ap- 
prized of the strength which the new government 
might derive from a clergy more closely attached to 
himself.’—T yr wHiTT. 


ADHESION, ADHERENCE. 


These terms are both derived from the verb adhere, 
one éxpressing the proper or figurative sense, and the 
other the moral sense or acceptation. 

There is a power of adhesion in all glutinous bodies ; 
‘We suffer equal pain from the pertinacious adhesion 
of unwelcome images, as from the evanescence of 
those which are pleasing and useful.—JoHunson 
There is a disposition for adherence in steady minds 
‘ Shakspeare’s adherence to general nature has exposec 
him to the cexsure of criticks, who form their judge- 
ments upon narrower principles. —JoHNson. 


ADJACENT, ADJOINING, CONTIGUOUS 


Adjacent, in Latin adjacens, participle of adjaceo, ia 
compounded of ad and jaceo to lie near; adjoining, as 
the words imply, signifies being joined together; con 
tiguous, in French coutigu, Latin contiguus, comes 
from contingo or con and tango, signifying to touch 
close. 

What is adjacent may be separated altogether by the 
intervention of some third object; ‘They have been 
beating up for volunteers at York, and the towns ad- 
jacent ; but nobody will list.—GRANVILLE. What is 
adjoining must touch in some part; ‘As he happens to 
have no estate adjoining equal to his own, his oppres- 
sions are oflen borne without resistance.’—Jonnson. 
What is conxguous must be fitted to touch entirely on 
one side; ‘ We arrived at the utmost boundaries of a 
wood which fay contiguous to a plain.’—STERLE. 
Lands are adj.cent to a house or a town; fields are 
adjoining to each other; houses contiguous to each 
other. 


EF'THET, ADJECTIVE. 


Epithet is the technical term of the rhetorician; ad- 
jective that of the yrammarian. The same word is an 
epithet as it qualifies the sense; it is an adjective as it 
is a part of speech: thus in the phrase ‘Alexander the 
Great,’ great is an evrthet, inasmuch as it designates 
Alexander in distinctiou from all other persons: it is 
an adjective as it expresses a quality in distinction 
from the noun Alexandes, wisich denotes a thing. The 
epithet éxtOsroy is the word edéed by way of ornament 
to the diction; the adjective, from adjecitvum, is the 
word added to the noun as its avpendage, and made 
subservient to it in all its inflections. When we are 
estimating the merits of any one’s style or composi- 
tion, we should speak of the epithets he uses; when 
we are talking of words, their dependencies, and rela- 
tions, we should speak of adjectives: an epithet is 
either gentle or harsh, an adjective is either a noun or 
a pronoun adjective. 

All adjectives are epithets, but all epzthets are not 
adjectives ; thus in Virgil’s Pater £neas, the pater is 
an epithet, but not an adjective. 


TO ABSTRACT, SEPARATE, DISTINGUISH. 


Abstract, v. Absent; separate, in Latin separatus 
participle of separo, is compounded of se ana paro tc 
dispose apart, signifying to put things asunder, o at ¢ 
distance from each other; distinguish, in French ds 
tinguer, Latin distinguo, is compounded of the sept 
rative preposition dis and tingo to tinge or colour, sit 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


nifying to give different marks by which they may be 
«known from each other. 

Absiract is used in the moral sense only; separate 
mostly in a physical sense; distinguish either in a 
moral or physical sense: we abstract what we wish to 
regard particularly and individually ; we separate what 
we wish not to be united; we distinguish what we 
wish not to confound. The mind performs the office 
of abstraction for itself; separating and distinguish- 
tm rare exerted on external objects.* Arrangement, 
place, time, and circumstances serve to separate; the 
ideas formed of things, the outward marks attached 
to them, the qualities attributed to them, serve to dis- 
tinguish. 

By the operation of abstraction the mind creates for 
itself a multitude of new ideas: in the act of separa- 
tion bodies are removed from each other by distance 
of place: in the act of distinguishing objects are dis- 
covered to be similar or dissimilar. Qualities are aé- 
stracted from the subjects in which they are inherent: 
countries are separated by mountains or seas: their 
inhabitants are distinguished by their dress, language, 
or manners. The mind 1s never less abstracted from 
one’s friends than when separated from them by im- 
mense oceans: it requires a keen eye to distinguish 
objects that bear a great resemblance to each other. 
Volatile persons easily abstract their minds from the 
most solemn scenes to fix them on trifling objects that 
pass before them; ‘We ought to abstract our minds 
from the observation of an excellence in those we con- 
verse with, till we have received some good informa- 
tion of the disposition of their minds. —Srrrte. An 
unsocial temper leads some men to separate themselves 
from all their companions; ‘It is an eminent instance 
of Newton’s superiority to the rest of mankind that 
he was able to separate knowledge from those weak- 
nesses by which knowledge is generally disgraced.’— 
founson. An absurd ambition leads others to distin- 
guish themselves by their eccentricities; ‘ Fontenelle, 
in bis panegyrick on Sir Isaac Newton, closes a Jong 
enumeration of that philosopher’s virtues and attain- 
ments with an observation that he was not distin- 
guished from other men by any singularity either 
natural or affected,,—Jounson. 


TO DEDUCT, SUBTRACT. 


Deduct, from the Latin deductus participle of de- 
duco, and subtract, trom subtractum participle of sub- 
traho, have both the sense of taking from, but the 
former is used in a general, and the latter in a technical 
sense. He who makes anestimate is obliged to deduct ; 
he who makes a calculation is obliged to subtract. 

The tradesman deducts what has been paid from 
wh’ remains due; ‘The popish clergy took to them- 
selv_s the whole residue of the intestate’s estate, after 
the two-thirds of the wife and children were deducted.’ 
—B.Lackstone. The accountant subtracts smali sums 
from the gross amount; ‘ A codicil is a supplement to 
a will, being for its explanation or alteration, or to 
make some addition to or else some subtraction from 
the former dispositions of the testator.—BLACKSTONE. 


TO SEPARATE, SEVER, DISJOIN, DETACH. 


Whatever is united or joined in any way may be 
separated (v. To subtract), be the junction natural or 
artificial; ‘Can a body be inflammable from which it 
would puzzle a chymist to separate an inflammable 
ingredient ?’—BorLr. To sever, which is but a varia- 
tion of the verb to separate, is a mode of separating 
natural bodies, or bodies naturally joined: ‘'To men- 
tion only that species of shell-fish that grow to the sur- 
face of several rocks, and immediately die upon their 
being severed from the place where they grow.’— 
Appison. We may separate in part or entirely; we 
sever entirely: we separate with or without violence; 
we sever with violence only: we may separate papers 
which have been pasted together, or fruits which have 
grown together; but the head is severed from the body, 
dr a branch from the trunk. There is the same dis- 
tinction between these terms in their moral application; 
‘They (the French republicans) never have aban- 
doned, and never will abandon, their old steady maxim 


* Vide Abbe Girard: ‘‘ Distinguer, separer.”’ 


421 


of separating the people from their government. — 
Burks. 


Better I were distract ; 
So should my thoughts be sever’d from my griefs. 
SHAKSPRARE. 


To separate may be said of things which are only re- 
motely connected; disjoin, which signifies to destroy a 
junction, is said of things which are so intimately con. 
nected that they might be joined; ‘In times and re- 
gions, so disjoined from each other that there can 
scarcely be imagined any communication of senti- 
ments, has prevailed a general and uniform expectation 
of propitiating God by corporeal austerities.—Joun- 
son. We separate as convenience requires; we may 
separate in aright or a wrong manner: we mostly dis- 
join things which ought to remain Joined: we separate 
syllables in order to distinguish them, but they are 
sometimes disjoined in writing by an accidental 
erasure. 'To detach, which signifies to destroy a con 

tract, has an intermediate sense between separate and 
disjoin, applying to bodies which are neither so loosely 
connected as the former, nor so closely as the latter: 
we separate things that directly meet in no point; we 
disjoin those which meet in every point; we detach 
those things which meet in one point only; ‘ The seve- 
ral parts of it are detached one from the other, and yet 
join again, one cannot tell how.—Poprr. Sometimes 
the word detach has a moral application, as to detach 
persons, that is, the mindsof persons, from their party ; 
so likewise detached, in distinction from a connected 
piece of composition; ‘ As for the detached rhapsodies 
which Lycurgus in more early times brought with him 
out of Asia, they must have been exceedingly imper 

fect.,—CUMBERLAND. 


TO DISJOINT, DISMEMBER. 


Disjoint signifies to separate at the joint; dismemoer 
signifies to separate the members. 

The terms here spoken of derive their distinct 
meaning and application from the signification of the 
words joint and member. A limb of the body may be 
disjointed if it be so put out of the joiné that it cannot 
act; but the body itself is dismembered when the dif- 
ferent limbs or parts are separated from each other 
So in the metaphorical sense our ideas are said to be 
disjointed when they are so thrown out of their order 
that they do not fall in with one another; and king 
doms are said to be dismembered where any part or 
parts are separated from the rest ; 


Along the woods, along the moorish fens, 

Sighs the sad genius of the coming storm, 

And up among the loose disjointed cliffs. 
THOMSON. 


Where shall I find his corpse! What earth sustains 
His trunk dismembered and his cold remains ? 
DRYDEN 


And yet, deluded man, 
A scene of crude disjointed visions past, 
And broken slumbers, rises still resolv’d 
With new fiush’d hopes to run the giddy round. 
2 THOMSON 


‘The kingdom of East Saxony was dismembered front 
that of Kent.’—Humg. 


TO ADDICT, DEVOTE, APPLY. 


Addict, in Latin addictus, participle of addico, com 
pounded of ad and dico, signifies to speak or declare in 
favour of a thing, to exert one’s self in its favour, 
devote, in Latin devotus, participle of devoveo, signi 
fies to vow or make resolutions for a thing; apply, in 
French appliquer, Latin applico, is compounded of 
ap or ad and plico, signifying to knit or join one’s self 
to a thing. 

To addict is to indulge one’s self in any particular 
practice ; to devote is to direct one’s powers and means 
to any particular pursuit; to apply is to employ one’s 
time or attention about any object. Men are addicted 
to vices: they devote their talents to the acquirement 
of any art or science: they apply their minds to the 
investigation of a subject. ; 

Children begin early to addict themselves to lying 
when they have any thing to conceal. People who 
are devoted to their appetites are burdensome to them- 


422 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


selves, and to all with whom they are connected. | words are not employed. To mind is to attend toa 


Whoever applies his mind to the contemplation of: 
nature, and the works of creation, will feel himself 
impressed with sublime and reverential ideas of the 
Oreator. 

We are addicted to a thing frox: an irresistible 
passion or propensity; ‘As the pleasures of luxury 
are very expensive, they put those who are addicted to 
them upon raising fresh supplies of money by all the 
methods of rapaciousness and corruption.’—Appison. 
We are devoted to a thing from a strong but settled 
attachment to it; ‘Persons who have devoted them- 
elves to God are venerable to all who fear him.’— 
BerkKeLey. We apply to a thing from a sense of its 
utility ; ‘Tully has observed that a lamb no sooner 
falls from its mother, but immediately, and of its own 
accord, it applies itself to the teat..— Appison. We 
addict oursetves to study by yielding to our passion for 
it: we devote ourselves to the service of our king and 
country by employing all our powers to their benefit: 
we apply to business by giving it all the time and 
attention that it requires. 

Addict is seldomer used in a good than in a bad 
sense; devote is mostly employed in a good sense; 
apply in an indifferent sense. 


TO ADDRESS, APPLY. 


Address is compounded of ad and dress, in Spanish 
derecar, Latin direxi, preterit of dirigo to direct, sig- 
nifying to direct one’s self to an object; apply, v. To 
addict. 

An address is immediately directed from one party 
to another, either personally or by writing; an ap- 
plication may be made through the medium of a third 
person. An address may be made for an indifferent 
purpose or without any express object; but an appli- 
cation is always occasioned by some serious circum- 
stance. 

We address those to whom we speak or write; 
‘Many are the inconveniences which happen from the 
improper manner of address, in common speech, be- 
tween persons of the same or different quality.’-— 
Sree.r. We apply to those to whom we wish to 
communicate some object of personal interest; ‘Thus 
all the words of lordship, honour, and grace, are only 
repetitions to a man that the king has ordered him to 
be called so, but no evidences that there is any thing in 
himself that would give the man, who applies to him, 
those ideas without the creation of his master.’— 
Srrreie. An address therefore may be made without 
an application; and an application may be made by 
means of an address. 

It is a privilege of the British Constitution, that the 
subject may address the monarch, and apply for a 
redress of grievances. We cannot pass through the 
streets of the metropolis without being continually ad- 
dressed by beggars, who apply for the relief of arti- 
ficial more than for real wants. Men in power are 
always exposed to be publickly addressed by persons 
who wish to obtrude their opinions Upon them, and to 
have perpetual applications from those who solicit 
favours. 

An address may be rude or civil, an application 
may be frequentor urgent. It is inpertinent to address 
any one with whom we are not acquainted, unless we 
have any reason for making an application to them. 


TO ATTEND TO, MIND, REGARD, HEED, 
NOTICE. 


Attend, in French attendre, Latin attendo, com- 
pounded of at or ad and tendo to stretch, signifies to 
stretch or bend the mind toa thing; mind, from the 

oun mind, signifies to have in the mind; regard, in 

rench regarder, compounded of re and garder, comes 
from the German wahren to see or look at, signifying 
to look upon again or with attention ; heed, in German 
hiitken, in ali probability comes from vito, and the 
Latin video to see or pay attention to; notice, from the 
Latin notitia knowledge, signifies to get the knowledge 
of or have in one’s mind. 

The idea of fixing the mind on an object is common 
to all these terms. As this is the characteristick of 
attention, attend is the generick, the rest are specifick 
terms. We attend in minding, regarding, heeding, 
and noticing, and also in many cases in which these 


thing, so that it may not be forgotten; to regard is to 
look on a thing as of importance; to heed is to attend 
to a thing from a principle of caution; to notice is te 
think on that which strikes the senses. 

We attend to a speaker when we hear and under 
stand his words; ‘Conversation will naturally furnish 
us with hints which we did not attend to, and make 
us enjoy other mers parts and reflections as well as 
our own.’—Appison. We mind what is said when we 
bear it in mind ; 


Cease to request me, let us mind our way, 
Another song requires another day.—DRryYDEN. 


We regard what is said by dwelling and reflecting on 
it; ‘The voice of reason is more to be regarded than 
the bent of any present inclination.,—Appison. Heed 
is given to whatever awakens a sense of danger ; 


Ah! why was ruin so attractive made, 

Or why fond man so easily betray’d ? 

Why heed we not, while mad we haste along, 

The gentle voice of peace or pleasure’s song ? 
Cou.ins. 


Notice is taken of what passes outwardly; ‘I believe 
that the knowledge of Dryden was gleaned from acci- 
dental intelligence and various conversation, by vigi- 
lance that permitted nothing to pass without notice.’— 
Jounson. Children should always attend when spoken 
to, and mind what is said to them; they should regard 
the counsels of their parents, so as to make them the 
rule of their conduct, and heed their warnings so as to 
avoid the evil; they should notice what passes before 
them so as to apply it to som@useful purpose. It is a 
part of politeness to attend to every minute circum- 
stance which affects the comfort and convenience of 
those with whom we associate: men who are actuated 
by any passion seldom pay any regard to the dictates 
of conscience ; nor feed the unfavourable impressions 
which their conduct makes on others ; for in fact they 
seldom think what is said of them to be worth their 
notice. 


TO ATTEND, HEARKEN, LISTEN. 


Attend, v. To attend to; hearken, in German horchen 
is an intensive of héren to hear; listen probably comes 
from the German liisten to lust after, because listening 
springs from an eager desire to hear. 

Aitend is amental action; hearken both corporeal 
and mental ; listen simply corporeal. To attend is ta 
have the mind engaged on what we hear; to hearken 
and listen are to strive to hear. People attend when 
they are addressed ; 


Hush’d winds the topmost branches scarcely bend, 
As if thy tuneful song they did attend —Drypin 


They hearken to what is said by others; ‘What a 
deluge of lust, and fraud, and violence would ina little 
time overflow the whole nation, if these wise advocates 
for morality (the freethinkers) were universally heark- 
ened to.’--BERKELEY. Men listen to what passes be 
tween others ; 


While Chaos hush’d stands listening to the noise, 
And wonders at confusion not his own.—DEnnIs. 


It is always proper to attend, and mostly of impor- 
tance to hearken, but frequently improper to listen. 
The mind that is occupied with another object cannot 
attend: we are not disposed to hearken when the thing 
does not appear interesting: curiosity often impels to 
listening to what does not concern the listener. 

Listen is sometimes used figuratively for hearing, 
so as to attend; it is necessary at all times to Listen to 
the dictates of reason. It is of great importance for a 
learner to attend to the rules that are laid down: it is 
essential for young people in general to hearken to the 
counsels of their elders, and to listen to the admoni- 
tions of conscience. 


e 


TO HEAR, HEARKEN, OVERHEAR 


To hear is properly the act of the ear; it is some 
times totally abstracted from the mind, when we hea? 
and do not understand ; 


T look’d, I listen’d, dreadful sounds I hear, 


And the dire forms of hostile gods appear. 
DRYDEN. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


Fo hearken is an act of the ear, and the mind in con- 
function ; it implies an effort to tear, a tendency of the 
ear ; ; 

But aged Nereus hearkens to his love-—DrypeEn. 


To overhear is to hear clandestinely, or unknown to 
the person who is heard, wh2ther designedly or not ; 


If he fail of that 
He will have other means to cut you off; 
I overheard him and his practices—SuaKsPEARE. 


We hear sounds: we hearken for the sense ; we over- 
hear the words: a quick ear hears the smallest sound; 
a willing mind hearkens to what is said: a prying 
curiosity leads to overhearing. 


ATTENTION, APPLICATION, STUDY. 


These terms indicate a direction of the thoughts to 
an object, but differing in the degree of steadiness and 
force. 

Attention (v. To attend to) marks the simple bend- 
ing of the mind; application (v. To address) marks 
an envelopment or engagement of the pu wers ; a bring- 
ing them into a state of close contact; study, from the 
Latin studeo to desire eagerly, marks a degree of ap- 
plication that arises from a strong desire of attaining 
the object. 

Attention is the first requisite for making a progress 
in the acquirement of knowledge; it may be given in 
various degrees, and it rewards according to the pro- 
portion in which it is given; a divided attention is 
however more hurtful than otherwise; it retards the 
progress of the learner while it injures his mind by 
improper exercise ; ‘ Those whom sorrow incapacitates 
to enjoy the pleasures of contemplation, may properly 
apply to such diversions, provided they are innocent, 
as lay strong hold on the attention..—JoHNSON. Ap- 
plication is requisite for the attainment of perfection 
in any pursuit ; it cannot be partial or variable, like 
attention; it must be the constant exercise of power 
or the regular and uniform use of means for the attain- 
ment of an end: youth is the period for application, 
when the powers of body and mind are in full vigour ; 
no degree of it in after-life will supply its deficiency 
in younger years; ‘I could ‘heartily wish there was 
the same application and endeavours to cultivate and 
improve our church-musick as have been lately be- 
stowed upon that of the stage.—Anppison. Study is 
that species of application which is most purely intel- 
lectual in its nature; it is the exercise of the mind for 
itself and in itself, its native effort to arrive at ma- 
turity ; it embraces both attention and application. 
The student attends to all he hears and sees; applies 
what he has learned to the acquirement of what he 
wishes to learn, and digests the whole by the exercise 
of reflection: as nothing is thoroughly understood or 
properly reduced to practice without study, the pro- 
fessional man must choose this road in order to reach 
the summit of excellence; ‘ Other things may be seized 
with might, or purchased with money, but knowledge 
is to be gained only with study.’—JoHNSoN. 


TO DISREGARD, NEGLECT, SLIGHT. 


To disregard signifies properly not to regard; 
neglect, in Latin neglectus, participle of negligo, com- 
pounded of nec and lego, signifies not to choose; 
ri, fg froin light, signifies to make light of or set 
light by. 

We disregard the warnings, the words, or opinions 
of another; we neglect their injunctions or their pre- 
cepts. To disregard results from the settled purpose 
of the mind; to neglect from a temporary forgetful- 
ness or oversight. What is disregarded is seen and 
passed over; what is neglected is generally not thought 
of at the time feruited: What is disregarded does 
not strike the mind at all; what is neglected enters 
the mind only when it is before the eye: the former is 
an action employed on present objects; the latter 
on that which iy past: what we disregard is not 
esteemed ; ‘The sew notion that has prevailed of 
late years that the Christian religion is little more 
than a good system of morality, must in course draw 
on a disregard to spiritual exercise.’.—Gizson. What 
we neglect is often esteemed, but not sufficiently to be 
remembered or practised ; 


423 


Beauty ’s a charm, but soon the charm will pass; 
As lilies lie neglected on the plain, 
While dusky hyacinths for use remain.—Drypen. 


A child disregards the prudent counsels of a parent; 
he neglects to use the remedies which have been pre 
scribed to him. 

Disregard and neglect are frequently not personal’ 
acts; they respect the thing more than the person; 
slight is altogether an intentional act towards an indi- 
vidual. We disregard or neglect things often from a 
heedlessness of temper; the consequence either of 
youth or habit: we slight a person from feelings of 
dislike or contempt. Young people should disregard 
nothing that is said to thei by their superiours; nor 
neglect any thing which they are enjoined to do; nor 
slight any one to whom they owe personal attention; 
‘ You cannot expect your son should have any regard 
for one whom he sees you slight.—Lockr. Slight is 
also sometimes applied to moral objects in the same 
sense ; ‘When once devotion fancies herself under the 
influence of a divine impulse, it is no wonder she slights 
human ordinances.’—Appison. 


INADVERTENCY, INATTENTION, 
OVERSIGHT. 


Inadvertency, from advert to turn the mind to, Is 
allied to inattention (v. Attentive), when the act cf 
the mind is signified in general terms; and to over- 
sight when any particular instance of inadvertency 
occurs. Inadvertency never designates a habit, but 
inattention does; the former term, therefore, is un- 
qualified by the reproachful sense which attaches to 
the latter: any one may be guilty of cnadvertencies, 
since the mind that is occupied with many subjects 
equally serious may be turned so steadily towards 
some that others may escape notice; ‘Ignorance or 
inadpertency Will admit of some extenuation.’—Sourn. 
Inatéentien, which designates a direct want of atten- 
tion, is always a fault, and belongs only to the young, 
or such as are thoughtless, either by nature or circum- 
stances; ‘The expense of attending (the Scottish 
Parliament), the inattention of the age to any legal 


‘or regular system of government, but above all, the 


exorbitant authority of the nobles, made this privilege 
of so little value as to be almost neglected.’—RoBrrT- 
son. Since inadvertency is an occasional act, it must 
not be too often repeated, or it becomes inattention 
An oversight is properly a species of inadvertency 
which arises from looking over, or passing by, a thing 
Inadvertency seems to refer rather to the cause of the 
mistake, namely, the particular abstraction of the mind 
from the object; the term oversight seems to refer to 
the mistake itself, namely, the missing something 
which ought to have been taken: it is an cnadvertency 
in a person to omit speaking to one of the company; 
it is an oversight in a tradesman who omits to include 
certain articles in his reckoning: we pardon an inad 
vertency in another, since the consequences are never 
serious; we must be guarded against oversights in 
business, as their consequences may be serious; ‘ The 
ancient criticks discover beauties which escape the ob- 
servation of the vulgar, and very often find reasons 
for palliating such little slips and oversights in the 
writings of eminent authors.’—A pp1son. 


TO NEGLECT, OMIT. 


Neglect, v. To disregard; omit, in Latin omztto, or 
ob and mitto, signifies to put aside, 

The idea of Jetting pass or slip. or of not using, is 
comprehended in the signification of both these 
terms; the former is, however, a culpable, the latter 
an indifferent, action. What we neglect ought not to 
be neglected ; 


Heaven, 
Where honour due and reverence none a 
JILTON. 


What we omit may be omitted or otherwise, as conve- 
nience requires; ‘ These personal comparisons { omit, 
because I would say nothing that. may savour of a 
spirit of flattery..—Bacon. In indifferent matters they 
may sometimes be applied indifferently; ‘It is the 
great excellence of learning, that it borrows very little 
from time or place ; but this quality which constitutes 
much of its value is one occasion of neglect. Wha 


424 


may bedone at all times wi.h equal propriety is de- 
ferred from day to day, till the mind is gradually recon- 
ciled to the omission.’-—Jounson. These terms differ, 
however, in the objects to which they are applied: that 
is neglected which is practicable or serves for action; 
that is omztted which serves for intellectual purposes: 
we neglect an opportunity, we neglect the means, the 
time, the use, and the like ; we omit a word, a sentence, 
a figure, a stroke, a circumstance, and the like. 


NEGLIGENT, REMISS, CARELESS, THOUGHT- 
LESS, HEEDLESS, INATTENTIVE. 


Negligent (v. To disregard) and remiss respect the 
outward action: careless, heedless, thoughtless, and 
inattentive respect the stateof the mind. 

Negligence and remissness consist in not doing what 
ought to be done; carelessness and the other mental 
defects may show themselves in doing wrong, as well 
asin not doing at all; negligence and remissness are 
therefore, to carelessness and the others, as the effect 
to the cause; for no one is so apt to be negligent and 
remiss as he who is careless, although at the same 
time negligence and remissness arise from other causes, 
and carelessness, thoughtlessness, &c. produce like- 
wise other effects. Negligent is a stronger term than 
remiss : one is negligent in neglecting the thing that is 
expressly before one’s eyes; one is remiss in forgetting 
that which was enjoined some time previously: the 
want of will renders a person negligent ; the want of 
interest renders a person remiss: one is negligent in 
regard to business, and the performance of bodily la- 
bour; one is remiss in duty, or in such things as re- 
spect mental exertion. Servants are commonly negli- 
gent in what concerns their master’s interest ; teachers 
are remiss in not correcting the faults of their pupils. 
Negligence is therefore the fault of persons of all de- 
scriptions, but particularly those in low condition; 
‘The two classes most apt to be negligent of this duty 
(religious retirement) are the men of pleasure, and the 
men of business.—Buair. Remissness is a fault 
peculiar to those in a more elevated station ; 


My gen’rous brother is of gentle kind, 
He seems remiss, but bears a valiant mind.—Pors. 


A clerk in an office is negligent in not making proper 
memorandums; a magistrate, or the head of an insti- 
tution, is emiss in the exercise of his authority by not 
checking irregularities. 

Careless denotes the want of care (v. Care) in the 
manner of doing things; thoughtless denotes the want 
of thought or reflection about things; heedless denotes 
the want of heeding (v. To attend) or regarding things; 
inattentive denotes the want of attention to things (v. 
To attend to). 

One is careless only in trivial matters of behaviour ; 
one is thoughtless in matters of greater moment, in 
what respects the conduct. Carelessness leads chil- 
dren to make mistakes in their exercises, or in what- 
ever they commit to memory or to paper; thoughtless- 
mess leads many who are not children into serious 
errours of conduct, when they do not think of or bear 
in mind the consequences of their actions. Careless- 
ness is occasional, thoughtlessness is permanent; the 
former is inseparable from a state of childhood, the 
latter is a constitutional defect, and sometimes attends 
aman to his grave. Carelessness as well as thought- 
lessness betrays itself not only in the thing that imme- 
diately employs the mind, but thoughtlessness re- 
spects that which is past, and carelessness lies in that 
which regards futurity ; ‘If the parts of time were not 
variously coloured, we should never discern their de- 
parture and succession, but should live thoughtless of 
the past, and careless of the future..—Jounson. We 
may not only be careless in not doing the thing well 
that we are about, but we may be careless in neglect- 
ing to do it at all, or careless about the event, or care- 
less about our future interest; it still differs; however, 
from thoughtless in this, that it bespeaks a want of 
interest or desire for the thing; but thoughtless be- 
speaks the want of thinking or reflecting upon it: the 
careless person abstains from using the means, be- 
cause he does not care about the end; the thoughtless 
person cannot act, because he does not think: the 
careless person sees the thing, but does not try to ob- 
tain it; the thoughtless persor: has not the thought of 
it in his mind 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


Careless is applied to such things as require per. 
manent care ; thoughtless to such as require permanent 
thought ; heedless and inattentive are applied to pass- 
ing objects that engage the senses or the thoughts of 
the moment. One is careless in busitess, thoughtless 
in conduct, heedless in walking or running, inattentive 
in listening: careless and thoughtless persons neglect 
the necessary use of their powers; the heedless and 
inattentive neglect the use of their senses. Careless 
people are unfit to be employed in the management of 
any concerns; thoughtless people are unfit to have the 
management of themselves ; Acedless children are unfit 
to go by themselves; inattentive children are unfit te 
be led by others. One is careless and inattentive in 
providing for his good; one is thoughtless and heedless 
in not guarding against evil: a careless person does 
not trouble himself about advancement ; an ingttentove 
person does not concern himself about improvement, 
a thoughtless person brings himself into distress; a 
heedless person exposes himself to accidents. 

Heedless and inattentive are, for the most part, 
applied to particular circumstances, and in that case 
they are not taken in a bad sense. We may be heed- 
yee sok a thing of which it is not needful to take any 
heed ; 


There in the ruin, heedless of the dead, 
The shelter-seeking peasant builds his shed. 
GoLDSMITH 
Or inattentive if the thing does not demand attention; 
‘In the midst of his glory the Almighty is not inatten- 
tive to the meanest of his subjects.’—Brair. 


THOUGHTFUL, CONSIDERATE, 
DELIBERATE. 


Thoughtful, or full of thinking (v. To think, re 
Jiect), considerate, or ready to consider (v. To consi- 
der, reflect), and deliberate, ready to deliberate (vy. Tea 
consult), rise upon each other in their signification : 
he who is thoughtful does not forget his duty ; he who 
is considerate pauses, and considers properly what is 
his duty; he who deliberates considers deliberately. 
It is a recommendation to a subordinate person to be 
thoughtful in doing what is wished of him; ‘ Men’s 
minds are in general inclined to levity, much more than 
to thoughtful melancholy.—Buatr. It is the recom- 
mendation of a confidential person to be considerate, 
as he has often to judge according to his own discre- 
tion ; ‘Some things will not bear mueh zeal; and the 
more earnest we are about them, the less we recom- 
mend ourselves to the approbation of sober and con- 
siderate men.’—TiILLoTson. It isthe recommendation 
of a person who is acting for himself in critical] mat- 
ters to be deliberate ; ‘' There is a vast difference be- 
tween sins of infirmity and those of presumption, as 
vast as between inadverteney and deliberation.’— 
Souru. There is this farther distinction in the word 
deliberate, that it may be used in the bad sense to mark 
a settled intention to do evil; young people may some- 
times plead in extenuation of their guilt, that their 
misdeeds do not arise from deliberate malice. 


ATTENTIVE, CAREFUL. 


Aitentive marks a readiness to attend (v. To attend 
to) ; careful signifies full of care (v. Care, sulicitude). 

These epithets denote a fixedness of mind: we are 
attentive in order to understand and improve; we are 
careful to avoid mistakes. An attentive scholar pro- 
fits by what is told him in learning his task ; a careful 
scholar performs his exercise correctly. 

Attention respects matters of judgement; care re- 
lates to mechanical or ordinary actions: we listen at- 
tentively ; we read or write carefully. A servant 
must be attentive to the orders that are given him, and 
careful not to injure his master’s property. A trans- 
lator must be attentive; a transcriber careful. A 
tradesman ought to be attentive to the wishes of his 
customers, and careful in keeping his accounts, In 
an extended and moral application of these terms they 
preserve a similar distinction; ‘The use of the pas- 
sions is to stir up the soul, to awaken the understand- 
ing, and to make the whole man more vigorous and 
attentive in the prosecution of his designs.-—AppDIson. 
‘ We should be as careful of our words as our actions, 
and as far from speaking as doing ill. —STreve. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


CARE, SOLICITUDE, ANXIETY. 


Care, in Latin cura, comes probably from the Greek 
kvpos power, because whoever has power has a weight 
of care; solicitude, in French solicitude, Latin solli- 
citudo from sollicito to disquiet, compounded of solum 
and cito to put altogether in commotion, signifies a 
complete state of restless commotion; anzxicty, in 
French anzieté, Latin anzietas, from anzius and ango, 


Greek dyyw, Hebrew P AV} to hang, suffocate, torment, 


‘signifies a state of extreme suffering. 

These terms express mental pain in different degrees ; 
care less than solicttude, and this less than anziety. 
Care consists of thought and feeling; solicitude and 
anxiety of feeling only. Care respects the past, pre- 
sent, and future; solicitude and anziety regard the 
present and future. Care is directed towards the pre- 
sent and absent, near or at a distance; solicitude and 
anziety are employed about that which is absent and 
at a certain distance. ; 

We are careful about the means; solicitous and 
anxious about the end; we are solicitous to obtaina 
good; we are anxious to avoid an evil. The cares of 
a parent exceed every other in their weight. He has 
an unceasing solicitude for the welfare of his children, 
and experiences many an anzious thought lest all his 
care should be lost upon them. 

Care, though in some respects an infirmity of our 
nature, is a consequence of our limited knowledge, 
which we cannot altogether remove ; as it respects the 
present, it is a bounden duty ; but when it extends to 
futurity, it must be kept within the limits of pious 
resignation ; 

But his face 
Deep scars of thunder had intrench’d, and care 
Sat on his faded cheek.—MiLTon. 


Solicitude and anziety, as habits of the mind, are 
irreconcilable with the faith of a Christian, which 
teaches him to take no thought for the morrow; ‘Can 
your solicitude alter the course, or unravel the intri- 
cacy, of human events,”—Buair. ‘The story of a 
man who grew gray in the space of one night’s anziety 
is very famous.’—SrecTaTor. 


CARE, CONCERN, REGARD. 


Care, in Latin cura, comes probably from the 
Greek xpos authority, because the weight of care rests 
with those in authority ; concern, from the Latin con- 
cerno, compounded of con and cerno, signifies the look- 
ing thoroughly into a thing ; regard, in French regarder, 
compounded of re and garder to look, signifies looking 
back upon a thing. 

Care and concern consist both of thought and feel- 
ing, but the latter has less of thought than feeling: 

egard consists of thought only. We care for a thing 
which is the object of our exertions and wishes ; 


His trust was equal with the Deity to be deem’d, 
Equal in strength, and rather than be less 
Car’d not to be at all—MuLTon. 


We concern ourselves about a thing when it engages 
our attention ; 


Our country’s welfare is our first concern.—HavaRD. 


We have regard for a thing on which we set some 
value and bestow some reflection ; 


Slander meets no regard from noble minds: 
Only the base believe what the base only utter. - 
BELLER. 


Care is altogether an active principle: the careful 
man leaves no means untried in the pursuit of his 
object; care actuates him to personal endeavours; it 
is opposed to negligence. Concern is not so active in 
its nature: the person who is concerned will be con- 
tented to see exertions made by others; it is opposed 
to indifference. Regard is only a sentiment of the 
mind; it may lead to action, but of itself extends no 
farther than reflection. 

The business of life is the subject of care ; 


Well, on my terms thou wilt not be my heir: 
If thou car’st little, less shall be my care.—DryYDEN. 


Religion is the grand object of concern. ‘ The more 
the authority of any station in society is extended, the 
more it concerns publick happiness that it be committed 
to men fearing God.’.—Rogrrs ‘The esteem of others 


425 


is an object of regard; ‘He has rendered himself 
worthy of their most favourable regards.’-—Smirn. 

No one ought to expect to be exempt from care: 
the provision of a family, and the education of chil- 
dren, are objects for which we ought to take some care, 
or at least have some concern, inasmuch as we have a 
regard for our own welfare, and the well-being of 
society. 


CARE, CHARGE, MANAGEMENT. 


Care, v. Care, solicitude; charge, in French charge 
a burden, in Armorick and Bretan carg, which is pro- 
bably connected with cargo and carry, is figuratively 
employed in the sense of a burden; a management, 
in French ménagement, from ménager and méner ta 
lead, and the Latin manus a hand, signifies direction. 

Care (v. Care, concern) includes generally both 
charge and management; but in the strict sense, it 
comprehends personal labour: charge involves respon- 
sibility: management (v. To conduct) includes regula- 
tion and order. 

A gardener has the care of a garden; a nurse has the 
charge of children; a steward has the management of 
a farm: we must always act in order to take care; we 
must look in order to take charge; we must always 
think in order to manage. 

Care is employed in the ordinary affairs of life: 
charge in matters of trust and confidence; manage 
ment in matters of business and experience: the female 
has the care of the house, and the man that of pro- 
viding for his family ; 

Care’s a father’s right—a pleasing right, 

In which he labours with a home-felt joy. —Suir.ey, 
An instructer has the charge of youth; ‘I can never 
believe that the repugnance with which Tiberius took 
the charge of the government upon him was wholly 
feigned.’.—CumBrERLAND. Aclerk has the management 
of a business; ‘The woman, to whom her husband 
left the whole management of her lodgings, and whe 
persisted in her purpose, soon found an opportunity to 
put it into execution.” -HaAwKESWORTH. 


CAREFUL, CAUTIOUS, PROVIDENT. 


Careful signifies full of care (v. Care, solicitude) ; 
cautious isin Latin cautus, participle of caveo, which 
comes from cavus hollow, or a cave, which was ori- 
ginally a place of security ; hence the epithet cautious 
in the sense of seeking security; provident, in Latin 
providens, signifies foreseeing or looking to beforehand, 
from pro and video. 

We are careful to avoid mistakes ; cautious to avoid 
danger; provident to avoid straits and difficulties: 
care is exercised in saving and retaining what we have; 
caution must be used in guarding against the evils that 
may be; providence must be employed in supplying 
the good, or guarding against the contingent evils of 
the future. Providence is a determinate and extended 
kind of caution. 

Care consists in the use of means, in the exercise of 
the faculties for the attainment of an end; a careful 
person omits nothing; 


To cure their mad ambition they were sent 

To rule a distant province, each alone; 

What could a careful father have done more ? 
DrypDEn. 


Caution consists rather in abstaining from action; a 
cautious person will not act where he ought not; 


Flush’d by the spirit of the genial year, 
Be greatly cautious of your sliding hearts. 
THOMSON. 


Providence respects the use of things; it is both care 
and caution in the management of property; a pro- 
vident person acts for the future by abstaining for the 
present; } 

Blest above men if he perceives and feels 

The blessings he is heirto: he! to whom 

His provident forefathers have bequeathed 

In this fair district of their native isle 

A free inheritance. —CuMBERLAND. 


CAUTIOUS, WARY, CIRCUMSPECT. 


Cautious, v. Careful; wary, from the same as azoare 
(v. To be aware of), signifies ready to look out: ci». 


426 


cumspect, in Latin circumspectus, participle of circum- 
spicio to look about, signifies ready to look on all.sides. 

These epithets denote a peculiar care to avoid evil ; 
but cautoous expresses less than the other two; it is 
necessary to be cautious at all times; to be wary in 
cases of peculiar danger; to be cirewmspect in matters 
of peculiar delicacy and difficulty. 

Caution is the effect of fear; wariness of danger; 
circumspection of experience and reflection. The 
cautious man reckons on contingencies; he guards 
against the evils that may be, by pausing before he acts ; 


The strong reportof Arthur’s death has worse 
Effect on them, than on the common sort; 

The vulgar only shake their cautious heads, 

Or whisper in the ear wisely suspicious.—C1BBRER. 


The wary man looks for the danger which he suspects 
to be impending, and seeks to avoid it; ‘ Let not that 
wary caution, which is the fruit of experience, degene- 
rate into craft.’--BLair. The circumspect man weighs 
and deliberates; he looks around and calculates on 
possibilities and probabilities; he seeks to attain his 
end by the safest means; ‘ No pious man can be so cir- 
cumspect in the care of his conscience, as the covetous 
man is in that of his pocket.’—STEe.xz. A tradesman 
must be cautious in his dealings with all men; he must 
oe wary in his intercourse with designing men; he 
must be circumspect when transacting business of par- 
ticular importance and intricacy. The traveller must 
be cautious when going a road not familiar to him; he 
must be wary when passing over slippery and danger- 
ous places; he must be circumspect when going through 
obscure, uncertain, and winding passages. 

A person ought to be cautious not to give offence ; 
he ought to be wary not to entangle himself in ruinous 
litigations; he ought to be circumspect not to engage 
in what is above his abilities to complete. It is neces- 
sary to be cautious not to disclose our sentiments too 
freely before strangers; to be wary in one’s speech 
before busy bodies and calumniators; to be circumspect 
whenever we speak on publick matters, respecting 
either politicks or religion. 


MINDFUL, REGARDFUL, OBSERVANT. 


Mindful, signifies full of minding, or thinking on 
that which is past; it mostly regards matters of pru- 
dence, or the counsel we receive from others ; 

Be mindful, when thou hast entomb’d the shoot, 

With store of earth around to feed the root.—DryDEN. 


Regardful respects that which in itself demands 7e- 
gard or serious thought ; 
No, there is none; no ruler of the stars 
Regardful of my miseries.—HILu. 
Observant respects that which has been imposed upon 
us, or become a matter of obligation; 
Observant of the right, religious of his word. 
DRYDEN. 


A child should always be mindful of its parents’ in- 
structions; they should never be forgotten: every one 


should be regardful of his several duties and obliga: | 


tions; they never ought to be neglected: one ough’ 
to be observant of the religious duties which one’s 
profession enjoins upon him; they cannot with pro- 
priety be passed over. By being mindful of what one 
hears from the wise and good, one learns to be wise and 
good; by being regardful of whatis due to one’s self, 
and to society at large, one learns to pass through the 
world with satisfaction to one’s own mind and esteem 
from others; by being observant of all rule and order, 
we afford to others a salutary example for their imi- 
ation. 


AWARE, ON ONE’S GUARD, APPRIZED, 
CONSCIOUS. 


Aware, compounded of aor on and ware, signifies 
to be on the look out, from the Saxon waer, German, 
&c. wahren, Greek dpdw to see; guard, in French 
garder, is connected with ward, in Saxon waerd, Ger- 
man, &c. gewahrt, participle of wahkren; apprized, in 
French appris, from apprendre to apprehend, learn, or 
understand; conscious, in Latin conscius, of con and 
scius knowing, signifies knowing within one’s self. 

The idea f€ having the expectation or knowledge of 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


a thing is common to all these terms. We are aware 
of a thing when we calculate upon it; ‘ The first steps 
in the breach of a man’s integrity are more important 
than men are aware of.—StTEELE. Weare on ow 
guard against an evil when we are prepared for it 
‘What establishment of religion more friendly te 
publick happiness could be desired or framed (than our - 
own). How zealous ought we to be for its preserva 
tion; how much on our guard against every dangei 
which threatens to trouble it.—Buair. We are ap. 
prized of that of which we have had an intimation, 
or have been informed of ; ‘ In play the chance of loss 
and gain ought always Lo be equal, at least each party 
should be apprized of the force employed against him.’ 
—STEELE. We are conscious of that in which we 
have ourselves been concerned; ‘I know nothing so 
hard for a generous mind to get over as calumny and 
reproach, and cannot find any method of quieting the 
soul under them, besides this single one, of our being 
conscious to ourselves that we do not deserve them.’ 
ADDISON. 

To be aware, and on one’s guard, respect the future; 
to be apprized, either the past or present; to be con- 
scious, only the past. Experience enables a man to be 
aware of consequences; prudence and caution dictate 
to him the necessity of being on his guard against 
evils. Whoever is fully aware of the precarious tenure 
by which he holds all his goods in this world, will be 
on his guard to prevent any calamities, as far as the 
use of means in his control. 

We are apprized of events, or what passes outwardly, 
through the medium of external circumstances; we are 
conscious only through the medium of ourselves, of 
what passes within. We are apprized of what has hap- 
pened from indications that attract our notice; we are 
conscious of our guilt from the recollection of what we 
have done. A commander who is not aware of all the 
contingencies that influence the fate of a battle, who 
is not on his guard against the stratagems of the 
enemy, who is not fully apprized of their intentions, 
and conscious of his own strength to frustrate them, - 
has no grounds to expect a victory ; the chances of de- 
feat are greatly against him. 


HEED, CARE, ATTENTION 


Heed, which through the medium of the German 
hiithen probably comes from the Latin vito to avoid, 
and video to see, applies to matters of importance to 
one’s moral conduct; care (v. Care, concern) applies 
to matters of minor import: a man is required to take 
heed; acchild is required to take care; the former 
exercises his understanding in taking heed ; the latter 
exercises his thoughts and his senses in taking care: 
the former looks to the remote and probable conse- — 
quences of his actions, and endeavours to prevent the 
evil that may happen; the latter sees principally to 
the thing that is immediately before him. When a 
young man enters the world, he must take heed lest 
he be not ensnared by his companions into vicious 
practices ; 


Next you, my servants, heed my strict command, 
Without the walls a ruin’d temple stands. 
Dryven. 


In a slippery path we must take care that we do not . 
fall; ‘I believe the hiatus should be avoided with more 
care in poetry than in oratory.’—Pors. 

Heed has moreover the sense of thinking on what 
is proposed to our notice, in which it agrees with aiten- 
tion, which from the Latin attendo, or at and tendo 
to stretch, signifies a tension or stretching the mind 
towards an object ; hence we speak of giving heed and 
paying attention: but the former is applied only to 
that which is conveyed to us by another, in the shape 
of a direction, a caution, or an instruction; but the 
latter is said of every thing which we are set to per- 
form. A good child giWéssfeed to his parents when 
they caution him against’any dangerous or false step; 
he pays attention/to the lesson which is set him te 
learn. He who gives no heed to the counsels of others 
is made to repent his folly by bitter experience; ‘It is 
a way of calling a man a fool, when no heed is given 
to what he says.’ —L’Estraner. He who fails in pay- 
ing attention to the instruction of others cannot expect 
to grow wiser; ‘He perceived nothivg but silence, 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


gna signs of attention to what he would further say.’ 
-Bacon. 


All were attentive to the godlike man.—DryDEN. 


ESTEEM, RESPECT, REGARD. 


Esteem, from the Latin estimo, signifies literally to 
set a value upon; respect, from the Latin respiczo, sig- 
nifies to look back upon, to look upon with attention ; 
regard, v. To attend to. 

A favourable sentiment towards particular objects is 
included in the meaning of all these terms. 

Esteem and respect flow from the understanding ; 
regard springs from the heart, as well as the head: 
esteem is produced. by intrinsick worth; respect by 
extrinsick qualities; regard is affection blended with 
esteem: it is in the power of every man, independently 
of all collateral circumstances, to acquire the esteem 
of others ; but respect and regard are within the reach 
of a limited ruber only: the high and the low, the 
rich and the poor, the equal and the unequal, are 
each, in their turn, the objects of esteem ; ‘ How great 
honour and esteem will men declare for one whom per- 
haps they never saw before.’—TitLotTson. Those 
only are objects of respect who have some mark of 
distinction, or superiority either of birth, talent, acquire- 
ments, or the like ; 


Then for what common good my thoughts inspire, 
Attend, and in the son respecé the sire.—Pork. 


Regard subsists only between friends, or those who 
stand in close connexion with each other; industry and 
sobriety excite our esteem for one man, charity and 
benevolence our esteem for another; superiour learn- 
ing or abilities excite our respect for another; a long 
acquaintance, or a reciprocity of kind offices, excite a 
mutual regard ; ‘He has rendered himself worthy of 
their most favourable regards..—Smiru. This latter 
term is also used figuratively, and in a moral applica- 
tion ; ‘ Cheerfulness bears the same friendly regard to 
the mind as to the body.’.—Appison. 


TO HONOUR, REVERENCE, RESPECT. 


These terms agree in expressing-the act of an in- 
feriour towards his superiour; but honour (v. Glory) 
expresses less than reverence (v. To adore), and more 
than respect (v. To esteem). 

To honour, as applied to persons, is mostly an out- 
ward act; to reverence is either an act of the mind, 
or the outward expression of a sentiment; to respect 
is only an act of the mind. We honowr God by adora- 
tion and worship, as well as by the performance of his 
will; we honour our parents by obeying them and 
giving them our personal service: we reverence our 
Maker by cherishing in our minds a dread of offending 
him, and making a fearful use. of his holy name and 
word ; we reverence our parents by holding a similar 
sentiment in a less degree; ‘ This is a duty in the fifth 
commandment required towards our prince and our 
parent, a respect which in the notion of it implies a 
mixture of love and fear, and in the object equally 
supposes goodness and power.’——Rocers. ‘The 
foundation of every proper disposition towards God 
must be laid in reverence, that is, admiration mixed 
with awe,’—Buiatr. We respect the wise and good; 
‘Establish your character on the respect of the wise, 
not on the Hattery of dependants.’—B.air. 

To honour and respect are extended to other objects 
besides our Maker and our parents; but reverence is 


confined to objects of a religious description; ‘ We | 


honour the king and all that are put in authority under 
him,”’ by rendering to them the tribute that is due to 
their station ; we respect all who possess superiour qua- 
lities: the former is an act of duty, it flows out of the 
constitution of civil society ; the latter is a voluntary 

st flowing out of the temper of the mind towards 
others. To respect, as I have before observed, signi- 
fies merely to feel respect ; but to show respect, or a 
mark of respect, supposes an outward action which 
brings it still nearer to honour. It isa mark of honour 
in subjects to keep the birth-day of their sovereign ; 
it is a mark of respect to any individual to give him 
the upper seat in aroom or at atable. Divine honours 
were formerly paid by the Romans to some of their 
emperours’ respect is always paid to age in all Christian 


42" 


countries ; among the heathens it ¢:mered according to 
the temper of the people. 

To honour when applied to things is also used in the 
sense of holding in honour, in which case it expresses 
a stronger sentiment than respect, which solely im 
plies regard to; ‘ Of learning, as of virtue, it may be 
affirmed that it is at once honoured and neglected.’-- 
JOHNSON 

The bless’d gods do not love 

Ungodly actions ; but respect the right 

And in the warks of pious men delight—Cuapmas 


HONESTY, HONOUR. 


These terms both respect the principle which actuates 
men in the adjustment of their rights with each other. 
The words are both derived from the same source, 


namely, the Hebrew po substance or wealth (v. Ho 


nesty), which, being the primitive source of esteem 
among men, became at Jength put for the measure or 
standard of esteem, namely, what is good. Hence 
honesty and honour are both founded upon what is 
estimable; with this difference, that honesty is confined 
to the first principles or laws upon which civil society 
is founded, and honour is an independent principle that 
extends to every thing which by usage has been ad 
mitted as estimable or entitled to esteem ; ‘ Honesty, 
in the language of the Romans, as well as in French, 
rather signifies a composition of those qualities which 
generally acquire honour and esteem to those who pos- 
sess them.’—Trmp.iz. ‘If by honour be meant any 
thing distinct from conscience, ’t is no more than a re- 
gard to the censure and esteem of the world.’-—Rogers. 
An honest action, therefore, can never reflect so much 
credit on the agent as an honourable action; since in 
the performance of the one he may be guided by mo- 
tives comparatively low, whereas in the other case he ‘ 
is actuated solely by a fair regard for the honour or the 
esteem of others. Toa breach of honesty is attached 
punishment and personal inconvenience in various 
forms; but to a breach of honour is annexed only dis- 
grace or the ill opinion of others: he, therefore, who 
sets more value or interest on the gratification of his 
passions, than on the esteem of the world, may gain 
his petty purpose with the sacrifice of his honour; but 
he who strives to be dishonest is thwarted in his pur- 
pose by the intervention of the laws, which deprive 
him of his unworthy gains: consequently, men are 
compelled to be honest whether they will or not, but 
ae are entirely free in the choice of being honour- 
able. 

On the other hand, since honesty is founded on the 
very first principles of human society, and honous on 
the incidental principles which have been annexed to 
them in the progress of time and culture; the former 
is positive and definite, and he who is actuated by this 
principle can never err; but th latter is indefinite and 
variable, and as it depends upon opinion it will easily 
mislead. We cannot havea false honesty, but we may 
have false honour. Hoxresty always keeps a man 
within the line of his duty; but a mistaken notion of 
what is honourable may carry a man very far from 
what is right, and may even lead him 0 run counter 
to common honesty. 


HONESTY UPRIGHTNESS, INTEGRITY, 
PROBITY. 


Honesty, v. Fair; uprightness, from upright, in 
German aufrichtig or aufgerichtet, from aufrichten 
to set up, signifies m a straight direction, not deviating 
nor turning aside. 

Henest is the most familiar and universal term, it 
is applied alike to actions and principles, to a mode of 
conduct or a temper of mind: upright is applied to 
the conduct, but always with reference to the moving 
principle. As it respects the conduct, honesty is a 
much more homely virtue than uprightness : a man is 
said to be honest who in his dealings with others does 
not violate the laws; thus a servant is honest whe 
does not take any of the property of his master, or 
suffer it to be taken; a tradesman is honest who does 
not sell bad articles ; and people in general are deno- 
minated honest who pay what they owe, and do not © 
adopt any methods of defrauding others: hanesty iz 
this sense, therefore, consists in negatives; but up 


428 


rightness is positive, and extends to all matters which 
are above the reach of the law, and comprehends not 
only every thing which is known to be hurtful, but also 
To be honest 
requires nothing but a knowledge of the first princi- 
ples of civil society; it is learned, and may be prac- 
tised, by the youngest and most ignorant: but to be 
upright supposes a superiority of understanding or in- 
formation, which qualifies a person to discriminate 


whatever may chance to be hurtful. 


between that which may or may not injure another. 


An honest man is contented with not overcharging an- 


other for that which he sells to him; but an upright 
man seeks to provide him with that which shall fully 
answer his purpose: a man will not think himself dis- 
honest who leaves another to find out defects which it 
Ss possible may escape his notice; but an upright man 


will rather suffer a loss himself than expose another to 


an errour which may be detrimental to his interests. 
From this difference between honesty and uprightness 
arises another, namely, that the honest man may be 
konest only for his own convenience, out of regard to 
his character, or a fear of the laws; but the upright 
man is always upright, from his sense of what is right, 
and his concern for others. 

Honest, in its extended sense, as it is applied to 
principles, or to the general character of a man, is of 
a higher cast than the common kind of honesty above 
mentioned; uprighiness, however, in this case, still 
preserves its superiority. An honest principle is the 
first and most universally applicable principle, which 
the mind forms of what is right and wrong; and the 
honest man, who is so denominated on account of his 
having this principle, is looked upon with respect, in- 
asmuch as he possesses the foundation of all moral 
virtue in his dealings with others. Honest is here 
the generick and aprightness the specifick term; the 
former does not excluce the latter, but the latter in- 
cludes the former. There may be many honest men 
and honest minds; but there are not so many upright 
men nor upright minds. The honest man is rather 
contrasted with the rogue, and an honest principle is 
opposed to the selfish or artful principle; but the up- 
right man or the upright mind can be compared or 
contrasted with nothing but itself. An honest man 
will do no harm if he know it; but an upright man is 
careful not to do to another what he would not have 
another do to him. 

Honesty is a feeling that actuates and directs by a 
spontaneous impulse ; uprightness is a principle that 
regulates or puts every thing into an even course. 
Honesty can be dispensed with in no case; but up- 
rightness is called into exercise only in certain cases. 
We characterize a servant or the lowest person as 
honest: but we do not entitle any one in so low a 
capacity as upright, since uprightness is exercised in 
matters of higher moment, and rests upon the evidence 
of a man’s own mind; a judge, however, may with 
propriety be denominated upright, who scrupulously 
adheres to the dictates of an unbiassed conscience in 
the administration of justice. 

Uprightness is applicable only to principles and 
actions ; integrity (from the Latin integer whole) is ap- 
plicable to the whole man or his character ; and probity 
(from probus or prohibus restraining, that is, restrain- 
ing from evil) isin like manner used only in the com- 
prehensive sense. Uprightness is the straightness of 


rule by which actions and conduct in certain cases is. 


measured; integrity is the wholeness or unbrokenness 
of a man’s character throughout life in his various 
transactions; probity is the excellence and purity of a 
man’s character in his various relations. When we 
call a man upright, we consider him in the detail; 
we bear in mind the uniformity and fixedness of the 
principle by which he is actuated: when we call him a 
man of integrity, we view him in the gross, not in 
this nor that circumstance of ‘life, but in every circum- 
stance in which the rights and interests of others are 
concerned. Uprightness may therefore be looked 
upon in some measure as a part of integrity; with 
this difference, that the acting principle is in the one 
fase only kept in view, whereas in the other case the 
conduct and principle are beth included. The dis- 
tinction between these terms is farther evident by ob- 
serving their different application. We do not talk of 
a man’s uprightness being shaken, or of his preserving 
his uprightness; but of his integrity being shaken, 
and his preserving his integrity, Wemay however, 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


ascribe the particular conduct of any individual nas 
properly to the integrity of his principles or mind, as 
to the uprightness of his principles. A man’s up- 
rightness displays itself in his dealings, be they ever 
80 trifling; but the integrity of his character is seen in 
the most important concerns of life. A judge shows 
his uprightness in his daily administration of justice, 
when he remains uninfluenced by any partial motive ; 
he shows his integrity when he resists the most power- 
ful motives of personal interest and advantage out of 
respect to right and justice, 

Integrity and probity are both general and abstract 
terms; but the former is relative, the latter is positive: 
integrity refers to the external injuries by which it may 
be assailed or destroyed; it is goodness tried and pre- 
served: probity is goodness existing of itself, without 
reference to any thing else. There is no integrity 
where private interest is not in question; there is no 


probity wherever the interests of others are injured: 


integrity therefore includes probity, but probity does 
not necessarily suppose integrity. Probity is a free 
principle, that acts without any force; integrity is a 
defensive principle, that is obliged to maintain itself 
against external force. Probity excludes all injustice; 
integrity excludes in a particular manner that injustice 
which would favour one’s self. Probity respects the 
rights of every man, and seeks to render to every one 
what is his due; it does not wait to be asked, it does 
not require any compulsion; it voluntarily enters into 
all the circumstances and conditions of men, and 
measures out to each his portion: probity therefore 
forbids a man being malignant, hard, cruel, ungenerous, 
unfair, or any thing else which may press unequally 
and unjustly on his neighbour: integrity is disin- 
terested; it sacrifices every personal consideration to 
the maintenance of what is right: a man of zn 
tegrity will not be contented to abstain from selling 
himself for gold; he will keep himself aloof from all 
private partialities or resentments, all party cabals or 
intrigue, which are apt to violate the iategrity of his 
mind. We look for honesty and uprightness in 
citizens; it sets every question at rest between man 
and man: we look for integrity and probity in states- 
men, or such as have to adjust the rights of many; 
they contribute to the publick as often as to the private 
good. 

Were I to take an estimate of the comparative value 
of these four terms, I should denominate honesty a 
current coin which must be in every man’s hands; he 
cannot dispense with it for his daily use: uprightness 
is fine silver: prodity fine gold without any alloy: and 
integrity gold tried and purified: all which are in the 
hands of but comparatively few, yet carry a value with 
them independently of the use which is made of them. 


RECTITUDE, UPRIGHTNESS. 


Rectitude is properly rightness, which is expressed 
in a stronger manner by uprightness : we speak of the 
rectitude of the judgement; but of the uprightness of — 
the mind, or of the moral character, which must be 
something more than straight, for it must be elevated 
above every thing mean or devious; ‘ We are told by 
Cumberland that sectitude is merely metaphorical, and 
that as a right line describes the shortest passage from 
point to point, so a right action effects a good design by 
the fewest means.’—JCGHNSON. 

Who to the fraudulent impostor foul, 


In his uprighiness, answer thus return’d. 
° Mi.Ton. 


FAIR, HONEST, EQUITABLE, REASONABLE. 


Fair, in Saxon fagar, comes probably from the 
Latin pulcher beautiful; honest, in Latin honestus, 
comés from honos honour; equitable signifies having 
equity, or according to equity; reasonable, having 
reason, or according to reason. 

Fair is said of persons or things; honest mostly 
characterizes the person, either as to his conduct or 
his principle. When fair and honest are both applied 
to the external conduct, the former expresses more than 
the latter: a man may be honest without being far ; 
he cannot be fair without being honest. Fairnese 
enters into every minute circumstance connected with 
the interests of the parties, and weighs them alike for 
both; honesty is contented with a literal conformity t@ 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES 


the law, it consults the interest of one party: the fazr | 
dealer looks to his neighbour as well as himself, he 
wishes only for an equal share of advantage; a man 
may be an honest dealer while he looks to no one’s ad- 
vantage but his own: the faiz man always acts from 
a principle of right; the honest man may be so froma 
motive of fear. - 

When these epithets are employed to characterize 
the man generally, fairness expresses leas than honesty. 
Fairness is employed only in regard to commercial 
transactions or minor personal concerns; ‘If the 
Wworldling prefer those means which are the fazrest, it 
is not because they are fair, but because they seem to 
him most likely to prove successful.’.—Buair. Honesty 
ranks among the first moral virtues, and elevates a man 
high above his fellow-creatures ; 


An honest man’s the noblest work of God.—Poprs. 


Should he at length, so truly good and great, 
Prevail, and rule with honest views the state, 
Then must he toil for an ungrateful race, 
Submit to clamour, libels, and disgrace. 
JENYNS. 


A man is fair who is ready to allow his competitor the 
same advantages as he enjoys himself in every matter 
however trivial; or he is honest in all his looks, words, 
and actions: neither his tongue nor his countenance 
ever belie his heart. A fair man makes himself ac- 
ceptable. 

When fair is employed as an epithet to qualify 
things, or to designate their nature, it approaches very 
near in signification to equitable and reasonable ; they 
are all opposed to what is unjust: fazr and equitable 
suppose two objects put in collision; reasonable is em- 
ployed abstractedly; what is fazr and equitable is so 
m relation to al) circumstances; what is reasonable is 
so of itself. An estimate is fair in which profit and 
loss, merit and demerit, with every collateral circum- 
stance, is duly weighed ; a judgement is equitable which 
decides suitably and advantageously for both parties; 
a price is xeasonable which does not exceed the limits 
of reason or propriety. A decision may be either fair 
or equitable; but the former is said mostly in regard to 
trifling matters, even in our games and amusements, 
and the latter in regard to the important rights of man- 
kind. It is the business of the umpire to decide fairly 
between the combatants or. the competitors for a prize; 
itis the business of the judge to decide equztably be- 
tween men whose property is at issue; ‘ A manis very 
unlikely to judge equitably when his passions are agi- 
tated by a sense of wrong.’—JoHNSON. 

A demand, a charge, a proposition, or an offer may 
be said to be either fair or reasonable: but the former 
term always bears a relation to what is right between 
man and man; the latter to what is right in itself, ac- 
cording to circumstances; ‘The reasonableness of a 
test is not hard to be proved.’—Jounson. 


HONOUR, DIGNITY. 


Honour (v. Honour) may be taken either for that 
which intrinsically belongs to a person, or for that 
which is conferred on him; dignity, from the Latin 
dignus worthy, signifying worthiness, may be equally 
applied to what is intrinsick or extrinsick of a man. 

In the first case honour has a reference to what is 
tsteemed by others; dignity to that which is esteemed 
by ourselves: a sense of honour impels a man to do 
that which is esteemed honourable among men; a 
sense of dignity to do that which is consistent with 
the worth and greatness of his nature: the former 
strives to elevate himself as an individual; the latter 
to raise himself to the standard of his species: the 
former may lead a person astray; but the latter is an 
unerring guide. It is honour which sometimes makes 
a man first insult his friend, then draw his sword upon 
him whom he has insulted: it is dignity which makes 
him despise every paltry affront from others, and apo- 
logize for every apparent affront on his own patt. 
This distinction between the terms is kept up in their 
application to what is extraneous of a man: the 
honour is that which is conferred on him by others; 

When a proud aspiring man meets with honours and 
preferments, these are the things which are ready to 
Jay hold of his heart and affections.—Sourn- The 
dignity is the worth or value which is added to his 
condition ; 


429 


Him Yullus next in dignity succeeds.—Dry prn 


Hence we always speak of honours as conferred or 
received; but dignities as possessed or maintained. 
Honours may sometimes be casual; but dignities are 
always permanent an act of condescension from the 
sovereign is an honour; but the dignity lies in the 
elevation of the office. Hence it is that honours are 
mostly civil or political; dignities ecclesiastical. 


GLORY, HONOUR. 


Glory is something dazzling and widely diffused. 
The Latin word gloria, anciently written glosia, is in 
all probability connected with our words gloss, glaze. 
glitter, glow, through the medium of the northern 
words gleissen, glotzen, gldnzen, gliihen, all which 


come from the Hebrew Sr j a live coal. That the 
moral idea of glory is best represented by light is evi- 
dent from the glory which is painted round the head 
of our Saviour; honour is something less splendid, 
but more solid (v. Honour). 

Glory impels to extraordinary efiurts and to great 
undertakings ; 


Hence is our love of fame; a love so strong, 

We think no dangers great nor labours long, 

By which we hope our beings to extend, 

And to remotest times in glory to descend. 
JENYNS 


Honour induces to a discharge of one’s duty; ‘As 
virtue is the most reasonable and genuine source of 
honour, we generally find in titles an intimation of 
some particular merit that should recommend men te 
the high stations which they possess..—Appison. [Ex- 
cellence in the attainment, and success in the exploit, 
bring glory ; a faithful exercise of one’s talents reflects 
honour. Glory is connected with every thing which 
has a peculiar publick interest; Aonowr is more pro- 
perly obtained within a private circle. Glory is not 
confined to the nation or life of the individual by whom 
it is sought; it spreads overall the earth, and descends 
to the latest posterity: honour is limited to those who 
are connected with the subject of it, and eye-witnesses 
to his actions. Glory is attainable but by few, and 
may be an object of indifference to any one; honour is 
more or less within the reach of all, and must be dis 
regarded by no one. A general at the head of an 
army goes in pursuit of glory; the humble citizen who 
acts his part in society so as to obtain the approbation 
of his fellow-citizens is.in the road for honour. A 
nation acquires glory by the splendour of its victories, 
and its superiority in arts as well as arms; it obtains 
honour by its strict adherence to equity and good faith 
in all its dealings with other nations. Our own nation 
has acquired glory by the help of its brave warriours; 
it has gained honour by the justice and generosity of 
its government. The military career of Alexander 
was glorious ; his humane treatment of the Persian 
princesses who were his prisoners was an honourable 
trait in his character. The abolition of the slave trade 
by the English government was a glorious triumph 
of Christianity over the worst principles of human 
nature; the national conduct of England during the 
revolutionary period reflects honour on the English 
name. 
Glory is a sentiment, selfish in its nature, but salu 

tary or pernicious in its effect, according as it is di- 
rected ; 


If glory cannot move a mind so mean, 
. Nor future praise from fading pleasures wean, 
’ Yet witty should he defraud his son of fame, 
And grudge the Romans their immortal name ? 
DRYDEN 


Honour is a principle disinterested in its nature, and 
beneficial in its operations; ‘Sir Francis Bacon, for 
greatness of genius and compass of knowledge, did 
honour to his age and country.’--Avpison. A thirst 
for glory is seldom indulged but at the expense of 
others, as it is not attainable in the plain path of duty; 
there are but few opportunities. of acquiring it by ele 
vated acts of goodness, and still fewer who have the 
virtue to embrace the opportunities that offer: a love 
of honour can never be indulged but to the advantage 
of others; it is restricted by fixed laws; it requires a 


430 


sacrifice of every selfish consideration, and a due re- 
gard to the rights of others; it is associated with 
nothing but virtue. 


DISHONEST, KNAVISH. 


Dishonest marks the contrary to honest; knavish 
marks the likeness to a knave. j 
Dishonest characterizes simply the mode of action; 
knavish characterizes the agent as well as the action: 
what is dishonest violates the established laws of man; 
what is knavish supposes peculiar art and design in 
the accomplishment. It is dishonest to take any thing 
from another which does not belong to one; it is 
knavish to get it by fraud or artifice, or by imposing on 
the confidence of another. We may prevent dishonest 
practices by ordinary means of security; but we must 
not trust ourselves in the company of knavish people 
if we do not wish to be overreached; ‘Gaming is too 
‘unreasonable and dishonest for a gentleman to addict 
himself to it.—Lorp Lytrrieton. ‘Not to laugh 
when nature prompts is but a knavish, hypocritical 
way of making a mask of one’s face.’—Popr. 


RIGHT, JUST, PROPER. 


Right, in German recht, Latin rectus, signifies up- 
right, not leaning to one side or the other, standing as 
it ought; just, in Latin justus, from jus law, signifies 
according to a rule of right; fit, v. Fit; proper, in 
Latin proprius, signifies belonging to a given rule. 

Right is here the general term; the others express 
modes of right. ‘The right and wrong are defined by 
the written will of God, or are written in our hearts 
according to the original constitutions of our nature; 
the just and unjust are determined by the written laws 
of men; the fit and proper are determined by the es- 
tablished principles of civil society. 

Between the right and the wrong there are no gra- 
dations: a thing cannot be more vight or more wrong; 
whatever is right is not wrong, and whatever is wrong 
iS not right: the just and unjust, proper and im- 
proper, fit and unfit, on the contrary, have various 
shades and degrees that are not so easily definable by 
any forms of speech or written rules. 

The right and wrong depend upon no circumstance ; 
what is once right or wrong is always right or wrong: 
but the just or wnjust, proper or émproper, are relatively 
so according to the circumstances of the case: it is a 
get rule for every man to have that which is his own; 

ut what is just to the individual may be unjust to 
society. It is proper for every man to take charge of 
his own concerns; but it would be improper for a man 
in an unsound state of mind to undertake such a 
charge. 

The right and the wrong are often beyond the reach 
of our faculties to discern; but the just, fit, and proper 
are always to be distinguished sufficiently to be ob- 
served. Right is applicable to all matters, important 
or otherwise; just is employed only in matters of es- 
sential interest; proper is rather applicable to dhe 
minor concerns of life. Every thing that is done may 
be characterized as right or wrong: every thing done 
to others may be measured by the rule of just or un- 
just: in our social intercourse, as well as in our private 
transactions, fitness and propriety must always be 
consulted. As Christians, we desire to do that which 
is right in the sight of God and man; as members of 
civil society, we wish to be just in our dealings; as 
rational and intelligent beings, we wish to do what is 
fit and proper in every action, however trivial; 


Hear then my argument—confess we must 

A God there is supremety wise and just. 

If so, however things affect our sight, 

As sings our bard, whatever is is right. 

JENYNS. 

*There is a great difference between good pleading 
and just composition.’— MELMoTH (Letters of Pliny). 
‘Visiters are no proper companions in the chamber 
of sickness.’—JOHNSON. 


STRAIGHT, RIGHT, DIRECT. 


straight, from the Latin strictus, participle of 
stringo to tighten or bind, signifies confined, that is, 
turning neither to the right nor left. Straight is ap- 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


plied, therefore, in its proper sense, to corporeal uh 
jects; a path which is strazght is kept within a shortet 
space than if it were curved; ‘Truth is the shortest 
and nearest way to our end, carrying us thither in a 
straight line.--T1LLoTson. Right and direct, from 
the Latin rectus, regulated or made as it ought, are 
said of that which is made by the force of the under 
standing, or by an actual effort, what one wishes it to 
be: hence, the mathematician speaks of a right line, 
as the line which lies most justly between two points 
and has been made the basis of mathematical figures ; 
and the moralist speaks of the 72ght opinion, as that 
which has been formed by the best rule of the under- 
standing ; 


Then from pole to pole 
He views in breadth, and without longer pause, 
Down right into the world’s first region throws 
His flight precipitant.—MitTon. 


On the same ground, we speak of a direct answer, as 
that which has been framed so as to bring soonest and 
easiest to the point desired; ‘There be, that are in 
nature faithful and sincere, and plain and direct, not 
crafty and involved.’—Bacon. 


CANDID, OPEN, SINCERE. 


Candid, in French candide, Latin candidus, frora 
candeo to shine, signifies to be pure as truth itself; 
open is in Saxon open, French ouvert, German offen, 
from the preposition wp, German auf, Dutch op, &c., 
because erectness is a characteristick of truth and 
openness ; sincere, French sincére, Latin sincerus, 
probably from the Greek ody and xij the heart, signify- 
ing dictated by or going with the heait. 

Candour arises from a conscious purity of intention; 
openness from a warmth of feeling and love of com- 
munication; stncerity from a love of truth. 

Candour obliges us to acknowledge whatever may 
make against ourselves ; it is disinterested ; 


Self-conviction is the path to virtue, 
An honourable candour thus adorns 
Ingenuous minds.—C, Jounson. 


Openness impels us to utter whatever passes in the 
mind; it is unguarded; ‘The fondest and firmest 
friendships are dissolved by such openness and since- 
rity as interrupt our enjoyment of our own approba- 
tion.’—Jounson. Sincerity prevents us from speaking 
what we do not think; it is positive; 


His words are bonds, his oaths are oracles, 
His love sincere, his thoughts immaculate. 
SHAKSPEARE. 
A candid man will have no reserve when openness is 
necessary: an open Man cannot maintain a reserve at 
any time; a sincere man will maintain a reserve only 
as far as it is consistent with truth. 

Candour wins much upon those who come in con- 
nexion with it; it removes misunderstandings and ob- 
viates differences; the want of it occasions suspicion 
and discontent. Openness gains as many enemies as 
friends; it requires to be well regulated not to be offen- 
sive; there is no mind so pure and disciplined that all 
the thoughts and feelings which it gives birth to, may or 
ought to be made publick. Sincerity is an indispensa- 
ble virtue; the want of it is always mischievous and 
frequently fatal. 


SINCERE, HONEST, TRUE, PLAIN. 


Sincere (v. Candid) is here the most comprehensive 
term; honest (v. Honesty), true, and plain (v. Even) 
are but modes of sincerity. 

Sincerity is a fundamental characteristick of the per- 
son; a man is sincere from the conviction of his mind: 
honesty is the expression of the feeling; itis the dictate 
of the heart: we look fora sincere friend, and an 
honest companion ; 


Rustick mirth goes round, 
The simple joke that takes the shepherd’s heart, 
Easily pleas’d, the long, loud laugh sincere. 
THOMSON. 

‘This book of the Sybils was afterward interpolated 
by some Christian, who was more zealous than either 
honest or wise therein."—Pripkaux. TJruthisa cha 
racteristick of sincerity; for a sincere friend is a true 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


fnend: but sixcerity is a permanent quality in the 
character; and truti may be an occasional one: we 
cannot be sincere without being true, but we may be 
true without being sincere; ‘Poetical ornaments de- 
stroy that character of truth and plainness which 
ought to characterize history. —REYNOLDs. 


Fear not my truth; the moral of my wit 
as plain and trwe.—SHAKSPEARE. 


In like manner a sincere man must be plain: since 
plainness consists in an unvarnished style, the sincere 
man will always adopt that mode of speech which ex- 
presses his sentiments most forcibly ; but it is possible 
for a person to be occasionally plazn who does not act 
from any principle of sincerity. : 

It is plain, therefore, that sincerity is the habitual 
principle of communicating our real sentiments; and 
that the honest, true, and plain are only the modes 
which it adopts in making the communicatien; sin- 
cerity is therefore altogether a personal quality, but 
the other terms are applied also to the acts, as an 
honest confession, a trug acknowledgment, and a plain 
speech. 


—_— 


FRANK, CANDID, INGENUOUS, FREE, OPEN, 
PLAIN. 


Frank, in French franc, German, &c. frank, is con- 
nected with the word frech bold, and frez free; candid 
and open, v. Candid, ingenuous comes from the Latin 
ingenuus, Which signifies literally free-born, as distin- 
guished from the lébert2, who were afterward made 
free: hence the term has been employed by a figure of 
speech to denote nobleness of birth or character. Ac- 
cording to Girard, ingenu in French is taken in a bad 
sense; and Dr. Trusler, in translating his article Sin- 
cerité, franchise, navveté, ingénuité, has erroneously 
assigned the same office to our word ingénuous ; but 
this, however, in its use has kept true to the original, 
by being always an epithet of commendation; free is 

.to be found in most of the northern languages under 
different forms, and is supposed by Adelung to be con- 
nected with the preposition from, which denotes a 
separation or enlargement; plain, v. Apparent, also 
Evident. 

All these terms convey the idea of a readiness to 
communicate and be communicated with; they are all 
opposed to concealment, but under different circum- 
stances. The frank man is under no restraint; his 
thoughts and feelings are both set at ease, and his-lips 
are ever ready to give utterance to the dictates of his 
heart; he has no reserve: the candzd man has nothing 
to conceal; he speaks without regard to self-interest or 
any partial motive; he speaks nothing but the truth: 
the ingenuous man throws off all disguise; he scorns 
all artifice, and brings every thing to-light; he speaks 
the whole truth. Frankness is acceptable in the 
general transactions of society; it inspires confidence, 
and invitescommunication: candour is of peculiar use 
in matters of dispute; it serves the purposes of equity, 
and invites to conciliation: ingenwousness is most 
wanted when there is most to conceal; it courts favour 
and kindness by an acknowledgment of that which is 
against itself. 

Frankness is associated with unpolished manners, 
and frequently appears in men of no. rank or educa- 
tion; sailors have commonly a dealof frankness about 
them: candour is the companion of uprightness; it 
must be accompanied with some refinement, as it acts 
in cases where nice discriminations are made: ingenu- 
ousness is the companion of a noble and elevated 
spirit; it exists most frequently in the unsophisticated 
period of youth. 

Frankness displays itself in the outward behaviour; 
wespeak of a frank air and frank manner: candour 

. displays itself in the language which we adopt, and the 
sentiments we express: we speak of a candid state- 

. ment, a candid reply: ingenuousness shows itself in 
all the words, looks, or actions; we speak of an inge- 
nuous countenance, an ingenuous acknowledgment, 
an trgenuous answer. Frankness and candour may 
be either habitual or occasional; ingenuousness is a 
permanent character: a disposition may be frank, or 
a air of frankness and candour may be assumed for 
the time; but aningenuous character remains one and 
the same 

Frankness is a voluntary effusion of the mind be- 


431 


tween equals; aman frankly confesses to his friend 
the state of his affections or circumstances ; ‘My own 
private opinion with regar@ to such recreations (as 
poetry and musick) [ have given with all the frankness 
imaginable.’—STrEELe. Oandour isa debt paid to jus- 
tice from one independent being to another; he who is 
candid is so from the necessity of the case; when u 
candid man feels himself to have been in an errour 
which affects another, he is impelled to make the only 
reparation in his power by acknowledging it; ‘If you 
have made any better remarks of your own, commu 
nicate them with candour ; if not, make use of those 
I present you with—Appison. Ingenuousness is the 
offering of an uncorrupted mind at theshrine of truth ; 
it presupposes an inferiority in outward circumstances, 
and a motive, if not a direct necessity, for conmuni- 
cation; the lad who does not wish to screen himself 
from punishment by a lie will ingenuously confess his 
offence; he who does not wish to obtain false applause 
will ingenuously disclaim his share in the performance 
which has obtained the applause ; ‘We see an ingenu- 
ous kind of behaviour not only make up for faults 
committed, but in a manner expiate them in the very 
commission.’—STEELE. 

Free, open, and plain have not so high an office as 
the first three: free and oven may be taken either in a 
good, bad, or indifferent sense; but seldomer in the first 
than in the two last senses. 

The frank, free, and open man all speak without 
constraint; but the frank man is not impertinent like 
the free man, nor indiscreet likethe open man. The . 
frank man speaks only of what concerns himself; the 
free man speaks of what concerns others: a frank 
man may confess his own faults or inadvertencies ; the 
free man corrects those which he sees in another: the 
frank man opens his heart from the warmth of his 
nature; the freeman opens his mind from the conceit 
of his temper; and the open mansays all he knows 
and thinks, from the inconsiderate levity of his 
temper. 

A frank man is not frank to all, nor on all occa 
sions; he is frank to his friends, or he is frank in hig 
dealings with others: but the open man lets himself out 
like a running stream to all who choose to listen, and 
communicates trivial or important matters with equal 


| eagerness: on the other hand, it is sometimes becom 


ing in one to be free where counsel can be given wiih 
advantage and pleasure to the receiver; and it is 
pleasant to see an open behaviour, particularly in 
young persons, when contrasted with the odious tra‘t 
of cunning and reserve; 


We cheer the youth to make his own defence, 
And freely tell us what he was and whence. 
DRYDEN. 


‘If I have abused your goodness by toomuch freedom, 
I hope you will attribute it to the openness of my tem- 
per.’—Poprr. 

Plainness, the last quality to be here noticed, is a 
virtue which, though of the humbler order, tv not to 
be despised: it is sometimes employed like freedom 
in the task of giving counsel; but it does not eonvey 
the idea of any thing unauthorized either in mutter 07 
manner. A free counsellor is more ready to display 
his own superiority, than to direct the wanderer in hig 
way ; he rather aggravates faults, than instructs how to 
amend them; he seems more like a supercilious enemy 
than a friendly monitor: the plain man is free from 
these faults: he speaks plainly but truly; he gives ne 
false colouring to his speech; it is not calculated to 
offend, and it may serve for improvement: it is the part 
of atrue friend to be plain with another whom he 
sees in imminent danger. A. free speaker is in dange) 
of being hated; a plain dealer must at least be re 
spected; ‘Pope hardly drank tea without a stratagem, 
if at the house of his friends he wanted any accommo 
dation, he was not willing to ask for it in plain terms, 
but would mention it remotely as something conve 
nient.’—JOHNSON. 


HEARTY, WARM, SINCERE, CORDIAL. 


Hearty, which signifies having the heart in ? thing, 
and. warm (v. Fire), express a stronger feeiing than 
sincere; cordial, from cor, signifying according, to the 
heart, is a mixture of the warm and sincere. There 
are cases in which it may be peculiarly prope to be 


432 


hearty, as when we are supporting the cause of reli- 
gion and virtue; there are other cases In which it is 
peculiarly proper to be warm, as when the afiections 
ought to be roused in favour of our friends; in all 
cases we ought to be sincere, when we express either a 
sentiment or a feeling; and it is peculiarly happy to be 
onterms of cordial regard with those who stand in 
any close relatiun to us. The man himself should be 
hearty; the heart should be warm; the professions 
sincere; and the reception cordial. It is also possible 
to speak of a hearty reception, but this conveys the 
idea of less refinement than cordial ; 


Yet should some neighbour feel a pain 

Just in the parts where I complain, 

How many a message would he send, 

What hearty prayers that I should mend.—Swirr. 


* Youth is the seasen of warm and generous emotions.’ 
—Buair. 
I have not since we parted been at peace, 
Nor known one joy sincere.—ROWE. 
With a gratitude the most cordial, a good man looks 


up to that Almighty Benefactor, who aims at no end 
but the happiness of those whom he blesses.’—-Buatr. 


INGENUOUS, INGENIOUS. 


It would not have been necessary to point out the 
distinction between these two words, if they had not 
been confounded in writing, as well as in speaking. 
Ingenuous, in Latin ingenuus, and ingenious, in 
Latin ingeniosus, are, either immediately or remotely, 
both derived from ingigno to be inborn; but the former 
respects the freedom of the station, and consequent 
nobleness of the character which is inborn; the latter 
respects the genius or mental powers which are inborn. 
Truth is coupled with freedom or nobility of birth ; 
the ingenuous, therefore, bespeaks the inborn freedom, 
by asserting the noblest right, and following the noblest 
impulse, cf human nature, namely, that of speaking 
the truth: genius is altogether a natural endowment, 
that is born with us, independent of external circum- 
stances; the ingenious man, therefore, displays his 
powers as occasion may offer. We love the ingenu- 
ous character, on account of the qualities of his heart; 
we admire the ingenious man on account of the en- 
fowments of his mind. One is ¢ngenuous as a man; 
or ingenious as an author: a man confesses an action 
ingenuously ; he defends it ingeniously ; ‘Compare 
the ingenuous pliableness to virtuous counsels which 
is in youth, to the confirmed obstinacy in an old sinner.’ 
—SoourTu. 

Ingenious to their ruin, every age 
Improves the arts and instruments of rage. 
WALLER. 


"oO APPRAISE, OR APPRECIATE, ESTIMATE, 
ESTEEM. 

Appraise, appreciate, from apprecio and apprecia- 
tus, participle of apprecio, compounded of ap or ad 
and pretium a price, signify to set a price or value on 
a thing ; estimate comes from estimatus, participle of 
estimo to value; to esteem is a variation of estimate. 

Appraise and appreciate are used in precisely the 
same sense for setting a value on any thing according 
to relative circumstances; but the one is used in the 
proper, and the other in the figurative sense: a sworn 
appraiser appraises goods according to the condition 
of the article and its saleable property ; the characters 
of men are appreciated by others when their good and 
bad qualities are justly put in a balance; ‘To the 
finishing of his course, let every one direct his eye; 
and let him now appreciate life according to the value 
it will be found to have when summed up at the close.’ 
—Buair. To estimate a thing is to get the sum of its 
value by calculation; to esteem any thing js to judge 
its actual and intrinsick value. 

Estimate is used either in a proper or a figurative 
acceptation; esteem only itt a moral sense: the expense 
of an undertaking, losses by fire, gains by trade, are 
estimated at a certain sum; the estimate may be too 
high or too low; ‘The extent of the trade of the 
Greeks, how highly soever it may have been estimated 
in ancient times, was in proportion to the low condi- 
tion of their marine”—RosBertson The moral worth 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


of men is often estimated above or below the vality 
according to the particular bias of the estimator; but 
there are individuals of such an unquestionable worth 
that they need only be known in order to be esteemed ; 
‘If a lawyer were to be esteemed only as he uses his 
parts in contending for justice, and were immediately 
despicable when he appeared in a cause which he 
could not but kncw was an unjust one, haw honour- 
able would his character be..—STEELE. 


TO ESTIMATE, COMPUTE, RATE. 


Estimate has the same signification as in the pre- 
ceding article ; compute, in Latin compute, or con and 
puto to think, signifies to put together in one’s mind; 
rate, in Latin ratus, participle of reor to think, signi 
fies to weigh in the mind. 

All these terms mark the mental operation by which 
the sum, amount, or value of things is obtained; to 
estimate is to obtain the aggregate sum in one’s miad, 
either by an immediate or a progressive act ; to com- 
pute is to obtain the sum by the gradual process of 
putting together items; to rate is to fix the relative 
value in one’s mind by deduction and comparison: a 
builder estimates the expense of building a house on a 
given plan; a proprietor of houses computes the pro- 
bable diminution in the value of his property in con- 
sequence of wear and tear; the surveyar rates the pre- 
sent value of lands or houses. 

In the moral acceptation they bear the same analogy 
to each other: some men are apt to estimate the ad- 
ventitious privileges of birth or rank too high; ‘To 
those who have gkill to estimate the excellence and 
difficulty of this great work (Pope’s translation of Ho- 
mer) it must be very desirable to know how it was 
performed.’—Jounson. It would be a useful occupa- 
tion for men to compute the loss they sustain by the 
idle waste of time on the one hand, and its necessa- 
rily unprofitable consumption on the other; ‘ From 
the age of sixteen the life of Pope, as an author, may 
be computed.—Jounson. He who rates his abilities 
too high is in danger of despising the means which 
are essential to secure success; and he who rates them 
too low is apt to neglect the means, from despair of 
SUCCESS ; 


Sooner we learn and seldomer forget 
What criticks scorn, than what they highly rate. 
Hueues 


TO CALCULATE, COMPUTE, RECKON, 
COUNT, OR ACCOUNT, NUMBER. 


Calculate, in Latin calculatus, participle of calcul» 
comes from calculus, Greek yd\c& a pebble; because 
the Greeks gave their votes, and the Romans mada 
out their accounts, by little stones ; hence it denotes 
the action itself of reckoning ; compute signifies the 
same as in the preceding article; reckon, in Saxon 
reccan, Dutch rekenen, German rechnen, is not im- 
probably derived from 7ow, in Dutch reck, because 
stringing of things in a row was formerly, as it is now 
sometimes, the ordinary mode of reckoning ; count, in 
French compter, is but a contraction of computer, but 
signifies a forming into an account, or setting down in 
an account ; to number signifies literally to put into a 
number. 

These words indicate the means by which we arrive 
at a certain result in regard to quantity. 

To calculate is the generick term, the rest ‘are spe- 
cifick :* computation and reckoning are branches of 
calculation, or an application of those operaticns to 
the ebjects of which a result is sought: to calculate 
comprehends arithmetical operations in general, or par- 
ticular applications of the science of numbers, in order 
to obtain a certain point of knowledge: to compute is 
to combine certain given numbers in order to learn the 
grand result: to reckon is to enumerate and set down 
things in the detail: to count is to add up the indivi 
dual items contained in many different parts, in order 
to determine the quantity. 

Calculation particularly respects the operation itself 
compute respects the gross sum; reckon and count refe. 
to the details. To calculate denotes any numerica 
operation in general, but in its limited sense; it is the 


* Vide Roubaud: “ Caiculer, supputer, compter "” 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


abstract science of figures used by mathematicians 
and philosophers ; computation is a numerical esti- 
mate, a simple species of calculation used by histo- 
rians, chronologists, and financial speculators, in draw- 
ing great results from complex sources: reckon and 
count are still simpler species of calculation, applica- 
ble to the ordinary business of life, and employed by 
tradesmen, mechanicks, and people in general; reck- 
ering and counting were the first efforts made by 
men in acquiring a knowledge of number, quantity, 
or degree. 

The astronomer calculates the return of the stars; 
the geometrician makgs algebraick calculations. The 
Banians, Indian m  4ants, make prodigious calcu- 
lations in an instar on their thumb nails, doubtless 
after the manner of algebra, by signs, which the calcu- 
lator employs as he pleases. The chronologist com- 
putes the times of particular events, by comparing 
then: with those of other known events. Many per- 
sons have attempted from the prophecies to make a 
computation as to the probable time of the millennium: 
financiers compute the produce of a tax according to 
the measure and circumstances of its imposition. At 
every new consulate the Romans used to drive a nail 
into the wallof the Capitol, by which they reckoned the 
length of time that their state had been erected: trades- 
men reckon their profits and losses. Children begin by 
counting on their fingers, one, two, three. 

An almanack is made by calculation, computation, 
and reckoning. 'The rising and setting of the heavenly 
bodies are calculated; trom given astronomical tables 
is computed the moment on which any celestial phe- 
nomenon may return; and by reckoning are deter- 
mined the days on which holydays, or other periodical 
events fall. 6 

Buffon, in his moral arithmetick, has calculated 
tables as guides to direct,our judgements in different 
situations, where we have only vague probability, on 
which to draw our conclusions. By this we have only 
to compute what the/ fairest gain may cost us; how 
much we must lose in advance from the most favour- 
able lottery ; how much our hopes impose upon us, our 
cupidity cheats us, and our habits injure us. 

Calculate and reckon are employed in a figurative 
sense ; compute and count in an extended application 
of the same sense. 

Calculate, recken, and count respect mostly the 
future ; compute the past. 

Calculate is rather a conjectural deduction from 
what is, as to what may be; computation is a rational 
estimate of what has been, from what is; reckoning is 
a conclusive conviction, a complacent assurance that a 
thing will happen ; counting indicates an expectation. 
We calculate on a gain; compute any loss sustained, 
or the amount of any mischief done; we reckon ona 
promised pleasure; we count the hours and minutes 
until the time of enjoyment arrives. 

A spirit of calculation arises from the cupidity en- 
gendered by trade; it narrows the mind to the mere 
prospect of accumulation and self-interest; ‘In this 
bank of fame, by an exact calculation, and the rules 
of political arithmetick, I have allotted ten hundred 
thousand shares ; five hundred thousand of which is the 
due of the general ; two hundred thousand I assign to 
the general officers ; and two hundred thousand more 
to all the commissioned officers, from the colonels to 
ensigns ; the remaining hundred thousand must be dis- 
tributed among the non-commissioned officers and pri- 
vate men: according to which computation, I fir’ ser- 
geant Hall is to have one share anu a fraction or crwo- 
fifths. —Srrrie. Computations are inaccurate that 
are not founded upon exact numerical calculations ; 
‘The time we live ought nof to be computed + ‘she 
number of years, but by the use that has been .«uade 
of it..—Appison. Inconsiderate people are apt to 
reckon on things that are very uncertain, and then Jay 
up to themselves a store of disappointments; ‘Men 
reckon themselves possessed of what their genius in- 
clines them to, and so bend all their ambition to excel 
in what is out of their reach.,—Sprcraror. Children 
who are uneasy at school cownt the hours, minutes, 
and moments for their return home ; 


The vicious count their years, virtuous their acts, 
JONSON. 


Those who have experienced the instability of human 
affairs, will never calculate on an hour's eae yent 


SEE RE BR ES a a ee a SE A a Ee 


433 


beyond the moment of existence. It is difficult to 
compute the loss which an army sustains upon being 
defeated, especially if it be obliged to make a long 
retreat. Those who know the human heart will never 
reckon on the assistance of professed friends in the 
hour of adversity. A mind that is ill at ease seeks a 
resource and amusement in counting the moments as 
they fly ; but this is often an unhappy delusion that 
only adds to the bitterness of sorrow. 

To reckon, count or account, and number are very 
nearly allied to each other in the sense of esteeming 
or giving to any object a place in one’s account or 7eck- 
oning ; they differ mastly in the application, reckoning 
being applied to more familiar objects than the others, 
which are only emp) ed in the grave style; ‘ Reckon- 
ing themselves al slved by Mary’s attachment to 
Bothwell from the engagements which they had come 
under when she yielded herself a prisoner, they carried 
her next evening, under a strong guard, to the castle of 
Lochleven.’—Rogpertson. ‘ Applause and admiration 
are by no means to be counted among the necessaries 
of life.’—Jonnson. ‘There is no bishop of the Church 
of England but accounts it his interest, as well as his 
duty, tocomply with this precept of the Apostle Paul 
to Titus, ‘‘ These things teach and exhort.’’ ’"—Soutu. 
‘ He whose mind never pauses from the remembrance 
of his own sufferings, may justly be numbered among 
the most miserable of human beings.’—JoHNson. 


ACCOUNT, RECKONING, BILL. 


Account, compounded of ac or ad and count, signifies 
to count to a person, or for a thing; an account is the 
thing so counted : reckoning, from the verb to reckon, 
signifies the thing reckoned up: bill,in Saxon dill, in 
all probability comes from the Swedish dyla, to build, 
signifying a written contract for building vessels, which 
in German is still called a beilbrief ; hence it has been 
employed to express various kinds of written docu 
ments. These words, which are very similar in signi 
fication, may frequently be substituted for one an 
other. 

Account is the generick, the others the specifick 
terms: a reckoning and bill is an account, though nat 
always vice versé; account expresses the details, with 
the sum of them counted up; reckoning implies the 
register and rotation of the things to be reckoned up- 
bill denotes the details, with their particular charges. 
An account should be correct, containing neither more 
nor less than is proper; a reckoning should be explicit, 
leaving nothing unnoticed as to dates and names; a 
bill should be fair. 

We speak of keeping an account, of coming to a 
reckoning, of sending in a bill. Customers have an 
account With their tradespeople; masters have a reck- 
oning With their workpeople; tradesmen send in their 
bills at stated periods. 

Account, from the extensive use of the term, is ap- 
plicable to every thing that is noted down; the parti- 
culars of which are considered worthy of notice indi- 
vidually or collectively: merchants keep their ac- 
counts ; an account is taken at the Custom House of 
all that goes in and out of the kingdom; an account is 
taken of all transactions, of the weather, of natural 
phenomena, and whatever is remarkable; 


At many times I brought in my accounts, 

Laid them before you; you would throw them off, 

And say you found them in my honesty. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


Reckoning, as a particular term, is more partial in its 
use: it is mostly confined to the dealings of men with 
one another; in which sense it is superseded by the 
preceding term, and now serves to express only an 
explanatory enumeration, which may be either verbal 
or written; ‘ Merchant with some rudeness demanded 
a room, and was told that there was a good fire in the 
next parlour, which tne company were about to leave, 
being then paying their reckoning.”—Jounson. Bill, 
as implying something charged or engaged, is used not 
only in a mercantile but a legal sense: hence we speak 
of a dillof lading; a bill of parcels; a 42/1 of exchange; 
a bill of indictment, or a dill in parliament; ‘Ordinary 
expense ought to be limited by a man’s estate, and or- 
dered to the best, that the bzl/s mav be less than the 
estimation abroad.’—Bacon. 


434 


CALENDAR, ALMANACK, EPHEMERIS. 


Calendar comes from calenda, the Roman name for 
the first days of every month; almanack, that is al and 
mana, signifies properly the reckoning or thing reck- 
oned, from the Arabick mana and Hebrew 7J%) to 
reckon; ephemeris, in Greek ednyepis, from em and 
nusoa the day, implies that which happens by the day. 

These terms denote a date-book: but the calendar 
isa book which registers events under every month; 
the almanack is a book which registers times, or the 
divisions of the year; and an ephemeris is a book 
which registers the planetary movements every day. 
An almanack may be a calendar, and an ephemeris 
may be both an almanack and a calendar; but every 
almanack is not a calendar, nor every calendar an 
almanack. The Gardener’s calendar is not an alma- 
mack, and sheet almanacks are seldom calendars: 
likewise the nautical ephemeris may serve as an alma- 
nack, although not as a calendar; ‘He was sitting 
upon the ground upon a little straw, in the farthest 
corner of his dungeon, which was alternately his chair 
aud bed: a little calendar of small sticks were laid 
at the head, notched all over with the dismal nights 
and days he had passed there.’—Sterng. ‘When the 
reformers were purging the calendar of legions of vi- 
sionary saints, they took due care to defend the niches 
of real martyrs from profanation. They preserved the 
holy festivals which had been consecrated for many 
ages to the great luminaries of the church, and at once 
paid proper observance to the memory of the good, 
and fell in with the proper humour of the vulgar, which 
loves to rejoice and mourn at the discretion of the al- 
manack.’—WeatPoLg. ‘That two or three suns or 
moons appear in any man’s life or reign, it is not worth 
the wonder; but that the same should fall out at a 
remarkable time or point of some decisive action, 
that those two should make but one line in the book 
of fate, and stand together in the great ephemerides of 
God, besides the philosophical assignment of the cause, 
it may admit a Christian apprehension in the signality.’ 
~BRown’s VuueGarR Errors. 


COUPLE, BRACE, PAIR. 
Couple, in French couple, comes from the Latin 


copulo to join or tie together, copula, in Hebrew by ta a 
a rope ora shackle, signifying things tied together ; 
and as two things are with most convenience bound 
together, it has by custom been confined to this num- 
ber: brace, from the French bras arm, signifies things 
locked together after the manner of the folded arms, 
which on that account are confined to the number of 
two: pair, in French paire, Latin par equal, signifies 
things that are equal, which can with propriety be said 
only of two things with regard to each other. 

From the above illustration of these terms, it is 
clear that the number of two, which is included in all 
them, is, with regard to the first, entirely arbitrary ; 
of that with regard to the second, it arises from the 
nature of the ‘junction; and with regard to the third, 
it arises altogether from the nature of the objects: 
couples and braces are made by coupling and bracing ; 
pairs are either so of themselves, or are made so by 
others: couples and braces always require a junction 
in order to make them complete; pairs require simi- 
larity only to make them what they are: couples are 
joined by a foreign tie; braces are produced by a pe- 
Culiar mode of junction with the objects themselves. 

Couple and pair are said of persons or things; brace 
in particular cases only of animals or things, except in 
the burlesque style, where it may: be applied to per- 
sons. When used for persons, the word couple has 
relation to the marriage tie; the word pair to the as- 
sociation or the moral union: the former term is 
therefore more appropriate when speaking of those 
who are sv0n to be married, or have just entered that 
state; the latter when speaking of those who are 
already fixed in that state: most couples that are 
joined together are equally happy in prospect, but not 
so in the completion of their wishes: it is the lot of 
comparatively very few to claim the title of the happy 
pair; ‘Scarce any couple comes together, but their 
nuptials are declared in the newspaper with encomiums 
on each party "—JOHNSON. 


Your fortune, happy pair, already made, 
Leaves you no farther wish.—-DRYDEN. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


The term pair may be used in the burlesque style for 
any two persons allied to each other by similarity of 
sentiment or otherwise ; 


Dear Sheridan! a gentle pair 

Of Gaulstown lads (for such they are), 
Besides a brace of grave divines, 

Adore the smoothness of your lines.—Swirr 


When used for things, couple is promiscuously em 
ployed in familiar discourse for any two things put 
together ; ‘In the midst of these sorrows which I had 
in my heart, methought there passed by me a couple 
of coaches with purple liveries..—Avppison. Brace is 
used by sportsmen for birds which are shot, and sup- 
posed to be locked together; by sailors for a part of 
their tackling, which is folded crosswise; as also in 
common life for an article of convenience crossed in a 
singular way, which serves to keep the dress of men 
in its proper place; 

First hunter then, pursu’d a gentle brace, 

Goodliest of all the forest, hart and hind.—Miton. 


Pair is of course restricted in its application to such 
objects only as are really paired ; ‘ 


Six wings he wore, to shade 
His lineaments divine; the pair that clad 
Each shoulder broad came maantling o’er his breast 
With regal ornament.—Mi1Ton. 


RATE, PROPORTION, RATIO. 


Rate signifies the thing rated, or the measure as 
which it is rated ; 7atto has the same original meaning 
as rate; proportion, v. Proportionate. 

Rate and ratio arein sense species of proportion; 
that is, they are supposed or estimated proportions, in 
distinction from proportions that lie in the nature of 
things.’ The first term, rate, is employed in ordinary 
concerns; a person receives a certain sum weekly at 
the rate of a certain sum yearly; ‘At Ephesus and 
Athens, Anthony lived at his usual rate in all manner 
of luxury.,—Pripnavux. Ratio is applied only to num- 
bers and calculations; as two is to four, so is four te 
eight, and eight to sixteen; the zaézo in this case being 
double; ‘The rate of interest (to lenders) is generally 
in a compound ratio formed out of the inconvenience 
and the hazard..—Biacxstone. Proportion is em- 
ployed in matters of science, and in all cases where 
the two more specifick terms are not admissible; the 
beauty of an edifice depends upon observing the doc- 
trine of proportions; in the disposing of soldiers a 
certain regard must be had to proportion in the height 
and size of the men; .‘ Repentance cannot be effectua, 
but as it bears some proportion to sin.’--SouTH. 


PROPORTIONATE, COMMENSURATE, 
ADEQUATE. 


Proportionate, from the Latin proportio, compound 
ed of pro and portio, signifies having a portion suit 
able to, or in agreement with, some other object ; com 
mensurate, from the Latin commensus or commetior 
signifies measuring in accordance with some other 
thing, being suitable in measure to something else; 
adequate, in Latin adequatus, participle of adeguo 
signifies made level with some other body. 

Proportionate is here a term of general use; the 
others are particular terms, employed in a similar 
sense, in regard to particular objects: that is propor- 
tionate which rises as a thing rises, and falls as a thing 
falls; that is commensurate which is made to rise te 
the same measure or degree; that is adequate whick 
is made to come up to the height of another thing 
Proportionate is employed either in the proper or im- 
proper sense ; in all recipes and prescriptions of every 
kind, proportionate quantities must alwaysbe taken; 
when the task increases in difficulty and complication, 
a proportionate degree of labour and talent must be 
employed upon it; ‘All envy is proportionate to de- 
sire’—JOHNSON. Commensurate and adequate areem 
ployed only in the moral sense; the former in regara 
to matters of distribution, the latter in regard to the 
equalizing of powers: a person’s recompense shoula 
in some measure be commensurate with his labour and 
deserts; ‘Where the matter is not commensurate to 
the words, all speaking is but tautology.—Sou TH. A 
verson’s resources shoulé ’e adequate to the work he is 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


engaged in, ‘Outward actions are not adequate ex- 
pressions of our virtues.—AppIson, 


DISPARITY, INEQUALITY. 


Disparity, from dis and par, in Greek rapa. with or 
by, signifies an unfitness of objects to be by one an- 
other; inequality, from the Latin e@guus even, sig- 
nifies having no regularity. 

Disparity applies to two or more objects which 
should meet or stand in coalition with each other; in- 
equality is applicable to objects that are compared 
with each other: the disparity of age, situation, and 
circumstances, is to be considered with regard to per- 
sons entering into a matrimonial connexion; the zn- 
equality in the portion of labour which is to be per- 
formed by two persons, is a ground for the znequality 
of their recompense: there is a great inequality in the 
chance of success, where there is a disparity of ac- 
quirements in rival candidates: the disparity between 
David and Goliah was such as to render the success 
of the former more strikingly miraculous; *‘ Between 
Elihu and the rest of Job’s familiars, the greatest dis- 
parity was but in years.—Hooxer. The inequality 
in the conditions of men is not attended with a corres- 
ponding inequality in their happiness ; ‘ Inequality of 
behaviour, either in prosperity or adversity, are alike 
ungraceful in man that is born to die.,—STrELs. 


SYMMETRY, PROPORTION. 


Symmetry, in Latin symmetria, Greek cupperpta, 
from ody and pérpov, signifies a measure that accords ; 
proportion, in Latin proportio, compounded of pro and 
portio, signifies every portion or part according with the 
other, or with the whole. 

The signification of these terms is obviously the 
same, namely, a due admeasurement of the parts to 
each other and to the whole: but symmetry seems to 
convey the idea of a beautiful adaptation ; and pro- 
portion is applied in general to every thing which ad- 
mits of dimensions and an adaptation of the parts: 
hence we speak of symmetry of feature, or symmetry 
abstractedly ; 


She by whose lines proportion should be 

Examin’d, measure of all symmetry ; 

Whom had*that ancient seen, who thought souls 

made Be 

Of harmony, he would at next have said 

That harmony was she.—Donne. 
But we say proportion of limbs, the proportion of the 
head to the body; ‘ The inventors of stuffed hips had 
a better eye for due proportion than to add to a redun- 
dancy, because in some cases it was convenient to fill 
up a vacuum.’—CUMBERLAND. 


EQUAL, EVEN, EQUABLE, LIKE, OR ALIKE, 
UNIFORM. | 


Equal, in Latin equalis, comes from eguus, and 
probably the Greek elds, similis, like; even is in 
Saxon efen, German eben, Sweden efwen, jafn, or aem, 
Greek olog like; eguable, in Latin equabilts, signifies 
susceptible of equality ; like,in Dutch lik, Saxon gelig, 
German gleich, Gothick tholick, Latin talis, Greek 
mAdkos such as; uniform, compounded of unus one 
and forma form, bespeaks its own meaning, 

All these epithets are opposed to difference. Equal 
Is said of degree, quantity, number, and dimensions, 
as equal in years, of an equal age, an equal height: 
even is said of the surface and position of bodies; a 
board is made even with another board; the floor or 
the ground is even : like is said of accidental qualities 
in things, as alike in colour or in feature: uniform is 
said of things only as totheir fitness to correspond ; 
those which are unlike in colour, shape, or make, or 
not uniform, cannot be made to match as pairs: 
equable is used only in the moral acceptation, in which 
all the others are likewise employed. 

As moral qualities admit of degree, they admit of 
equality ; justice is dealt out in equal portions to the 
rich and the poor; God looks with an equal eye on 
all mankind. Some men are equal to others in exter- 
nal circumstances ; ‘ Equality is the life of conversa- 
tion, and he is as much out who assumes to himself. 
any part above another, as he who considers himself 
below the rest of society ’—Sruuis. As roe 


43> 


path is rendered uneven by high and low ground, so the 
evenness of the temper, in the figurative sense, is de- 
stroyed by changes of humour, by elevations and de- 
pressions of the spirits; ‘Good-nature is insufficient 
(in the marriage state) unless it be steady and uniform, 
and accompanied with an evenness of temper.’— 
Srectaror. The equability of the mind is hurt by 
the vicissitudes of life, from prosperous to adverse; 
‘There is also moderation in toleration of fortune 
which of Tully is called equabilitee.’—Sir T. Evyor. 
This term may also be applied to motion, as the equa 
ble motion of the planets; and figuratively to the 
style; * In Swift’s works is found an eguable tenour of 
easy language, which rather trickles than flows.’— 
JOHNSON. Even and equadble are applied to the same 
mind in relation to itself; like or alike is used to the 
minds of two or more: hence we say they are alike in 
disposition, in sentiment, in wishes, éc. ; 
E’en now as familiar as in life he came; 
Alas! how diff’rent, yet how like the saine.—Porn. 


Uniform is applied to the temper, habits, character, 
or conduct; hence a man is said to preserve a uni 
formity of behaviour towards those whom he com- 
mands. ‘The term may also be applied to the modes 
which may be adopted by men in society ; ‘The only 
doubt is about the manner of their unity, how far 


_| churches are bound to be unzform in their cereinonies, 


amd what way they ought to take for that purpose.’— 
Hooxer. Friendship requires that the parties be 
equal in station, alike in mind, and uniform in their 
conduct: wisdom points out to us an: even tenour of 
life, from which we cannot depart either to the right 
or to the left, without disturbing our peace; itis one 
of her maxims that we should not lose the equability 
of our temper under the most trying circumstances. 


FLAT, LEVEL. 


Flat, in German fiach, is connected with platt broad, 
and that with the Latin latus, and Greek rAards; 
level, in all probability from Jibella and libra a balance, 
signifies the evenness of a balance. 

Flat is said of a thing with regard to itself; it is op- 
posed to the round or protuberant; level as it respects 
another ; the former is opposed to the uneven: a coun- 
try is flat which has no elevation; a wall is level with 
the roof of a house when it rises to the height of the 
roof; ‘A flat can hardly look well on paper.’ —Count- 
Ess OF HERTFORD. 


At that black hour, which gen’ral horrour sheds 
On the low level of the inglorious throng.—Youne 


EVEN, SMOOTH, LEVEL, PLAIN. 


Even (v. Equal) and smooth, which is in all proba- 
bility connected with smear, are both opposed to 
roughness: but that which is even is free only from 
great rcughnesses or irregularities; that which is 
smooth is free from every degree of roughness, how- 
ever small: a board is even which has no knots or 
holes; it is not smooth unless its surface be an entire 
plane: the ground is said to be even, but not smooth ; 
the sky is smooth, but not even; ‘ When we look at a 
naked wall, from the evenness of the object the eye 
runs along its whole space, and arrives quickly at its 
termination.—Burxr. ‘ The effects of a rugged and 
broken surface seem stronger than where it is smooth 
and polished.’—Burke. 

Evenis to level (v. Flat), when applied to the ground, 
what smooth is to even: the even is free from protu- 
berances and depressions on its exteriour surface ; the 
level is free from rises or falls: a path is said to be 
even; a meadow is level: ice may be level, though it 
is not even; a walk up the side of a hill may be even, 
although the hill itself is the reverse of a level: the 
even is said of that which unites and forms one umin- 
terrupted surface; but the level is said of things which 
are ata distance from each other, and are discovered 
by the eye to be in a parallel line: hence the floor of a 
room is even with regard to itself; it is Zevel with thas 
of another room; 


The top is level, an offensive seat 

Of war.—DryDEN 
‘A blind man would never be able to imagine how the 
several prominences and depressions of a human body 


436 


could be shown on a plain piece of canvass that has 
on it no unevenness.’—ADDISUN. 

Evenness respects the surface of bodies; plainness 
respects the direction of bodies and their freedom from 
external obstructions: a path is even which has no 
indentures or footmarks; a path is plain which is not 
stopped up or interrupted by wood, water, or any 
other thing intervening. 

When applied figuratively, these words preserve 
their analogy: an even temper is secured from all vio- 
lent changes of humour; a smooth speech is divested 
of every thing which can ruffle the temper of others: 
but the former is always taken in a good sense; and 
the latter mostly in a bad sense, as evincing an illicit 
design or a purpose to deceive; ‘ A man who lives in 
astate of vice and impenitence can have no title to 
that evenness and tranquillity of mind which is the 
health of the soul.’—Appison. 


This smooth discourse and mild behaviour oft 
“onceal a traitor.— ADDISON. 


A plain speech, on the other hand, is divested of every 
thing obscure or figurative, and is consequently a 
speech free from disguise and easy to ve understood ; 


Express thyself in plain, not doubtful, words, 
‘That ground for quarrels or disputes affords. 
DENHAM. 


Even and level are applied to conduct or condition; 
the former as regards ourselves; the latter as regards 
others: he who adopts an even course of conduct is in 
no danger of putting himself upon a level with those 
who are otherwise his inferiours; ‘ Falsehood turns all 
above us into tyranny and barbarity; and all of the 
same level with us into discord.’—SoutTuH. 


ODD, UNEVEN. 


Odd, probably a variation from add, seems to bea 
mode of the wneven; both are opposed to the even, 
but odd is only said of that which has no fellow; the 
uneven is said of that which does not square or come 
to an even point: of numbers we say that they are 
either odd or uneven; but of gloves, shoes, and every 
thing which is made to correspond, we say that they 
are odd, when they are single; but that they are uneven 
when they are not exactly alike: in like manner a 
plank is wneven which has an unequal surface, or dis- 
proportionate dimensions; but a piece of wood is edd 
which wil} not match nor suit with any other piece. 


VALUE, WORTH, RATE, PRICE. 


Value, from the Latin valeo to be strong, respects 
those essential qualities of a thing which constitute its 
strength; worth, in German werth, from wdhren to 
perceive, signifies that good which is experienced or 
felt to exist ina thing; rate signifies the same as under 
the article Rate, proportion; price, in Latin pretium, 
from the Greek apdocw to sell, signifies what a thing 
is sold for. 

Value is a general and indefinite term applied to 
whatever is really good or conceived as such in a 
thing: the worth is that good only which is conceived 
or known as such. The value therefore of a thing is 
as variable as the humours and circumstancesof men; 
it may be nothing or something: very great in the same 
object at the same time in the eyes of difterent men; 


Life has no value as an end, but means: 
An end deplorable! A means divine.—Youne. 


The worth is however that value which is acknow- 
ledged; it is therefore something more fixed and per- 
manent: we speak of the value of external objects 
which are determined by taste; but the worth of things 
as determined by rule. The value of a book that is 
out of print is fluctuating and uncertain; but its real 
worth may not be more than what it would fetch for 
waste paper; 
Pay 
No moment, but in purchase of its worth; 
And what its worth ask death-beds.—Youne. 


The rate and price are the measures of that value or 
worth; the former in a general, the latter ina particular 
application to mercantile transactions. Whatever we 
give in exchange for another thing, whether according 
toa definite or an indefinite estimation, that is said tobe 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


done at a certain rate; thus we purchase pleasure at a 
dear rate, when it is at the expense of our health, ‘If 
you will take my humour as it runs, you shall have 
hearty thanks into the bargain, for taking it off at such 
arate.’—Earu OF SHAFTESBURY. Price is the rate of 
exchange estimated by coin or any other medium; 
hence price is a fixed rate, and may be figuratively ap- 
plied in that sense to moral objects; as when health is 
expressly sacrificed to pleasure, it may be termed the 
price of pleasure; 
The soul’s high price 
Is writ in all the conductof the skies —Youne. 


TO VALUE, PRIZE, ESTEEM. 


To value is in the literal sense to fix the real value 
of a thing; to prize, signifying to fix a price, and 
esteem (v. Esteem), are both modes of valuing. In 
the extended sense, to value may mean to ascertain the 
relative or supposed value of a thing: in this sense 
men value gold above silver, or an appraiser values 
goods. To value may either be apjilied to material or 
spiritual subjects, to corporeal or mental actions: prize 
and esteem are taken only as mental actions; the 
former in reference to sensible or moral objects, the 
latter only to moral objects: we may value books ac- 
cording to their market price, or we may value them 
according to their contents; we prize books only for 
their contents, in which sense prize is a much stronger 
term than value ; we also p7ize men for their usefulness 
to society ; 


The prize, the beauteous prize, I will resign, 
So dearly valu’d, and so justly mine.—Porr. 


We esteem men for their moral characters; ‘ Nothing 
makes women esteemed by the opposite sex more than 
chastity; whether it be that we always prize those 
most who are hardest to come at, or that nothing be- 
sides chastity, with its collateral attendants, fidelity and 
constancy, gives a man a property in the person he 
loves.’—ADDISON. : 


COST, EXPENSE, PRICE, CHARGE. 


Cost, in German kost or kosten, from the Latin 
gustare to taste, signifies originally support, and by an 
extended sense what is given for support; expense is 
compounded of ex and pense, in Latin pensus participle 
of pendo to pay, signifying the thing paid or given out; 
price, from the Latin pretium, and the Greek rpdccw 
to sell, signifies the thing given for what is bought; 
charge, from to charge, signifies the thing laid on as a 
charge. 

The cost is what a thing costs or occasions to be laid 
out; the expense is that which is actually laid out; the 
price is that which a thing may fetch or cause to be 
laid out; the charge is that which is required to be laid 
out. Asacost commonly comprehends an expense, the 
terms are on various occasions used indifferently for 
each other: we speak of counting the cost or counting 
the expense of doing any thing; at a great cost or ata 
great expense; on the other hand, of venturing to doa 
thing to one’s cost, of growing wise at other people’s 
eXpPense. 

The cost and the price have respect to the thing and 
its supposed value; the expense and the charge depend 
on the option of the persons. The cost of a thing must 
precede the price, and the expense must succeed the 
charge; we can never set a price on any thing until 
we have ascertained what it has cost us; nor can we 
know or defray the expense until the charge be made. 
There may, however, frequently be a price where there 
is no cost, and vice versd; there may also be an expense 
where there is no charge ; but there cannot be a charge 
without an expense ; ‘ Would a man build for eternity, 
that is, in other words, would he be saved, let him 
consider with himself what charges he is willing to be 
at that he may be so.—Souru. Costs in suit often 
exceed in value and amount the thing contended for: 
the price of things depends on their relative value in 
the eyes of others: what costs nothing sometimes 
fetches a high price ; and other things cannot obtain a 
price equal to the first cost. Eapenses vary with 
modes of living and men’s desires; whoever wants 
much, or wants that which is not easily obtained, will 
have many expenses to defray; when the charges are 


i ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


exorbitant the expenses*must necessarily bear a pro- 
portion. 

Between the epithets costly and expensive there is 
the same distinction. Whatever is costly is naturally 
expensive, but not vice versd. Articles of furniture, of 
luxury, or indulgence, are costly, either from their 
variety or their intrinsick value; every thing is expensive 
which is attended with much eapense, whether of little 
or great value. Jewels are costly; travelling is ea- 
penstve. The costly treasures of the East are imported 
Into Europe for the gratification of those who cannot 
be contented with the produce of their native soil: 
those who indulge themselves in expensive pleasures 
often lay up it store for themselves much sorrow and 
repentance in the time to come. 

In the moral acceptation, the attainment of an object 
is said to cost much pains; 


The real patriot bears his private wrongs, 
Rather than right them at the publick cosé, 
BELLER. 


A thing is persisted in at the expense of health, of 
honour, or of life; ‘If ease and politeness be only 
attainable at the expense of sincerity in the men, and 
chastity in the women, I flatter myself there are few 
of my readers who would not think the purchase made 
at too high a price.’- ABERCROMBY. 


UNWORTHY, WORTHLESS. 


Unworthy is a term of less reproach than worthless; 
for the former signifies not to be worthy of praise or 
honour; the latter signifies to be without any worth, 
and consequently in the fullest sense bad. Itmay bea 
mark of modesty or humility to say that I am an 
unworthy partaker of your kindness; but it would be 
folly and extravagance to say, that I am a worthless 
partaker of your kindness. ‘There are many unworthy 
members in every religious community; but every so- 
ciety that is conducted upon proper principles will take 
care to exclude worthless members. In regard to one 
another we are often unworthy of the distinctions or 
privileges we enjoy; in regard to our Maker we are all 
unworthy of his goodness, for we are all worthless in 
his eyes; 

Since in dark sorrow I my days did spend, 
Till now disdaining his unworthy end. 
DENHAM. 


‘The school of Socrates was at one time deserted by 
every body, except Auschines the parasite of the tyrant 
Dionysius, and the most worthless man living.’— 
CrMBERLAND. 


VALUABLE, PRECIOUS, COSTLY. 


Valuable signifies fit to be valued; precious, having 
a high price; costly, costing much money. Valuable 
expresses directly the idea of value; precious and 
costly express the same idea indirectly: on“the other 
hand, that which is valuable is only said to be fit or de- 
serving of value; but precious and costly denote that 
which is highly valuable, according to the ordinary 
measure of valuing objects, that is, by the price they 
bear: hence, the two latter express the idea much more 
strongly than the former. A book is valuable accord- 
ing to its contents, or according to the estimate which 
men set upon it, either individually or collectively ; 
‘What an absurd thing it is to pass over all the wa- 
luable parts of a man, and fix our attention on his in- 
firmities.—Appison. ‘The Bible is the only precious 
book in the world that has intrinsick value, that is, set 
above all price; ‘It is no improper comparison that a 
thankful heart is like a box of precious ointment.’— 
Howett. There are many costly things, which are 
only valuable to the individuals who are disposed to 
expend money upon them; ‘Christ is sometimes 
pleased to make the profession of himself costly.’— 
Souvn. 


INTRINSICK, REAT,, ‘GENUINE, NATIVE. 


Intrinsick, in Latin intrinsecus, signifies on the 
inside, that is, lying in the thing itself; real, from the 
Latin res, signifies belonging to thevery thing: genuine, 
‘n Latin genuinus from geno or gigno to bring forth, 
signifies actually brought forth, or springing out of a 


437 


thing; native, in Latin nativus and natus born, sig 
nifies actually born, or arising from a thing. 

The value of a thing is either intrinsick or real: bu 
the intrinsick value is said in regard to its extrinsick 
value; the real value in regard to the artificial : the in- 
trinsick value of a book is that which it will fetch wher: 
sold in a regular way, in opposition to the extrinsick 
value, as being the gift of a friend, a particular edition, 
or a particular type: the real value of a boo! th 
proper sense, lies in the fineness of the paper, . 2 
costliness of its binding ; and, in the improper seuse, it 
lies in the excellence of its contents, in opposition to 
the artificial value which it acquires in the minds of 
bibliomaniacks from being a scarce edition; ‘Men, how 
ever distinguished by external accidents or intrinsick 
qualities, have all the same wants, the same pains, and, 
as far as the senses are consulted, the same pleasures.’ 
—Jounsuon. ‘You have settled, by an economy as 
perverted as the policy, two establishments of govern- 
ment, one real, the other fictitious..—-BuRKE. 

The worth of a man is either genuine or native: the 
genuine worth of a man lies in the excellence of his 
moral character, as opposed to his adventitious worth, 
which he acquires from the possession of wealth, 
power, and dignity ; his natzve worth is that which is 
inborn in him, and natural, in opposition to the mere- 
tricious and borrowed worth which he may derive from 
his situation, his talent, or his efforts to please ; 


His genuine and less guilty wealth t’ explore. 
Search not his bottom, but survey his shore. 
DENHAM. 


‘How lovely does the human mind appear in its native 
purity. —Earu or CHaTHaM. 

An accurate observer will always discriminate be 
tween the intrinsick and extrinsick value of every 
thing ; a wise man will always appreciate things ac- 
cording to their real value; the most depraved man 
will sometimes be sensible of genuine worth when it 
displays itself; it is always pleasant to meet with 
those unsophisticated characters whose native excel 
lence shines forth in all their words, looks, and actions 


EXTRANEOUS, EXTRINSICK, FOREIGN. 


Extraneous, compounded of exterraneus, or ex ana 
terra, signifies out of the land, not belonging to it; 
extrinsick, in Latin extrinsecus, compounded of extra 
and secus, signifies outward, external; foreign, from 
the Latin feris out of doors, signifies not belonging to 
the family, tribe, or people. 

The extraneous is that which forms no necessary or 
natural part of any thing: the extrinsick is that which 
forms a part or has a connexion, but only in an indirect 
form; it is not an inherent or component part: the 
foreign is that which forms no part whatever, and 
has no kind of connexion. A work is said to contain 
extraneous matter, which contains much matter not 
necessarily belonging to, or illustrative of the subject . 
a work is said to have extrinsick merit when it bor 
rows its value from local circumstances, in distinction 
from the intrinsick merit,or that which lies in the con. 
tents. “ 

Extraneous and extrinsick have a general and ab-. 
stract sense; but foreign has a particular significa 
tion; they always pass over to some object either ex- 
pressed or understood : hence we say extraneous ideas, 
or extrinsick worth; but that a particular mode of 
acting is foreign to the general plan pursued. Anec- 
dotes of private individuals would be extraneous mat- 
ter in a general history ; ‘ That which makes me be- 
lieve is something extraneous to the thing that I believe.’ 
—Locxre. The respect and credit which men gain 
from their fellow-citizens by an adherence to rectitude 
is the extrinsick advantage of virtue, in distinction 
from the peace of a good conscience and the favour of 
God, which are its intrinsick advantages; ‘ Affiuence 
and power are advantages extrinsick and adventitious.’ 
—Jounson. It is foreign to the purpose of one who 
is making an abridgment of a work, to enter into details 
in any particular part ; 

For loveliness 
Needs not the aid of foreign ornaments ; 


But is when unadorn’d adorn’d the most. 
THomaon 


Si 


438 


DESERT, MERIT, WORTH. 


Desert, from deserve, in Latin deservio, signifies to 
do service or be serviceable ; merit, in. Latin meritus, 
participle of mereor, comes from the Greek pefow to 
distribute, because merit serves as a rule for distri- 
buting or apportioning ; worth, in German werth, is 
connected with wtirde dignity, and birde a burden, 
because one bears worth as a thing attached to the 
person. 

Desert is taken for that which is good or bad; 
merit for that which is good only. We deserve praise 
or blame: we merit a reward. The desert consists in 
the action, work, or service performed ; the merit has 
regard to the character of the agent or the nature of 
the action. The person does not deserve the recom- 
pense until he has performed the service ; he does not 
merit approbation if he has not done his part well. 

Deserve is a term of ordinary import; merit applies 
to objects of greater moment: the former includes mat- 
ters of personal and physical gratification ; the latter 
those altogether of an intellectual nature. Children 
are always acting so as to deserve either reproof or 
commendation, reward or punishment ; 


The beauteous champion views with marks of fear, 
Smit with a conscious sense, retires behind, 
And shuns the fate he well deserv’d to find.—Popr. 


Candidates for publick applause or honours conceive 
they have frequent occasion to complain that they are 
not treated according to their-merits ; 


Praise from a friend or censure from a foe 
Are lost on hearers that our merits know.—Pops. 


Criminals cannot always be punished according to their 
deserts ; a noble mind is not contented with barely ob- 
taining, it seeks to merit what it obtains, 

The idea of value, which is prominent in the signi- 
fication of the term merit, renders it closely allied to 
that of worth. ‘The man of merit looks to the advan- 
tages which shall accrue to himself; the man of worth 

contented with the consciousness of what he pos- 
sesses in himself: merit respects the attainments or 
qualifications of aman; worth respects his moral qua- 
lities only. It is possible therefore for a man to have 
great merit and little or no worth. He who has great 
powers, and uses them for the advantage of himself 
or others, is a man of merit ; 


She valued nothing less 
Than titles, figures, shape, and dress ; 
That merit should be chiefly plac’d 
Tn judgement, knowledge, wit, and taste.—Swirr. 


He only who does good from a good motive is a man 
of worth; 


To birth or office no respect be paid, 
Let worth determine here.—Porpr. 


We look for merit among men in the discharge of their 
several offices or duties; we look for worth in their 
social capacities. 

From these words are derived the epithets deserved 
and merited, in relation to what we receive from others; 
and deserving, meritorious, worthy, and worth, in re- 
gard to what we possess in ourselves: a treatment is 
deserved or undeserved ; reproofs are merited or un- 
merited: the harsh treatment of a master is easier to 
be borne when it is wndeserved than when it is de- 
served; the reproaches of a friend are very severe 
when unmerited. 

A person is deserving on account of his industry or 
perseverance; ‘A man has frequent opportunities of 
mitigating the fiercenessof a party ; or doing justice to 
the character of a deserving man.’—Appison. An 
artist is meritorious on account of his professional 
abilities, or a statesman in the discharge of his duties; 
‘He carried himself meritoriously in foreign employ- 
ments in time of the interdict, which held up his credit 
among the patriots’ —Watton. But for the most part 
actions, services, &c. are said to be meritorious ; ‘ Pil- 
grimages to Rome were represented as the most meri- 
torious acts of devotion.—Humer. A citizen is worthy 
on acco‘int of his benevolence and uprightness ; 


Thun the last worthies of declining Greece, 

Fate call’d to glory, in unequal times, 

Pensive appear.—THOMSON. 
One person deserves to be well paid and encouraged ; 
another merits the applause which is bestowed on him; 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


a third is worthy of confidence and esteem from al 
men. Between worthy aud worth there is this differ- 
ence, that the former is said of the intrinsick and mora, 
qualities, the latter of extrinsick qualities: a worthy 
man possesses that which calls for the esteem of others, 
but a man is worth the property which he can call his 
own: so in like manner a subject may be worthy the 
attention of a writer, or a thing may not be worth the 
while to consider, 


COMPENSATION, SATISFACTION, AMENDS, 
REMUNERATION, RECOMPENSE, 
REQUITAL, REWARD. 


The first three of these terms are employed to ex- 
press a return for some evil; remuneration, recompense, 
and requital, a return for some good ; reward, a retum 
for either good or evil: . 

Compensation, Latin compensatio, compounded of 
com and pensatio, pensus and pendo to pay, signifies 
the paying what has become due; satisfaction, from 
satisfy, signifies the thing that satisfies, or makes up in 
return ; amends, from the word to amend, signifies th 
thing that makes good what has been bad ; remunere 
tion, from remunerate, Latin remuneratus or remunere 
compounded of re and munus an office or service, sig 
nifies what is given in return for a service; 7ecompense 
compounded of re and compense, signifies the thing 
paid back as an equivalent; reguztal, compounded of 
re and quital, or quittal, from qutt, signifies the making 
one’s self clear by a return; reward is probably con- 
nected with regard, implying to take cognizance of the 
deserts of any one. ‘ 

A compensation is something real; it is made for 
some positive injury sustained ; justice requires that it 
should be equal in value, if not like in kind, to that 
which is lost or injured ; : 


All other debts may compensation find, - . 
{ But love is strict, and will be paid in kind 
Dryden. 


A satisfaction may be imaginary, both as to the m- 
jury and the return; it is given for personal injuries, 
and depends on the disposition of the person to be satis- 
fied : amends is real, but not always made so much for 
injuries done to others, as for offences’ committed by 
ourselves. Sufferers ought to have a compensation for 
the injuries they have sustained through our mean 
but there are injuries, particularly those which woun 
the feelings, for which there can be no compensation : 
tenacious and quarrelsome people demand satisfac- 
tion ; their offended pride is not satisfied ‘without the 
humiliation of their adversary : an amends is honour- 
able which serves to repair a fault; the best amends 
which an offending person can make is to acknowledge 
his errour, and avoid a repetition: Christianity enjoins 
upon its followers to do good, even to it3 enemies; but 
there is adhing called honour, which impels some men 
after they have insulted their friends to give them the 
satisfaction of shedding their blood ; this is termed an 
honourable amends ; but will the survivors find any 
compensation in such an amends for the loss of a hus- 
band, a father, or a brother? Not to offer any com- 
pensation to the utmost of our power, for any injury 
done to another, evinces a gross meanness of character, 
and selfishness of disposition: satisfaction can seldom 
be demanded with any propriety for any personal 
affront; although the true Christian will refuse no 
satisfaction which is not inconsistent with the laws of 
Godand man. Asrespects the offence of man towards 
his Maker, nothing but the atonement of our Saviour 
could be a satisfaction ; 


Die he or justice must ; unless for him 
Some other able, and as willing, pay 
The rigid satisfaction, death for death.—Mi. Ton. 


Compensation often denotes a return for services 
done, in which sense it approaches still nearer te 
remuneration, recompense, and requital: but the first 
two are obligatory; the latter are gratuitous. Com- 
pensation is an act of justice; the service performed 
involves a debt; the omission of paying it becomes an 
injury to the performer: the labourer is worthy of his 
hire ; the time and strength of a poor man ought not 
to be employed without his receiving a compensation. 
Remuneration is a higher species of compensation ; 
it is a matter of equity dependent upon a princivle of 


- 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


honour in those who make it; it differs from the ordi- 
Rhary compensation, both in the nature of the. service, 
and of the return. Compensation is made for bodily 
labour and menial offices; remuneration for mental 
exertions, for literary, civil, or political offices: com- 
pensation is made to inferiours, or subordinate per- 
sons ; remuneration to equals, and even superiours in 
education and birth, though notin wealth: a compen- 
sation is prescribed by a certain ratio; remuneration 
depends on collateral circumstances ; ‘ Remuneratory 
honours are proportioned at once to the usefulness and 
difficulty of performances.’—Jounson. A recompense 
is voluntary, both as to the service and the retarn; it 
is an act of generosity ; it is net founded on the value 
of the service so much as on the intention of the server; 
it is not received as a matter of right, but of courtesy: 
there are a thousand acts of civility performed by 
others which are entitled to some vecompense, though 
not to any specifick compensation ; ; 


Patriots have toiled, and in their country’s cause 
Bled nobly, and their deeds, as they deserve, 
Receive proud recompense.—CowPER. 


Requital isa return for a kindness; the making it is 
an act of gratitude; the omission of it wounds the 
feelings: it sometimes happens that the only requital 
which our kind action obtains, is the animosity of the 
person served; ‘As the world is unjust in its judge- 
ments, so it is ungrateful in its reguitals.—Buair. 

It belongs to the wealthy to make compensation for 
the trouble they give: it is scarcely possible to estimate 
too high what 4 dene for ourselves, nor too low what 
we do for others. It is a hardship not to obtain the 
remuneration Which we expect, but it is folly to expect 
that which we do not deserve. He who will not serve 
another, until he is sure of a recompense, is not worthy 
of a recompense. . Those who befriend the wicked 
must expect to be ill requzted. 

Reward conveys no idea of obligation; whoever 7e- 
wards acts ‘altogether optionally; the conduct of the 
agent produces the reward, In this sense, it is com- 
parable with compensation, amends, and recompense ; 
but not with satesfaction, remuneration, or requital: 
things, as well as persons, may compensate, make 
amends, recompense, ana reward; but persons only can 
give satisfaction, remuneration, and requital. 

Reward respects the merit of the action; but com- 
pensate and the other words simply refer to the con- 
nexion between the actions and their results: what 
accrues to aman as the just consequence of his con- 
duct, be it good or bad, is the reward. Rewards and 
punishments do always presuppose something will- 
ingly done, well or ill; without which respect, though 
we may sometimes receive good, yet then it is only a 
benefit and not a reward. Compensation and amends 
serve to supply the loss or absence of any thing; 7e- 
compense and reroard follow from particular exertions. 
It is but a poor compensation for the loss of peace and 
health to have one’s coffers filled with gold; 


Now goes the nightly thief prowling abroad 

For plunder, much solicitous how best 

He may compensate for a day of sloth, 

By works of darkness and nocturnal wrongs. 
Cowper. 


A social intercourse by letter will make amends for 
the absence of those who are dear; ‘ Nature has ob- 
scurely fitted the mole with eyes. But for amends, 
what she is capable of for her defence, and warning 
of danger, she has very eminently conferred upon her, 
for she is very quick of hearing..—Anppison. It is a 
mark of folly to do any thing, however trifling, without 
the prospect of a recompense, and yet we see this daily 
realized in persons who give themselves much trouble 
to no purpose ; 
; Thou ’rt so far before, 
That swiftest wing of recompense is slow 
To overtake thee.—SHAKSPEARE. 


The reward of industry is ease and content: whena 
deceiver is caught in his own snare, he meets with the 
reward which should always attend deceit; ‘ There 
are no honorary rewards among us which are more 
esteemed by the person who receives them, and are 
cheaper to the prince, than the giving of medal!s.’— 
ADDISON. 

What can compensate for the loss of honour? 


a 


43¢ 


What can make amends to a frivolous mind for the 
want of company? What recompenses so sweet as 
ithe consciousness of having served a friceua? When 
reward equals the reward of a good conscience? 


RESTORATION RESTITUTION, REPARA 
TION, AMENDS. 


Restoration is employed in the ordinary application 
of the verb restore: restitution, from the same verb, 
is employed simply in tie sense ot making good that 
which has been unjustly taken. . Restoration of pro- 
perty may be made by any one, whether the person 
taking it or not: restitution is supposed to be made 
by him who has been guilty of the injustice. The 
dethronement of a king may be the work of one set 
of men, and his restoration that of another; ‘All men 
(during the usurpation) longed for the restoration of 
the liberties and laws.’—Humr. But it is the bounden 
duty of every individual who has committed any sort 
of injustice to another to make restitution to the ut- 
most of his power; ‘The justices may, if they think 
it reasonable, direct restztution of a ratable share of 
the money given with an apprentice (upon his dis 
charge).’—- BLACKSTONE. 

Restitution and reparation are both employed in the 
sense of undoing that which has been done to the 
injury of another; but the former respects only injuries 
that affect the property, and reparation those which 
affect a person in various ways. He who is guilty of 
theft, or fraud, must make restitution by either re- 
storing the stolen article or its full value: he who robs 
another of his good name, or does any injury to his 
person, has it not in his power so easily to make re- 
paration; ‘Justice requires that all injuries should be 
repaired.’——JOHNSON. 

Reparation and amends (v. Compensation) are both 
employed in cases where some mischief or loss is sus- 
tained ; but the reparation comprehends the idea of 
the act of repairing, as well as the thing by which we 
repair; amends is employed only for the thing that 
will amend or make better: hence we speak of the re 
paration of an injury; but of the amends by itself 
The reparation comprehends all kinds of injuries, 
particularly those of a serious nature; the amends is 
applied only to matters of inferiour importance. 

It is impossible to make reparation for taking away 
the life of another; ‘The king should be able, when 
he had cleared himself, to make him reparation.’— 
Bacon. It is easy to make amends to any one for the 
loss of a day’s pleasure; ‘ We went to the cabin of the 
French, who, to make amends for their three weeks’ 
silence, were talking and disputing with greater ra 
pidity and confusion than I ever heard in an assembly 
even of that nation..—ManprEVILLE. 


RESTORE, RETURN, REPAY. 


Restore, in Latin restauro, from the Greek caupds a 
pale, signifies properly to new pale, that is, to repair 
by a new paling, and, in an extended application, to 
make good what has been injured or lost; return sig- 
nifies properly to turn again, or to send back; and 
repay to pay back. 

The common idea of all these terms is that of giving 
back. What we restore to another may or may not 
be the same as what we have taken; justice requires 
that it should be an equivalent'in value, so as to pre- 
vent the individual from being in any degree a suf 
ferer: what we return and repay must be precisely the 
same as we have received; the former in application 
to general objects, the latter in application only to pe- 
cuniary matters. We restore upon a principle of 
equity; we return upon a principle of justice and 
honour; we repay upon a ‘principle of undeniable 
right. We cannot always claim that which ought to 
be restored; but we can not only claim but enforce the 
claim in regard to what is. to be returned or repaid: 
an honest man will be scrupulous not to take any thing 
from another without restoring to him its full value. 
Whatever we have borrowed we ought to return; and 
when it is money which we have obtained, we ought 
to repay it with punctuality. We restore to many as 
well as to one, to communities as well as to indivi 
duals: we restore a king to his crown; or one natior 
restores a territory to another ; ; 


440 


When both the chiefs are sunder’d from the fight, 
_ Then to the lawful king restore his right. 
DRYDEN. 


We return and repay not only individually, but -per- 
sonally and particularly: we return a book to its 
owner ; ; 
The swain 
Receives his easy food from Nature’s hand, 
And just returns of cultivated land.—DRYDEN. 


We repay a sum of money to him from whom it was 
borrowed. a 
Restore and return may be employed in their im- 

proper application, as respects the moral state of per- 
sons and things; as a king restores a courtier to his 
favour, or a physician restores his patient to health: 
we return a favour; we return an answer or a com- 
pliment ; 

When answer none return’d, I set me down. 

MILTON. 

Repay may be figuratively employed in regard to moral 
objects, as an ungrateful person repays kindnesses with 
reproaches ; 

Cesar, whom, fraught with eastern spoils, 

Our heav’n, the just reward of human toils, 

Securely shall repay with rights divine-—DrypDEn. 


RETALIATION, REPRISAL. 


Retaliation, from retaliate, in Latin retaliatum, 
participle of retalio, compounded of re and talis such, 
signifies such again, or like for like; reprisal, in 
French reprisal, from repris and reprendre, in Latin 
reprehendo to take again, signifies to take in return for 
what has been taken. The idea of making another 
suffer in return for the suffering he has occasioned is 
common to these terms; but the former is employed in 
ordinary cases; the latter mostly in regard to a state of 
warfare, or to active hostilities. A trick practised upon 
another in return for a trick is a retaliation ; but a re- 
prisal always extends to the capture of something 
from another, in return for what has been taken. 
When neighbours fall out, the incivilities and spite of 
the one are too often retaliated by like acts of incivility 
and spite on the part of the other: when one nation 
commences hostilities against another by taking any 
thing away violently, it produces reprisals on the part 
of the other. Retalzation is very frequently employed 
m the good sense for what passes innocently between 
friends: reprisal has always an unfavourable sense. 
Goldsmith’s poem, entitled the Retaliation, was written 
for the purpose of retaliating on his friends the humour 
they had practised upon him; ‘ Therefore, I pray, let 
me enjoy your friendship in that fair proportion, that 
I desire to return unto you by way of correspondence 
and retaliation..—HoweE.u. When the quarrels of 
individuals break through the restraints of .the law, 
and lead to acts of violence on each other’s property, 
reprisals are made alternately by both parties; 

Go publish o’er the plain, 
How mighty a proselyte you gain! 
How noble a reprisal on the great!--Swirt 


RETRIBUTION, REQUITAL. 


Retribution, from tribuo to bestow, signifies a be- 
stowing back or giving in return; requital, v. Reward. 

Retribution is a particular term; requital is general: 
the retribution comes from Providence; sequital is the 
act of man: retribution is by way of punishment; 
‘Christ substituted his own body in our room, to receive 
the whole stroke of that dreadful retribution inflicted by 
the handof an angry Omnipotence.’—Souru. Requt- 
tal is mostly by way of reward; ‘ Leander was indeed 
a conquest to boast of, for he had long and obstinately 
defended his heart, and for a time made as many 
requitals upon the tender passions of her sex as she 
had raised contributions upon his.’-—CumBerbanp. 
Retribution is not always dealt out to every man ac- 
cording to his deeds; it isa poor requztal for one who 
has done a kindness, to be abused. 


TO RECOVER, RETRIEVE, REPAIR, RECRUIT. 


Recover is to get again under one’s cover or protec- 
tion; retrieez, from the French trouver to find, is to 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


get again that which has been lost: repair, in Frencu 
reparer, Latin reparo, from paro to get, signifies like- 
wise to get again, or make good as it was before; recruzt, 
in French recru, from cru, and the Latin cresce to grow, 
signifies to grow again, or come fresh again. 

Recover is the most general term, and applies to 
objects in general; retrieve, repair, and the others, are 
only partial applications: we recover things either by 
our own means or by casualties; we retrieve and 
repair by our own efforts only: we recover that which 


; has been taken, or that which has been any way lost, 


we retrieve that which we have lost; we repair that 
which has been injured; we recruit that which has 
been diminished: we recover property from those who 
wish to deprive us of it; or we recover our principles. 
&c.; ‘The serious and impartial retrospect of our 
conduct is indisputably necessary to the confirmatior 
or recovery of our virtue.’—JoHnson. We retrieve . 
our misfortunes, or our lost reputation ; 


Why may not the soul receive 
New organs, since ev'n art can these retrieve ? 
JENYNS. 


We repair the mischief which has been done to ow 
property ; 
Your men shall be received, your fleet repaired. 
DRYDEN. 


We recruit the strength which has been exhausted ; 


With greens and flowers recruit their empty hives. 
DRYDEN. 


We do not seek after that which we think irrecover- 
able; we give that up which is irretrievable; we la- 
ment over that which is irreparable; our power of 
recruiting depends upon circumstances; he who makeg 
a moderate use of his resources may in general easily 
recruit himself when they are gone. 


RECOVERY, RESTORATION. 


Recovery is one’s own act; restoration is the act of 
another; we recover the thing we have lost, when is 
comes again into our possession ; but it is restered to 
us by another; ‘ Let us study to improve the assistance 
which this revelation affords for the restoration of our 
nature, and the recovery of our felicity..—Buair. A 
king recovers his crown by force of arms from the 
hands of ausurper; his crown is restored to him by 
the willof his people: the recovery of property is good 
fortune ; the restoration of property an act of justice. 

Both are employed likewise in regard to one’s health ; 
but the former simply designates the regaining of 
health; the latter refers to the instrument by which it 
is brought about: the recovery of one’s health is an 
object of the first importance to every man; the ve- 
storation of ones health seldomer depends upon the 
efficacy of medicine, than the benignant operations of 
nature. 


TO REDEEM, RANSOM. 


Redeem, in Latin redimo, is compounded of re and 
emo to buy off, or back to one’s self; sansom is in all 
probability a variation of redeem. 

Redeem is a term of general application; ransom 
is emp'oyed only on particular occasions: we redeem 
persons as well as things; we vansom persons only: 
we may redeem by labour, or any thing which supplies 
as an equivalent to money; we ransom properly with 
money only: we redeem a watch, or whatever has 
been given in pawn; we ransom a captive: redeem is 
employed in the improper application; ransom only 
in the proper sense: we may redeem our character, 
redeem our life, or redeem our honour; and in this 
sense our Saviour redeems repentant sinners; 


Thus in her crime her confidence she plae’d, 
And with new treasons would redeem the past. 
DRYDEN. 


But those who are ransomed only recover their bodily 
liberty; ‘ A third tax was paid by vassals to the king, 
to ransom him if he should happen to be taken pri 
soner.’—ROBERTSON. 


GRATUITY, RECOMPENSE. 


The distinction between these terms is very similar 
to the terms Gratuitous, Voluntary. They both 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


imply a gift, and a gift by way of return for some sup- 
posed service: but the gratuity is independent of all 
expectation as well as right ; the recompense is founded 
upon some admissible claim. Those who wish to 
confer a favour in a delicate manner, will sometimes 
do it under the shape of a gratuity; ‘If there be one 
or two scholars more, that will be no great addition to 
his trouble, considering that, perhaps, their parents 
may recompense him by their gratuzties. —-MoLyNEUX. 
Those who overrate their services will in all proba- 
bility be disappointed in the recompense they receive; 


What could be less than to afford him praise, 
The easiest recompense.—MILTON. 


» 


GRATUITOUS, VOLUNTARY. 


Gratuitous is opposed to that which is obligatory ; 
voluntary is opposed to that which is compulsory, or 
involuntary. A gift is gratuitous which flows entirely 
from the free will of the giver, independent of right: 
an offer is voluntary which flows from the free will, 
independent of all external constraint. Gratuitous is 
therefore to voluntary as a species to the genus. What 
is gratuttous is voluntary, although what is voluntary 
is not always gratuitous. The Br aieistons is properly 
the voluntary in regard to the disposal of one’s pro- 
perty ; ‘The heroick band of cashierers of monarchs 
were in haste to make a generous diffusion of the 
knowledge which they had thus gratuztously received.’ 
—BurKE. The voluntary is applicable to subjects in 
general; ‘Their privileges relative to contribution 
were voluntarily surrendered.’—BURKE. 


THANKFULNESS, GRATITUDE. 


Thankfulness or a fulness of thanks, is the outward 
expression of a grateful feeling; gratitude, from the 
Latin gratitudo, is the feeling itself. Our thankfulness 
is measured by the number of our words; our gra- 
titude is measured by the nature of our actions: A 
person appears very thankful at the time, who after- 
ward proves very ungrateful. Thankfulness is the 
beginning of gratitude: gratitude is the completion of 
thankfulness. 


TO AFFIRM, ASSEVERATE, ASSURE, VOUCH, 
AVER, PROTEST. 


Affirm, in French affermer, Latin afirmo, com- 
pounded of af or ad and firmo to strengthen, signifies 
to give strength to what has been said; asseverate, in 
Latin asseveratus, participle of assevero, compounded 
of as or ad and severus, signifies to make strong and 
positive; assure, in French assurer, is compounded 
of the intensive syllable as or ad and sure, signifying 
to make sure; vouch is probably changed from wow ; 
aver, in French averer, is compounded of the inten- 
sive syllable a or ad and verus true, signifying to bear 
testimony to the truth; protest, in French protester, 
Latin protesto, is compounded of pro and testor to call 
to witness, signifying to call others to witness as to 
what we think about a thing. 

All these terms indicate an expression of a person’s 
conviction. ey 

In one sense, to affirm is to declare that a thing is in 
opposition to denying or declaring that it is not; in the 
sense here chosen, it signifies to declare a thing as a fact 
on our credit. ‘To asseverate is to declare it with 
confidence. To vouch is to rest the truth of another’s 
declaration on our own responsibility. To aver is to 
express the truth of a declaration unequivocally. To 
protest is to declare a thing solemnly, and with strong 
marks of sincerity. 

Affirmations are made of the past and present; a 
person afirms what he has seen and what he sees; 


An infidel, and fear! 
Fear what ? adream ? a fable ?—How thy dread, 
Unwilling evidence, and therefore strong, 
Affords my cause an undesigned support! 
How disbelief affirms what it denies !—Youne. 


Asseverations are strong affirmations, made in cases 
of doubt to remove every impression disadvantageous 
to one’s sincerity; ‘I judge in this case as Charles the 
Second victualled his navy, with the bread which one 
of his dogs chose of several pieces thrown before him, 
eather than trust to the asseverations of the victual- 


441 


lers.’—STEELE. Assurances are made of the past, 
present, and future; they mark the conviction of the 
speaker as to what has been, or is, and his intentions 
as to what shall be; they are appeals to the estimation 
which another has in one’s word; ‘ My learned friend 
assured me that the earth had lately received a shock 
from a comet that crossed its vortex.—Srze.n. 
Vouching is an act for another; it is the supporting 
of another’s assurance by our own; ‘All the great 
writers of the Augustan age, for whom singly we have 
so great an esteem, stand up together as vouchers for 
one another’s reputation.—Appigon. Averring is 
employed in matters of fact; we aver as to the accu- 
racy of details; we aver on positive knowledge that 
sets aside all question; ‘ Among ladies, he positively 
averred that nonsense was the most prevailing part of 
eloquence, and had so little complaisance as to say, ‘a 
woman is never taken by her reason but always by 
her passion.””’—STee.e. Protestations are stronger 
than either asseverations or assurances ; they are ac- 
companied with every act, look, or gesture that can 
tend to impress conviction on another; ‘I have long 
loved her,.and I protest to you, bestowed much on 
her, followed her with a doting observance.’—SuHaks- 
PEARE. 

Affirmations are employed in giving evidence, whe- 
ther accompanied with an oath or not; liars deal much 
in asseverations and protestations. People asseverate 
in order to produce a conviction of their veracity ; 
they protest in order to obtain a belief of their inno- 
cence; they aver where they expect to be. believed. 
Assurances are altogether personal; they are always 
inade to satisfy some one of what they wish to know 
and believe. We ought to be sparing of our assu- 
rances Of regard for another, as we ought to be suspi- 
cious of such assurances when made to ourselves. 
Whenever we affirm any thing on the authority of 
another, we ought to be particularly cautious not to 
vouch for its veracity, if it be not unquestionable. 


TO AFFIRM, ASSERT. 


Affirm, v. To affirm, asseverate; assert, in Latin 
assertus, participle of assero, compounded of as or ad 
and se7o to connect, signifies to connect words into a 
proposition. 

To affirm is said of facts; to assert, of opinions: 
Wwe affirm what we know; we assert what we believe: 
whoever affirms what he does not know to be true ig 
guilty of falsehood ; ‘ That this man, wise and virtuous 
as he was, passed always unentangled through the 
snares of life, it would be prejudice and temerity to 
affirn:.’-—JOHNSON (Life of Collins). Whoever asserts 
what he cannot prove to be true is guilty of folly; ‘It 
is asserted by a tragick poet, that ‘est miser nemo 
nisi comparatus,”—“ no man is miserable, but as he ig 
compared with others happier than himself.” This 
position is not strictly and philosophically true’— 
Jounson. We contradict an afirmation; we confute 
an assertion. 


os 


TG ASSERT, MAINTAIN, VINDICA1# 


To assert, v. To affirm, assert; maintain, in French 
maintenir, from the Latin manus and teneo, signifies 
to hold by the hand, that is, closely and firmly; vindi- 
cate, in Latin vindicatus, participle of vindico, com- 
pounded of vim and dico, signifies to pronounce a 
violent or positive sentence. 

To assert is to declare a thing as our own; to 
maintain is to abide by what we have so declared; to 
vindicate is to stand up for that which concerns our- 
selves or others. We assert any thing to be true; 
‘ Sophocles also, in a fragment of one of his tragedies, 
asserts the unity of the Supreme Being.’—Cumsger- 
LAND. We maintain aa opinion by adducing proofs, 
facts, or arguments; ‘I am willing to believe that 
Dryden wanted rather skill to discover the right, than 
virtue to maintain it.\—Jounson. We vindicate our 
own conduct or that of another when it is called in 
question; ‘This is no vindication of her conduct, 
She still acts a mean part, and through fear becomes 
an accomplice in endeavouring to betray the Greeks.’ 
--Broomse. We assert boldly or impudently; we 
maintain steadily or obstinately; we vindicate reso 
lutely or insolently. A right or claiin is asserted 
which is avowed to belong to any one; 


44Z 


When the great soul buoys up to this high point, 
Leaving gross Nature’s sediments below, ~ 
Then, and then only, Adam’s offspring quits 
The sage and hero of the fields and woods, 
Asserts his rank, and rises into man.—Youne. 


A right is maintained when attempts are made to prove 
ts justice, or regain its possession; the cause of the 
assertor or maintainer is vindicated by another ; 


’T is just that I should vindicate alone, 
The broken truce, or for the breach atone. 
DRYDEN. 


Innocence is asserted by a positive declaration; it is 
maintained by repeated assertions and the support of 
testimony; it is vindicated through the interference of 
another. 

The most guilty persons do not hesitate to assert 
their innocence with the hope of inspiring credit; and 
some will persist in maintaining it, even after their 
guilt has been pronounced; but the really innocent 
man will never want a friend to vindicate him when 
his honour or his reputation is at stake. Assertions 
which are made hastily and inconsiderately are seldom 
long maintained without exposing a person to ridicule ; 
those who attempt to vindicate a bad cause expose 
themselves to as much reproach as if the cause were 
their own. ' 


TO ACKNOWLEDGE, OWN, CONFESS, 
AVOW. 


Acknowledge, compounded of ac or ad and know- 
edge, implies to bring to knowledge, to make known ; 
own is a familiar figure, signifying to take to one’s self, 
to make one’s own: it is a common substitute for con- 
fess; confess, in French confesser, Latin confessus, 
participle of confiteor, compounded of con and fateor, 
signifies to impart to any one; avov, in French avouer, 
Latin advoveo, signifies to vow, or protest to any one. 

Acknowledging is a simple declaration; confessing 
or owning is a specifick private communication ; avowal 
is a publick declaration. We acknowledge facts; con- 
fess our own faults; avow motives, opinions, &c. 

We acknowledge in consequence of a question; we 
confess in consequence of an accusation; we own it 
consequence of a charge; we avow voluntarily. We 
acknowledge having been concerned in a transaction ; 
we confess our guilt; we own that a thing is wrong: 
but we are ashamed to avow our motives. Candour 
leads to an acknowledgment; repentance produces a 
confession; the desire of forgiveness leads to owning ; 
generosity or pride occasions an avowal. 

An acknowledgment of what is not demanded may 
be either politick or impolitick, according to circum- 
stances; ‘I must acknowledge, for my own part, that I 
take greater pleasure in considering the works of the 
creation in their immensity, than in their minuteness.’ 
—Appison. A confession dictated merely by fear is 
of avail only in the sight of man; 


Spite of herself e’en Envy must confess, 
That I the friendship of the great possess. 
FRANCIS. 


Those who are most ready to own themselves in an 
errour are not always the first to amend; ‘And now, 
my dear, cried she to me, I will fairly own, that it was 
I that instructed my girls to encourage our landlord’s 
addresses.’--GoLpsmiITH. An avowal of the principles 
which actuate the conduct is often the greatest aggra- 
vation of guilt; ‘ Whether by their settled and avowed 
scorn of thoughtless talkers, the Persians were able to 
diffuse to any great extent the virtue of taciturnity, we 
are hindered by the distance of those times from being 
able to discover.,—Jounson. 


—— 


RECOGNISE, ACKNOWLEDGE. 


Recognise, in Latin recognoscere, is to take the 
knowledge of, or bring to one’s own knowledge; 
acknowledge, v. To acknowledge. 

To recognise is to take cognizance of that which 
comes again before our notice; to acknowledge is to 
admit to one’s knowledge whatever comes fresh under 
our notice. We recognise a person whom we have 
known before; we recognise him either in his former 
character or in some newly assumed character; we 
acknowledge either former favours, or those which 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


have been just received. Princes recognise certait 
principles which have been admitted by previous con- 
sent; they acknowledge the justice of claims which are 
preferred before them; ‘When conscience threatens 
punishment to secret crimes, it manifestly recognises a 
Supreme Governour from whom nothing is hidden.’— 
Buarr. ‘I call it atheism by establishment, when any ~ 
state, as such, shall not acknowledge the existence ot 
God, as the moral governour of the world.’—Burkg. 


TO PROFESS, DECLARE. 


Profess, in Latin professus, participle of profiteor, 

compounded of pro and fateor to speak, signifies to 
set forth, or present to publick view; declare, v. To 
declare. 
- An exposure of one’s thoughts or opinions is the 
common idea in the signification of these terms; but 
they‘ differ in the manner of the action, as well as the 
object: one professes by words or by actions; one 
deciares only by words: a man professes to believe 
that on which he acts; but he declares his belief of it 
either with his lips or in his writings... The profession 
may be general and partial; it may amount to little 
more than an intimation: the declaration is positive 
and explicit; it leaves no one in doubt: a profession 
may, therefore, sometimes be hypocritical; he who 
professes may wish to imply that which is not real; 
‘A naked profession may have credit, where no other 
evidence can be given.—Swirr. A declaration must 
be either directly true or false; he who declares ex- 
pressly commits himself upon his veracity; ‘We are 
a considerable body, who, upon a proper occasion, 
would not fail to declare ourselves.—App1son. One 
professes either as respects single actions, or a regu- 
lar course of conduct; one declares either passing 
thoughts or settled principles. A person professes to 
have walked to a certain distance; to have taken a 
certain route, and the like: a Christian professes to 
follow the doctrine and precepts of Christianity; a 
person declares that the thing is true or false, or he 
declares his firm belief in a thing. 

To profess is employed only for what concerns one’s 
self ; to declare is likewise employed for what concerns 
others: one professes the motives and principles by 
which one is guided; one declares facts and circum- 
stances with which one is acquainted: ane professes 
nothing but what one thinks may be creditable and fit 
to be known, or what may be convenient for one’s 
purpose; 

Pretending first 
Wise to fly pain, professing next the spy, 
Argues no Jeader.—MILTon. 


One declures whatever may have fallen under one’s 
notice, or passed through one’s mind, as the case re- 
quires; ‘It is too common to find the aged at declared 
enmity with the whole system of present customs and 
manners.’—B iar. There is always a particular and 
private motive for profession; there are frequently 
publick grounds for making a declaration. A general 
profession of Christianity, according to established 
forms, is the bounden duty of every one born in the 
Christian persuasion; but a particular profession, ac , 
cording to a singular and extraordinary form, is seldom 
adopted by any who do not deceive themselves, or 
wish to deceive others: no one should be ashamed of 
making a declaration of his opinions, when the cause 
of truth is thereby supported; every one should be 
ready to declare what he knows, when the purposes of 
justice are forwarded by the declaration; ‘There are 
no where so plain and full declarations of mercy and 
love to the sons of men, as are made in the Gospel ’- 
TILLOTSON. 


TO DECLARE, PUBLISH, PROCLAIM. 


The idea of making known is common to all these 
terms: this is simply the signification of declare (v. To 
rofess) ; but publish (v. To announce) and proclaim, 
n Latin proclamo, compounded of pro and clamo 
signifying to cry before or in the ears of others, include 
accessory ideas. 

The word declare does not express any particulaz 
mode or circumstance of making known, as is implied 
by the others: we may declare publickly or privately; 
we publish and proclaim only in a publick manner; 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


we may declare by word of mouth, or by writing; we 
publish or proclaim by any means that will render the 
thing most generally known. : 

In declaring, the leading idea is that of speaking out 
that which passes in the mind; in publishing, the 
leading idea is that of making publick or common; in 
proclaiming, the leading idéa is that of crying aloud: 
we may therefore often declare by publishing and pro- 
claiming : a declaration is a personal act; it concerns 
the person declaring, or. him to whom it is declared ; 
its truth or falsehood depends upon the veracity of the 
speaker: a publication is of general interest; the truth 
or Gasebood" of it does not always rest with the pub- 
lisher ; a proclamation is altogether a publick act, in 
which no one’s veracity is implicated. Facts and 
opinions and feelings are declared ; 


The Greeks in shouts their joint assent declare, 
The priest to rev’rence and release the fair. 
Porn. 


Events and circumstances are published ; ‘J am sur- 
prised that none of the fortune-tellers, or, as the French 
call them, the Diseurs de bonne avanture, who publish 
their bills in every quarter of the town, have not turned 
our lotteries to their advantage..—Appison. ‘The 
measures of government are proclaimed ; 


Nine sacred heralds now, proclaiming loud 
The monarch’s will, suspend the list’ning crowd. 
PopE. 


It is folly for a man to declare any thing to be true, 
which he is not certain to be so, and wickedness in him 
to declare that to be true which he knows to be false: 
whoever publishes all he hears will be in great danger 
of publishing many falsehoods; whatever is proclaimed 
is supposed to be of sufficient importance to deserve 
the notice of all who may hear or read. 

In cases of war or peace, princes are expected to 
declare themselves on one side or the other; in the po- 
litical world intelligence is quickly published through 
the medium of the publick papers; in private life do- 
mestick occurrences are published with equal celerity 
through the medium of tale-bearers; a proclamation is 
the ordinary mode by which a prince makes known 
his wishes, and issues his commands to his subjects; 
it is an act of indiscretion very common to young and 
ardent inquirers to declare their opinions before they 
are properly matured; the publication of domestick 
circumstances is oftentimes the source of much dis- 
quiet and ill-will in families; ministers of the Gospel 
are styled messengers, who should proclaim its glad 
tidings to all people, and in all tongues, 


DECREE, EDICT, PROCLAMATION. 


Decree, in French decret, Latin decretus, from de- 
cerno to give judgement or pass sentencegsignifies the 
sentence or resolution that is passed; edict, in Latin 
edictus, from edico to say out, signifies the thing spoken 
out or sent forth; proclamation, v. To declare. 

A decree is amore solemn and deliberative act than 
an edict; on the other hand an edict is more authori- 
tative than a decree. A decree is the decision of one or 
many; an edict speaks the will of an individual: coun- 
cils and senates, as well as princes, make decrees ; 
despotick rulers issue edicts. 

Decrees are passed for the regulation of publick and 
private matters; they are made known as occasion 
requires, but are not always publick ; 


If you deny me, fie upon your law! 
There is no force in the decrees of Venice: 
SHAKSPEARE. 


Edicts and proclamations contain the commands of 
the sovereign authority, and are directly addressed by 
the prince to his people. An edict is peculiar to a 
despotick government; ‘ This statute or act of’ parlia- 
ment is placed among the records of the kingdom, 
there needing no formal promulgation to give it the 
force of a Jaw, as was necessary by the civil law with 
regard to the emperour’s edicts.—BuLacxstTone. A 
proclamation is common to a monarchical and aristo- 
cratick form of government, ‘From the same original 
of the king’s being the fountain of justice, we may 
also deduce the prerogative of issuing proclamations, 
which is vested in the king alone”—Buacxsronr. 
The ukase in Russia is a species of edict, by which the 


443 


emperour makes known his will to his people; the 
king of England communicates to his subjects the 
determinations of himself and his council by means 
of a proclamation. 


TO ANNOUNCE, PROCLAIM, PUBLISH, 
ADVERTISE. 


Announce, in Latin annuncio, is compounded of an 
or ad and nuncio to tell to any one in a formal manner ; 
proclaim, in Latin proclamo, is compounded of pro and 
clamo to cry before, or cry aloud; publish, in Latin 
publico, from publicus and populus, signifies to make 
publick or known to the people at large; advertise, 
from the Latin adverto, or ad and verto, signifies to 
turn the attention to a thing. 

The characteristick sense of these words is the 
making of a thing known to several individuals: a 
thing is announced to an individual or small commu- 
nity; it is proclaimed to a neighbourhood, and pub- 
lished to the world. An event that is of particular 
interest is announced ; ‘We might with as much rea 
son doubt whether the sun was intended to enlighten 
the earth, as whether he who has framed the human 
mind intended to announce righteousness to mankind 
asalaw.’—Buair. An event is proclaimed that re- 
quires to be known by all the parties interested ; 


But witness, heralds! and proclaim my vow, 
Witness to gods above, and men below.—Poprr. 


That is published which is supposed likely to interest 
all who know it; ‘It very often happens that none are 
more industrious in publishing the blemishes of an 
extraordinary reputation, than such as lie open to the 
same censures in their own character.-—ApDpISoN. 

Announcements are made verbally, or by some well 
known signal; proclamations are made verbally, and 
accompanied by some appointed signal; publications 
are ordinarily made through the press, or by oral com- 
munication from one individual to another. The 
arrival of a distinguished person is announced by the 
ringing of the bells; the proclamation of peace by a 
herald is accompanied with certain ceremonies calcu- 
lated to excite notice; the pudlication of news is the 
office of the journalist. 

Advertise denotes the means, and publish the end. 
To advertise is to direct the publick attention to any 
event or circumstance; ‘Every man that advertises 
his own excellence should write with some conscious- 
ness of a character which dares to call the attention 
of the publick.’—Jonnson. To publish is to make 
known either by an oral or printed communication; 
* The criticisms which I have hitherto published, have 
been made with an intention rather to discover beauties 
and excellences in the writers of my own time, than 
to publish any of their faults and imperfections.’— 
ADDISON. 

We publish by advertising, but we do not always 
advertise When we publish. Mercantile and civil 
transactions are conducted by means of advertise- 
ments. Extraordinary circumstances are speedily pub- 
lished in a neighbourhood by circulating from mouth 
to mouth. 


TO PUBLISH, PROMULGATE, DIVULGE, 
REVEAL, DISCLOSE. 


To publish signifies the same as in the preceding 
article ; promulgate, in Latin promulgatus, participle 
of promulgo, for provulgo, signifies to make vulgar; 
divulge, in Latin divulgo, that is, in diversos vulgo, 
signifies to make vulgar in different parts; veveal, in 
Latin revelo, from velo to veil, signifies to take off the 
ier or cover; disclose signifies to make the reverse of 
close. 

To publish is the most general of these terms, con- 
veying in its extended sense the idea of making known; 
‘ By the execution of several of his benefactors, Maxi- 
min published in characters of blood the indelible 
history of his baseness and ingratitude.’—Grezox, 
Publishing is an indefinite act, whereby we may make 
known to many or few; but to promulgate is always 
to make known tomany. We may pudlish that which 
is a domestick or a national concern, we promulgate 
properly only that which is of general interest: the 
affairs of a family or of a nation are published in the 
newspapers; doctrines, principles, precepts, and the 


‘44 


like, are promulgated; ‘An absurd theory on one side 
of a question forms no justification for alleging a false 
fact or promulgating mischievous maxims on the 
other. —Burkr. We may publish things to be known, 
or things not to be known; we divulge things mostly 
not to be known; we may publish our own shame, or 
the shame of another, and we may publish that which 
is advantageous to another; but we commonly divulge 
the secrets or the crimes of another ; 


Tremble, thou wretch, 
That hast within thee undivulged crimes. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


To publish is said of that which was never before 
known, or never before existed; to reveal and disclose 
are said of that which has been only concealed or lay 
hidden: we publish the events of the day; we reveal 
the secret or the mystery cf a transaction; ‘In con- 
fession, the revealing is not for worldly use, but for the 
ease of a man’s heart..—Bacon. We disclose the 
whole of an affair from beginning to end, which has 
never been properly known or accounted for ; 


Then earth and ocean various forms disclose. 
DRYDEN. 


TO UNCOVER, DISCOVER, DISCLOSE. 


To uncover, like discover, implies to take off the 
covering; but the former refers to an artificial material 
and occasional covering; the latter to a moral, natural, 
or pey"nanent covering: plants are uncovered that they 
may receive the benefit of the air; they are discovered 
to gratify the researches of the botanist. To discover 
and disclose both signify to lay open, but they differ in 
the object and manner of the action: that is discovered 
which is supposed to be covered; and that is disclosed 
which is supposed to be shut out from the view: a 
country is discovered, ascene is desclosed ; 


Go draw aside the curtains, and discover 
The several caskets to this noble prince. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


‘The shells being broken, struck off, and gone, the 
stone included in them is thereby disclosed and set at 
liberty. —Woopwarp. A plot is discovered when it 
becomes known to one’s self; a secret is disclosed when 
it is made known to another; ‘He shall never, by any 
alteration in me, discover my knowledge of his mis 
take.’— Pops. 
If I disclose my passion, 
Our friendship’s at an end; if I conceal it, 
The world will call me false.—AppiIson. 


TO DISCOVER, MANIFEST, DECLARE. 


The idea of making known is conveyed by all these 
terms; but discover, which signifies simply the taking 
off the covering from any thing, expresses less than 
manifest, and that than declare: we discover by indi- 
rect means or signs more or less doubtful; we manifest 
by unquestionable marks; we declare by express 
words: talents and dispositions discover themselves; 
particular feelings and sentiments manifest themselves; 
facts, opinions, and sentiments are declared ; children 
early discover a turn for some particular art or science ; 
‘Several brute creatures discover in their actions some- 
thing like a faint glimmering of reason.’—AnppIson. 
A person manifests his regard for another by une- 
quivocal proofs of kindness; ‘ At no time perhaps did 
the legislature manifest a more tender regard to that 
fundamental principle of British constitutional policy, 
hereditary monarchy, than at the time of the revolu- 
tion..—Burxer. A person of.an open disposition is apt 
t0 declare his sentiments without disguise; ‘ Lang- 
horne, Boyer, and Powel, presbyterian officers who 
commanded bodies. of troops in Wales, were the first 
that declared themselves against the parliament.’— 
HuME. 

Things are said to discover, persons only manifest or 
declare in the proper sense; but they may be used figu- 
ratively: it is the nature of every thing sublunary to 
discover symptoms of decay more or less early; it is 
particulazly painful when any one manifests an un- 
friendly disposition from whom we had reason to ex- 
pect the contrary. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


TO PROVE, DEMONSTRATE, EVINCE, 
MANIFEST. 


Prove, in Latin probo, signifies to make good- de: 
monstrate, from the Latin demonstro, signifies, py vir- 
tue of the intensive syllable de, to show in a specifick 
manner; evince, v. To argue; manifest signifies to 
make manifest. 

Proveis here the general and indefinite term, the rest 
imply different modes of proving ; to demonstrate is to 
prove specifically: we may prove any thing by simple 
assertion; but we must demonstrate by intellectua 
efforts: we may prove that we were in a certain place; 
but we demonstrate some point in science: we may 
prove by personal influence; but we can demonstrate 
only by the force of evidence: we prove our Own merit 
by our actions; we demonstrate the existence of a 
Deity by all that surrounds us ; 


Why on those shores are they with joy survey’d, 
Admir’d as heroes, and as gods obey’d, 
Unless great acts superiour merit prove ?—Popz. 


‘By the very setting apart and consecrating places for 
the service of God, we demonstrate our acknowledg- 
ment of his power and sovereignty over us.’—Brvu- 
RIDGE. 

To prove, evince, and manifest are the acts either 
of persons or things; to demonstrate, that of persons 
only: in regard to persons, we prove either the facts 
which we know, or the mental endowments which we 
possess: we evince and manifest a disposition or a 
state of mind: we evince. our sincerity by our actions; 
it is a work of time; ‘We must evince the sincerity 
of our faith by good works.’—Buair. We manifest a 
friendly or a hostile disposition by a word or a single 
action, it is the act of the moment; ‘In the life of a 
man of sense, a shortlife is sufficient to manifest him- 
self a man of honour and virtue.’—Srrutz. All 
these terms are applied to things, inasmuch as they 
may tend either to produce conviction, or simply to 
make a thing known: to prove and evince are employed 
in the first case; to manzfest in the latter case: the 
beauty and order in the creation prove the wisdom of 
the Creator ; a persistance in a particular course of 
conduct may either evince great virtue or great folly; 
the miracles wrought in Egypt manifested the Divine 
power. 


PROOF, EVIDENCE, TESTIMONY. 


The proof is that which simply proves ; the evidence 
is that which makes evident, which rises in sense upon 
the proof ; the testemony is a species of evidence by 
means of witnesses, from testis a witness. 

In the legal acceptation of the terms, proofs are com 
monly denominated evidence, because no proof can he_ 
admitted as such which does not tend tomake evident , 
but as the word proof is sometimes taken for the act 
of proving a8 well as the thing proved, the terms are 
not always indifferently used; ‘ Positive proof is 
always required, where, from the nature of the case, 
it appears it might possibly have been had. But next 
to positive proof, circumstantial evidence, or the doc- 
trine of presumptions, must take place.’ BLAacKsTONE. 
‘ Evidence is either written or parol.’—BLAacKSTONE. 
Testimony is properly parol evidence; but the term is 
only used in relation to the person giving the evi- 
dence; ‘Our Jaw considers that there are many trans- 
actions to which only one person is privy, and there- 
fore does not always demand the testzmony of two.’— 
BLACKSTONE. 

In an extended application of the words they are 
taken in the sense of a sign or mark, by which a thing 
is known to exist; and, with a similar distinction, the 
proof is the sign which proves ; ‘ Of the fallaciousness 
of hope, and the uncertainty of schemes, every day 
gives some new proof.’—Jounson. The evidence is 
the sign which makes evzdent ; hence we speak of the 
evidences of the senses; ‘ Cato Major, who had borne 
all the great offices, has left us an evidence, under hig 
own hand, how much he was versed in country affairs. ’ 
—Locker. The testimony is that which is offered a 
given by persons or things personified in proof of any 
thing ; ‘ Evidence is said to arise from testimony, when 
we depend upon the credit and relation of others for 
the truth or falsehood of any thing.,—Wi.xins. Hence 
a person makes another a present, or performs any 
other act of kindness asa testimony of his regard; and 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


persons or things personified bear testemony in favour 
of persons; ‘I must bear this testimony to Otway’s 
memory, that the passions are truly touched in his 
Venice Preseryed.’-—DrybDENn. 


Ye Trojan flames, your testimony bear 
What I perform’d, and what I suffer’d there. 
Dryden. 


The proof is employed mostly for facts or physical 
objects ; the evidence is applied to that which is moral 
or intellectual. All that our Saviour did and said 
were evidences of his divine character, which might 
have produced faith in the minds of many, even if they 
had not such numerous and miraculous proofs of 
his power. The evidence may be internal, or lie in the 
thing itself; ‘Of Swift’s general habits of thinking, if 
his letters can be supposed to afford any evidence, he 
was not a man to be either loved or envied.’—Jounson. 
The proof is always external: ‘Men ought not’ to 
expect either sensible proof or demonstration for such 
matters as are not capable of such proofs, supposing 
them to be true.—Wixkins. The internal evidences 
of the truth of Divine Revelation are even more nu- 
merous than those which are external: our Saviour’s 
reappearance among his disciples did not satisfy the 
unbelieving Thomas of his identity, until he had the 
farther proofs of feeling the holes in his hands and 
his side. 


——— 


DEPONENT, EVIDENCE, WITNESS. 


Deponent, from the Latin depono, is the one laying 
down or open what he has heard or seen; evidence, 
from evident, is the one producing evidence or making 
evident ; witness, from the Saxon witan, Teutonick 


weissen, Greek eidéw, and Hebrew yy" to know, is 
one who knows or makes known. 

The deponent always declares upon oath ; he serves 
to give information: the evidence is likewise generally 
bound by an oath; he serves to acquit or condemn: 
the witness is employed upon oath or otherwise he 
serves to confirm or invalidate ; 


The pleader having spoke his best, 

And witness ready to attest ; 

Who fairly could on oath depose, 

When questions on the fact arose, 

That ev’ry article was true. 

Nor further these deponents knew.—Swir9 


A deponent declares either in writing or by word cf 
mouth ; the deposition is preparatory to the trial: an 
evidence may give evidence either by words or action: ; 
whatever serves to clear up the thing, whether a pe.- 
son or an animal, is used as.an evidence; the evidence 
always comes forward on the trial; ‘ Of the evddence 
which appeared against him (Savage) the character of 
the man was not unexceptionable; that of the woman 
notoriously infamous.’—JouHNsoNn. A witness is always 
@ person in the proper sense, but may be applied figu- 
ratively to inanimate objects; he declares by word of 
mouth what he personally knows. Every witness is 
an evidence at the moment of trial, but every evidence 
is not a witness. Whena dog is employed as an evi- 
dence he cannot be called a witness ; ‘Incase a woman 
be forcibly taken away and married, she may be a wit- 
ness against her husband in order to convict him of 
felony.—BLackstone. ‘In every man’s heart and 
conscience, religion has many witxesses to its import- 
ance and reality..—Buair. 

Evidence on the other hand is confined mostly to 
judicial matters; and witness extends to all the ordi- 
nary concerns of life. One person appears as an evi 
dence against another on a criminal charge: a witness 
appears for or against; he corroborates the word of 
another, and is a security in all dealings or matters of 
question between man and man. 


TO CONVICT, DETECT, DISCOVER. 


Convict, from the Latin convictus, participle of con- 
vinco to make manifest, signifies to make clear; detect, 
from the Latin detectus, participle of detego, com- 
pounded of the privative de and tego to cover, signifies 
to uncover or lay open. To detect and discover serve 
to denote the laying open of crimes or errours. A per- 
son is convicted by means of evidence; he is detected 


445 


by means of ocular demonstration. One is convicted 
of having been the perpetrator of some evil deed ; 
‘ Advice is offensive, not because it lays us open to un- 
expected regret, or convicts us of any fault which had 
escaped our notice, but because it shows us that we 
are known to others as well as ourselves,’—JoHNSoN, 
One is detected in the very act of committing the deed. 
One is convicted of crimes in a court of judicature ; 
one is detected in various misdemeanours by different 
casualties; ‘Every member of society feels and ac- 
knowledges the necessity of detecting crimes.’—Joun- 
son. Punishment necessarily follows the conviction ; 
but in the case of detection, it rests in the breast of the 
individual against whom the offence is committed. 

Detect is always taken in a bad sense: discover (v. 
Uncover) in an indifferent sense. A person is detected 
in what he wishs, to conceal; a person or a thing ig 
discovered that has unintentionally lain concealed, 
Thieves are detected in picking pockets; a lost child 
is discovered in a wood, or iu some place of security. 
Detection is the act of the moment; it is effected by 
the aid of the senses: a discovery is the consequence 
of efforts, and is brought about by circuitous means, 
and the aid of the understanding. A plot is detected 
by any one who communicates what he has seen and 
heard; many murders have been discovered after a 
lapse of years by ways the most extraordinary. No- 
thing is detected but what is actually passing ; many 
things are discovered which have long passed. Wicked 
men go on in their career of vice with the hope of 
escaping detection ; the discovery of one villany often 
leads to that of many more ; ‘ Cunning when it is once 
detected loses its force,—Appison. ‘Weare told that 
the Spartans, though they punished theft in the young 
men when it was discovered, looked upon it as honour. 
able if it succeeded.’—Appison. 


TO FIND, FIND OUT, DISCOVER, ESPY, 
DESCRY. 


Find, in German finden, &c. is most probably con 
nected with the Latin venzo, signifying to come in the 
way. discover, v. To uncover ; espy, in French espier, 
comes from the Latin espicio, signifying to see a thing 
out; descry, from the Latin discerno, signifies to dis- 
tinguish a thing from others. ‘ 

To find signifies simply to come within sight of a 
thing, which is the general idea attached to all these 
terms: they vary, however, either in the mode of the 
action or in the object. What we jind may become 
visible to us by accident, but what we find out is the 
result of an effort. We may jind any thing as we 
pass along in the streets; but we find owt mistakes in 
an account by carefully going over it, or we find out 
the difficulties which we meet with in learning, by 
redoubling our diligence ; ‘ Socrates, who was a great 
admirer of Cretan institutions, set his excellent wit to 
Jind out some good cause and use of this evil inclina- 
tion (the love of boys).’—Watsu. What is found 
may have been lost to ourselves, but visible to others; 


He finds the fraud, and with a smile demands, 
On what design the boy had bound his hands. 
DRYDEN. 


What is discovered is always remote and unknown, 
and when discovered is something new; ‘Cunning is 
a kind of short-sightedness that d?scovers the minutest 
objects which are near at hand, but is not able to dis- 
cern things at a distance.’—Appison. A piece of money 
may be found lying on the ground; but a mine is dis- 
covered under ground. When Captain Cook disce- 
vered the islands in the South Sea, many plants and 
animals were found. What is not discoverable may 
be presumed not to exist ; but that which is found may 
be only what has been lost. What has once been dis- 
covered cannot be discoveved again; but what is found 
may be many times found. Find out and discover 
differ principally in the application ; the former being 
applied to familiar, and the latter to scientifick objects: 
scholars find out what they have to learn; men of re- 
search discover what escapes the notice of others. 

To espy is a species of finding out, namely, to sind 
out what is very secluded or retired ; 

There Agamemnon, Priam here he spies, 


And fierce Achilles, who both Kings defies. 
DRypDEE, 


446 


Desery is a species of discovering, or observing at a 
distance, or among a number of objects ; 


Through this we pass, and mount the tower from 
whence, 
With unavailing arms, the Trojans make defence ; 
From this the trembling king had oft descried, 
The Grecian camp, and saw their navy ride. 
DryvDeEn. 


An astronomer discovers fresh stars or planets; he 
finds those on particular occasions which have been 
already discovered. A person finds owt by continued 
‘nquiry any place to which he had been wrong directed : 
ne espies an object which lies concealed in a corner 
or secret place: he descries a horseman coming down 
ahill. — 

Find and discover may be employed with regard to 
objects, either of a corporeal or intellectual kind; espy 


and descry only with regard to sensible objects of cor-. 


poreal vision: find, either for those that are external 
or internal; dzscover, only for those that are external. 
Lhe distinction between them is the same as before ; 
ve find by simple inquiry ; we discover by reflection 
2nu study: we find or find out the motives which in- 
fluence a person’s conduct; we discover the reasons 
or causes of things: the finding serves the particular 
purpose of the finder; the discovery serves the pur- 
pose of science, by adding to the stock of general 
knowledge. 

When find is used as a purely intellectual opera- 
tion, it admits of a new view, in relation both to dis- 
cover and to invent, as may be seen in the following 
article. / 


ee 


TO FIND, FIND OUT, DISCOVER, INVENT. 


To find or find out (v. To find) is said of things 
which do not exist in the forms in which a person 
jinds them: to discover (v. To uncover) is said of that 
which exists in an entire state: invent, in Latin zn- 
ventum, from invenio, signifying to come at or light 
upon, is said of that which is new made or modelled. 
The merit of finding or inventing consists in newly 
applying or modifying the materials which exist sepa- 
rately; the merit of discovering consists in removing 
the obstacles which prevent us from knowing the real 
nature of the thing: imagination and industry are re- 
quisite for finding or inventing ; acuteness and pene- 
tration for discovering. A person finds reasons for 
justifying himself: he discovers traits of a bad dis- 
position in another. Cultivated minds find sources 
of amusement within themselves, or a prisoner finds 
means of escape. Many traces of a universal deluge 
have been discovered; the physician discovers the na- 
ture of a particular disorder. 

Find is applicable to the operative arts; 


Long practice has a sure improvement found, | 
With kindled fires to burn the barren ground. 
DryDEN. 


Discover is applied to speculative objects ; ‘Since the 
harmonick principles were discovered, musick has been 
a great independent science. —Srwarp. Invent is ap- 
plied to the mechanical arts ; 


The sire of gods and men, with hard decrees, 
Forbids our plenty to be bought with ease ; 
Himself invented first the shining share, 

And whetted human industry by care—Drypern. 


We speak of finding modes for performing actions, 
and effecting purposes; of inventing machines, instru- 
ments, and various matters of use or elegance; of dis- 
covering the operations and laws of nature. Many 
fruitless attempts have been made to find the longi- 
tude: men have not been so unsuccessful in finding 
out various arts for communicating their thoughts, 
commemorating the exploits of their nations, and sup- 

lying themselves with luxuries ; nor have they failed 
in every species of machine or instrument which can 
aid their purpose. Harvey discovered the circulation 
of the blood: Torricelli discovered the gravity of the 
air: by geometry the properties of figures are dis- 
covered; by chymistry the properties of compound 
substances: but the geometrician finds by reasoning 
the solution of any problem; or by investigating, he 
finds out a clearer method of solving the same prob- 
lems; or he invents an instrument by which the 
proof can be deduced from ocular demonstration. Thus 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


the astronomer discovers the motions of the heavenly 
bodies, by means of the telescope which has been in 
vented. 


EMISSARY, SPY. 


Emissary, in Latin emissarius, from emiits to sem 
forth, signifies one sent out; spy, in French espion, 
from the Latin specio to look into or look about, signi 
fies one narrowly searched. 

Both these words designate a person sent out by a 
body on some publick concern among their enemies, 
but they differ in their office according to the etymo- 
logy of the words. 

The emissary is by distinction sent forth, he is sent 
so as to mix with the people to whom he goes, to be 
in all places, and to associate with every one indivi 
dually as may serve his purpose ; the spy, on the other 
hand, takes his station wherever he can best perceive 
what is passing ; he keeps himself at a distance from 
all but such as may particularly aid him in the object 
of his search. 

The object of an emissary is by direct communica- 
tion with. the enemy to sow the seeds of dissension, to 
spread false alarms, and to disseminate false principles; 
the object of a spy is to get information of an enemy’s 
plans and movements. 

Although the office of emissary and spy are neither 
of them honourable, yet that of the former is more dis- 
graceful than that of the latter. The emissary is 
generally employed by those who have some illegiti- 
mate object to pursue; ‘ The Jesuits send over emis- 
saries with instructions to personate themselves mem- 
bers of the several sects among us.’—Swirt. Spies on 
the other hana are employed by all regular govern- 
ments in a time of warfare; ‘He (Henry I.) began 
with the Earl of Shrewsbury, who was watched for 
some time by spzes and then indicted upon a charge 
of forty-five articles.’—Hume. 

In the time of the Revolution, the French sent their 
emissaries into every country, civilized or uncivilized, 
to fan the flame of rebellion against established govern- 
ments. At Sparta, the trade of a spy was not so vile 
as it has been generally esteemed ; it was considered 
as a self-devotion for the publick good, and formed a 
part of their education. 

These terms are both applied in an extended appli- 
cation with a similar distinction; ‘What generally 
makes pain itself, if I may so say, more painful, is - 
that it is considered as the emissary of the king of 
terrours.’—BURKE. 


These wretched sptes of wit must soon confess, 
They take more pains to please themselves the less. 
Drypden. 


MARK, PRINT, IMPRESSION, STAMP. 


Mark is the same in the northern languages, and in 
the Persian marz; print and impression, both from 
the Latin premo to press, signify the visible effect pro- 
duced by printing or pressing ; stamp signifies the effect 
produced by stamping. 

The word mark is the most general in sense: what- 
ever alters the external face of an object is a mark ; 
the print is some specifick mark, or a figure drawn 
upon the surface of an object; the impression is the 
mark pressed either upon or into a body; the stamp 
is the mark that is stamped in or upon the body. The 
mark is confined to no size, shape,-or form; the print 
is a mark that represents an object: the mark may 
consist of a spot, a line, a stain, or a smear; but a 
print describes a given object, as a house, a man, &c. 
A mark is either a protuberance or a depression; an 
impression is always a sinking in of the object: a 
hillock or a hole are both marks; but the latter is 
properly the ¢mpression : the stamp. mostly resembles 
the zmpression, unless in the case of a seal, which 
is stamped upon paper, and occasions an elevation 
with the wax. 

The mark is occasioned by every sort. of action, 
gentle or violent, artificial or natural; by the voluntary 
act of a person, or the unconscious act of inanimate 
bodies; by means of compression or friction; by a 
touch or a blow, and the like: all the others are occa- 
sioned by one or more of these modes; ‘ De la Chambre 
asserts positively that from the marks on the body, 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


ihe configuration of the plaiets at a nativity may be 
zathered.’—-Watsu. . The print is occasioned by arti- 
ficial means of compression, as when the print of let- 
ters or pictures is made on paper; or by accidental and 
Natural compression, as when the print of the hand 
is made on the wall, or the print of the foot is made 
on the ground; 


From hence Astrea took her flight, and here 
The prints of her departing steps appear. 
DRYDEN. 


The impression is made by means more or less violent, 
as when an impression is made upon wood by the axe 
or hammer; or by means gradual and natural, as by 
the dripping of water on stone. The stamp is made 
by means of direct pressure with an artificial instru- 
ment. 

Mark is of such universal application that it is con- 
fined to no objects whatever, either in the natural or 
moral world; print is mostly applied to material ob- 
jects, the face of which undergoes a lasting change, as 
the printing made on paper or wood; impression is 
more commonly applied to such natural objects as are 
particularly solid ; stamp is generally applied to paper, 
or still softer and more yielding bodies. Impression 
and stamp have both a moral application: events or 
speeches make an impression on the mind: things 
bear a certain stamp which bespeaks their origin. 
Where the passions have obtained an ascendancy, the 
occasional good impresstons which are produced by 
religious observances but too frequently die away ; 
* No man can offer at the change of the government 
established, without first gaining new authority, and 
in some degree debasing the old by appearance and 
impressions of contrary qualities in those who before 
enjoyed it..—Tzmpute. The Christian religion carries 
with itself the stamp of truth ; 


Adult’rate metals to the sterling stamp 

Appear not meaner than mere human lines 

Compar’d with those whose inspiration shines. 
Roscommon. 


MARK, SIGN, NOTE, SYMPTOM, TOKEN, 
INDICATION. 


Mark, v, Mark, impression ; sign, in Latin signwm, 
Greek siypa from si{w to punctuate, signifies the thing 
that poiuts out; symptom, in Latin symptoma, Greek 
evprrwpa from cuuzinra to fall out in accordance with 
any thing, signifies what presents itself to confirm one’s 
Opinion; teken, through the medium of the northern 
languages, comes from the Greek rexpfpiov; indication, 
in Latin indicatio from indice, and the Greek évdetxw 
to point out, signifies the thing which points out. 

The idea of an external object which serves to direct 
the observer, is common to all these terms; the differ- 
ence consists in the objects that are employed. Any 
thing may serve as a mark, a stroke, a dot, a stick set 
up, and the like; it serves simply to guide the senses: 
the sign is something more complex; it consists of a 
figure or representation of some object, as the twelve 
signs of the zodiack, or the s¢gns which are affixed to 
houses of entertainment, or to shops. Marks are ar- 
bitrary ; every one chooses his mark at pleasure: signs 
have commoniy a connexion with the object that is to 
be observed: a house, a tree, a letter, or any external 
object may be chosen as a mark; but a tobacconist 
chooses the sign of ablack man; the innkeeper chooses 
the head of the reigning prince. Marks serve in general 
simply to aid the memory in distinguishing the situation 
of objects, or the particular circumstances of pereons 
or things, asthe marks which are set up in the garden 
to distinguish the ground that is occupied; they may, 
therefore, he private, and known only to the individual 
or individuals that make them, as the private marks 
by which a tradesman distinguishes the prices; they 
may likewise be changeable and fluctuating, according 
to the humour and convenience of the maker, as the 
private marks which are employed by the military on 
guard. Signs, on the contrary, serve to direct the un- 
derstanding; they have either a natural or an artificial 
resemblance to the object to be represented ; they are 
consequently chosen, not by the will of one, but by the 
universal consent of a body; they are not chosen for 
the moment, but for a permanency, as in the case of 
language, either oral or written, in the case of. the zo- 
_ fiacal szgns, or the sign of the cross, the algebraical 


44i 


signs, and the like. It is clear, therefore, that many 
objects may be both a mark and a sign, according tc 
the above illustration: the cross which is employed in 
books, by way of reference to notes, is a mark only, 
because it serves merely to guide the eye, or assist the 
memory ; but the figure of the cross, when employed 
in reference to the cross of our Saviour, is a sign, in- 
asmuch as it conveys a distinct idea of something else 
to the mind; so likewise, little strokes over letters, or 
even letters themselves, may merely be marks, while 
they only point out a difference between this or that 
letter, this or that object; but this same stroke becomes 
a sign, if, as ip the first declension of Latin nouns, it 
points out the ablative case, it is the sign off the abla 

tive case; and a single letter affixed to different parcels 
is merely 4 mark so long. as it simply serves this pur- 
pose; but the same letter, suppose it were a word, is a 
sign when itis used asasign. It is, moreover, clear 
from the above, that there are many objects which 
serve as marks, which are never signs; and on the 
other hand, although signs are mostly composed, yet 
there are two sorts of signs which have nothing to de 
with the mark ; namely, those which we obtain by any 
other sense than that of sight; or those which are 
only figures in the mind. When words are spoken, 
and not written, they are signs and not marks; and 
in like manner the sign of the cross, when made on 
the forehead of children in baptism, is a sign, but not 
amark. This illustration of these two words in theiy 
strict and proper sense, will serve to explain them in 
their extended and metaphorical sense. A mark stands 
for nothing but what is visible; the sign stands for 
that only which is real.’ A star on the breast of an 
officer or nobleman isa mark of distinction or honour, 
because it distinguishes one person from another, and 
in a way that is apt to reflect honour; but it is not a 
sign of honour, because it is not the indubitable test of 
a man’s honourable feelings, since it may be conferred 
by favour or by mistake, or from some partial circum 

stance. 

The mark and sign may both stand for the appear 
ance of things, and in that case the former shows the 
cause by the effect, the latter the consequent by the 
antecedent. When a thing is said to bear the marks 
of violence, the cause of the mark is judged of by the 
murk itself; but when we say that a lowering sky is a 
sign of rain, the future or consequent event is judged 
ot by the present appearance; 


So plain the s¢gns, such prophets are the skies. 
Drypen. 


So likewise we judge by the marks of a person’s foot 
that some one has been walking in a given place; 
when mariners meet with birds at sea, they consider 
them a sign that land is near at hand. 

It is here worthy of observation, however, that 
mark is only used for that which may be seen, bu: 
that the sign may serve to direct our conclusions, even 
in that which affects the hearing, feeling, smell, or 
taste; thus hoarseness is a sign that the person has 
acold; the effects which it produces on the patient 
are to himself sensible signs that he labours under 
such an affection. The smell of fire is a sign that 
some place is on fire; one of the two travellers, in 
La Mothe’s fable, considered the taste of the wine as 
a stgn that there must be leather in the bottle, and the 
other that there must be iron; and it proved that they 
were both right, for a little key with a bit of leather 
tied to it was found at the bottom. 

In this sense of the words they are applied to moral 
objects with precisely the same distinction; the mark 
illustrates the spring of the action; the sign shows the 
state of the mindor sentiments: it is a mark of folly or 
weakness ina man to yield himself implicitly to the 
guidance of an interested friend; ‘The ceremonial 
laws of Moses were the marks to distinguish the peo 
ple of God from the Gentiles.—Bacon. Tears are 
not always a sign of repentance; ‘ The sacring of the 
kings of France (as Loysel says) is the sign of their 
sovereign priesthood.’—TEmMPLE. 

A note is rather a sign than a mark; but it is pro- 
perly the sign which consists of marks, asa note of 
admiration (‘}, and likewise a note which consists of 
many letters and words. 4 

Symptom is rather a mark than a sign; it explains 
the cause or origin of complaints, by the appearances 
they assume,, and is employed as a technical term only 


«A8 


‘n the science of medicine: as a fvaming at the mouth, 
and an abhorrence of drink, are symptoms of canine 
madness; motion and respiration are signs of life. 
Symptom may likewise be used figuratively in_appli- 
cation to moral objects; ‘This fall of the French 
monarchy was far from being preceded by any exteriour 
symptoms of decline..—BURKE. | 

Token is a species of mark in the moral sense, 
indication a species of sign; the mark shows what is, 
the token serves to keep in mind what has been: a 
gift to a friend is a mark of one’s affection and esteem ; 
if it be permanent in its nature it becomes a token: 
friends who are in close intercourse have perpetual 
opportunities of showing each other marks of their 
regard by reciprocal acts of courtesy and kindness ; 
when they separate for any length of time, they com- 
monly leave some token of their tender sentiments in 
each other’s hands, as a pledge of what shall be, as 
well as an evidence of what has been; ‘The famous 
bull-feasts are an evident token of the Quixotism and 
romantick taste of the Spaniards.’—SoMERVILLE. 

Sign, as it respects an indication, is said in abstract 
and general propositions: indication itself is only em- 
ployed for some particular individual referred to; it 
bespeaks the act of the persons: but the sign is only 
the face or appearance of the thing. When a man 
does not live consistently with the profession which he 
holds, it is a sign that his religion is built on a wrong 
‘foundation; parents are gratified when they observe 
the slightest indications of genius or goodness in their 
children ; ‘It is certain Virgil’s parents gave him a good 
education, to which they were inclined by the early 
indications he gave of a sweet disposition and excel- 
lent wit.’—WaLsu. 


MARK, TRACE, VESTIGE, FOOTSTEP, TRACK. 


The word mark has already been considered at large 
in the preceding article, but it will admit of farther 
Plustration when taken in the sense of that which is 
visible, and serves to show the existing state of things; 
mark is here, as before, the most general and unqua- 
lified term; the other terms varying in the circum- 
stances or manner of the mark ; trace, in Italian treccia, 


Greek rpéxevv to run, and Hebrew ys way, signifies 


any continued mark ; vestige, in Latin vestigium, not 
improbably contracted from pedis and stigium or 
stigma, from ¢fw to imprint, signifies a print of the 
foot; footstep is taken for the place in which the foot 
has stepped, or the mark made by that step; track, 
derived from the same source as trace, signifies the 
way run, or the mark produced by that running. 

The mark is said of a fresh and uninterrupted line; 
the trace is said of that which is broken by time: a 
carriage, in driving along the sand leaves marks of the 
wheels, but in a short time all traces of its having 
been there will be lost: the mark is produced by the 
action of bodies on one another in every possible form; 
the spilling of a liquid may leave a mar on the floor; 
the blow of a stick leaves a mark on the body; 


I have served him 
In this old body; yet the marks remain 
Of many wounds.—OTway. 


The trace is a mark produced only by bodies making 
& progress or proceeding in a continued course: the 
ship that cuts the waves, and the bird that cuts the air, 
leaves no traces of their course behind; so men pass 
their lives, and after death they leave no traces that 
they ever were; ‘ The greatest favours to an ungrateful 
man are but like the motion of a ship upon the waves: 
they leave no trace, no sign behind them.’—Sourn. 
These words are both applied to moral objects, but 
the mark is produced by objects of inferiour import- 
ance ; it excites a momentary observation, but does 
not carry us back to the past; its cause is either too 
obvious or too minute to awaken attention; a trace ig 
generally a mark of-something which we may wish to 
see. JMarks of haste and imbecility in a common 
writer excite no surprise, and call forth no obser- 

ation ; 

These are the monuments of Helen’s love, 

The shame I bear below, the marks I bore above. 

Drypen. 


In a writer of long standing celebrity, we look for 
traces of his former genius. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


The vestige isa species of the mark caused literatiy 
by the foot of man, and consequently applied to such 
places as have been inhabited, where the active in- 
dustry of man has left visible marks ; it is a species 
of trace, inasmuch as it carries us back to that which 
was, but is not at present. We discover by marks 
that things have been; we discover by traces ana 
vestiges what they have been: a hostile army always 
leaves sufficiently evident marks of its having passed 
through a country; there are traces of the Roman 
roads still visible in London and different parts of 
England: Rome contains many vestiges of its former 
greatness; ‘ Both Britain and Ireland had temples for 
the worship of the gods, the vestiges of which are now 
remaining.’—Parsons. 

Mineralogists assert that there are many marks of a 
universal deluge discoverable in the fossils and strata 
of the earth; philological inquirers imagine that there 
are traces in the existing languages of the world suf- 
ficient to ascertain the progress by which the earth 
became populated after the deluge; the pyramids are 
vestiges of antiquity which raise our ideas of human 
greatness beyond any thing which the modern state of 
the arts can present. Vestige, like the two former 
may be applied to moral as well as natural objects with 
the same line of distinction. A person betrays marks 
of levity in hisconduct. Wherever we discover traces 
of the same customs or practices in one country which 
are prevalent in another, we suppose those countries 
to have had an intercourse or connexion of some kind 
with one another at a certain remote period. 

Footstep and track are sometimes employed as a 
mark, but oftener as a road or course: when we talk 
of following the footsteps of another, it may signify 
either to follow the marks of his footsteps as a guide 
for the course we should take, or to walk in the very 
same steps as he has done: ‘the former is the act of 
one who is in pursuit of another; the latter is the act 
of him who follows in a train. Footsteps is employed 
only for the steps of an individual; the track is made 
by the steps'of many; it is the line which has been 
beaten out or made by stamping: the term footstep 
can only be employed for men or brutes; but truck is 
applied to inanimate objects, as the wheel of a car- 
riage. When Cacus took away the oxen of Hercules, 
he dragged them backward that they might not be 
traced by their footsteps: a track of blood from the 
body of a murdered man may sometimes lead to the 
detection of the murderer. 

In the metaphorical application they do not signify 
a mark, but a course of conduct; the former respects 
one’s moral feelings or mode of dealing; the latter 
one’s mechanical and habitual manner of acting: the 
former is the consequence of having the same princi- 
ples ; the latter proceeds from imftation or constant 
repetition. 

A good son will walk in the footsteps of a good 
father. In the management of business it is rarely 
wise in a young man to leave the track which has 
been marked out for him by his superiours in age and 
experience; 

Virtue alone ennobJes humankind, 

And power should on her glorious footsteps wait. 

Wywnnu. 

Though all seems lost, ’tis impious to despair, 

The trecks of Providence like rivers wind. 

Hieeons 


MARK, BADGE, STIGMA. 


Mark (v. Mark, print) is still the general, and the 
two other specifick terms; they are employed for what- 
ever externally serves to characterize persons, or beto- 
ken any part either of his character or his cireum- 
stances: mark is employed either in a good, bad, or in- 
different sense; badge in an indifferent; stigma in a 
bad sense: a thing may either bea mark of honour, ot 
disgrace, or of simple distinction: a badge is a mark 
simply of distinction ; the stigma is a mark of disgrace. 
The mark is conferred upon a person for his merits, as 
medals, stars, and ribandsare bestowed by princes upon 
meritorious officers and soldiers; or the mark attaches 
to a person, or is affixed to him, in consequence of hig 
demerits; as a low situation in his class is a mark of 
disgrace to a scholar; or a fool’s cap is a mark of igno- 


(miny affixed to idlers and dunces; or a braid in the 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


forehead is a mark of ignomery for criminals; ‘In 
these revolutionary meetings, every counsel, in propor- 
tion as it is daring and violent and perfidious, is taken 
for the mark of superiourgenius.’—Burxke. The badge 
is voluntarily assumed by one’s self according to esta- 
blished custom; it consists of dress by which the office, 
station, and even religion of a particular community is 
distinguished: as the gown and wig is the badge of 
gentlemen in the !aw; the gown and surplice that of 
clerical men; the uniform of charity children is the 
badge of their condition; the peculiar habit of the 
Quakers and Methodists is the badge of their religion ; 

The people of England look upon hereditary succes- 
sion as a security for their liberty, not as a badge of 
servitude.’—BuRKE. 

The stigma consists not so much in what is openly 
imposed upon a person as what falls upon him in the 
judgement of others; it is the black mark which is set 
upon a person by the publick, and is consequently the 
strongest of all marks, which every one most dreads, 
and every good man seeks ‘least to deserve. A simple 
mark may sometimes be such only in our own imagi- 
nation; as when one fancies that dress is a mark of 
superiority, or the contrary; that the courtesies which 
we receive from a superiour are marks of his personal 
esteem and regard: but the stt¢gma@ is not what an in- 
dividual imagines for himself, but what is conceived to- 
wards him by others; the office of a spy and informer 
is so odious, that every man of honest feeling holds the 
very name to be a stigma: although a stigma is in 
general the consequence of a man’s real unworthiness, 
yet it is possible for particular prejudices and ruling 
passions to make that a stigma which is not. so de- 
servedly; as in the case of men’s religious profession, 
inasmuch as it is not accompanied with any moral de- 
pravity; it is mostly unjust to attach a stigma to a 
whole body of men for their speculative views; ‘The 
cross, which our Saviour’s enemies thought was to 
stigmatize him with infamy, became the ensign of his 
renown.’—BLalr. 


—_—_—— 


MARK, BUTT. 


After all that has been said upon the word mark (v. 
Mark, print), it has this additional meaning in com- 
mon with the word butt, that it implies an object 
aimed at: the mark is however literally a mark that 
is said to be shot at by the marksman with a gun ora 
bow; 


A fluttering dove upon the top they tie, 
The living mark at which their arrows fly. 
DRYDEN. 


Or it is metaphorically employed for the man who by 
nis peculiar characteristicks makes himself the object 
of notice; heis the mark at which évery one’s looks 
and thoughts are directed ; 


He made the mark 
For all the people’s hate, the prince’s curses. 
DENHAM. 


The butt, from the French but the end, is a species of 
mark ix this metaphorical sense; but the former only 
calls forth general observation, the jatter provokes the 
Jaughter and jokes of every one. Whoever renders 
himself conspicuo is by his eccentricities either in his 
opinions or his actions, must not complain if he be- 
comes a mark for the derision of the publick; it is a 
man’s misfortune rather than his fault if he become 
the butt of a company who are rude and unfeeling 
enough to draw their pleasures from another’s pain; 
‘I mean those honest gentlemen that are pelted by men, 
women, and children, by friends and foes, and in a word 
stand as butts in conversation.’—ADDISON. 


TO DERIVE, TRACE, DEDUCE. 


Derwve, from the Latin de and rivus a river, signi- 
fies to drain after the manner of water from its source; 
trace, in italian tracctare, Greek rpéyw to run, Hebrew 


M55 to go, signifies to go by a line drawn out, to fol- 
low the line; deduce, in Latin deduco, signifies to bring 
from. 

The idea of drawing one thing from another is in- 
eluded in all the actions designated by these terms. 
The act of deriving is immediate and direct aa of 


449 
tracing a gradual process; that of deducing by a 
ratiocinative process. 

We discover causes and sources by derivation; we 
discover the course, progress, and commencement of 
things by tracing ; we discover the grounds and rea 
sons of things by deduction. A person derives his 
name from a given source; he traces his family up to 
a given period; principles or powers are deduced from 
circumstances or observations. The Trojans derived 
the name of their city from Tros, a king of Phrygia ; 
they traced the line of their kings up to Dardanus; 
‘The kings among the heathens ever derived them 
selves or their ancestors from some good.’—TEMPLE 


Let Newton, pure intelligence! whom God 

To mortals lent to trace his boundless works, 

From laws sublimely simple speak thy fame. 
THOMsoN. 


Copernicus deduced the principle of the earth’s turn- 
ing round from several simple observations, particularly 
from the apparent and contrary motion of bodies that 
are really at rest. The English tongue is of such mixed 
origin that there is scarcely any known language from 
which some one of its words is not derivable; it is an 
interesting employment to trace the progress of science 
and civilization in countries which have been involved 
in ignorance and barbarism; from the writings of 
Locke and other philosophers of an equally loose 
stamp, have been deduced principles both in morals and 
politicks that are destructive to the happiness of men in 
civil society; ‘From the discovery of some natural 
authority may perhaps be deduced a truer original of 
all governments among men than from any contracts.’ 
—TEMPLE. 


TO IMPLANT, INGRAFT, INCULCATE, 
INSTIL, INFUSE. 


To plant is properly to fix plants in the ground, to 
implant is, in the improper sense, to fix principles in 
the mind. Graft isto make one plant grow on the 
stock of another; to ingraft is to make particular 
principles flourish in the mind, and form a part of the 
character. Calco is in Latin to tread; and inculcate 
to stamp into the mind.  Stzdlo, in Latin, is literally to 
fall dropwise ; znstilio, to instil, is, in the improper 
sense, to make sentiments as it were drop into the mind 
Fundo, in Latin, is literally to pour in a stream; in- 
fundo, to infuse, is, in the improper sense, to pour prin- 
ciples or feelings into the mind. 

To implant, ingraft, and inculcate are said of ab 
stract opinions, or rulesof right and wrong; instil and 
infuse of such principles as influence the heart, the 
affections, and the passions. It is the business of the 
parent in early life to implant sentiments of virtue in 
his child; 

With various seeds of art deep in the mind 
Implanted.—THOMSON. 


It is the business of the teacher to ingraft them; 
‘The reciprocal attraction in the minds of men is a 
principle ingrafted in the very first formation of the 
soul, by the Author of our nature.,—BrrKeLey. The 
belief of a Deity, and all the truths of Divine Revela 
tion, ought to be ¢mplanted in the mind of the child ag 
soon as it ¢an understand any thing: if it have not en 
joyed this privilege in its earliest infancy, the task of 
ingrafting these principles afterward into the mind 
is attended with considerable difficulty and uncertainty 
of success. To inculcate is a more immediate act 
than either to implant or ingraft. It is the business 
of the preacher to inculcate the doctrines of Chris- 
tianity from the pulpit; ‘To preach practical sermons, 
as they are called, that is, sermons upon virtues and 
vices, without inculcating the great Scripture truths 
of redemption, grace, &c. which alone can enable and 
incite us to forsake sin and follow after righteousness; 
what is it, but to put together the wheels and set the 
bands of a watch, forgetting the spring which is to 
make them all go?’/—Bisuop Horne. Jnstilling is a 
corresponding act with implanting ; we implant be- 
lief; we instil the feeling which is connected with this 
belief. It is not enough to have an abstract belief of 
a God implanted into the mind: we must likewise have 
a love and a fear of him, and reverence for his holy 
name and Word, instilled into the mind. 

To instil is a gradual process which is the natural 
work of education ; to infuse is a more arbitrary and 


450 


immediate act. Sentiments are instelled into the mind, 
not altogether by the personal efforts of any individual, 
but likewise by collateral endeavours; they are now- 
ever infused at the express will, and with the express 
endeavour of some person. By the reading of the 
Scriptures, an attendance on publick worship, and the 
influence of example, combined with the instructions 
of a parent, religious sentiments are instilled into the 
mind; ‘The apostle often makes mention of sound 
doctrine in opposition to the extravagant and corrupt 
opinions which false teachers, even in those days, ir- 
stilled into the minds of their ignorant and unwary 
disciples..—Brvreriper. By the counsel and conver- 
‘sation of an intimate friend, an even current of the 
feeling becomes infused into the mind ; 


No sooner grows 
The soft infusion prevalent and wide, 
Than, all alive, at once their joy o’erflows 
In musick unconfin’d.—THoMSON. ~ 


Instil is applicable only to permanent sentiments ; 2n- 
fuse may be said of any partial feeling: hence we 
speak of infusing a poison into the mind by means of 
insidious and mischievous publications, or infusing a 
jealousy by means of crafty insinuations, or infusing an 
ardour into the minds of soldiers by means of spirited 
addresses coupled with military successes. 


TO IMPRINT, IMPRESS, ENGRAVE. 


Print and press are both derived from pressus, par- 
ticiple of premo, signifying in the literal sense to press, 
or to make a mark by pressing; to impress and im- 
print are morally enployed in the same sense. Things 
are impressed on the mind so as to produce a convic- 
tion: they are imprinted on it so as to produce recol- 
lection. If the truths of Christianity be zmpressed on 
the mind, they will show themselves in a correspond- 
ing conduct: whatever is zmprinted on the mind in 
early life, or by any particular circumstance, is not 
readily forgotten ; 


Whence this disdain of life in ev’ry breast, 

But from a notion on their minds zmpress’d 

That all who for their country die are bless’d! 
JENYNS. 


‘Such a strange, sacred, and inviolable majesty has 
God tmprinted upon this faculty (the conscience), that 
it can never be deposed.’—Sourn. . Engrave, from 
grave and the German graben to dig, expresses more 
in the proper sense than either, and the same in its 
moral application ; for we may truly say that if the 
truths of Christianity be engraven in the minds of 
youth, they can never be eradicated ; 


Deep on his front engraven, 
Deliberation sat, and publick care—Mi.ton. 


SEAL, STAMP. 


Seal is a specifick, stamp a general, term: there 
cannot be a seal without a stamp; but there may be 
many stamps where there is no seal. Seal, in Latin 
sigillum, signifies a signet or little sign, consisting of 
any one’s coat of arms, or any other device; the stamp 
is, in general, any impression whatever which has 
been made by stamping, that is, any impression which 
is not easily to be effaced. In the improper sense, the 
seal is the authority; thus to set one’s seal is the same 
as to authorize, and the sead of truth is any outward 
mark which characterizes it ; 


Therefore, not long in force this charter stood, 
Wanting that seal, it must be seal’d in blood. 
DENHAM. 
In the stamp is the impression by which we distinguish 
the thing; thus a thing is said to bear the stamp of 
truth, of sincerity, of veracity, and the like; 


Wisdom for parts is madness for the whole, 
This stamps the paradox, and gives us leave 
To call the wisest weak.— Young. 


PICTURE, PRINT, ENGRAVING. 


Picture (v. Painting) is any likeness taken by the 
wand of the artist; the prirs is the copy of the paint- 
ing in a printed state; and the engraving is that 
‘hich is froduced by an engraver: every engraving 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


isa print; but every print is not ar. exgraving ; for 
the picture may be printed off from some hing besides 
an engraving, as in the case of wood curs. The pre- 
ture is sometimes taken for any representation of a 
likeness without regard to the mode by wuich it is 
formed: in this case it is employed mostly for the re- 
presentations of the ccmmon kind that are found in 
books; but the print und engraving are said of the 
higher specimens of the art. On certain occasions taé 
word engraving is most appropriate, as to take an e - 
graving of a particular object; on other occasions tk 
word print, as a handsome print or a large print ; 


The pictures plac’d for ornament and use, 
The twelve good rules, the royal game of goose. 
GOLDSMITH 


Tim, with surprise and pleasure staring, 
Ran to the glass, and then comparing 

His own sweet figure with the print, 
Distinguish’d every feature in ’t.—Swirr- 


‘ Since the publick has of late begun to expreyss a relish 
for engravings, drawings, copyings, and for the origina 
paintings of the chief Italian school, I doubt not that 
in very few years we shall make an equal progress in 
this other science. —EarL or SHAFTESBURY. 


TO MARK, NOTE, NOTICE. 


Mark is here taken in the intellectual sense, fixing 
as it were a mark (v. Mark) upon a thing so as to 
keep it in mind, which is in fact to fix one’s attention 
upon it in such a manner as to be able to distinguish 
it by its characteristick qualities; to mark is therefore 
altogether an intellectual act: to note has the saine end 
as that of marking, namely, to aid the memory ; but 
one notes a thing by making a written note of it; this 
is therefore a mechanical act: to notice, on the other 
hand, is a sensible operation, from notitza knowledge 
signifying to bring to one’s knowledge, perception, or 
understanding by the use of our senses. We mark 
and note that which particularly interests us. Mark- 
ing serves a present purpose. Noting is applied to 
that which may be of use in future. The impatient 
lover marks the hours until the time arrives for meet- 
ing his mistress; ‘Many who mark with such accuracy 
the course of time appear to have little sensibility of 
the decline of life’—Jounson. Travellers note what- 
ever strikes them of importance to be remembered 
when they return home; 


O treach’rous conscience ! while she seems to sleep, 
Unnoted, notes each moment misapply’d.—Younc. 


To notice may serve either for the present or the future: 
we may notice things merely by way of amusement, 
as achild will notice the actions of animals; or we may 
notice a thing for the sake of bearing it in mind, asa 
person notices a particular road when he wishes to 
return; ‘An Englishman’s notice of the weather is the 
natural consequence of changeable skies and uncertain 
seasons.’—JOHNSON. 


oe 


TO NOTICE, REMARK, OBSERVE. 


To notice (v. To attend to) is either to take or to give 
notice ; to remark, compounded of re and mark (v 
Mark), signifies to reflect or bring back any mark to 
our own mind, or communicate the same to another: 
to mark is to mark a thing once, but to remark is to 
mark it again; observe (v. Looker-on) signifies either 
to keep a thing present before one’s own view, or to 
communicate our view to another. 

In the first sense of these words, as the action re- 
spects ourselves, to notice and remark require simple 
attention, to observe requires examination. To notice 
is a more cursory action than to remark: we may 
notice a thing by a single glance, or on merely turning 
one’s head ; but to remark supposes a reaction of the 
mind on an object: we notice that a person passes our 
door un a certain day and at a certain hour; but we 
remark to others that he goes past every day at the 
same hour: we notice that the sun sets this evening 
under a cloud, and we remark that it has done so for 
several evenings successively : we notice tke state of a 
person’s health or his manners in company , we remar 
his habits and peculiarities in domestick life. What 
is noticed and remarked strikes on the senses, and 
awakens the mind: what is observed is looked after 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


and sought for. Noticing and remarking are often 
involuntary acts; we see, hear, and think, because the 
objects obtrude themselves uncalled for: but observing 
is intentional as well as voluntary ; we see, hear, and 
think on that which we have watched. We remark 
things as matters of fact; we observe them in order 
to judge of, or draw conclusions from, them: we re- 
mark that the wind lies for a long time in a certain 
quarter; we observe that whenever it lies in a certain 
quarter it brings rain with it. A general notices any 
thing particular in the appearance of his army; he 
remarks that the men have not for a length of time 
worn contented faces; he consequently observes their 
actions, when they think they are not seen, In order to 
discover the cause of their dissatisfaction ; people who 
have no curiosity are sometimes attracted to notice the 
stars or planets, when they are particularly bright; 
those who look frequently will *emark that the same 
star does not rise exactly in the same place for two 
successive nights; but the astronomer goes farther, and 
vbserves all the motions of the heavenly bodies, in 
order to discuver the scheme of the universe; ‘'The 
dopravity of mankind is so easily discoverable, that 
nothing but the desert or cell can exclude it from no- 
tice. —JOHNSON. ‘ The glass that magnifies its objects 
contracts the sight to a point, and the mind must be 
fixed upon a single character, to remark its minute 
peculiarities..—Jounson. ‘'The course of time is so 
visibly marked, that it is observed even by the birds 
of passage.’ —JOHNSON. 

In the latter sense of these verbs, as respects the 
communications to others of what passes in our own 
minds, to notice is to make known our sentiments by 
various ways; to remark and observe are to make 
them known only by means of words: to notice is a 
personal act towards an individual, in which we direct 
our attention to him, as may happen either by a bow, 
a nod, a word, or even a look; ‘ As some do perceive, 
yea, and like it well, they should be so noticed.— 
Howarp. To remark and observe are said only of the 
thoughts which pass in our own minds, and are ex- 
pressed to others: friends notice each other when they 
meet; they remark to others the impression which 
passing objects make upon their minds; ‘ He cannot 
distinguish difficult and noble speculations from trifling 
and vulgar remarks.—Couiier. The observations 
which intelligent people make are always entitled to 
notice from young persons; ‘ Wherever I have found 
her notes to be wholly another s, which is the case in 
some hundreds, I have barely quoted the true proprie- 
tor, without observing upon it.’—Porps. 


CBSERVATION, OBSERVANCE. 


These terms derive their use from the different sig- 
nifications of the verb; observation is the act of ob- 
serving objects with the view to examine them (v. To 
notice) ; observance is the act of observing a thing in 
the sense of keeping or holding it sacred (v. To keep). 
From a minute observation of the human body, ana- 
tomists have discovered the circulation of the blood, 
and the source of all the humours; ‘The pride which, 
under the check of publick observation would have been 
only vented among domesticks, becomes, in a country 
baronet, the torment of a province.’—JouHnson. By a 
strict observance of truth and justice, a man acquires 
the title of an upright man; ‘ You must not fail to 
behave yourself towards my Lady Clare, your grand- 
mother, with all duty and observance.’—Earu Strar- 


. FORD. 


— 


EXTRAORDINARY, REMARKABLE, 


Are epithets both opposed to the ordinary; and in 
that sense the extraordinary is that which in its own 
nature is remarkable: but things, however, may be 
extraordinary which are not remarkable, and the con- 
trary. The extracrdinary is that which is out of the 
ordinary course ; but it does not always excite remark, 
and is not therefore remarkable; as when we speak of 
an extraordinary loan, an extraordinary measure of 
government: on the other hand, when extraordinary 
conveys the idea of what deserves notice, it expresses 
much more than remarkadle. There are but few ez- 
traordinary things; many things are remarkable: the 
~omarkable iseminent; the extraordinary is superemi- 
nent’ the extraordinary excites our on cur ig the 


451 


remarkable only awakens our interest and attention. 
The eatraordinary is unexpected ; tne remarkable is 
sometimes looked for: every instance of sagacity and 
fidelity in a dog is remarkable, and some extraordinary 
instances have been related, which would almost stag- 
ger our belief; ‘The love of praise is a passion deep 
in the mind of every extraordinary person.’.—HuGurs 
‘The heroes of literary history have been no less re- 
markable for what they have suffered than for what 
they have achieved.’—Jounson. 


REMARK, OBSERVATION, COMMENT, NOTH, 
ANNOTATION, COMMENTARY. 


Remark and observation, v. To notice; comment, 
in Latin commentum, from comminiscor to call to mind, 
are either spoken or written ; note, annotation, v. Note; 
and commentary, a variation of comment, are always 
written. Remark and observation, admitting of the 
same distinction in both cases, have been sufficiently 
explained in the article referred to; ‘Spence, in his 
remarks on Pope’s Odyssey, preduces what he thinks 
an unconquerable quotation from Dryden’s preface to 
the Aineid, in favour of translating an epick poem into 
blank verse..—Jounson. ‘If the critick has published 
nothing but rules and vbservations on criticism, I then 
consider whether there be a propriety and elegance in 
his thoughts and words.’—AppIson. Comment is a 
species of remark which often loses in good-nature 
what it gains in seriousness; it is mostly applied te 
particular persons or cases, and more commonly em- 
ployed as a vehicle of censure than of commendation ; 
publick speakers and publick performers are exposed tc 
all the comments which the vanity, the envy, and ill- 
nature of self-constituted critikes cansuggest ; but when 
not employed in personal cases, it serves for explana- 
tion; 

Sublime or low, unbended or intense, 

The sound is still a comment to the sense. 

RoscomMon 


The other terms are used in this sense only, but with 
certain modifications: the note is most general, and 
serves to call the attention to, as well as illustrate, par- 
ticular passages in the text; ‘ The history of the notes 
(to Pope’s Homer) has never been traced.’—Jounson. 
Annotations and commentaries are more minute; the 
former being that which is added by way of append- 
age, the latter being employed in a general form; as 
the annotations of the Greek scholiasts, and the com- 
mentaries on the sacred writings ; ‘I loveacritick who 
mixes the rules of life with annotations upon writers.’ 
—Strreve. ‘Memoirs or memorials are of two kinds 
whereof the one may be termed commentaries, the 
other registers.’-— Bacon. 


TO MENTION, NOTICE. 


These terms are synonymous only inasmuch as they 
imply the act of calling things to another person’s mind. 
Mention, from mens mind, signifies here to bring to 
mind. We mention.a thing indirectterms. To notice 
(v. To mark), signifies to take notice of a thing indi- 
rectly or in a casual manner: we mention that which 
may serve as information; we notice that which may 
be merely of a personal or incidental nature. One 
friend mentions to another what has passed at a par- 
ticular meeting: in the course of conversation he no- 
tices or calls to the notice of his companion the badness 
of the road, the wideness of the street, or the like; 
‘The great critick I have before mentioned, though a 
heathen, has taken notice of the sublime manner in 
which the lawgiver of the Jews has described the crea 
tion.’ —ADDISON. 


TO SHOW, POINT OUT, MARK, INDICATE 
Show, in German schauen, &c. Greek Oedouat, comes 


from the Hebrew Pw to look upon; to point out is 
to fix a point upon a thing. 

Show is here the general term, and the others spe- 
cifick : the common idea included in the signification 
of them allisthat of making a thing visible to another. 
To show is an indefinite term; one shows by simply 
setting a thing before the eyes of another: to povnt out 
is specifick; it isto show some particular point by a 
direct and immediate application to it: we show a 


452 


person a book, when we putit into his hands; but we 
point out the beauties of its contents by making a point 
upon them, or accompanying the action with some 
particular movement which shall direct the attention 
of the observer in a specifick manner. Many things, 
therefore, may be skown which cannot be pointed out : 
a person shows himself but he does not point himself 
out ; towns, houses, gardens, and the like, are shown ; 
but single things of any description are pointed out. 
To show and point out are personal acts, which are 
addressed from one individual to another; but to mark 
(v. Mark, impression) is an indirect means of making 
a thing visible or observable: a person may mark 
something in the absence of others, by which he in- 
tends to distinguish it from all others: thus atradesman 
marks the prices and names of the articles which he 
sets forth in his shop. We show by holding in one’s 
hand; we point out with the finger; we mark with a 
pen or pencil. To show and mark are the acts either 
of a conscious or an unconscious agent; to point out 
is the act of a conscious agent only, unless taken figu- 
ratively ; 


His faculties unfolded, pointed out 
Where lavish nature the directing hand 
Of art demanded.—THomson. 


To indicate (v. Mark, sign) that of an unconscious 
agent only: persons or things show, persons only point 
out, and things only indicate. ; 

As applied to things, show is a more positive term 
than mark or indicate; that which shows serves as 
a proof; 

The glow-worm shows the matin to be near, 

And ‘gins to pale his ineffectual fire.-—SHAKSPEARE. 


That which marks serves as a rule or guide for distin- 
guishing; ‘ For our quiet possession of things useful, 
they are naturally marked where there is need.’—Grew. 
Nothing shows us the fallacy of forming schemes for 
the future, more than the daily evidences which we 
have of the uncertainty of our existence; nothing 
marks the character of a man more strongly than the 
manner in which he bestows or receives favours. To 
mark is commonly applied to that which is habitual 
and permanent; to indicate to that which is temporary 
or partial. A single act or expression sometimes marks 
the ruling temper of the mind; a look may indicate 
what is passing in the mind at the time. A man’s ab- 
staining to give relief to great distress when it is in his 
power, marks an unfeeling character; when a person 
gives another a cold reception, it indicates at least that 
there is no cordiality between them; ‘Amid _ this 
wreck of human nature, traces still remain which zn- 
dicate its author.—BuaiR. 


‘ 


TO SHOW, EXHIBIT, DISPLAY. 


To show is here, as before, the generick term; to 
exhibit (v. To give), and display, in French deployer, 
in all probability changed from the Latin plice, sig- 
nifying to unfold or set forth to view, are specifick: 
they may all designate the acts of either persons or 
things: the first, however, does this either in the proper 
or the improper sense; the two latter rather in the im- 
proper sense. T'o show is an indefinite action applied 
to every object: we may show that which belongs to 
others, as well as ourselves; we commonly exhibit that 
which belongs to ourselves: we show corporeal. or 
mental objects; we exhibit that which is mental or the 
work of the mind: one shows what is worth seeing in 
a house or grounds; he exhibits his skill on a stage. 
To show is an indifferent action: we may show acci- 
dentally or designedly, to please others, o1 to please 
ourselves; 


If I do feign 

O let me in my present wildness die, 

And never live to show the incredulous world 

The noble change that I have purposed. 

SHAKSPEARE. 

We exhaiit and display with an express intention, and 
that m»stly to please ourselves; we may show in a 
private or a publick manner before one or many; we 
commonly exhibit and display in a publick manner, or 
at least in such a manner as will enable us best to be 
seen. Exhibit and display have this farther distine- 
tion, that the former is mostly taken in a good or an 
indifferent sense, the latter in a bad sense: we may 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


exhibit our powers from a laudable ambition to be es- 
teemed; but we seldom make a display of any quality 
that is in itself praiseworthy. or from any motive bul 
vanity; what we eahibit is, therefore, intrinsically 
good; what we display may often be only an imagi- 
nary or fictitious excellence. A musician exhibits his 
skill on any particular instrument; a fop displays his 
gold seals, or an ostentatious man displays his plate 
or his fine furniture; ‘The exhibitors of that show 
politickly had placed whifflers armed and linked 
through the hall..—Guyron. ‘ They are all couched 
in a pit, with obscured lights, which at the very instant 
of our meeting they will at once display to the night.’ 
—SHAKSPEARE. 

Exhibit, when taken as the involuntary act of per 
sons, may be applied to unfavourable objects in the 
sense of setting forth to the view of others; ‘ One of 
an unfortunate constitution is perpetually exhibiting a 
miserable example of the weaknessof mind and body.’ 
—Porr. Display, on the other hand, is applied in a 
favourable sense; but it expresses the setting forth to 
view more strikingly than the word exhibit; 


Thou heav’ns alternate beauty canst display 
The blush of morning and the milky way. 
DRYDEN. 

When said of things, they differ principally in the 
manner and degree of clearness with which the thing 
appears to present itself to view: to show is, as before, 
altogether indefinite, and implies simply to bring to 
view ; exhibit implies to. bring inherent properties to 
light, that is, apparently by a process; to display is to 
set forth so as to strike the eye: the windows ona 
frosty morning will show the state of the weather; 


Then let us fall, but fall amid our foes ; — 
Despair of life the means of living shows. 
DRYDEN. 


Experiments with the air-pump exhibit the many won- 
derful and interesting properties of air; ‘The world 
has ever been a great theatre, exhibiting the same re- 
peated scene of the follies of men.’—Buiarr. The 
beauties of the creation are peculiarly displayed in the 
spring season ; 

Which interwoven Britons seem to raise, 

And show the triumph that their shame displays. 

DRYDEN. 


SHOW, EXHIBITION, REPRESENTATION, 
SIGHT, SPECTACLE. 


Show signifies the thing shown (v. To show) : exhibe 
tion signifies the thing exhibited (v. Toshow) ; repre 
sentation, the thing represented: sight, the thing to be 
seen; and spectacle, from the Latin specto, stands for 
the thing to be beheld. 

Show is here, as in the former article, the most 
general term. Every thing set forth to view is shown ; 
and if set forth for the amusement of others, it is a show. 
This isthe common idea included in the terms exhibi- 
tion and representation: but show is aterm of vulgar 
meaning and application; the others have a higher use 
and signification. The show consists of that which 
merely pleases the eye; it is not a matter either of taste 
or action, but merely of curiosity ; 


Charm’d with the wonders of the show, 

On ev’ry side, above, below, 

She now of this or that inquires, 

What least was understood admires.—Gay. 


Exhibition, on the contrary, presents some effort of 
talent or some work of genius; ‘Copley’s picture of 
Lord Chatham’s death is an exhibition of itself’— 
Beattie. Representation sets forth the image or imi- 
tation of some thing by the power of art; ‘ There are 
many virtues which in their own nature are incapable 
of any outward representation.’—AppDison. Hence 
we speak of a show of wild beasts; an exhibition of 
paintings; and a theatrical representation. ‘The con- 
jurer makes a show of his tricks at a fair to the won- 
der of the gazing multitude; the artist makes an exh2- 
bition of his works; representations of men and man- 
ners are given on the stage: shows are necessary te 
keep the populace in good humour; exribétions are ne 
cessary for the encouragement of genius; representa 
tions are proper for the amusement of the cultivated, 
and the refinement of society. The show, exhibition 
and representation are presented by some one to the 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES,. 


view of others; the sight and spectacle present them- 
selves toview. Sight, like show, isa vulgar term; and 
spectacle the nobler term. Whatever is to be seen to 
excite notice is a sight, in which general sense it would 
comprehend every show, but in its particular sense it 
includes only that which casually offers itself to view : 
a spectacle, on the contrary, is that species of s¢ght 
which has something init to interest either the heart or 
the head of the observer: processions, reviews, sports, 
and the like, are sights ; but batiles, bull-fights, or pub- 
lick games of any description are spectacles, which in- 
ferest but shock the feelings ; 


Their various arms afford a pleasing sight. 
DRYDEN. 


The weary Britons, whose warrable youth 
Was by Maximilian lately ledd away, 

Were to those pagans made an open prey, 
And daily spectacle of sad decay.—SrensER. 


SHOW, OUTSIDE, APPEARANCE, 
SEMBLANCE. 


Where there.is show (vy. To show) there must be out- 
side and appearance ; but there may be the last with- 
out the former. The term show aiways denotes an ac- 
tion, and refers to some person as agent; but the owt- 
side may be merely the passive quality of something. 
We speak, therefore, of a thing as mere show, to sig- 
nify that what is shown is all that exists; and in this 
sense it may be termed mere outside, as consisting only 
of what is on the outside ; 


You’ill find the friendship of the world is show, 
Mere outward show.—SavaGe. 


The greater part of men behold nothing more than 
the rotation of human affairs. This is only the outside 
of things.’—Buair. In describing a house, however, 
we speak of its outside, and not of its show ; as also of 
the outside of abook,and notof the show. Appearance 
denotes an action as well as show; but the former is 
the act of an unconscious agent, the latter of one that 
is conscious and voluntary: the appearance presents it- 
self to the view; the show is purposely presented to 
view. A person makes a show so as to be seen by 
others; his appearance is that which shows itself in 
him. ‘To look only to show, or be concerned for show 
only, signifies to be concerned for that only which will 
attract notice; to look only to the outszde signifies to be 
concerned only for that which may be seen in a thing, 
to the disregard of that which is not seen: to look only 
to appearances signifies the same as the former, except 
that outside is said in the proper sense of that which 
litera}ly strikes the eye; but appearances extend to the 
conduct, and whatever may affect the reputation; 
‘ Every accusation against persons of rank was heard 
with pleasure (by James I. of Scotland). Every ap- 
pearance of guilt was examined with rigour.’--Ro- 
BERTSON. 

Semblance or seeming (v. To seem) always conveys 
the idea of an unreal appearance, or at least is con- 
trasted with that which is real; he who only wears the 
semblance of friendship would be ill deserving the con- 
fidence of a friend; 


But man, the wildest beast of prey, 
Wears friendship’s semblance to betray.— Moor. 


SHOW, PARADE, OSTENTATION. 


These terms are synonymous when they imply ab- 
stract actions: show is here, as in the preceding article, 
taken in the vulgar sense; ostentation and parade in- 
clude the idea of something particular: a man makes a 
show of his equipage, furniture, and the like, by which 
he strikes the eye of the vulgar, and seeks to impress 
them with an idea of his wealth and superiour rank ; 
this is often the paltry refuge of weak minds to conceal 
their nothingness: a man makes a.parade with his 
wealth, his knowledge, his charities, and the like, by 
which he endeavours to give weight and dignity to 
himself, proportioned to the solemnity of his proceed- 
ings: the show is, therefore, but a simple setting forth 
to view ; 

Great in themselves 
‘hey smile superiour of external show. 
SOMERVILLE. 


The varade requires art, it is a forced effort to attract 


| 


453 


notice by the number and extent of the ceremonies : 
‘It was not in the mere parade of royalty that the Mex- 
ican potentates exhibited their power.’—RoBreRtTson. 


‘The show and parade are confined to the act of show- 


ing, or the means which are employed-to show; but 
the ostentation necessarily includes the purpose for 
which the display is made; he who does a thing so as 
to be seen and applauded by others, does it from osten 
tation, particularly in application to acts of charity, or 
of publick subscription, in which a man strives to im- 
press others with the extent of his wealth by the libe- 
rality of his gift; ‘We are dazzled with the splendour 
of titles, the ostentation of learning, and the noise of 
victories.’—SprcTaTor. 


SHOWY, GAUDY, GAY 


Showy, having or being full of show (v. Show, out- 
side), is mostly an epithet of dispraise; that which is 
showy has seldom any thing to deserve notice beyond 
that which catches the eye; gaudy, from the Latin 
gaudeo to rejoice, signifies literally full of joy: and is 
applied figuratively to the exteriour of objects, but with 
the annexed bad idea of being striking to an excess: 
gay, on the contrary, which is only a contraction of 
gaudy, is used in the same sense as an epithet of praise. 
Some things may be showy, and in their nature proper- 
ly so; thus the tail of a peacock is showy: artificia: 
objects may likewise be showy, but they will not be 
preferred by persons of taste; ‘Men of warm imagina 
tions neglect solid and substantial happiness for what 
is showy and superficial.—Appison. That which is 
gaudy is always artificial, and is always chosen by the 
vain, the vulgar, and the ignorant ; a maid servant wil 
bedizen herself with gaudy coloured ribbons; 


The gaudy, babbling, and remorseful day 
Is Grept into the bosom of the sea.—SHAKSPERARE. 


That which is gay is either nature iself, or nature imi- 
tated in the best manner: spring is a gay season, and 
flowers are its gayest accompaniments ; 
Jocund day 
Upon the mountain tops sits gayly dress’d. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


MAGNIFICENCE, SPLENDOUR, POMP. 


Magnificence, from magnus and facio, signifies doing 
largely, or on a large scale ; splendour, in Latin splen- 
dor, from splendeo to shine, signifies brightness in the 
external ; pomp, in Latin pompa, in Greek rorya pro- 
cession, from réunw to send, signifies in general forma: 
lity and ceremony. 

Mag nificence lies not only in the number and extent 
of the objects presented, but in their degree of rich- 
ness as to their colouring and quality; splendour is but 
a characteristick of magnificence, attached to such ob- 
jects as dazzle the eye by the quantity of light, or the 
beauty and strength of colouring: the entertainments 
of the eastern monarchs and princes are remarkable 
for their magnificence, from the immense number of 
their attendants, the crowd of equipages, the size of 
their palaces, the multitude of costly utensils, and the 
profusion of viands which constitute the arrangements 
for the banquet ; 


Not Babylon, 
Nor great Aleairo, such magnificence 
Equall’d in all their glories—Mi.LTon. 


The entertainments of Europeans present much splen 


| dour, from the richness, the variety, and the brilliancy 


of dress, of furniture, and all the apparatus of a feast, 
which the refinements of art have brought to per- 
fection; 


Vain transitory splendours could not all 
Reprieve the tottering mansion from its fall. 
GoLpSsMITH. 


Magnificence is seldomef unaccompanied with splen- 
dour than splendour with magnificence; since quan 
tity, as well as quality, is essential to the one; but qua 
lity, more than quantity, is an essential to the other: a 
large army drawn up in battle array is a magnificent 
spectacle, from the immensity of their numbers, and 
the order of their disposition; it will in all probability 
be a splendid scene if there be much richness in the 
dresses ; the pomp will here consist in such large bodies 
of men acting by one impulse, and directed by one 


454 


will. hence military pomp; it is the appendage of 
power, when displayed to publick view: on particular 
occasions, a monarch seated on his throne, surrounded 
by his courtiers, and attended by his guards, is said to 
appear with pomp ; 

Was all that pomp of wo for this prepar’d? 

These fires, this fun’ral pile, these altars rear’d ? 

DRYDEN. 


MAGISTERIAL, MAJESTICK, STATELY, 
POMPOUS, AUGUST, DIGNIFIED. 


Magisterial, from magister a master, and majestick, 
from majestas, are both derived from magis more or 
major greater, that is, more or greater than others: 
but they differ in this respect, that the magisterial is 
something assumed, and is therefore often false; the 
majestick is natural, and consequently always real: an 
upstart, or an intruder into any high station or office, 
may put ona magisterial air, in order to impose on the 
multitude; but it will not be in his power to be majes- 
tick, which never shows itself in a borrowed shape; 
none but those who have a Superiority of character, of 
birth, or outward station, can be majestick: a petty 
magistrate in the county may be magisterial ; ‘ Govern- 
ment being the noblest and most mysterious of all arts, 
is very unfit for those to talk magisterially of who 
never bore any share in it.—Sourn. A king or queen 
cannot uphold their station without a majestick de- 
portment ; 

Then Aristides lifts his honest front, 
In pure majestick poverty rever’d.—T HOMSON. 


The stately and pompous are most nearly allied to 
the magisterial; the august and dignified to the ma- 
jestick.. the former being merely extrinsick and as- 
snmed ; the latter intrinsick and inherent. Magisterial 
respects the authority which is assumed; stately re- 
gards the splendour and rank; ‘There is for the most 
part as much real enjoyment under the meanest cot- 
tage, as within the walls of the stateliest palace.’— 
Soutn. Pompous regards the personal importance, 
with all the appendages of greatness and power ; 


Such seems thy gentle height, made only proud 
To be the basis of that pompous load.—DENHAM. 


A person is magisterial in the exercise of his office, 
and the distribution of his commands; he is stately in 
bis ordinary intercourse with his inferiours and equals; 
he is pompous on particular occasions of appearing in 
publick: a person demands silence in a magisterial 
tone; he marches forward with a stately air; he comes 
forward ina pompous manner, so as to strike others 
with a sense of his importance. 

Majestick is an epithet that characterizes the exte- 
riour of an object; 


A royal robe he wore with graceful pride, 

Embroider’d sandals glitter’d as he trod, 

And forth he mov’d, majestick as a god. 
Pope. 


August is that which marks an essential characteris- 
tick in the object; 


How poor, how rich, how abject, how august, 
How complicate, how wonderful, is man! 


Youna. 


Dignified serves to characterize the action, or the 
station ; 


Nor can I think that God, Creator wise, 

Though threat’ning, will in earnest so destroy 

Us, his prime creatures, dignified so high. 

MILTon. 

The form cf a female is termed majestick which has 
something imposing in it, suited to the condition of 
majesty, or the most elevated station in society; a mo- 
narch is entitled august in order to describe the extent 
of his empire; an assembly is denominated august to 
hespeak its high character, and its weighty influence in 
the scale of society; a reply is termed dignified when 
it upholds the individual and personal character of a 
man, as well as his relative character in the community 
to which he belongs: the two former of these terms are 
associated only with grandeur of outward circum- 
stances; the last is applicable to men of all stations, 
who have each in his sphere a dignity to maintain 
which belongs to a man as an independent moral agent. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


GRANDEUR, MAGNIFICENCE. 


Grandeur, from grand, in French grande, Lattx 
grandis, probably from yepatds ancient, because tne 
term in Latin is applied mostly to great age, and after- 
ward extended in its application to greatness in gene- 
ral, but particularly that greatness which is taken in 
the good sense; magnificence, in Latin magnificentia, 
from magnus and facio, signifies made on a large 
scale. 

An extensive assemblage of striking qualities In the 
exteriour constitutes the common signification of these 
terms, of which grandeur is the genus, and magnifi- 
cence the species. Magnificence cannot exist without 
grandeur, but grandeur exists without magnificence ; 
the former is distinguished from the latter both in de- 
gree and in application. When applied to the samé 
objects they differ in degree; magnificence being the 
highest degree of grandeur. As it respects the style of 
living, grandeur is within the reach of subjects; mag- 
nificence is mostly confined to princes. A person is 
said to live in astyle of grandeur, who rises above the 
common level, as to the number of his servants, the 
quality of his equipage, and the size of his establish- 
ment. No one is said to live ina style of magnificence 
who does noi surpass the grandeur of his contempora- 
ries. Wealth, such as falls to the lot of many, may 
enable them to display grandeur; but nothing short of 
a princely fortune gives either a title or a capacity to 
aim at magnificence. Grandeur admits of degrees and 
modifications; it may display itself.in various ways, 
according to the taste of the individual; but magnifi- 
cence is that which has already reached the highest 
degree of superiority in every Wake ey 

Those who are ambitious for earthly grandeur are 
rarely in a temper of mind to take a just view of them- 
selves and of all things that surround them; they forget 
that there is any thing above this, in comparison with 
which it sinks into insignificance and meanness; 
‘There isa kind of grandeur and respect, which the 
meanest and most insignificant part of mankind en- 
deavour to. procure in the little circle of their friends 
and acquaintance.’—Appison. The grandeur of Eu- 
ropean courts is lost in a comparison with the magnifi- 
cence of eastern princes; ‘The wall of China is one 
of those eastern pieces of magnificence which makes a 
figure even in the map of the world, although an ac- 
count of it would have been thought fabulous, were not 
the wall itself extant..—Anppison. 

Grandeur is applicable to the works of nature as wel. 
as art, of mind’as well as matter; magnificence is alto- 
gether the creature of art. A structure, a spectacle, an 
entertainment, and the like, may be grand or magnifi- 
cent; but a scene, a prospect, a conception, and the 
like, are grand, but not magnificent. 


NOBLE, GRAND. 


Noble, in Latin nobilis, from nosco to know, signifies 
knowable, or worth knowing; grand, v. Grandeur. 
Noble is a term of general import; it simply implies 
the quality by which a thing 1s distinguished for excel 
lence above other things: the grand is, properly speak 
ing, one of those qualities by which an object acquires 
the name of noble; but there are many noble objects 
which are not denominated grand. <A building may 
be denominated nodle for its beauty as well as its size; 
but a grand building is rather so called for the expense 
which is displayed upon it: nobleness of acting or 
thinking comprehends all moral excellence that rises te 
a high pitch; but grandeur of mind is peculiarly ap- 
plicable to such actions or traits as denote an elevation 
of character, rising above all that is common. A 
family may be either noble or grand ; but it is noble by 
birth; it is grand by wealth, and an expensive style of 
living; ; 
What then worlds 
In a far thinner element sustain’d, 
And acting the same part with greater skill, 
More rapid movement, and for noblest ends ! 
Youne. 
More obvious ends to pass, are not these stars, 
The seats majestick, proud imperial thrones, 
On which angelick delegates of heav’n 
Discharge high trusts of vengeance or of love, 
To clothe in outward grandeur grand designs ? 
Yours 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


GREAT GRAND, SUBLIME. 


hese terms are synonymous only in the moral ap- 
plication. Great simply designates extent; grand in- 
cludes likewise the idea of excellence and superiority. 
A great undertaking characterizes only the extent of 
the undertaking; a grand undertaking bespeaks its 
superiour excellence: great ohjects are seen with faci- 
lity; grand objects are viewed with admiration. It is 
a great point to make a person sensible of his faults ; 
it should be the grand aim of all to aspire after moral 
and religious improvement; ‘There is nothing in this 
whole art of architecture which pleases the imagina- 
tion, but as it is great, uncommon, or beautiful.’-—-Ap- 
bison. ‘There is generally in nature something more 
grand and august than what we meet with in the 
curiosities of art..—ApDDISON. 

Grand and sublime are both superiour to great; but 
the former marks the dimension of greatness ; the latter, 
from the Latin swdlimzs, designates that of height. A 
scene may be either grand or sublime; it is grand as 
it fills the imagination with its immensity; it is sublime 
as it elevates the imagination beyond the surrounding 
and less important objects. There is something grand 
in the sight of a vast army moving forward, as it were, 
by one impulse; there is something peculiarly sublime 
in the sight of huge mountains and craggy cliffs of ice, 
shaped into various fantastick forms. Grand may be 
said either of the works of art or nature: swblime is 
applicable only to the worksof nature. The Egyptian 
pyramids, or the ocean, are both grand objects; a tem- 
pestuous ocean is a sublime object. Grand is some- 
times applied to the mind; sublime is applied both to 
the thoughts and the expressions; ‘Homer fills his 
readers with sublime ideas..—Appison. There is a 
grandeur of conception in the writings of Milton; 
there is a swblimity in the inspired writings, which far 
surpasses all human productions 


TO EXPRESS, DECLARE, SIGNIFY, TESTIFY, 
UTTER. 


To express, from the Latin exprimo to press out, is 
said of whatever passes in the mind; to declare (v. To 
declare) is said only of sentiments and opinions. A 
man expresses anger, joy, sorrow, and all the affections 
in their turn; he declares his opinion for or against any 
particular measure. 

To express is the simple act of communication, re- 
sulting from our circumstances as social agents; to de- 
elare is a specifick and positive act that is called for by 
the occasion: the former may he done in private, the 
latter is always more or less publick. An expression 
of one’s feelings and sentiments to those whom we 
esteem is the supreme delight of social beings; the de- 
claration of our opinions may be prudent or imprudent, 
according to circumstances. Words, looks, gestures, 
or movements, serve to express ; 


Thus Roman youth, deriv’d from ruin’d Troy, 
In rude Saturnian rhymes ezpress their joy. 
DRYDEN. 


Actions, as well as words, may sometimes declare ; 


Th’ unerring sun by certain signs declares, 
What the late ev’n or early morn prepares. 
DRYDEN. 


Sometimes we cannot express our contempt in so strong 
a manner as by preserving a perfect silence when we 
are required to speak; an act of hostility, on the part 
of a nation, is as much a declaration of war as if it 
were expressed in positive terms; ‘As the Supreme 
Being has expressed, and as it were printed his ideas 
in the creation, men express ther ideas in books.’— 
ADDISON. 


On him confer the Poet’s sacred name, 
Whose lofty voice declares the heavenly flame. 
ADDISON. 


To express and stynify are both said of words; but 
express has always regard to the agent, and the use 
which he makes of the words. Signify, from signum 
a sign, and faczo to make, has respect to the things of 
which the words are made the usual signs: hence it is 
that a word may be made to express one thing while it 
signifies another; and hence it is that many words, 
according to their ordinary s¢gnification, will not ex- 
press what the speaker has in his mind, and wishes to 


455 


communicate: the monosyilable no signifies simple 
negation; but according to the temper of the speaker 
and the circumstances under which it is spoken, it may 
express ill-nature, anger, or any other bad _ passion; 
‘If there be no cause expressed, the jailer is not 
bound to detain the prisoner. For the law judges in 
this respect, saith sir Edward Coke, like Festus the 
Roman governour, that it is unreasonable to senda 
prisoner, and not to signify withal the crimes alleged 
against him.’—BLACKSTONE. 

To signify and testify, like the word ezpress, are 
employed in general for any act of communication 
otherwise than by words; but express is used in a 
stronger sense than either of the former. ‘The passions 
and strongest movements of the soul are expressed ; 
the simple intentions or transitory feelings of the mind 
are signified or testified. A person expresses his joy 
by the sparkling of his eye, and the vivacity of his 
countenance; he signifies his wishes by a nod; he 
testifies his approbation by a smile. People of vivid 
sensibility must take care not to express all their feel- 
ings; those who expect a ready obedience from their 
inferiours must not adopt a haughty mode of signify- 
ing their will; nothing is more gratifying to an ingenu- 
ous mind than to testzfy its regard for merit wherever 
it may discover itself. 

Express may be said of all sentient beings, and, by 
a figure of speech, even of those which have no sense; 
signify is said of rational agents only. The dog has 
the most expressive mode of showing his attachment 
and fidelity to his master; 


And four fair queens, whose hands sustain a flow’r, 
Th’ expressive emblem of their softer pow’r.—Porg. 


A significant look or smile may sometimes give rise to 
suspicion, and lead to the detection of guilt; ‘Com- 
mon life is full of this kind of significant expressions, 
by knocking, beckoning, frowning, and pouting; and 
dumb persons are sagacious 1n the use of them.’— 
Houper. To signify and testify, though closely allied 
in sense and application, have this difference, that to 
signify is simply to give a sign of what passes in- 
wardly, to testify is to give that sign in the presence 
of others, A person signifies by letter his intention 
of being ata certain place at a given time; he testi- 
fies his sense of favours conferred by every mark of 
gratitude and respect: ‘ What consolation can be had, 
Dryden has afforded, by living to repent, and to testify 
his repentance (for his immoral writings).’—JoHNnson. 

Utter, from the preposition out, signifying to bring 
out, differs from express in this, that the latter respects 
the thing which is communicated, and the former the 
means of communication. Weezpress from the heart; 
we utter with the lips: to express an uncharitable sen- 
timent is a violation of Christian duty; to utter an 
unseemly word is a violation of good manners: those 
who say what they do not mean, utter, but not ex 
press ; those who show by their looks what is passing 
in their hearts, express but do not utter ; 


The multitude of angels, with a shout 


Loud as from numbers without number, sweet 
As from blessed voices, uttering joy —MILToN 


SIGN, SIGNAL. 


Sign and signal are both derived from the same 
source (v. Mark, sign), and the latter is but a species 
of the former ;* the sgn enables us to recognise an ob- 
ject; itis therefore sometimes natural: signal serves 
to give warning; itis always arbitrary. ! 

The movements which are-visible in the counte- 
nee are commonly the signs of what passes in the 
Neart ; 


The nod that ratifies the Will Divine, 
The faithful, fix’d, irrevocable s¢gn, 
This seals thy suit.—Porr. 


The beat of the drum is the signal for soldiers to repair 
to their post; 

Then first the trembling earth the s¢gnal gave, 

And flashing fires enlighten all the cave-—DrypDEn. 


We converse with those who are present by signs; 
we make ourselves understood by those who are at a 
distance by means of signals. 


* Vide Girard: ‘Signe, signal ” 


456 


SIGNIFICANT EXPRESSIVE. 


The significant is that which serves as a sign; the 
expressive is that which speaks out or declares: the 
latter is therefore a stronger term than the former: a 
look is significant when it is made to express an idea 
that passes in the mind; butit is expressive when it is 
made to express a feeling of the heart: looks are but 
accasionally significant, but the countenance may be 
habitually expressive. Significant is applied in an 
‘ndifferent sense, according to the nature of the thing 
signified; but expressive is always applied to that 
which is good: a significant look may convey a very 
bad idea; ‘I could not help giving my friend the mer- 
chant a significant look upon this occasion.’—CumBER- 
LAND. An expressive countenance always expresses 
good feeling; ‘ The English, Madam, particularly what 
we call the plain English, is a very copious and ez- 
pressive language.’—RICHARDSON. 

The distinction between these words is the same 
when applied to things as to persons: a word is signi- 
ficant of whatever it is made to signify ; but a word is 
expressive according to the force with which it conveys 
an idea. The term significant, in this case, simply ex- 
plains the nature; but the epithet expressive charac- 
terizes it as something good: technical terms are sig- 
nificant only of the precise ideas which belong to the 
art; most languages have some terms which are pecu- 
liarly expressive, and consequently adapted for poetry. 


SIGNIFICA TION, MEANING, IMPORT, SENSE. 


The signification (v. To express) is that of which 
the word is made the sign; the meaning is that which 
the person attaches to it; the ¢mport is that which is 
imported or carried into the understanding ; the sense 
is that which is comprehended by the sense or the un- 
derstanding. 

The signification of a word includes either the whole 
or the part of what is understood by it; ‘ A lie consists 
in this, that itis a false signification knowingly and 
voluntarily used.’—Sourn. The meaning is that which 
the person wishes to convey w10 makes use of a word. 
This may be correct or incorrect according to the in- 
formation of the person explaining himself; ‘ When 
beyond her expectation I hit upon her meaning, I can 
perceive a sudden cloud of disappointment spread over 
her face.—Jounson. The import of a word includes 
its whole force and value; ‘To draw near to God is 
an expression of awful and mysterious import.’—- 
Buair. The sense of a word is applicable mostly to 
a part of its signification ; ‘There are two senses in 
which we may be said to draw near, in such a degree 
as mortality admits, to God—Brair. The significa- 
tion of a word is fixed by the standard of custom; 
it is not therefore to he changed by any individual: the 
import of a term is estimated by the various accepta- 
tions in which it is employed: a sense is sometimes 
arbitrarily attached to a word which is widely different 
from that in which it is commonly acknowledged. 

It is necessary to get the true signification of every 
word, or the particular meaning attached to it, to weigh 
the import of every term, and to comprehend the exact 
sense in which it is taken. Every word expressing 
either a simple or a complex idea, is said to have a sig- 
nification, though not animport. Technical and moral 
terms have an import and different senses. A child 
learns the significations of simple terms as he hears 
them used; a writer must be acquainted with the full 
import of every term which he has occasion to make 
use of. The different senses which words admit of 
is agreat source of ambiguity and confusion with illi- 
terate people. 

Signification and import are said mostly of single 
words only; sense is said of words either in connexion 
with each other, or as belonging to some class: thus 
we speak of the signification of the word house, of the 
tmport of the term love; but the sense of ‘the sen- 
tence, the sense of the author, the employment of 
words in a technical, moral, or physical sense. 


TO DENOTE, SIGNIFY, IMPLY. 


Denote, in Latin denoto or noto, from notwm, par- 
ticiple of nosco, signifies to cause to know ; signify, 
from the Latin signum a sign and fio to become, is to 
become or be made a sign, or guide for the understand- 


a 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


ing ; imply, from the Latin implico to fold in, signifies 
to fold or involve an idea in an object. 

Denote is employed with regard to things and their 
characters; signify with regard to the thoughts or 
movements. A letter or character may be made to 
denote any number, as words are made to signify the 
intentions and wishes of the person. Among the an- 
cient Egyptians hieroglyphicks were very much em- 
ployed to denote certain moral qualities; in many cases 
looks or actions will signify more than words. Devices 
and emblems of different descriptions drawn either 
from fabulous history or the natural world are likewise 
now employed to denote particular circumstances or 
qualities: the cornucopia denotes plenty; the beehive 
denotes industry ; the dove denotes meekness; and the 
lamb gentleness: he who will not take the trouble to 
signify his wishes otherwise than by nods or signs 
must expect to be frequently misunderstood; ‘ Another 
may do the same thing, and yet the action want that 
air and beauty which distinguish it from others, like 
that inimitable sunshine Titian is said to have diffused 
over his landscapes, which denotes them his.’--Sprc- 
TaToR. ‘Simple abstract words are used to signify 
some one simple idea, without much adverting to 
others which may chance to attend it.’— Burke. 

To signify and imply may be employed either as 
respects actions or words. In the first case signify is 
the act of the person making known by means of a 
Sign, aS We signify our approbation by a look: impiy 
marks the value or force of the action; our assent is 
implied in our silence. When applied to words or 
marks, signify denotes the positive and established 
act of the thing; imply is its relative act: a word sig- 
nifies whatever it is made literally to stand for; it 
implies that which it stands for figuratively or morally. 
The term house signifies that which is construeted for 
a dwelling ; the term residence implies something su- 
periourto a house. A cross, thus, + signifies addition 
in arithmetick or algebra; a long stroke, thus, : 
with a break in the text of a work, implies that the 
whole sentence is not completed. It frequently hap- 
pens that words which signify nothing particular in 
themselves, may be made to zmply a great deal by the 
tone, the manner, and the connexion; ‘ Words signify 
not immediately and primarily things themselves, but 
the conceptions of the mind concerning things.’— 
Souru. ‘Pleasure zmplies a proportion and agree- 
ment to the respective states and conditions of men.’— 
SourTu. 


s 
—— 


SIGNIFICATION, AVAIL, IMPORTANCE, 
CONSEQUENCE, WEIGHT, MOMENT. 


Signify (v. To signify) is here employed with regard 
to events of life, and their relative importance; avail 
(v. To avail) is never used otherwise. That which a 
thing signifies is what it contains; if it signétfies no- 
thing, it contains nothing, and is worth nothing ; if it 
signifies much, it contains much, or is worth much. 
That which avails produces: if it avails nothing it 
produces nothing, is of no use; if it avails much, it 
produces or is worth much. 

We consider the end as to its signification, and the 
means as to their avail. Although it is of little or no 
signification to aman what becomes of his remains, 
yet no one can be reconciled to the idea of leaving 
them to be exposed to contempt; words are but too 
often of little avazl to curb the unruly wills of children, 
‘ As for wonders, what signifieth telling us of them ? 
—CUMBERLAND. ‘ What avail a parcel of statutes 
against gaming, when they who make them conspire 
together for the infraction of them.’—CumBeER.Lanp. 

Importance, from porto to carry, signifies the carry 
ing or bearing with, or in itself; consequence, from 
consequor to follow, or result, signifies the following on 
resulting from a thing. 

Weight signifies the quantum that the thing weighs, 
moment, from momentum, signifies the force that puts 
in motion. 

Importance is what things have in themselves ; they 
may be of more or less importance, according to the 
value which is set upon them: this may be real or 
unreal ; it may be estimated by the experience of their 
past utility, or from the presumption of their utility 
for the future: the idea of importance, therefore, eniers 
into the meaning of the other terms more or less: He¢ 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


thet considers how soon he must close his life, will 
find nothing of so much importance as to close it well.’ 
—Jounson. Consequence is the importance of a thing 
from its consequence. This term therefore is pecu- 
liarly applicable to such things, the consequences of 
which may be more immediately discerned either from 
the neglect or the attention: it is of consequence for a 
letter to vo off on a certain day, for the affairs of an in- 
dividual may be more or less affected by it; an hour’s 
delay sometimes in the departure of a military expedi- 
tion may be of such consequence as to determine the 
fate of a battle ; ‘ The corruption of our taste is not of 
equal consequence with the depravation of our virtue.’ 
—Warton. The term weight implies a positively 
great degree of importance: it is that importance which 
a thing has intrinsically in itself, and which makes it 
weigh in the mind: it is applied therefore to such 
things as offer themselves to deliberation ; hence the 
counsels of a nation are always weighty, because they 
involve the interests of so many; ‘ The finest works 
of invention are of very little weight, when put in the 
balance with what refines and exalts the rational mind.’ 
—SrectTaTor. Moment is that importance which a 
thing has from the power in itself to produce effects, 
or to determine interests: it is applicable, therefore, 
only to such things as are connected with our pros- 
perity or happiness: when used without any adjunct, 
it implies a great degree of importance, but may be 
modified in various ways; as a thing of no moment, 
or small moment, or great moment ; but we cannot say 
with the same propriety, a thing of small weight, and 
still less a thing of great weight: it is a matter of no 
small moment for every one to choose that course of 
conduct which will stand the test of a death-bed 
reflection; ‘ Whoever shall review his life, will find 
that the whole tenour of his conduct has been. deter- 
mined by some accident of no apparent moment.’— 
JOHNSON. 


UNIMPORTANT, INSIGNIFICANT, IMMATE- 
RIAL, INCONSIDERABLE. 


The want of importance, of consideration, of signi- 
fication, and of matter or substance, is expressed by 
these terms. They differ therefore principally accord- 
ing to the meaning of the primitives; but they are so 
closely allied that they may be employed sometimes 
indifferently. Unimportant regards the consequences 
of our actions: it is unimportant whether we use this 
or that word in certain cases; ‘Nigno and Guerra 
made no discoveries of any 7mportance..—ROBERTSON. 
Inconsiderable and insignificant respect those things 
which may attract notice: the former is more adapted 
to the grave style, to designate the comparative low 
value of things; the latter is a familiar term which 
seems to convey a contemptuous meaning: in a de- 
scription we may say that the number, the size, the 
quantity, &c. is inconsiderable; in speaking of per- 
sons we nay say they are inszgnificant in stature, look, 
talent, station, and the like ; or speaking of things, an 
insignificant production, or an insignificant word ; 
‘ That the soul cannot be proved mortal by any prin- 
ciple of natural reason is, I think, no inconsiderable 
point gained.’.—Sourn. ‘As I am insignificant to the 
company in publick places, I gratify the vanity of all 
who pretend to make an appearance.’—Appison. Jm- 
material is a species of the unimportant, which is ap- 
plied only to familiar subjects ; it is ¢mmaterzal whether 
we go to-day or to-morrow ; it is immaterial whether 
we have a few or many; ‘If in the judgement of im- 
partial persons the arguments be strong enough to con- 
vince an unbiassed. mind, it is not material whether 
every wrangling atheist will sit down contented with 
chem.’—STILLINGFLEET. 


TRIFLING, TRIVIAL, PETTY, FRIVOLOUS, 
FUTILE. 


Trifling, trivial, both come from trivium, a common 
place of resort where three roads meet, and signify 
common ; petty is in French petit little, in Latin putus 


a boy or minion, and the Hebrew *f\ foolish; frivo- 
lous, in Latin friwolus, comes in all probability from 
fro to crumble into dust, signifying reduced to nothing; 
futile, in Latin futilis, from futzo to pour out, signifies 
cast away as worthless. 


457 


All these epithets characterize an object as of little 
or no value: trifling and trivial differ only in degree; 
the latter denoting a still lower degree of value than 
the former. What is trifling or trivial is that which 
does not require any consideration, and may be easily 
passed over as foiystten: trifling objections can never 
weigh against solic -zason; trivial remarks only ex- 
pose the shallowness of the remarker; ‘We exceed 
the ancients in doggerel humour, burlesque, and all 
the trivial arts of ridicule. —Appison. What is petty’ 
is beneath our consideration, it ought to be disregarded 
and held cheap; it would be a petty consideration for 
aminister of state to {ook to the small savings of a 
private family; ‘ There is scarcely any man without 
some favourite trifle which he values above greater 
attainments; some desire of petty praise which he 
cannot patiently suffes to be frustrated..—JoHNson. 
What is frivolous end futile is disgraceful for any 
one to consider ; the f1mer in relation to all the ob- 
jects of our pursuit or attachmeni, the latter only in 
regard to mattérs of reasoning: dress is a frivolous 
occupation when it forms the chief business of a ra- 
tional being ; ‘It is an endless and frivolous pursuit 
to act by any other rule than the care of satisfying our 
own minds.’—StTrerLe. The objections of freethinkers 
against revealed religion are as futile as they are mis- 
chievous , ‘Out of a multiplicity of criticisms by va- 
rious hands many are sure to be futile.—Cowrrr. 


SUPERFICIAL, SHALLOW, FLIMSY. 


_ The superficial is that which lies only at the surface: 
it is therefore by implication the same as the shallow, 
which has nothing underneath: shallow being a varia- 
tion of hollow or empty. Hence a persun may be 
called either superficial or shallow, to indieate that he 
has not a profundity of knowledge; but otherwise, 
superficiality is applied to the exercise of the thinking 
faculty, and shallowness to its extent. Men of free 
sentiments are superjicial thinkers, although they may 
not have understandings more shallow than others. 
Superficial and shallow are applicable to things as well 
as persons: flimsy is applicable to things only. Flimsy 
most probably comes from flame, that is, amy, showy 

easily seen through. In the proper sense, we may 
speak of giving a superficial covering of paint or 
colour to a body ; of a river or piece of water being 
shallow ; of cotton or cloth being flimsy. In the im 

proper sense, a survey or a glance may be superficial} 
which’ does not extend beyond the superfictes of things; 
‘By much Jabour we acquire a supexfictal acquaint 

ance with a few sensible objects..—Buair. A conver- 
sation or a discourse may be shallow, which does not 
contain a body of sentiment ; 


I know thee to thy bottom; from within 
Thy shallow centre to the utmost skin.—DrypENn 


A work or performance may be flimsy which has no- 
thing solid in it to engage the attention ; 


Proud of a vast extent of flimsy lines.—Porn 


SURFACE, SUPERFICIES. 


Surface, compounded of sur for super and face, is 
a variation of the Latin term superficies ; and yet they 
have acquired this distinction, that the former is the 
vulgar, and the latter the scientifick term: of course 
the former has a more indefinite and general applica 
tion than the latter. A surface is either even or un 
even, smooth or rough ; but the mathematician always 
conceives of a plane superficies on which he founds his 
operations. They are employed in a figurative sense 
with a similar distinction ; 


Errours like straws upon the surface flow; 
He who would search for pearls must dive below. 
DRYDEN. 
‘Those who have undertaken the task of reconciling 
mankind to their present state frequently remind us 
that we view only the superyficies of life.—Jounson. 


TO EXPLAIN, EXPOUND, INTERPRET. 


To explain is to make plain; expound, from the 
Latin expono, compounded of ex and pone, signifies 
to set forth in detail; interpret, in Latin interpreto 
and interpretes, compounded of tnter and «7429 that 


458 


i. , éénguas tongues, signifies literally to get the sense 
of one language by means of another. 

To explain is the generick term, the rest are specifick: 
to expound and interpret are each modes of explaining. 
Single words or sentences are explained ; a whole work, 
or considerable parts of it, are expounded ; the sense of 
any writing or symbolical sign is znterpreted. It is the 
business of the philologist to explain the meaning of 
words by asuitable definition ; ‘It is a serious thing to 
have connexion with a people, who live only under 
positive. arbitrary, and changeable institutions; and 
these not perfected, nor supplied, nor explained, by any 
common acknowledged rule of moral science.’--BURKK. 
It is the business of the divine to expound Scripture ; 

One meets now and then with persons who are ex- 
tremely learned and knotty in expounding clear cases.’ 
—STEELE. Jt is the business of the antiquarian to 
interpret the meaning of old inscriptions on stones, or 
of hieroglyphicks on buildings; ‘It does not appear 
that among the Romans any man grew eminent by in- 
terpreting another; and perhaps it was more frequent 
to translate for exercise or amusement than for fame.’ 
— JOHNSON. 

An explanation serves to assist the understanding, 
to supply a deficiency, and remove obscurity; an e2- 
position isan ample explanation, in which minute 
particulars are detailed, and the connexion of events 
in the narrative is kept up; it serves to assist the 
memory and awaken the attention: both the explana- 
tion and exposition are employed in clearing up the 
sense of things as they are, but the interpretation is 
more arbitrary ; it often consists of affixing or giving 
a sense to things which they have not previously had : 
hence it is that the same passages in authors admit of 
different interpretations, according to the character or 
views of the commeniator. 

There are many practical truths in the Bible which 
are so plain and positive, that they need no literal 
explanation: but its doctrines, when faithfully ez- 
pounded, may be brought home to the hearts and con- 
sciences of men; although the partial znterpretations 
of illiterate and enthusiastick men are more apt to dis- 
grace than to advance the cause of religion. 

To explain and interpret are not confined to what 
is written or said, they are employed likewise with 
regard to the actions of men; exposition is, however, 
used only with regard to writings. The major part 
of the misunderstandings and animosities which arise 
among men, might easily be obviated by a timely ez- 
planation; it is the characteristick of good-nature to 
interpret the looks and actions of men as favourably 
as possible. The explanation may sometimes flow out 
of circumstances; the interpretation is always the act 
of a voluntary and rational agent. The discovery of 
a plot or secret scheme will serve to explain the mys- 
terious and strange conduct of such as were previously 
acquainted with it. According to an old proverb, 
“ Silence gives consent;’’ for thus at least they are 
pleased to interpret it, who are interested in the de- 
cision. 


TO MISCONSTRUE, MISINTERPRET. 


Misconstrue and misinterpret signify to explain in 
a wrong way; but the former respects the sense of one’s 
words or the imy:ication of one’s actions: those who 
indulge themselves in a light mode of speech towards 
chiidren are liable to be misconstrued; a too great 
tenderness to the criminal may be easily mis¢nterpreted 
into favour of the crime. 

These words may likewise be employed in speaking 
of language in general; but the former respects the 
literal transmission of foreign ideas into our native 
language ; the latter respects the general sense which 
one affixes to any set of words, either in a native or 
foreign language: the learners of a language will un- 
avoidably misconstrue it at times; in all languages 
there are ambiguous expressions, which are liable to 
misinterpretation. Misconstruing is the consequence 
of ignorance ; 


In ev’ry act and turn of life-he feels 

Publick calamities or household ills: 

The judge corrupt, the long-depending cause, 

And doubtful issue of mzsconstrued laws.—PRIoR. 


Misinterpretation of particular words are oftener the 
gorsequence of prejudice and voluntary blindness, 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES 


particularly in the explanation of the law of tne Scrip 
tures; ‘Some purposely misrepresent or put a wrong 
interpretation on the virtues of others.’—Appiscn. 


DEFINITE, POSITIVE. 


Definite, in Latin definitum, participle of definze, 
compounded of de and fints, signifies that which is 
bounded by a line or limit; positive, in Latin posi- 
tivus, from pono to place, signifies that which is placed 
or fixed. 

The understanding and reasoning powers are con- 
nected with what is defintte; the will with what is 
positive. <A definite answer leaves nothing to be ex- 
plained ; a positive answer leaves no room for hesi- 
tation or question. It is necessary to be definite in 
giving instructions, and to be positive in giving com- 
mands. A person who is definite in his proceedings 
with another, puts a stop to all unreasonable expecta- 
tions ; ‘ We are not able to judge of the degree of con- 
viction which operated at any particular time upon our 
own thoughts, but as it is recorded by some certain 
and definite effect.’—Jounson. It is necessary for 
those who have to exercise authority to be positive, in 
order to enforce obedience from the self-willed and 
contumacious; ‘'The Earl Rivers being now in his 
own opinion on his death-bed, thought it his duty to 
provide for Savage among his other natural children, 
and therefore demanded a positive account of bim.’— 
JOHNSON. 


DEFINITION, EXPLANATION. 


A definition is properly a species of explanation. 
The former is used scientifically, the latter on ordinary 
occasions ; the former is confined to words, the latter 
is employed for words or things. 

A definition is correct or precise; au explanation is 
general or ample. 

The definition of a word defines or limits the extent 
of its signification ; it is the rule for the scholar in the 
use of any word; ‘As to politeness, many have at- 
tempted: definitions of it. I believe it is best to be 
known by description, definition not being able to com- 
prise it.—Lorp Cuatuam. The explanation of a 
word may include both definition and illustration: the 
former admits of no more words than will include the 
leading features in the meaning of any term; the lattes 
admits of an unlimited scope for diffuseness on the 
part of the explainer; ‘If you are forced to desire 
further information or explanation upon a point, do it 
with proper apologies for the trouble you give.’.—Lorp 
CHATHAM. 


TO EXPLAIN, ILLUSTRATE, ELUCIDATE. 


Explain, v. To explain, expound; illustrate, tn 
Latin illustratus, participle of illustro, compounded 
of the intensive syilable in and lustro, signifies to 
make a thing bright, or easy to be surveyed and ex- 
amined ; elucidate, in Latin elwecidatus, participle of 
cree from Juz light, signifies to bring forth into the 
ight. 

To explain is simply to render intelligible ; to alus 
trate and elucidate are to give additional clearness. 
every thing requires to be explained to one who is 
ignorant of it; but the best informed will require to 
have abstruse subjects zilwstrated, and obseure sub- 
jects elucidated. We always explain when we illus- 
trate or elucidate, and we always elucidate when we 
illustrate, but not vice versa. 

We explain by reducing compounds to simples, and 
generals to particulars; ‘I know I meant just what 
you explain; but I did not explain my own meaning 
so well as you.’—Porr. We illustrate by means of 
examples, similes, and allegorical figures; ‘It.is in- 
deed the same system as mine, but zllustrated with a 
ray of your own.’—Pork. We elucidate by commen- 
taries, or the statement of facts; ‘If our religious 
tenets should ever want a farther elucidation, we shall 
not call on atheism to explain them.’—Burke. Words 
are the common subject of explanation; moral truths 
require illustration ; poetical allusions and dark pas 
sages In writers require elucidation. All explanations 
given to children should consist of as few words as pos 
sible, so long as they are sufficiently explicit. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


EXPLANATORY, EXPLICIT, EXPRESS. 


Explanatory signifies containing or belonging to ex- 
planation (v. To explain); explicit, in Latin expli- 
catus, from explico to unfold, signifies unfolded or laid 
open; express, in Latin eapressus, signifies the same 
as expressed or delivered in specifick terms. 

The explanatory is that which is superadded to clear 
up difficulties or obscurities. A letter is explanatory 
which contains an ezplanation of something preceding, 
in lieu of any thing new; ‘An explanatory law stops 
the current of a precedent statute, nor does either of 
them admit extension afterwards..—Bacon. ‘The ex- 
plicie 1s that which of itself obviates every difficulty ; 
an explicit letter, therefore, will Jeave nothing that 
requires explanation ; ‘Since the revolution the bounds 
of prerogative and liberty have been better defined, the 
principles of governinent more thoroughly examined 
and understood, and the rights of the subject more 
explicitly guarded by legal provisions, than in any 
other period of the English history..—BLacKsToNE. 
The explicit admits of a free use of words ; the express 
requires them to be unambiguous. A person ought to 
be explicit when he enters into an engagement; he 
ought to be express when he gives commands, or con- 
veys his wishes; ‘I have destroyed the letter I re- 
ceived from you by the hands of Lucius Aruntius, 
though it was much too innocent to deserve so severe 
a treatment; however, it was your express desire I 
should destroy it, and [ have complied accordingly.’— 
MeEumMorTs (Letters of Cicero). 


TO EXPOSTULATE, REMONSTRATE. 


Expostulate, from postulo to demand, signifies to 
demand reasons for a thing ; remonstrate, from mon- 
stro to show, signifies to show reasons against a thing. 

We ezxpostulate in atone of authority ; we remon- 
strate in a tone of complaint. He who expostulates 
pasges a censure, and claims to be heard; he who re- 
monstrates presents his case, and requests to be heard. 
Expostulation may often be the precursor of violence ; 
remonstrance mostly rests on the force of reason and 
representation; he who admits of expostulation from 
an inferiour undermines his own authority ; he who is 
deaf to the remonstrances of his friends is far gone in 
folly ; the expostulation is mostly on matters of per- 
sonal interest; the semonstrance may as often be made 
on matters of propriety. The Scythian ambassadors 
expostuiaied with Alexander against his invasion of 
their,country ; King Richard expostulated with Wat 
Tyler on the subject of his insurrection; ‘ With the 
hypocrite it is not my business at present to ezpos- 
tulate.—JoHNSON.  Artabanes remonstrated with 
Xerxes on the folly of his projected invasion ; ‘I have 
been but a little time conversant with the world, yet 
I have had already frequent opportunities of observing 
the little efficacy of remonstrance and complaint.’— 
JOHNSON. 


TO UTTER, SPEAK, ARTICULATE, 
PRONOUNCE. 


Utter, from out, signifies to put out; that is, to send 
forth a sound: this therefore is a more general term 
than speak, which is to utter an intelligible sound. 
We may utter a groan; we speak words only, or that 
which is intended to serve as words. ‘'l'o speak there- 
fore is only a species of utterance; a dumb man has 
utterance, but not speech ; 


At each word that my destruction utter’d 
My heart recoiled.—OTWay. 


What you keep by you, you may change and mend, 
But words once spoke, can never be recall’d. 
WALLER. 


Articulate and pronounce are modes of speaking ; 
to articulate, from articulum a joint, is to pronounce 
distinctly the letters. or syllables of words; which is 
the first effort of a child beginning to speak. It is 
of great importance to make a child articulate every 
letter when he first begins to speak or read. To pro- 
nounce, from the Latin pronuncio to speak out loud, is 
a formal mode of speaking. 

A child must first articulate the letters and the syl- 
ables, then he pronounces or sets forth the whole 
word; this is necessary before he can speak to be un- 
derstood; ‘The torments of disease can sometimes 


459 


only be signified by groans or soks, or tnarticulate 
ejaculations.’—JOHNSON. ‘Speak the speech, I pray 
you, as I pronounced it to you.’ —SHAKSPEARE. 


TO SPEAK, TALK, CONVERSE, DISCOURSE. 


Speak, in Saxon specan, is probably connected with 
the German sprechen to speak, and brechen to break, 


the Latin precor to pray, and the Hebrew yas talk 


is but a variation of tell; converse, v. Conversation ; 
discourse, in Latin discursus, expresses properly an 
examining or deliberating upon 

The idea of communicating with, or communicating 
to, another, by means of signs, is common in the sig- 
nification of all these terms: to speak is an indefinite 
term, specifying no circumstance of the action; we 
may speak only one word or many; but we talk for a 
continuance: we speak from various motives; we talk 
for pleasure; we converse for improvement or intel- 
lectual gratification: we speak with or to a person, 
we talk commonly to others ; we converse with others. 
Speaking a language is quite distinct from writing: 
publick speaking has at all times been cultivated with 
great care, but particularly under popular governments; 
‘Falsehood is a speaking against our thoughts.’— 
Sours. Talking is mostly the pastime of the idle 
and the empty; those who think least talk most; 
‘ Talkers are commonly vain, and credulous withal; 
for he that talketh what he knoweth, will also talk 
what he knoweth not.’--Bacon. Conversation is the 
rational employment of social beings, who seek by au 
interchange of sentiment to purify the affections, and 
improve the understanding ; 


Go, therefore, half this day, as friend with friend, 
Converse with Adam.—-MILTon. 


Conversation is the act of many together; talk and 
discourse may be the act of one addressing himseif tc 
others: conversation loses its value when it ceases tv 
be general; talk has seldom any value but what the 
talker attaches to it; the discourse derives its value 
from the nature of the subject as well as the character 
of the speaker: conversation is adapted for mixed 
companies; children tadk to their parents, or to theis 
companions; parents and teachers discourse wiih 
young people on mora! duties; 


Let thy discourse be such, that thou maysi give 
Profit to others, or from them receive.—DrEnHAM 


TO BABBLE, CHATTER, CHAT, PRATTLE, 
PRATE. 


Babble, in French babiller, probably receives its ori 
gin from the tower of Babel, when the confusion of 
tongues took place, and men talked unintelligibly to 
each other; chatter, chat, is in French caqguet, Low 
German tatern, High German schnattern, Latin bla- 
tero, Hebrew bata; prattle, prate, in Low German 
praten, is probably connected with the Greek ¢patw to 
speak. 

All these terms mark a superfluous or improper use 
of speech: babble and chatter are onomatopeias drawn 
from the noise or action of speaking ; babbling denotes 
rapidity of speech which renders it unintelligible ; 
hence the term is applied to all who make use of many 
words to no purpose; ‘To stand up and dabbletoa 
crowd in an ale-house, till silence iscommanded by the 
stroke of a hammer, is as low an ambition as can taint 
the human mind.’—Hawkeswortu. Chatter is an 
imitation of the noise of speech properly applied to 
magpies or parrots, and figuratively to a corresponding 
vicious mode of speech in human beings; 


Some birds there are who, prone to noise, 
Are hir'd to silence wisdom’s voice; 

And, fkill’d to chatter out the hour, 

Rise by their emptiness to power.—Moorg. 


The vice of babbling is most commonly attached to 
men, that of chattering to women; the babbler talke 
much to impress others with his self-importance; the 
chatterer ‘s actuated by self-conceit, and a desire to 
display her volubility: the former cares not whether 
he is understood; the latter cares not if she be but 
heard. 

Chattering Js harmless, if not respectable: the win- 
ter’s firesi# «./'*e¢ neighbours to assemble and <haz 


460 


away many an hour which might otherwise hang 
heavy on hand, or be spent less inoffensively ; 


Sometimes I dress, with women sit, 
And chat away the gloomy fit.—GRrrEEN. 


Chatting is the practice of adults; prattling and prat- 
ing that of children; the one innocently, the other im- 
pertinently ; the prattling of babes has an interest for 
every feeling mind, but for parents it is one of their 
highest enjoyments ; 
Now blows the surly north, and chills throughout 
The stiff’ning regions ; while by stronger charms 
Than Circe e’er or fell Medea brew’d, 
Each brook that wont to prattle to its banks 
Lies all bestill’d.— ARMSTRONG. 
Prating is the consequence of ignorance and childish 
assumption: a prattler has all the unaffected gayety of 
an uncontaminated mind; a prater is forward, obtru- 
sive, and ridiculous; 
My prudent counsels prop the state; 
Magpies were never known to prate.—Moorkg. 


TALKATIVE, LOQUACIOUS, GARRULOUS. 


Talkative implies ready or prone to talk (v. To 
speak) ; loquacious, from loquor to speak or talk, has 
the same original meaning; garrulous, in Latin gar- 
rulus, from garrio to blab, signifies prone to tell or 
make known. 

These reproachful epithets differ principally in the 
degree. To talk is allowable and consequently it is 
not altogether so unbecoming to be occasionally talk- 
ative: but loqguacity, which implies always an immo- 
derate propensity to talk, is always bad, whether 
springing from affectation or an idle temper: and gar- 
rulity, which arises from the excessive desire of com- 
municating, is a failing that is pardonable only in the 
aged, who have generally much to tell; ‘ Every ab- 
isurdity has a champion to defend it; for errour is 
‘always talkative.’ —GOLDSMITH. 


Thersites only clamour’d in the throng, 
Loquacious, loud, and turbulent of tongue.—Porr. 


Pleas’d with that social, sweet garrulity, 
The poor disbanded vet’ran’s sole delight. 
SOMERVILLE. 


UNSPEAKABLE, INEFFABLE, UNUTTER- 
ABLE, INEXPRESSIBLE. 


Unspeakable and ineffable, from the Latin for to 
speak, have precisely the same meaning; but wn- 
speakable is said of objects in general, particularly of 
that which is above human conception, and surpasses 
the power of language to describe; as the unspeak- 
able goodness of God; ‘The vast difference of God’s 
nature from ours makes the difference between them so 
unspeakably great..—Soutu. Ineffable is said of such 
objects as cannot be painted in words with adequate 
force, as the ineffable sweetness of a person’s look; 
‘The influences of the Divine nature enliven the mind 
with ineffable joy.—Soutu. Unutterable and inex- 
pressible are extended in their signification to that 
which is incommunicable by signs from one being to 
another; thus grief is wnutterable which it is not in 
the power of the sufferer by any sounds to bring 
home to the feelings of another; grief is znexpressible 
which is not to be expressed by looks, or words, or any 
signs. Unutterable is therefore applied only to the in- 
dividual who wishes to give utterance; inexpressible 
may be said of that which is to be expressed concern- 
ing others: our own pains are unutterable; the sweet- 
ness of a person’s countenance is znexpressible ; 

Nature breeds, 

Perverse, ali monstrous, all prodigious things, 

Abominable, wnutterable.—Minron. 


The evil which lies lurking under a temptation is in- 
tolerable and inezpressible.—SourTu. 


DIALOGUE, CONFERENCE, 
OLLOQUY. 


Conversation denotes the act of holding converse ; 
dialogue, in French dialogue, Latin dialogus, Greek 
Scddoyos, compounded of dia and déyos, signifies a 
speech between two; conference, from the Latin con 


CON booties 4 


I ea a a a ee eae 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


and fero to put together, signifies consulting together 
on subjects; colloquy, in Latin colloquium, from col or 
con and loguor to speak, signifies the act of talking to- 
ether. 

A conversation is always something actually held 
between two or more persons; a dialogue is mostly 
fictitious, and written as if spoken: any number of 
persons may take part in a conversation; but a dia- 
logue always refers to the two persons who are ex- 
pressly engaged: aconversation may be desultory, in 
which each takes his part at pleasure; a déalogue.is 
formal, in which there will always be reply and re- 
joinder: a conversation may be carried on by any © 
signs besides words, which are addressed personally te 
the individual present; a dialogue must always consist 
of express words: a prince holds frequent conversa 

tions with his ministers on affairs of state; ‘I find so 
much Arabick and Persian to read, that all my leisure in 
a morning is hardly sufficient for a thousandth part of 
the reading that would be agreeable and useful, as I 
wish to be a match in conversation with the learned 
natives whom I happen to meet.’—Sir Wm. Jones. 
Cicero wrote dialogues on the nature of the gods, and 
many later writers have adopted the dialogue form as 
a vehicle for conveying their sentiments; ‘ Aurengzebe 
is written in rhyme, and has the appearance of being 
the most elaborate of all Dryden’s plays. The per 

sonages are imperial, but the dialogue is often domes 

tick, and therefore susceptible of sentiments accommo- 
dated to familiar incidents. Jounson. A conference 
is a species of conversation; a colloquy is a species of 
dialogue: a conversation is indefinite as to the subject, 
or the parties engaged in it; a conference is confinea 
to particular subjects and descriptions of persons: a 
conversation is mostly occasional; a conference is 
always specifically appointed : a conversation is mostly 
on indifferent matters; a conference is mostly on na- 
tional or publick concerns. Men hold a conversation as 
friends; they hold a conference as ministers of state; 
‘The conference between Gabriel and Satan abounds 
with sentiments proper for the occasion, and suitable 
to the persons of the two speakers.’—Appison. 

The dialogue naturally limits the number to two; 
the colloguy is indefinite as to number: there may be 
dialogues therefore which are not colloquies ; but every 
colloquy may be denominated a dialogue; ‘The close 
of this divine colloquy (between the Father and the 
Son) wits the hymn of Angels that follow, are won 
derfully beautiful and poetical.’-—Appison. 


ANSWER, REPLY, REJOINDER, RESPONSE 


Answer, in Saxon andswaren and varan, Goth. awars 
andward, German antwort, compounded of ant or ane 
against, and wort a word, signifies a word used againg 
or in return for another; re»ly comes from the Frenct 
repliquer, Latin replico to unfold, signifying to unfold ox 
enlarge upon by way of explanation; rejoin is com- 
pounded of re and join, signifying to join or add in re- 
turn; response, in Latin responsus, participle of re- 
spondeo, compounded of re and spondeo, signifies tr 
declare or give a sanction to in return. 

Under all these terms is included the idea of using 
words in return for other words. An answer is given 
to a question; a reply is made to an assertion; a re- 
joinder is made to a reply ; a response is made in ac- 
cordance with the words of another. 

One answers either for the purpose of affirmatice 
assent, information, or contradiction ; 


The blackbird whistles from the thorny brake, 
The mellow bulfinch answers from the grove. 
THOMSON. 


We always reply, or rejoix in order to explain or con 

fute; ‘He again took sometime tu consider, and civilly 
replied, ‘‘I do.”—‘If you do agree with me,” rejoined 
I, “in acknowledging the complaint, tell me if you will 
concur in promoting the cure.” ’—CumBERLAND. Re 

sponses are made by way of assent or confirmation, 
and sometimes in the case of oracular answers by way 
of information ; ‘ Lacedemon, always disposed to con- 
trol the growing consequence of her neighbours, and 
sensible of the bad policy of her late measures, had 
opened her eyes to the folly of expelling Hippias on the 
forged responses of the Pythia..—CumBerRtanp. It is 
impolite not to answer when we are addressed: argu 

ments dre maintained by the alternate replies and 


sae 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


rejoinders of two parties; but such arguments seldom 
tend to the pleasure and improvement of society: the 
responses in the liturgy are peculiarly calculated to 
keep alive the attention of those who take a part in the 
devotion. 

An answer may be either spoken or written; reply 
and rejoinder are used in personal discourse only ; a 
eesponse may be said or sung. 


RETORT, REPARTEE. 


Retort, from re and torqueo to twist or turn back, to 
recoil, is anill-natured reply: repartec, from the word 
part, signifies a smart reply, a ready taking one’s own 
part. ‘The retort is always in answer to a censure, ob- 
jection, or argument against a thing, for which one re- 
turns a like censure; ‘ Those who have so vehemently 
urged the dangers of an active life, have made use of 
urguments that may be retorted upon themselves.’— 
Jounson. The repartee is commonly in answer to the 
wit of another, where one returns wit for wit; ‘Henry 
IV. of France would never be transported beyond him- 
self with choler, but he would pass by any thing with 
some repartee.—Howe.t. In the acrimony of dis- 
putes it is common to hear retort upon retort to an end- 
less extent; the vivacity of discourse is sometimes 
greatly enhanced by the quick repartee of those who 
take a part init. Thereis nothing wanting in order to 
make a retort, but the disposition to aggravate one with 
whom we are offended ; the talent for vepartee is alto- 
gether a natural endowment which does not depend in 
any degree upon the will of the individual. 


FACETIOUS, CONVERSABLE, PLEASANT, 
JOCULAR, JOCOSE. 


All these epithets designate that companionable qua- 
lity which consists in liveliness of speech. Facetious, 
in Latin facetus, may probably come from for to 
speak, dengting the versatility with which a person 
makes use of his words; conversable is literally able to 
hold a conversation; pleasant (v. Agreeable) signifies 
making ourselves pleasant with others, or them pleased 
with us; jocular, after the manner of a joke; jocose, 
using or having jokes. 

Facetious may be employed either for writing o 
conversation; the rest only in conversation: the fac«- 
tious man deals in that kind of discourse which may 
excite laughter; ‘I have written nothing since I pub- 
lished, except a certain facetious history of John 
Gilpin”—Cowrrr. <A conversable man may instruct 
as well as amuse ; 


But here my lady will object, 

Your intervals of time to spend, 

With so conversabie a friend, 

It would not signify a pin 

Whatever climate you were in.—Swirr. 


The pleasant man says every thing in a pleasant man- 
ner; his pleasantry even on the most delicate subject 
is without offence; ‘ Aristophanes wrote to please the 
multitude ; his pleasantries are coarse and impolite.’— 
Warton. The person speaking is jocose; the thing 
zaid, or the manner of saying it, is jocular: it is not 
for one to be always jocose, although sometimes one 
may assume a jocular air when we are not at liberty 
to be serious; 


Thus Venus sports, 
When, cruelly jocose, 
She ties the fatal noose, 
And binds unequals to the brazen yokes.—CREECH. 


‘Pope sometimes condescended to be jocular with ser- 
vants or inferiours.—Jounson. Aman is facetious 
from humour ; he is conversable by means of informa- 
tion; he indulges himself in occasional pleasantry, or 
allows himself to be jocose, in order to enliven conver- 
sation; a useful hint is sometimes conveyed in jocular 
terms 


ADDRESS, SPEECH, HARANGUE, ORATION. 


Address, v. To address ; speech, from speak, signifies 
the thing spoken; harangue probably comes from ara 
an altar, where harangues used 19 be delivered ; ora- 
tion, from the Latin oro to beg or entreat, signifies that 
which is said by way of entreaty 


461 


All these terms denote a set form of words directed 
or supposed to be directed tosome person: an address 
in this sense is always written, but the rest are really 
spoken or supposed to be so; ‘When Louis of France 
had lost the battle of Fontenoy, the addresses to him 
at that time were full of his fortitude—Hucurs. A 
speech is in general that which is addressed ina formal 
manner to one person or more; ‘ Every circumstance 
in their speeches and actions is with justice and deli- 
cacy adapted to the persons who speak and act.’—Ap- 
pisoNon Milton. An harangue is a noisy, tumultuous 
speech addressed to many ; ‘ There is scarcely a city in 
Great Britain but has one of this tribe who takes it 
into his protection, and_on the market days harangues 
the good people of the place with aphorisms and re- 
cipes..— PEARCE on Quacks. An oration is a solemn 
speech for any purpose ; ‘ How cold and unaffecting the 
best oration in the world would be without the proper 
ornaments of voice and gesture, there are two remark- 
able instances in the case of Ligarius and that of Milo, 
—Swirr. 

Addresses are frequently sent up to the throne by 
publick bodies. Speeches in Parliament, like harangues 
at elections, are often little better than the crude effu- 
sions of party spirit. The orations of Demosthenes 
and Cicero, which have been so justly admired, re- 
ceived a polish from the correcting hand of their 
authors, before they were communicated to the pub- 
lick. 

Addresses of thanks are occasionally presented to 
persons in high stations by those who are anxious to 
express a sense of their merits. It iscustomary for the 
King to deliver speeches to both houses of Parliament 
at their opening. In all popular governments there is a 
set of persons who have a trick of making karangues 
to the populace, in order to render them dissatisfied with 
the men in power. Funeral ovations are commonly 
spoken over the grave. 


TO ACCOST, SALUTE, ADDRESS. 


Alccost, in French accoster, .«s compounded of ac or ad, 
and the Latin costa a rib or side, signifying to come by 
the side of a person; salute, in Latin saluto, from 
salus health, signifies to bid good speed; address, in 
French addresser, is compounded of ad and dresser, 
from the Latin direxz, preterit of dirigo to direct or 
apply, signifying to direct one’s discourse to a person 

We accost a stranger whom we casually meet by the 
way ; we salute our friends on meeting them; we ad 
dress indifferent persons incompany. Curiosity or con 
venience prompt men to accost; ‘When Atneas ic 
sentby Virgil to the shades, he meets Dido, the Queen of 
Carthage, whom his perfidy had hurried to the grave: 
he accosts her with tenderness and excuses, but the 
lady turns away like Ajax in mute disdain.’—-Joun 
son. Good-will or intimacy prompt men to salute 
others; business or social communication lead men to 
address each other. Rude people accost every one 
whom they meet; familiar people salute those with 
whom they are barely acquainted; impertinent people 
address those with whom they have no business; ‘I 
was harassed by the multitude of eager salutations, 
and returned the common civilities with hesitation and 
impropriety.—Jounson. ‘I still continued to stand in 
the way, having scarcely strength to walk farther, 
when another soon addressed me in the same manner.’ 
—JOHNSON. 

We must accost by speaking; but we may salute by 
signs as well as words; and address by writing as well 
as by speaking. 


oe 


SALUTE, SALUTATION, GREETING. 


Salute and salutation, from the Latin salus, signifies 
literally wishing health to a person; greeting comes 
from the German griissen to kiss or salute. 

Salute respects the thing, and salutation the person 
giving the salute; a salute may consist either of a 
word or an action; ‘Strabo te’ls us he saw the statue 
of Memnon, which, according to the poets, saluted the 
morning sun, every day, at its first rising, with an har- 
monious sound.’—PripEaux. Salutations pass from 
one friend to another; ‘Josephus makes mention of a 
Manaken who had the spirit of prophecy, and one 
time meeting with Herod among his school-fellows 


462 


eeted him with this salutation, “ Hail, King of the 
ews.” ’—Pripraux. ‘The salute may be either direct 
or indirect; the salutation is always direct and per- 
sonal: guns are fired by way of a salute ; bows are 
given in the way of a salutation; greeting 1s a fami- 
liar kind of salutation, which may be given vocally or 
in writing; 
Not only those I nam’d I there shall greet, 


But my own gallant, virtuous Cato meet. 
DENHAM. 


ELOCUTION, ELOQUENCE, ORATORY, 
RHETORICK. 


Elocution and eloquence are derived from the same 
Latin verb eloquor to speak out; oratory, from oro to 
implore, signifies the art of making a set speech. 

Elocution consists in the manner of delivery ; elo- 
quence in the matter that is delivered. We employ 
clocution in repeating the words of another; we em- 
ploy eloquence to express our own thoughts and feel- 
ings. Elocution is requisite for an actor; eloquence 
for 2 speaker , 


Soft elocution does thy style renown, 

And the sweet accents of the peaceful gown, 
Gentle or sharp, according to thy choice, 

To laugh at follies or to lash at vice.—DRyYDEN. 


Athens or free Rome, where eloquence 
Flourish’d, since mute.—Mi1Ton. 


Eloquence lies in the person; it is a natural gift: 
vratory lies in the mode of expression ; It is an acquired 
art; ‘As harsh and irregular sounds are not harmony, 
so neither is banging a cushion oratory.—Swirt. 
Rhetorick, from péw to speak, is properly the theory of 
that art of which oratory is the practice. But the term 
rhetcrick may be sometimes employed in an improper 
sense for the display of oratory or scientifick speaking. 
Elcewence speaks one’s own feelings; it comes from 
the Seart, and speaks tothe heart: oratory is an imi- 
tative art ; it describes what is felt by another. Rhe- 
toric k is the affectation of oratory; ‘Be but a person 
in credit with the multitude, he shall be able to make 
popu’ar rambling stuff pass for high rhetorick and 
moving preaching.’—Souru. 

An afflicted parent, who pleads for the restoration of 
her child that has been torn from her, will exert her 
eloquence; a counsellor at the bar, who pleads the 
cause of his client, will employ oratory ; vulgar par- 
tisans are full of rhetorick. 

Eloquence often consists in a look or an action; 
gratory must always be accompanied with language. 
There is a dumb eloquence which is not denied even 
to the brutes, and which speaks more than all the 
studied graces of speech and action employed by the 

rator ; 


His infant softness pleads a milder doom, 
And speaks with all the eloquence of tears.— Herren. 


Between eloquence and oratory there is the same 
distinction as between nature and art: the former can 
never be perverted to any base purposes; it always 
speaks truth: the latter will as easily serve the pur- 
poses of falsehood as of truth. The political partisan, 
who paints the miseries of the poor in glowing lan- 
guage and artful periods, may often have oratory 
enough to excite dissatisfaction against the govern- 
ment, without having eloquence to describe what he 
really feels. 


oe 


EFFUSION, EJACULATION. 


Effusion signifies the thing poured out, and ejacu- 
lation the thing ejaculated or thrown out, both indi- 
cating a species of verbal expression; the former either 
by utterance or in writing, the latter only by utter- 
ance. The effusion is not so vehement or sudden as 
the ejaculation; the ejaculation is uot so ample or dif- 
fuse as the effusion; effusion is seldom taken in a good 
sense; ef 1culation rarely otherwise. An effusion com- 
monly flows from a heated imagination uncorrected 
by the judgement; it is therefore in general not only 
incoherent, but extravagant and senseless: an ejacu- 
lation is produced by the warmth of the moment, but 
never without reference to some particular circum- 
stance. Enthusiasts are full of extravagant effusions ; 
contrite sinners will often express their penitence in 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


pious ejaculations ; ‘ Brain-sick opimators please them. 
selves in nothing but the ostentation of their own ex- 
temporary effusions. —Soutu. ‘All which prayers 
of our Saviour’s and others of like brevity are properly 
such as we call ejaculations.’—Souru. 


WORD, TERM, EXPRESSION. 


* Word is here the generick term ; the other two are 
specifick. Every term and expression is a word; but 
every word is not ilenominated a term or expression. 
Language consists vf words; they are the connected 
sounds which serve for the communication of thought. 
Term, from terminus a boundary, signifies any word 
that has a specifick or limited meaning ; expression 
(v. To express) signifies any word which conveys a 
forcible meaning. Usage determines words ; science 
fixes terms; sentiment provides expressions. ‘The 
purity of a style depends on the choice of words; the 
precision of a writer depends upon the choice of his 
terms ; the force of a writer depends upon the aptitude 
of his expressions. 

The grammarian treats on the nature of words; the 
philosopher weighs the value of scientifick terms ; the 
rhetorician estimates the force of expressions. The 
French have coined many new words since the revo- 
lution; terms of art admit of no change after the signi- 
fication is fully defined ; expressions vary according 
to the connexion in which they are introduced ; 


As all words in few letters live, 
Thou to few words all sense dost give-—CowLeEy. 


‘The use of the word minister is brought down to the 
literal signification of it, a servant; for now, to s2rve 
and to minister, servile and ministerial, are terms equi- 
valent..—Soutrnu. ‘A’maxim, or moral saying, natu- 
rally receives this form of the antithesis, because it is 
designed to be engraven on the memory, which recalls 
it more easily by the help of such contrasted expres- 
sions.’— BLAIR. 


os 


VERBAL, VOCAL, ORAL. 


Verbal, from verbum a word, signifies after the man: 
ner of a spoken word; oral, from os the mouth, signi- 
fies by word of mouth; and vocal, from vox the voice, 
signifies by the voice: the two former of these words 
are used to distinguish speaking from writing; the 
latter to distinguish the sounds of the voice from any 
other sounds, particularly in singing; a verbal message 
is distinguished from one written ona paper, or ina 
note; ‘ Among all the northern nations, shaking of 
hands was held necessary to bind the bargain, a cus- 
tom which we still retain in many verbal contracts.'— 
BuacksTone. Oral tradition is distinguished from 
that which is handed down to posterity by means of 
books; ‘ In the first ages of the world instruction wag 
commonly oral.—Jounson. Vocal musick is distin- 
guished from instrumental; vocal sounds are more 
harmonious than those which proceed frorm any other 
bodies ; ' 

Forth came the human pair, 
And join’d their vocal worship to*the choir 
Of creatures wanting voice.—Mui1Ton., 


VOTE, SUFFRAGE, VOICE. 


Vote, in Latin votum, from voveo to vow, is very pro- 
bably derived from voz a voice, signifying the voice 
that is raised in supplication to heaven; suffrage, in 
Latin suffragium, is in all probability compounded of 
sub and frango to break out or declare for a thing ; 
voice is here figuratively taken for the voice that is 
raised in favour of a thing. 

The vote is the wish itself, whether expressed or 
not; a person has a vote, that is, the power of wish- 
irg: but the suffrage and the vozce are the wish that 
is expressed ; a person gives his suffrage or his voice. 

The vote is the settled and fixed wish; it is that by 
which the most important concerns in life are deter 
mined ; 

, The popular vote 
Inclines here to continue.—MILTon. 


The suffrage is a vote given only in particular cases; 
‘ Reputation is commonly lost, because it never wag 


* Girard: * Terme, expression 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


deserved ; and was conterred at first, not by the suf- 
frage of criticism, but by the fondness of friendship.’ 
~Jounson. The voice is a partial or occasional wish, 
expressed only in matters of minor importance ; 


J ’ve no words. 
My voice is in my sword! Thou bloodier villain 
Than terms can give thee out.—SHAKSPEARE. 


But sometimes it may be employed to denote the pub- 
lick opinion ; 
That something ’s ours when we from life depart, 
This all conceive, all feel it at the heart; 
The wise of learn’d antiquity proclaim 
This truth; the publick voice declares the same. 
JENYNS. 


The vote and voice are given either for or against a 
person or thing; the suffrage is commonly given in fa- 
vour of a person: in all publick assemblies the majority 
of votes decides the question ; members of Parliament 
are chosen by the sujfrages of the people; in the exe- 
cution of a will every executor has.a voice in all that 
is transacted. 


_— 


LANGUAGE, TONGUE, SPEECH, IDIOM, 
DIALECT. 


Language, from the Latin lingua a tongue, signifies, 
like the word tongue, that which is spoken by the 
tongue ; speech is the act or power of speaking, or the 
thing spoken; idiom, in Latin zdioma, Greek idtwpa, 
from idios proprius proper or peculiar, signifies a pe- 
culiar mode of speaking ; dzalect, in Latin dialectus, 
Greek dudXextixos, from dcadéyopat to speak in a dis- 
tinct manner, signifies a distinct mode of speech. 

All these terms mark the manner of expressing our 
thoughts, but under different circumstances. Lan- 
guage is the most general term in its meaning and ap- 
plication ;, it conveys the general idea without any 
modification, and is applied to other modes of expres- 
* sion, besides that of words, and to other objects besides 
persons: the language of the eyes frequently supplies 
the place of that of the tongue; the deaf and dumb 
use the language of signs; birds and beasts are sup- 
posed to have their peculiar language ; 


Nor do they trust their tongue alone, 
But speak a language of their own.—Swirr. 


On the other hand, tongue, speech, and the others, are 
applicable only to human beings. Language is either 
written or spoken; but a tongue is conceived of mostly 
as a something to be spoken; and speech is, in the 
strict sense, that only which is spoken or uttered. A 
tongue is a totality, or an entire assemblage, of all that 
is necessary for the expressions; it comprehends not 
only words, but modifications of meaning, changes of 
termination, modes and forms of words, with the whole 
scheme of syntactical rules; a tongue therefore com- 
prehended, in the first instance, only those languages 
which were originally formed: the Hebrew, Greek, and 
Latin are in the proper sense tongues ; but those which 
are spoken by Europeans, and owe their origin to the 
former, commonly bear the general denomination of 
languages ; ‘ What if we could discourse with people 
of all the nations upon the earth in their own mother 
tongue 2? Unless we know Jesus Christ, also, we should 
be lost for ever.—BrvERIDGE. 

Speech is an abstract term, implying either the power 
of uttering articulate sounds, as when we speak of the 
gift of speech, which is denied to those who are dumb; 
or the words themselves which are spoken, as when 
we speak of the parts of speech ; or the particular mode 
of expressing one’s self, as when we say that a man is 
known by his speech; ‘ When speech is employed only 
as the vehicle of falsehood, every man must disunite 
himself from others.—Jounson. Idiom and dialect 
are not properly a language, but the properties of lan- 
guage: the idiom is the peculiar construction and turn 
of a language, which distinguishes it altogether from 
others; it is that which enters into the composition of 
the language, and cannot be separated from it; ‘ The 
language of this great poet is sometimes obscured by 
old words, transpositions, and foreign idioms.’—A pp1- 
son. The dzalect is that which is engrafted on a lan- 
guage by the inhabitants of particular: parts of a 
country, and admitted by its writers and learned men 
to form an incidental part of the language ; as the dia- 
fects which originated with the Ionians, the Athenians, 


463 


the Aolians, and were afterward amalgamated into 
the Greek tongue; as also the dialects of the High and 
Low German which are distinguished by similar pecu- 
liarities; ‘Every art has its déalect, uncouth and un- 
grateful to all whom custom has not reconciled to its 
sound.’—JOoHNSON. 

Languages simply serve to convey the thoughts: 
tongues consist of words written or spoken: speech 
consists of words spoken: idioms are the expression 
of national manners, customs, and turns of sentiment, 
which are the most difficult to be transferred from one 
language to another: diadects do not vary so much in 
the words themselves, as in the forms of words; they 
are prejudicial to the perspicuity of a language, but 
add to its harmony. 


DICTION, STYLE, PHRASE, PHRASEOLOGY, 


Diction, from the Latin dictio, saying, is put for the 
mode of expressing ourselves; style comes from the 
Latin stylus the bodkin with which the Romans both 
wrote and corrected what they had written on their 
waxen tablets: whence the word has been used for the 
manner of writing in general; phrase, in Greek godats, 
from gpd§w to speak; and phraseology from ¢pdots 
and éyos, koth signify the manner of speaking. 

Diction expresses much less than style; the former 
is applicable to the first efforts of learners in composi- 
tion; the latter only to the original productions of a 
matured mind. Errours in grammar, false construction, 
a confused disposition of words, or an improper sppli- 
cation of them, constitutes bad diction ; but the niceties, 
the elegancies, the peculiarities, and the beauties of 
composition, which mark the genius and talent of the 
writer, are what is comprehended under the name of 
style. Diction is a general term, applicable alike to 
a single sentence or a connected composition ; style is 
used in regard to a regular piece of composition. 

As diction is aterm of inferiour import, it is of course 
mostly confined to ordinary subjects, and style to the 
productions of authors. Weshould speak of a person’s 
diction in his private correspondence, but of his style 
in his literary works. Diction requires only to be pure 
and clear; ‘ Prior’s diction is more his own than that 
of any among the successors of Dryden.’—Jounson. 
Style may likewise be terse, polished, elegant, florid, 
poetick, sober, and the like; ‘I think we may say with 
justice, that when mortals converse with their Creator, 
they cannot do it in so proper a style as in that of the 
Holy Scriptures,’—Appison. 

Diction is said mostly in regard to what is written ; 
phrase and phraseology are said as often of what is 
spoken as what is written; as that a person has adopted 
a strange phrase or phraseology. ‘The former respects 
single words; the latter comprehends a succession of 
phrases ; 


Rude am in speech, 
And little blest with the soft phrase of speech. 
SHAKSPEARE. 
‘I was no longer able to accommodate myself to the 
accidental current of my conversation; my notions 


grew particular and paradoxical, and my phraseology 
formal and unfashionable.’—JouHnson, 


DICTIONARY, ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


Dictionary, from the Latin dictum a saying or word, 
is a register of words; encyclopedia, from the Greek 
évevkdorratosta or év in KvKdog and matdela learning, 
signifies a register of things. 

The definition of words, with their various changes, 
modifications, uses, acceptations, and applications, are 
the proper subjects of a dictionary; ‘If a man that 
lived an age or two ago should return into the world 
again, he would really want a dictionary to help him 
to understand his own language.’-—TiLLorson. The 
nature and property of things, with their construction, 
uses, powers, &c. are the proper subjects of an en- 
cyclopedia ; ‘ Every science borrows from all the rest, 
and we cannot attain any single one without the en- 
cyclopedia.—GLANVILLE. A general acquaintance 
with all arts and sciences as far as respects the use of 
technical terms, and a perfect acquaintance with the 
classical writers in the language, are essential for the 


composition of a dictionary; an entire acquaintance 
wth all the EU Pe yn ete = 


464 


requisite for the composition of an encyclopedia. A 
single individual may qualify himseif for the task of 
writing a dictionary; but the universality and diver- 
sity of knowledge contained in an encyclopedia render 
it necessarily the work of many. 

A dictionary has been extended in its application to 
any work alphabetically arranged, as biographical, 
medical, botanical dictionaries, and the like, but still 
preserving this distinction, that the dictionary always 
contains only a general or partial illustration of the 
subject proposed, while the encyclopedia embraces the 
whole circle of science. 


DICTIONARY, LEXICON, VOCABULARY, 
GLOSSARY, NOMENCLATURE. 


Dictionary (v. Dictionary) is a general term. Lezi- 
con from déy@ to say, vocabulary from voz a word, glos- 
sary from gloss to explain, and nomenclature from 
nomen, are all species of the dictionary. 

Lexicon is a species of dictionary appropriately ap- 
plied to the dead languages. A Greek or Hebrew lezi- 
con is distinguished from a dictionary of the French 
or English. A vocabulary is a partial kind of diction- 
ary Which may comprehend a simple list of words, 
with or without explanation, arranged in order or other- 
wise. A glossary is an explanatory vocabulary, which 
commonly serves to explain the obsolete terms employed 
in any old author. A nomenclature is literally a list of 
names, and in particular reference to proper names. 


TURGID, TUMID, BOMBASTICK. 


Turgid and tumid both signify swollen, but they dif- 
fer in their application: turgid belongs to diction, as a 
turgid style; twmid is applicable to the water and other 
objects, asthe tumid waves. Bombastick, from bombyx 
akind.of cotton, signifies puffed up like cotton, and is, 
like turgid, applicable to words; but the bombastick 
includes the sentiments expressed: turgidity is confined 
mostly to the mode of expression. A writer is turgid 
who expresses a simple thought in a lofty language: 
a person is bombastick who deals in large words and in- 
troduces high sentiments in common discourse. 


DIFFUSE, PROLIX. 


Both mark defects of style opposed to brevity. Dzf- 
fuse, in Latin diffusus, participle of diffundo to pour 
out or spread wide, marks the quality of being ex- 
tended in space; proliz, in French prolize, changed 
from prolazus, signifies to let loose in a wide space. 

The diffuse is properly opposed to the precise; the 
prolix*to the concise or laconick. <A diffuse writer is 
fond of amplification, he abounds in epithets, tropes, 
figures, and illustrations; the proliz writer is fond of 
circumlocution, minute details, and trifling particulars. 
Diffuseness is a fault only in degree, and according to 
circumstances; prolixtty isa positive fault at all times. 
The former leads to the use of words unnecessarily ; 
the latter to the use of phrases as well as words that 
are altogether useless: the diffuse style has too much 
of repetition; the proliz style abounds in tautology. 
Diffuseness often arises from an exuberance of ima- 
gination; prolizity from the want of imagination; on 
the other hand the former may be coupled with great 
superficiality, aud the latter with great solidity. 

Gibbon and other modern writers have fallen into 
the error of diffuseness. Lord Clarendon and many 
English writers preceding him arechargeable with pro- 
Nixity ; ‘Few authors are more clear and perspicuous 
on the whole than Archbishop Tillotson and Sir Wil- 
liam Temple, yet neither of them are remarkable for 
precision ; they are loose and diffuse.’—Buair. ‘Llook 
upon a tedious talker, or what is generally known by 
the name of a story-teller, to be much more insuffer- 
able than a prolix writer.’—STEELE. 


SENTENCE, PROPOSITION, PERIOD, PHRASE. 


Sentence, in Latin sententia,is but a variation of 
sentiment (v. Opinion); proposition, v. Proposal ; 
period, in Latin periodus, Greek zepiodos, from rept 
about and 6dd¢ way, signifies the circuit or round of 
words, which renders the sense complete; phrase, 
from the Greek dedtw to speak, signifies the words ut- 
tered 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


The sentence consists of any words which convey 
sentiment ; the proposition consists of the thing set 
before the mind, that is, either before our own minds 
or the minds of others; hence the term sentence has 
more especial regard to the form of words, and the 
proposition to the matter contained; ‘Some expect in 
letters pointed sentences and foicible periods.’—Joun- 
son. ‘In 1417, it required all the eloquence and au 
thority of the famous Gershon to prevail upon the 
council of Constance to condemn this proposition, that 
there are some cases in which assassination is a virtue 
more meritorious in a knight than a squire.’—RoBeRT 
son. Sentence and proposition are both used techni- 
cally or otherwise: the former in grammar and rhetorick, 
the latter in logick. The sentence is simple and com- 
plex ; the proposition is universal or particular. Period 
and phrase, like sentence, are forms of words, but they 
are solely so, whereas the sentence depends on the 
connexion of ideas by which it is formed; we speak 
of sentences either as to their structure or their senti 
ment; hence the sentence is either grammatical or 
moral; ‘ A sentence may be defined, a moral instruc- 
tion couched in a few words.’—Broomr. The period 
regards only the structure ; itiseither well or ill-turned, 
long or short, it is in fact a complete sentence from 
one full stop to another; ‘ Periods are beautiful when 
they are not too iong..—Brn Jonson. The term 
phrase denotes the character of the words; 


Disastrous words can best disasters show, 
In angry phrase the angry passions glow. 
ELPHINSTONE. 
Hence it is either vulgar or polite, idiomatick or general: 
the sentence must consist of at least two words to make 
sense; the phrase may be a single word or otherwise 


SILENCE, TACITURNITY. 


* The Latins have the two verbs sileo and taceo; 
the former of which is interpreted by some to signify 
to cease to speak; and the latter not to begin to speak : 
others maintain the direct contrary. According to the 
present use of the words, silence expresses less than 
taciturnity : the silent man does not speak; the taciturn 
man will not speak at all. The Latins designated the 
most profound silence by the epithet of taciturna si- 
lentia. 

Silence is either occasional.or habitual; it may arise 
from circumstances or character: taciturnity is mostly 
habitual, and springs from disposition. A loquacious 
man may be silent if he has no one to speak to him, 
and a prudent man will always be silent where he 
finds that. speaking would be dangerous: a taciturn 
man, on the other hand, may occasionally make an 
effort to speak, but he never speaks, without an effort 
When silence is habitual, it does not spring from an 
unamiable character; but tactturnity has always its 
source in a vicious temper of the mind. A silent man 
may frequently contracta habit of stlence from thought- 
fulness, modesty, or the fear of offending: a man is 
taciturn only from the sullenness and gloominess of 
his temper Habits of retirement render men silent; 
savages seldom break their silence; company will not 
correct tactturnity, but rather increase it. ‘The ob- 
server is necessarily sz/ent; if he speaks, it is only in 
order to observe: the melancholy man is naturally ta- 
citurn; if he speaks, it is with pain to himself. Seneca 
says, talk little with others and much with yourself; 
the silent man observes this precept ; the ¢aciturn man 
exceeds it; 

Silence is the perfectest herald of joy: 

I were but little happy, if I could say how much. 

SHAKSPEARE. 


‘Pythagoras enjoined his scholars in absolute szlence 
for a long novitiate. Iam far from approving such a 
taciturnity ; but I highly approve the end and intent of 
Pythagoras’ injunction.’.—CuHaTHAm. 


SILENT, DUMB, MUTE, SPEECHLESS. 


Not speaking is the common idea included in the 
signification of these terms, which differ either in the 
cause or the circumstance: silent (v. Silent) is alto- 
gether an indefinite and general term, expressing little 
more than the common idea. We may be silent 


* V‘de Abbe Roubaud: “ Silencieux, taciturne.” 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


because We will not speak, or we may be silent because 
we cannot speak; but in distinction from the other 
terms it is always employed in the fermer case. Some- 
times it is also used figuratively to denote sending forth 
no sound ; 

And just before the confines of the wood, 

The gliding Lethe leads her silent flood. 

DRYDEN. 


umd, from the German dumm stupid or idiotick, de- 
notes a physical incapacity to speak: hence persons are 
said to be born dumd; they may likewise be dumb from 
temporary physical causes, as from grief, shame, and 
the like; or a person may be struck dumé ; ‘The truth 
of it is, half the great talkers in the nation would be 
struck dumb were this fountain of discourse (party 
lies) dried up.’— ADDISON. 
’T is listening fear and dumb amazement all. 
TuOMSON. 


Mute, in Latin mutus, Greek purrés from pdm to shut, 
signifies having a shut mouth, dr a temporary disability 
to speak from arbitrary and incidental causes: hence 
the office of mutes, or of persons who engage not to 
speak for a certain time ; and, in like manner, persons 
are said to be mute who dare not give utterance to 
their thoughts; 
Jdute was his tongue, and upright stood his hair. 
DRYDEN. 


Long mute he stood, and leaning on his staff, 
His wonder witness’d with an idiot laugh. 
DRYDEN. 


Speechless, or void of speech, denotes a physical inca- 
pacity to speak lrom incidental causes; as when a 
person falls down speechless in an apoplectick fit, or in 
consequence of a violent contusion ; 


But who can paint the lover as he stood, 

Piere’d by severe amazement, hating life, 

Speechless, and fix’d in all the death of wo. 
THOMEON. 


TO SPEAK, SAY, TELL. 


Speak, v. To speak; say, in Saxon seegan, German 
sagen, Latin seco or sequor, changed into dico, and 


Hebrew Priv to vociferate ; tel/, in Saxon taellan, Low 
German tellan, &c., is probably an onomatopeia in 
language. 

To speak may simply consist in uttering an articu- 
late sound; but to say is to communicate some idea 
by means of words: achild begins to speak the mo- 
ment itopens its lips to utter any acknowledged sound ; 
fut it will be some time before it can say any thing: a 
nerson is‘said to speak high or low, distinctly or indis- 
finctly; but he says that which is true or false, right or 
wrong: a dumb man cannot speak; a fool cannot say 
any thing that is worth hearing: we speak languages, 
we speak sense or nonsense, we speak intelligibly or 
unintelligibly; but we say what we think at the time. 
In an extended sense, speak may refer as much to sense 
as to sound; but then it applies only to general cases, 
and say to particular and passing circumstances of life: 
it is a great abuse of the gift of speech not to speak the 
truth; it is very culpable ina person to say that he will 
do a thing and not to do it. 

To say and tell are both the ordinary actions of men 
in their daily intercourse; but say is very partial, it 
“may comprehend single, unconnected sentences, or even 
single words: we may say yes or no; but we ¢edl that 
which is connected, and which forms more or less of a 
narrative. To say is to communicate that which 
passes in our own minds, to express our ideas and 
feelings as they rise; to tell is to communicate events 
or circumstances respecting ourselves or others: it is 
not good to let children say foolish things for the sake 
of talking; it is still worse for them to be encouraged 
in telling every thing they hear: when every one is 
allowed to sey what he likes and what he thinks, there 
will commonly be more speakers than hearers; those 
who accustom themselves to tell long stories impose a 
iax upon others, which is not repaid by the pleasure of 
their company. 

Men’s reputations depend upon wnat others say of 
them ; reports are spread by means of one man telling 
another; ‘ He that questioneth much shall learn much, 
and content much for he shall give occasion a those 


465 


whom he asketh to please themselves in speaking.’ — 
Bacon. } 
Say, Yorke (for sure, if any, thou canst felt), 
W hat virtue is, who practise it so well. 
JENYNS. 


NEWS, TIDINGS. 


News implies uy thing new that is related or circu 
lated; but tidings, from tide, signifies that which flows 
in periodically like the t¢de, and comes in at the mo- 
ment the thing happens. WVews is unexpected; it 
serves to gratify idle curiosity; ‘I wonder that in the 
present situation of affairs you can take pleasure in 
writing any thing but news.—Sprctrator. Tidings 
are expected ; they serve to allay anxiety; 

Too soon some demon to my father bore 
The tidings that his heart with anguish tore 
FALCONER 
In time of war the publick are eager after news; and 


they who have relatives in the army are anxious to 
have tidings of them. 


TO REPEAT, RECITE, REHEARSE, 
RECAPITULATE. 


The idea of going over any words, or actions, is 
common to all these terms. Repeat, from the Latin 
repeto to seek, or go over again, is the general term 
including only the common idea, To recite, rehearse 
and recapitulate, are modes of repetition, conveying 
each some accessory idea. To recite is to repeat ina 
formal manner; to rehearse is to repeat or recite by 
way of preparation; to recapitulate is to repeat in a 
minute and specifick manner. We repeat both actions 
and words; we recite only words: we repeat single 
words, or even sounds; we recite always a form of 
words: we vepeat our own words, or the words of an- 
other; we recite only the words of another: we repeat 
aname; we recite an ode, or aset of verses: we repeat 
for purposes of general convenience; we recite for the 
convenience or amusement of others; we rehearse for 
some specifick purpose, either for the amusement. of¢ 
instruction of others: we recapitulate for the instruc 
tion of others. One repeats that which he wishes to 
be heard ; 


I could not half those horrid crimes repeat, 
Nor half the punishments those crimes have met. 
DRYDEN 


A piece of poetry is recited before a company 
‘Whenever the practice of recttation was disused, the 
works, whether poetical or historical, perished with 
the authors.’—Jounson. <A piece is rehearsed in pri- 
vate, which is intended to be reczted in publick ; 


Now take your turns, ye muses, to rehearse 
His friend’s complaints, and mighty magick verse. 
DRYDEN 


One recapitulates the general heads of that which we 
have already spoken in detail; ‘The parts of a judge 
are to direct the evidence to moderate length, repetition, 
or impertinency of speech, to recapitulate, select, and 
collate the material points of that which has been 
said..—Bacon. A master must always repeat to hig 
scholars the instruction which he wishes them to re- 
member; Homer is said to have recited his verses in 
different parts; players rehearse their different parts 
before they perform in publick; ministers recapitulate 
the leading points in their discourse. 

To repeat is commonly to use the same words; tc 
recite, to rehearse, and to recapitulate, do not neces 
sarily require any verbal sameness. We repeat lite- 
rally what we hear spoken by another; but we recite 
and rehearse events; and we recapitulate in a concise 
manner what has been uttered in a particular manner. 
An echo repeats with the greatest possible precision; 
Homer recites the names of all the Grecian and Trojan 
leaders, together with the names and account of their 
countries, and the number of the forces which they 
commanded; Virgil makes Aineas to rehearse before 
Dido and her courtiers the story of the capture of 
Troy, and his own adventures; a judge recapitulates 
evidence to a jury. : 

To repeat, recite, and recapitulate are employed in 
writing, as well as in speaking; rehearse is only a 
mode of speaking. It is sometimes a beauty in style to 


\ 


466 


repeat particular words on certain occasions; an his- 
torian finds it necessary fo recapitulate the principal 
events of any particular period. 


REPETITION, TAUTOLOGY. 


Repetition is to tautology as the genus to the species: 
the latter being a species of vicious repetition. There 
may be frequent repetitions which are warranted by 
necessity or convenience; but tautology is that which 
nowise adds to either the sense or the sound. A repe- 
tition may, or may not, consist of literally the same 
words; but tautology, from the Greek ravro the same, 
and \éyos a word, supposes such a sameness in ex- 
pression, as renders the signification the same. Inthe 
liturgy of the church of England there are some repe- 
titions, which add to the solemnity of the worship; in 
most extemporary prayers there is much tautology, 
that destroys the religious effect of the whole; ‘That 
is truly and really tawtology, where the same thing is 
repeated, though under never so much variety of ex- 
pression.’—SourTu. 


TO RELATE, RECOUNT, DESCRIBE. 


Relate, in Latin relatus, participle of referro, sig- 
nifies to bring that to the notice of others which has 
before been brought to our own notice; recount is pro- 
perly to count again, or count over again; describe, 
from the Latin scrido 1o write, is literally to write 
down. 

The idea of giving an account of events or circum- 
stances is common to all these terms, which differ in 
the object and circumstances of the action. Relate is 
said generally of all events, both of those which con- 
cern others as well as ourselves; 


O Muse! the causes and the crimes 7elate, 
What goddess was provok’d, and whence her hate. 
DRYDEN. 


Recount is said particularly of those which concern 
ourselves, or in which we are interested ; 


To recount Almighty works 
What words or tongue of seraph can suffice ? 
MILTON. 


Those who relate all they hear often relate that which 
never happened; it is a gratification to an old soldier 
to recount all the transactions in which he bore a part 
during the military career of his early youth. Events 
are related that have happened at any period of time 
immediate or remote; one recounts mostly those things 
which have been long passed: in recounting, the 
memory reverts to past scenes, and counts over all 
that has deeply interested the mind. ‘Travellers are 
pleased to relate to their friends whatever they have 
seen remarkable in other countries; the recounting of 
our adventures in distant regions of the globe has a 
peculiar interest for all who hear them. We may re- 
late either by writing or by word of mouth; we recount 
only by word of mouth: writers of travels sometimes 
give themselves a latitude in relating more than they 
have either heard or seen; he who recounts the ex- 
ploits of heroism, which he has either witnessed or 
performed, will alwavs meet with a delighted au- 
dience. 

Relate and recount are said of that only which 
passes; describe is said of that which exists: we re- 
late the particulars of our journey; and we describe 
the country we pass through. Personal adventure is 
always the subject of a relation; the quality and con- 
dition of things are those of the description. We 
relate what happened on meeting a friend; we describe 
the dress of the parties, or the ceremonies which are 
usual on particular occasions; ‘In describing a rough 
torrent or deluge, the numbers should run easy and 
flowing.’—Porr. 


RELATION, RECITAL, NARRATION. 


Relation, from the verb relate, denotes the act of 
relating; recital, from recite, denotes the act of re- 
citing ; narrative, from narrate, denotes the thing 
narrated. Relation is here, as in the former para- 
graph (v. To relate), the general, and the others parti- 
cular terms. elation applies to every object which 
is related, whether of a publick or private, a national 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


or an individual nature; history is the relation of 
national events; biography is the relation of particulat 
lives; ‘Those relations are commonly of most value 
in which the writer tells his own story.—Joungon. 
Recital is the relation or repetition of actual or existing 
circumstances; we listen to the recital of misfortunes, 
distresses, and the like; ‘Old men fall easily into re- 
citals of past transactions.’—Jounson. The relation 
may concern matters of indifference; the recital is 
always of something that affects the interests of some 
individual: the pages of the journalist are filled with 
the relation of daily occurrences which simply amuse 
in the reading; but the recital of another’s woes often 
draws tears from the audience to whom it is made. 

Relation and recital are seldom employed but in 
connexion with the object related or recited ; narrative 
is mostly used by itself: -B&nce we say the relation of 
any particular circumstance; the recztal of any one’s 
calamities; but an affecting narrative, or a simple 
narrative; ‘Cynthia was much taken with my nar 
rative. —TATLER. 


MEMOIRS, CHRONICLES, 
ANNALS. 


Anecdote, from the Greek dvéxdoros, signifies what 
is communicated in a private Way ; memoirs, in French 
memotres, from the word memory, signifies what serves 
to help the memory; chronicle, in French chronicle, 
from the Greek xpévos time, signifies an account of the 
times; annals, trom the French annales, the Latin 
annus a year, signifies a detail of what passes in the 
year. 

All these terms mark a species of narrative more or 
less connected, that may serve as materials for a re 
gular history. 

Anecdotes consist of persenal or detached circum- 
stances of a publick or private nature, involving one 
subject or more. . Anecdotes ‘may be either moral or 
political, literary or biographical; they may serve as 
characteristicks of any individual, or of any particular 
nation or age; ‘I allude to those papers in which J 
treat of the literatare of the Greeks, carrying down 
my history in a chain of anecdotes from the earliest 
poets to the death of Menander.’—CumBERLAND 

Memoirs may include anecdotes, as far as they are 
connected with the leading subject on which they 
treat; memoirs are rather connected than complete; 
they are a partial narrative respecting an individual, 
and comprehending matter of a publick or private 
nature; they serve as memorials of what ought not tc 
be forgotten, and lay the foundation either for a history 
or a life; ‘Cesar gives us nothing but memoirs of his 
own times.’—CULLEN. ; ‘ 

Chronicles and annals are altogether of a publick 
nature; and approach the nearest to the regular and 
genuine history. Chronicles register the events as they 
pass; annals digest them into order, as they occur in 
the course of the year. Chronicles are minute as to 
the exact point of time; annals only preserve o 
general order within the period of a year. 

Chronicles detail the events of small as well as larg¢ 
communities, as of particular districts and cities 
annals detail only the events of nations. Chronicles 
include domestick incidents or such things as concern 
individuals. The word annals, in its proper sense, 
relates only to such things as affect the great body of 
the publick, but it is frequently employed in an im- 
proper sense. Chronicles may be confined to simple 
matter of fact; annals may enter into the causes and 
consequences of events; ‘His eye was so piercing 
that, as ancient chronicles report, he could blunt the 
weapons of his enemies only by looking at them ® - 
JOHNSON. 


Could you with patience hear, or I relate, 

O nymph! the tedious annals of our fate, 

Through such a train of woes if [ should run 

The day would sooner than the tale be done. 

Dryopen. 
Anecdotes require point and vivacity, as they seem 

rather to amuse than instruct; the grave historian will 
always use them with caution; memoirs require au- 
thenticity; chronicles require accuracy; annals re- 
quire clearness of narration, method in the disposition, 
impartiality in the representation, with almost every 
requisite that constitutes the true historian. 


ANECDOTES, 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


Anecdotes and memoirs are of more modern use: 
chronicles and annals were frequent in former ages; 
they were the first historick monuments which were 
stamped with the impression of the simple, frank, and 
rude manners of early times. The chronicles of our 
present times are principally to be found in newspapers 
and magazines; the annals in annual registers or 
retrospects 


ACCOUNT, NARRATIVE, DESCRIPTION, 


Account, v. Account, reckoning ; narrative, from 
narrate, is in Latin narratus, participle of narro or 
gnarro, signifies that which is made known; descrip- 
tion, from describe, in Latin describo, or de and scribo, 
signifies that which is written-down. 

Account is the most geaeral of these terms; what- 
ever is noted as worthy of -emark is an account; nar- 
rative is an account narrated ; description an account 
described. : 

Account has no reference to the person giving the 
account; a narrative must have a narrator; a de- 
scription must have a describer. An account may 
come from one or several quarters, or no specified 
quarter; but a narrative and description bespeak 
themselves as the production of some individual. 

An account may be the statement of a single fact 
only ; a narrative must always consist of several con- 
nected incidents; a description of several unconnected 
particulars respecting some common object. 

An account and a description may be communicated 
either verbally or in writing; a narrative is mostly 
Written. 

An account may be given of political events, natural 
phenomena, and domestick occurrences; as the sign- 
ing of a treaty, the march of an army, the death and 
funeral of an individual; ‘A man of business, in good 
company, who gives an account of his abilities and 
despatches, is hardly more insupportable than her they 
vall anotable woman.’—STrete. Anarrativeismostly 
personal, respecting the adventures, the travels, the 
dangers, and the escapes of some particular person ; 
*Few narratives will, either to men or women, appear 
more incredible than the histories of the Amazons.’— 
Jounson. A description does not so much embrace 
occurrences, as characters, appearances, beauties, de- 
fects, and attributes in general; ‘Most readers, I be- 
lieve, are more charmed with Milton’s description of 
paradise than of hell.—Appison. 

Accounts from the armies are anxiously locked for 
in time of war. Whenever a narrative is interesting, 
it is a species of reading eagerly sought after. The 
descriptions which are given of the eruptions of vol- 
canoes are calculated to awaken a strong degree of 
curiosity. An account may be false or true; a narra- 
tive Clear or confused; a description lively or dull. 


FABLE, TALE, NOVEL, ROMANCE. 


Fable, in Latin fabula, from for to speak or tell, and 
tale, from to tell, both designate a species of narration ; 
novel, in Italian novella, is an extended tale that has 
novelty; romance, from the Italian romanzo, is a won- 
derful ¢ale, or a tale cf wonders, such as was most in 
vogue in the dark ages of European literature. 

Different species of composition are expressed by the 
above words. The fadle is allegorical; its actions are 
natural, but its agents are mostly imaginary; ‘ When 
f travelled, I took a particular delight in hearing the 
songs and fables that are come from father to son, and 
are most in vogue among the common people.’--A DDI- 
son. The tale is fictitious, but not imaginary; both 
the agents and actions are drawn from the passing 
scenes of life; 


Of Jason, Theseus, and such worthies old, 
Light seem the tales antiquity has told —WaALLER. 


Gods and goddesses, animals and men, trees, vege- 
tables, and inanimate objects in general, may be made 
the agents of a fable: but of a tale, properly speaking, 
only men or supernatural spirits can be the agents: of 
the former description are the celebrated fables of 
#ésop; and of thie latter the tales of Marmontel, the 
ales of the Genii, the Chinese tales, &c. Fables are 
written for instruction; tales principally for amuse- 
ment: fables consist mostly of only one incident or 
setion. fram which a moral may be drawn, tales 


461 


always of many, which excite an interest for an in 
dividual. 

The tale when compared with the novel is a simple 
kind of fiction, it consists of but few persons in the 
drama; while the novel on the contrary admits of 
every possible variety in characters: the tale is told 
without much art or contrivance to keep the reader in 
suspense, without any depth of plot or importance in 
the; catastrophe; the novel affords the greatest scope 
for exciting an interest by the rapid succession of 
events, the involvements of interests, and the unravel 
ling of its plots; ‘A novel conducted upon one uniform 
plan, containing a series of events in familiar life, is in 
effect a protracted comedy not divided into acts.’— 
CumMBERLAND. If the novel awakens the attention, 
the romance rivets the whole mind and engages the 
affections; it presents nothing but what is extraordi- 
nary and calculated to fill the imagination: of the 
former description, Cervantes, La Sage, and Fielding 
have given us the best specimens; and of the latter 
we have the best modern specimens from the pen of 
Mrs, Radcliffe; ‘In the romances formerly written, 
every transaction and sentiment was so remote from 
all that passes among men, that the reader was in 
little danger of making any application to himself.’- 
JOHNSON. 


ANECDOTE, STORY, TALE. 


Anecdote, v. Anecdotes; story, like history, comes 
from the Greek icropéw to relate. 

An anecdote (v. Anecdotes) has but little incident, and 
no plot: a story may have many incidents, and an im- 
portant catastrophe annexed to it, the word story being 
a contraction of history: there are many anecdotes re- 
lated of Dr. Johnson, some of which are of a trifling na- 
ture, and others characteristick; stories are generally 
told to young people of ghosts and visions, which are 
calculated to act on their fears. 

An anecdote is pleasing and pretty ; a story is fright- 
ful or melancholy: an anecdote always consists of some 
matter of fact; a story is founded on that which is real. 
Anecdotes are related of some distinguished persons, 
displaying their characters or the circumstances of their 
lives; ‘How admirably Rapin, the most popular 
among the French criticks, was qualified to sit in judge- 
ment upon Homer and Thucydides, Demosthenes and 
Plato, may be gathered from an anecdote preserved by 
Menage, who affirms upon his own knowledge that Le 
Fevre and Saumur furnished this assuming tritick with 
the Greek passages which he had to cite, Rapin himself 
being totally ignorant of that language.—WarrTon. 
Stories from life, however striking and wonderful, will 
seldom impress so powerfully.as those which are drawn 
from the world of spirits; ‘ This story I once intended 
to omit, as it appears with no great evidence ; nor have 
Imet with any confirmation butin.a letter of Farquhar, 
and he only relates that the funeral of Dryden was tu- 
multuary and confused..—JoHnson. Anecdotes serve 
to amuse men, stories to amuse children. 

The story is either an actual fact, or something feign- 
ed; the tale is always feigned: stories are circulated 
respecting the accidents and occurrences which happen 
to persons in the same place ; tales of distress are told 
by many merely to excite compassion. When both 
are taken for that which is fictitious, the story is either 
an untruth, or falsifying of some fact, or it is altogether 
an invention; the tale is always an invention. As 
an untruth, the story is commonly told by children; 
and as a fiction, the story is commonly made for 
children ; 

Meantime the village rouses up the fire, 

While well attested, and as well believed, 


Heard solemn, goes the goblin story round. 
THOMSON. 


The tale is of deeper invention, and serves for a more 
serious end, good or bad ; 
He makes that pow’r to trembling nations known, 


But rarely this, not for each vulgar end, 
As superstitious idle tales pretend.—JENYNS. 


CAST, TURN, DESCRIPTION, CHARACTER. 

Cast, from the verb to cast (v. To cast), signifies that 
which is cast, and here, by an extension of the sense, 
the farm in which it is cast; turn, from the verb te 


468 


surn, signifies also the act cf turning, or the manner of 
turning ; description signifies the act of describing, or 
the thing which is to be described; character is that 
by which the character is known or determined (v. 
Character). b 

What is cast is artificial; what turns is natural: the 
former is the act of some foreign agent; the latter is 
the act of the subject itself: hence the cast, as applica- 
ble to persons, respects that which they are made by cir- 
cumstances; the turn, that which they are by them- 
selves: thus there are religious casts in India, that is, 
men cast in a certain form of religion; and menof a 
particular moral cast, that is, such as are cast in a par- 
ticular mould as respects their thinking and acting; so 
in like manner men of a particular turn, that is, as re- 
spects their inclinations and tastes ; ‘ My mind is of such 
a particular cast, that the falling of a shower of rain, 
or the whistling of the wind at such atime (the night 
season) is apt to fill my thoughts with something awful 
and solemn.’-—Appison. ‘‘lhere isa very odd turn of 
thought required for this sort of writing (the fairy way 
of writing, as Dryden calls it) ; and it is impossible for 
a poet to succeed in it, who has not a particular cast of 
fancy..—Appison. Description is a term less definite 
than either of the two former; it respects all that may 
be said of a person, but particularly that which distin- 
guishes a man from others, either in his mode of think- 
ing or acting, in his habits, in his manners, in his lan- 
guage, or his taste; ‘Christian statesmen think that 
those do not believe Christianity who do not care it 
should be preached tothe poor. But as they know that 
charity is not confined to any description, they are not 
deprived of a due and anxious sensation of pity to the 
distresses of the miserable great. —Burug. The cha- 
racter in this sense is a species of description, namely, 
the description of the prominent features by which an 
object is distinguished ; 

Each drew fair characters, yet none 
Of those they feign’d excels their own. 
DENHAM.. 


The cast is that which marks a man to others; the 
turn is that which may be known only to a man’s self; 
the description or character is that by which he is de- 
scribed or made known to others. . 

The cast is that which is fixed and unchangeable; 
the turn is that which may be again turned ; and the 
description or character is that which varies with the 
circumstances. 


LIST, ROLL, CATALOGUE, REGISTER. 


List, in French liste, and German liste, comes from 
the German l/ezsée a last, signifying in general any long 
and narrow body; roll signifies in general any thing 
rulied up, particularly paper with its written contents ; 
catalogue, in Latin catalogus, Greek xarddoyos, from 
katadéyw to write down, signifies a written enumera- 
tion; register comes from the Latin verb regero (v. 
To enrol). 

A collection of objects brought into some kind of 
order is the common idea included in the signification 
of these terms. ‘The contents and disposition of a list 
is the most simple; it consists of little more than names 
arranged under one another in a long narrow line, as a 
list of words, a list of plants and flowers, a list of 
voters, a list of visits, a list of deaths, of births, of 
marriages ; ‘After I had read over. the list of the per- 
sons elected into the Tiers Etat, nothing which they 
afterward did could appear astonishing.’.—Burke. 
Roll, which is figuratively put for the contents of a roll, 
1s a list rolled up for convenience, asa long roll of 
saints; ‘It appears from the ancient rolls of parlia- 
ment, and from the manner of choosing the lords of ar- 
ticles, that the proceedings of that high court must 
have been in a great measure under their direction.’-— 
Rozertson. Catalogue involves more details than a 
simple list ; itspecifies not only names, but dates, quali- 
ties, andcircumstances. A list of books contains their 
titles: a catalogue of books contains an enumeration 
of their size, price, number of volumes, edition, &c. ; 
a roll of saints simply specifies their names; a cata- 
logue of saints enters into particulars of their ages, 
teaths, &c. ; 


Ay! in the catalogue ye go for men, 
As hounds, and greyhounds, mongrels, spaniels, curs, 
All by the name of dogs.—SHAKSPEARE. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


A register contains more than eitner; for it contains 
events, with dates, actors, &c. in all matters of public 
interest ; I am credibly informed by an antiquary who 
has searched the registers, that the maids of honour, in 
Queen Elizabeth’s time, were allowed three rumps of 
beef for their breakfast..—Appison. 


TO ENROL, ENLIST OR LIST, REGISTER, 
- RECORD. 


Enrol, compounded of enor in and roll, signifies to 
place ina ro}l, that is, ina roll of paper or a book; enlist, 
compounded of zn and list, signifies to put down in a 
list; register is in Latin registrum, from regestum, 
participle of regero, signifying to put down in writing ; 
record, in Latin recordor, compounded of re back or 
again, and cor the heart, signifies to bring back to the 
heart, or call to mind by a memorandum. 

Enrol and enlist respect persons only: register re 
spects persons and things; record respects things only 
Enrol is generally applied to the act of inserting names 
in an orderly manner into any book; ‘ Anciently no 
man was suffered to abide in England above forty days, 
unless he were enrolled in some tithing or decennary ’ 
—BLAcKsToNE. Enlist is a species of enrolling ap- 
plicable only to the military, or persons intended for 
military purposes ; ‘The lords would, by listing their 
own servants, persuade the gentlemen of the town to 
do the like.—Cutarrenpon. The enrolment is an act 
of authority ; the enlésting is the voluntary act of an in- 
dividual. Among the Romans it was the office of the 
censor to enrol the names of all the citizens in order to 
ascertain their number, and estimate their property 
In modern times soldiers are mostly raised by means 
of enlisting. : 

In the moral application of the terms, to enrol is to 
assign a certain place or rank: to enlist is to put one’s 
self under a leader, or attach one’s self to a party. 
Hercules was enrolled among the gods; ‘ We find our- 
selves enrolled in this heavenly family as servants and 
as sons.—Sprat. The common people are always 
ready to enlist on the side of anarchy and rebellion; 
‘ The time never was when I would have enlisted under 
the banners of any faction, though [ might have carried 
a pair of colours, if I had not spurned thein, in either 
legion.’—Sir Wm. Jonzs. 

To enrol and register both imply writing down in a 
book; but the former is a less formal act than the latter 
The insertion of the bare name or designation in a cer 
tain order is enough to constitute an enrolment. Re- 
gistering comprebends the birth, family, and other col 
lateral circumstances of the individual. The object of 
registering likewise differs from that of enrolling 
What is registered serves for future purposes and is of 
permanent utility to society in general; but what is en 
rolled often serves only a particular or temporary end 
Thus in numbering the people it is necessary simply to 
enrol their names ; but when in addition to this it was 
necessary, as among the Romans, to ascertain their 
rank in the state, every thing connected with their pro- 
perty, their family, and their connexions required to be 
registered. So in like manner in more modern times, 
it has been found necessary for the good government 
of the state to register the births, marriages, and deaths 
of every citizen. It is manifest, therefore, that what is 
registered, as far as respects persons, may be said to be 
enrolled ; but what is enrolled isnot always registered ; 
‘T hope you take care to keep an exact journal, and to 
register all occurrences and observations, for your 
friends here expect such a book of travels as has not 
often been seen.’—JOHNSON. 

Register, in regard tu record, has a no less obvious 
distinction: the former is used for domestick and civit 
transactions, the latter for publick and political events 
What is registered serves for the daily purnoses of the 
community collectively and individually ; what is re 
corded is treasured up in a special manner for parti- 
cular reference and remembrance at a distant period. 
The number or namesof streets, houses, carriages, and 
the like, are registered in different offices; the deeds 
and documents which regard grants, charters, privileges, 
and the like, either of individuals or particular towns, 
are recorded in the archives of nations. To record is, 
therefore, a formal species of registering: we register 
when we record, but we do not always record when 
weregister; ‘The medals of the Romans were their 
current money ; when an action deserved to be recorded 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


m coin, it was stamped perhaps upon a hundred 
thousand pieces of money, like our shillings or half 
pence.’—AppIson. 

In an extended and figurative application things may 
be said to be registered in the memory, or events re- 
corded in history. We have a right to believe that the 
actions of good men are registered in heaven, and that 
their names are enrolled among the saints and angels; 
the particular sayings and actions of princes are re- 
corded in history, and handed down to the latest pos- 
terity. 


RECORD, REGISTER, ARCHIVE. 


Record is taken for the thing recorded; register, 
either for the thing registered, or the place in which it 
is registered ; archive, mostly for the place, and some- 
times for the thing. The records are either historical 
details, or short notices; the registers are but short 
notices of particular and local circumstances; the ar- 
chives are always connected with the state. Every 
place of antiquity has its records of the different cir- 
cumstances which have been connected with its rise 
and progress, and the various changes which it has 
experienced. In publick registers we find accounts of 
families, and of their various connexions and fluctua- 
tions; in publick archives we find all legal deeds and 
instruments, which involve the interests of the nation, 
both in its internal and external economy. 


TO CALL, BID, SUMMON, INVITE. 


Call, in its abstract and original sense, signifies simply 
to give an expression of the voice, in which it agrees 
with the German schall, Swedish skalla a sound, Greek 


xadéw to call, Hebrew 575 the voice; bid and invite 


have the same derivation as explained in the preceding 
article; summon, in French sommer, changed from 
summoner, Latin submoneo, signifies to give private 
notice. 

The ideaof signifying one’s wish to another to do 
any thing is included in all these terms. 

To call is not confined to any particular sound; we 
may call by simply raising the voice: to znvite is not 
even confined to sounds; we may invite by looks, or 
signs, or even by writing: to bid and summon require 
the express use of words. The actions of calling and 
inviting are common to animals as well as men: the 
sheep call their young when they bleat, and the oxen 
their companions when they low; cats and other fe- 
males among the brutes invite their young to come out 
from their bed when it is proper for them to begin to 
walk; to did and summon are altogether confined to 
human beings. 

Call and bid are direct addresses: to invite and sum- 
mon may pass through the medium of a second person. 
I call or bid the person whom I wish to come, but I 
send him a summons or invitation. 

Calling of itself expresses no more than the simple 
desire; but according to circumstances it may be made 
to express a command or entreaty. When equals call 
each other, or inferiours call their superiours, it 
amounts simply to a wish; ‘ Ladronius, that famous 
captain, was called up and told by his servants that the 
general was fled.—Know.rs. When the dam calls 
her young it amounts to supplicating entreaty; but 
when a father calls his son, or a master his servant, it 
is equivalent toa command: ‘ Why came not the slave 
back when I called him?’—Snaxspeare. To bid ex- 
presses either a command or an entreaty: when supe- 
tiours bid itis a positive command ; 


Saint Withold footed thrice the wold ; 
He met the night-mare and her ninefold, 
Bid her alight and her troth plight—SHAaksPEARE. 


When equals dd it is an act of civility, particularly in 
the phrases to bid welcome, to bid God speed, to bid 
farewell, and the like, which, though they may be used 
by superiours, are nevertheless terms of kindness and 
equality ; 

T am did forth to supper, Jessica ; 

There are my keys.—SHAKSPEARE. 


To summon is always imperative; to invite always in 
the spirit of kindness and courtesy. Persons in all 
-tations of life have occasion to call each other; but 
‘tisan action most befitting the superiour; to bid and 


468 


invite are alike the actions of supeiiours and equals. 
to summon is the act of a superiour only. 

Calling is mostly for the purpose of dtawing the 
object to or from a person or another object, whence 
the phrases to call up, or to call off, &c. Bidding, as 
acommand, may be employed for what we wish to be 
done; but bidding in the sense of an invitation is em- 
ployed for drawing the object to our place of residence. 
Inviting is employed for either purpose. Summoning 
is an act of authority, by which a person is obliged to 
make his appearance at a given place. 

These terms preserve the same distinction in their 
extended and figurative acceptation ; 


In a deep vale, or near some ruin’d wall, ; 
He would the ghosts of slaughter’d soldiers call. 
DRYDEN. 


‘Be not amazed, call all your senses to you, defend 
my reputation, or bid farewell to your good life for 
ever.”—SuAKsPeaRE. ‘The soul. makes use of her 
memory to cad/to mind what sheis to treat of.’—-Duppa. 


The star that b¢ds the shepherd fold, 
Now the top of heaven doth hold.—Mitron. 


This minute may be mine, the next another's; 

But still all mortals ought to wait the summons. 
SMITH. 

Still follow where auspicious fates invite, 

Caress the happy, and the wretched slight—Lrwis. 


TO CITE, SUMMON. 


Cite, v. To cite, quote; sumgnon, in French sommer, 
Latin summoneo or submoneo, compounded of sub and 
moneo, signifies to give a private intimation. 

The idea of calling a person authoritatively to appear 
is common to these terms. Cite is used in a general 
sense, summon in a particular and technical sense: a 
person may be cited to appear before his superiour; he 
is summoned to appear before a court: the station of 
the individual gives authority to the act of citing; the 
law itself gives authority to that of summoning. 

When cite is used in a legal sense, it is mostly em- 
ployed for witnesses, and swmmon for every occasion: 
a person is cited to give evidence, he is summoned to 
answer acharge. Cite is seldomer used in the legal 
sense than in that of calling by name, in which general 
acceptation it is employed with regard to authors, as 
specified in the succeeding article: it may, however, be 
sometimes used in a general sense ; 


F’en social friendship duns his ear, 
And cites him to the publick sphere.—SHENSTONE. 


The legal is the ordinary sense of summon; it may, 
however, be extended in its application to any call for 
which there may be occasion; as when we speak of 
the summons which is given to attend the death-bed of 
a friend, or, figuratively, death is said to swmmon mor 
tals from this world; 


The sly enchantress summon’d all her train, 
Alluring Venus, queen of vagrant love, 

The boon companion Bacchus, loud and vain, 

And tricking Hermes, god of fraudful gain—Wes¥ 


TO CITE, QUOTE. 
Cite and quote are both derived from the same Latin 


verb cito to move, and the Hebrew yj to stir up, sig- 
nifying to put in action. 

To cite is employed for persons or things; to quote 
for things only: authors are cited; passages from their 
works are quoted ; we cite only by authority ; we quote 
for general purposes of convenience. Historians ought 
to cite their authority in order to strengthen their evi- 
dence and inspire confidence; ‘'The great work of 
which Justinian has the credit, consists of texts col- 
lected from law books of approved authority; and 
those texts are adjusted according to a scientifical ana- 
lysis; the names of the original authors and the titles 
of their several books being constantly cited.’—Sir 
Ww. Jongs. Controversialists must guote the objection- 
able passages in those works which they wish to con- 
fute: it is prudent to céte no one whose authority is 
questionable ; it is superfluous to quote any thing that 
can be easily perused in the original ; ‘ Let us consider 
what is truly glorious according to the author I have 
to-day quoted in the front of my paper.’—-STEELE 


470 
NOISE, CRY, OUTCRY, CLAMOUR. 


Noise is any loud sound; cry, outcry, and clamour 
are particular kinds of noises, differing either in the 
cause or the nature of the sounds. A noise proceeds 
either from animate or inanimate objects; the cry pro- 
ceeds only from animate objects. The report of a 
cannon, or the loud sounds occasioned by a high wind, 
are noises, but notcries ; 


Nor was his ear less peal’d 
With noises loud and ruinous.—Mi.ron. 


Cries issue from birds, beasts, and men; 


From either host, the mingled shouts and cries 
Of Trojans and Rutilians rend the skies.—Dryprn. 


A noise is produced often by accident ; a cry is always 
occasioned by some particular circumstance: when 
many horses and carriages are going together, they 
make a great noise; hunger and pain cause cries to 
proceed both from animals and human beings. 

Noise, when compared with cry, is sometimes only 
an audible sound; the cry is a very loud noise; what- 
ever disturbs silence, as the falling of a pin in a per- 
fectly still assembly, is denominated a noise; but acry 
is that which may often drown other noises, as the cries 
of people selling things about the streets. A cry is in 
general a regular sound, but outcry and clamour are 
irregular sounds; the former may proceed from one or 
many, the latter from many in conjunction. <A cry 
after a thief becomes an outcry when set up by many 
at atime; it becomes a clamour, if accompanied with 
shouting, bawling, and noises of a mixed and tumultu- 
ous nature; 

And now great deeds 

Had been achiev’d, whereof all hell had rung, 

Had not the snaky sorceress that sat 

Fast by hell gate, and kept the fatal key, 

Ris’n, and with hideous outcry rush’d between. 

MILTON. 


Their darts with clamour at a distance drive, 
And only keep the languish’d war alive.—-Dryprn. 


These terms may all be taken in an improper as well 
as a proper sense. Whatever is obtruded upon the 
publick notice so as to become the universal subject of 
conversation and writing, is said to make a noise; in 
this manner a new and good performer at the theatre 
makes a noise on his first appearance; ‘ What noise 
have we had about transplantation of diseases, and 
transfusion of blood.’—Bakrr. ‘Socrates lived in 
Athens during the great plague, which has made so 
much noise through all ages, and never caught the in- 
fection.—AppIson. Noise andclamour may be for or 
against an object; ery and outcry are always against 
the object, varying in the degree and manner in which 
they display themselves: the c7y is less than the outcry, 
and this is less than the clamour. When the publick 
voice is raised in an audible manner against any par- 
ticular matter, it is a cry; if it be mingled with intem- 
perate language it is an owtcry; if it be vehement, and 
exceedingly notsy, itis a clamour. Partisans raise a 
cry in order to form a body in their favour; 


Amazement seizes all; the general cry 
Proclaims Laocoon justly doom’d to die-—Dryprn. 


The discontented are ever ready to set up an outcry 
against men in power; ‘ These outcries the magistrates 
there shun, since they are hearkened unto here.’— 
SPENSER (on Ireland). A clamour for peace in the 
time of war is easily raised by those who wish to 
thwart the government; ‘The people grew then exor- 
bitant in their clamours for justice..—CLARENDON. 


TO CRY, WEEP. 

Cry comes from the Greek xpaléw, and the Hebrew 
ae) to cry or call; weep, in Low German wapen, is a 
variation of whine, in German weinen, which is an 
onomatopela. An outward indication of pain is ex- 
pressed by both these terms, but the former compre- 
hends an audible expression accompanied or not with 
tears; the latter simply indicates the shedding of tears. 

Crying arises from an impatience in suffering corpo- 
real pains; children and weak people commonly cry: 
weeping is occasioned by mental grief; the wisest and 
best of men will not disdain sometimes to weep. 

Crying is as selfish as it is weak ; it serves to relieve 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES 


the pain of the individual to the annoyance of tne 
hearer ; 

The babe clung crying to his nurse’s breast, 

Scared at the dazzling helm and nodding crest 

Pore 

Weeping, when called forth by others’ sorrows, is an 
infirmity which no man would wish to be without; as 
an expression of generous sympathy it affords essential 
relief to the sufferer ; 


Thy Hector, wrapt in everlasting sleep, 
Shall neither hear thee sigh, nor see thee weep 
Pops. 


TO CRY, SCREAM, SHRIEK. 


Cry,v. To cry, weep; scream and shriek are varia: 
tions of cry. 

To cry indicates the utterance of an articulate or an 
inarticulate sound ; scream is a species of crying in the 
first sense of the word; shriek is aspecies of cry¢ng in 
its latter sense. 

Crying is an ordinary mode of loud utteraffce re- 
sorted to on Common occasions; one cries in order to 
be heard: screaming is an intemperate mode of crying, 
resorted to from an impatient desire to be heard, or 
from a vehemence of feeling. People scream to deaf 
people from the mistaken idea of making themselves 
heard; whereas a distinct articulation will always be 
more efficacious. It is frequently necessary to cry 
when we cannot render ourselves audible by any other 
means; but it is never necessary or proper to scream. 
Shriek may be compared with cry and scream, as ex- 
pressions of pain; in this case to shrick is more than 
to cry, and less than to scream. ‘They both signify to 
ery with a violent effort. We may cry from the slight 
est pain or inconvenience; but one shrieks or screams 
only on occasions of great agony, either corporeal or 
mental. A child cries when it has hurt its finger; it 
shrieksin the moment of terrour at the sight of a fright 
ful object; or screams until some one comes to its as- 
sistance. 

To cry is an action peculiar to: no age or sex; to 
scream and to shriek are the common actionsof women 
and children. Men cry, and children scream, for assist- 
ance; excess of pain will sometimes compel a man ts 
cry out; a violent alarm commonly makes females 
shriek ; 


Like a thin smoke he sees the spirit fly, 

And hears a feeble, lamentable cry.—Popr. 

Rapacious at the mother’s throat they fly, 

And tear the screaming infant from her breast 
THOMSON. 

The house is fill’d with loud laments and eries, 

And shrieks of women rend the vaulted throne. 

DRYDEN 


TO CRY, EXCLAIM, CALL. 


All these terms express a loud mode of speaking; 
which is all that is implied in the sense of the word 
cry, while in that of the two latter are comprehended 
accessory ideas. ; 

To exclaim, from the Latin exclamo or ex and clamo, 
to cry out or aloud, signifies te cry with an effort; cail 
comes from the Greek xa\éw. 

We cry from the simple desire of being heard at a 
distance: we exclaim from a sudden emotion or agita 
tion of mind. Asa cry bespeaks distress and trouble, 
an exclamation bespeaks surprise, grief, or joy. We 
cry commonly in a large assembly or an open space, 
but we may exclaim in conversation with an individual. 

To cry is louder and more urgent than to call. A 
man who is in danger of being drowned cries for help, 
he who wants to raise a load calls for assistance: a 
cry is a general or indirect address; a call is a particu- 
lar and immediate address. We cry to all or any whe 
may be within hearing; we call to an individual by 
name with a direct reference to him; 


There while you groan beneath the load of life, 
They cry, behold the mighty Hector’s wife !—Popg 
The dreadful day 
No pause of words admits, no dull delay ; 
Fierce Discord storms, Apollo loud exclaims, 
Fame calls, Mars thunders, and the field ’s +h flames. 
OPE 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


LOUD, NOISY, HIGHSOUNDING, 
CLAMOROUS. 


Loud is doubtless connected, through the medium of 
the Gerinan laut a sound, and lauschen to listen, with 
the Greek «Adw to hear, because sounds are the object 
of hearing: noisy, having a noise, like notsome and 
noxious, comes from the Latin noceo to hurt, signifying 


in general offensive, that is, to the sense of hearing, of | 


smelling, and the like: highsounding signifies the same 
as pitched upon an elevated key, so as to make a great 
noise, to be heard at a distance: clamorous, from the 
Latin clame to cry, signifies crying with a loud voice. 

Loud is here the generick term, since it signifies a 
great sound, which is the idea common to them all. As 
an epithet for persons, Zoud is mostly taken in an indif- 
ferent sense; all the others are taken for being. loud 
beyond measure: noisy is to be intemperately doud ; 
highsounding is only to be loud from the bigness of 
one’s words; clamorous is to be disagreeabiy and 
painfully loud. We must speak loudly tc a deaf per- 
son in order to make ourselves heard; 


The clowns, a boist’rous, rude, ungovern’d crew, 
With furious haste to the Joud summons flew. 
, DryDeENn. 


Children will be noisy at ‘all times if not kept under 
control ; 


O leave the noisy town.--DRYDEN, 


Flatterers are always highsounding in their eulogiums 
of those by whom they expect to be served; ‘I am 
touched with sorrow at the conduct of some few men, 
who have lent the authority of their highsounding 
names to the designs of men with whom they could 
not be acquainted.’—Burkr. Children will be cla- 
morous for what they want, if they expect io get it by 
dint of noise; they will be turbulent in case of refusal, 
if net under proper discipline ; 
Clam’rous around the royal hawk they fly. 
DRYDEN. 


{n the improper application, loud is taken in as bad a 
sense as the rest: the loudest praises are the least to be 
regarded: the applause of a mob is always noisy: 
highsounding titles serve only to excite contempt 
where there is not some corresponding sense: it is the 
business of an opposition party to be clamorous, 
which serves the purpose of exciting turbulence among 
the ignerant. 


TO NOMINATE, NAME. 


Nominate comes immediately from the Latin nomi- 
natus, participle of nomino: name comes from the 
Teutonick, &c. name, and both from the Latin nomen, 
&c. (v. To name). 

To nominate and to name are both to mention by 
name; but the former is to mention for a specifiek pur- 
pose; the latter is to mention for general purposes: 
persons only are nominated ; things as well as persons 
are named ; one nominazes a person in order to propose 
him, or appoint him, to an office; ‘ Elizabeth nomi- 
nated her commissioners to hear both parties.’—Ro- 
BERTSON. One names a person casually, in the course 
of conversation, or one names him in order to make 
some inquiry respecting him; 

Then Calchas (by Ulysses first inspir’d) 

Was urg’d to name whom th’ angry gods requir’d. 

DENHAM. 

To be nominated is a publick act; to be named is gene- 
rally private: one is nominated before an assembly; 
one is named inany place: to be nominated is always 
an honour; to be named is either honourable, or the 
contrary, according to the circumstances under which 
it is mentioned: a person is nominated as member of 
Parliament; he is named in terms of respect or other- 
wise whenever he is spoken of. 


TO NAME, CALL. 

Name is properly to pronounce some word, from the 
an nomen, Greek évona, Hebrew 19); call, v. To 
call. 

Both these words imply the direction of the sound to 
an object: but naming is confined to the use of some 
distinct and significant sound, calling is said of anv 


es 


471 


sound whatever: we may call without naming, but 
we cannot name without calling. A person is named by 
his name, whether proper, patronymick, or whatever 
ig usual; he is called according to the characteristicks 
by which he is distinguished. The emperour Tiberius 
was named Tiberius ; he was called a monster. Wil- 
liam the First of England is named William; he is 
called the Conqueror. Helen went three times round 
the wooden horse in order to discover the snare, and, 
with the hope of taking the Greeks by surprise, called 
their principal captains, naming them by their names, 
and counterfeiting the voices of their wives. Many 
ancient nations in naming any one called him the son 
of some one, as Richardson the son of Richard, and 
Robertson the son of Robert ; 


Some haughty Greek who lives thy tears to see, 
Imbitters all thy woes by naming me.—Porer. 
JT lay the deep foundations of a wall, 


And ZEnos, nam’d from me, the city call.—DRryDEN. 


NAME, APPELLATION, TITLE, 
DENOMINATION. 


Name, v. To name ; appellation, in French appella- 
tion, Latin appellatio, {rom appello to call, signifies 
that by which a person or thing is called; tztle, in 
French éitre, Latin titulws, from the Greek iw to hon- 
our, signifies that appellation which is assigned to any 
one for the purpose of honour ; denomination signifies 
that which denominates or distinguishes. 

Name isa generick term, the rest are specifick. What- 
ever word is employed to distinguish one thing from 
another is a name; therefore an appellation and a title 
is a name, but not vice versa ; 


Then on your name shall wretched mortals call, 
And offer’d victims at your altars fall—DRypEn. 


A name is either common or proper; an appellation 
is generally a common name given for some specifick 
purpose as characteristick. Several kings of France 
had the names of Charles, Louis, Philip, but one was 
distinguished with the appellation of Stammerer, an- 
other by that of the Simple, and a third by that of the 
Hardy, arising from particular characters or circum- 
stances; ‘The names derived from the profession of 
the ministry in the language of the present age, are 
made but the appellatives of scorn.’—Soutu. A wtle 
is a species of appellation, not drawn from any thing 
personal, but conferred asa ground of political dis 
tinction. An appellation may be often a term of re- 
proach; but a dle is always a mark of honour. An 
appellation is given to all objects, animate or inani- 
mate; a title is given mostly to persons, sometimes to 
things. A particular house may have the appellation 
of ‘the Cottage,’ or ‘ the Hall,’ as a particular person 
may have the title of Duke, Lord, or Marquis; ‘We 
generally find in tetles an intimation of some particu- 
lar merit that should recommend men to the high sta- 
tions which they possess.’ ADDISON. | 
Denomination is to particular bodies, what appella- 
tion is to an individual; namely, aterm of distinction, 
drawn from their peculiar character and circum- 
stances. ‘T'he Christian world is split into a number of 
different bodies or communities, under the denomina- 
tions of Catholicks, Protestants, Calvinists, Presbyte- 
rians, &¢. which have their origin in the peculiar form 
of faith and discipline adopted by these bodies; ‘{t has 
cost me much care and thought to marshal and fix the 
people under their proper denominations.’—Appison 


4 


TO NAME, DENOMINATE, STYLE, ENTITLE, 
DESIGNATE, CHARACTERIZE. 


To name (v. To name, call) signifies simply to give a 
name to, or to address or specify by the given name; 
‘T could name some of our acquaintance who have been 
obliged to trave ar as Alexandria in pursuit of 
money.’-—Mrercmorn (Letters of Cicero). To denomi 
nate is to give a specifick namz upon some specifick 
ground, or to distinguish by the name; ‘A fable in 
tragick or epick poetry is denominated simple when the 
events it contains follow each in an unbroken te. 
nour..—Warron. To style, from the noun style or 
manner (v. Diction, style), signifies to address by a 
svecifick name ; 


472 


Happy those times, 


When lords were styled fathers of families. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


To entitle is to give a specifick or appropriate name ; 
* Besides the Scripture, the books which they call eccle- 
siastical were thought not unwortby to be brought into 

ublick audience, and with that name they entitled the 
raoks which we term Apocryphal.,—Hooxrer. Adam 
named every thing; we denominate the man who 
drinks excessively ‘a drunkard;’ subjects sty2e their 
monarch ‘ His Majesty ;’ books are entitled according 
to the judgement of the author. 

To name, denominate, style, and entitle are the acts 
of conscious agents only. To designate, signifying to 
mark out, and characterize, signifying to form a cha- 
racteristick, are said only of things, and agree with the 
former only inasmuch as words may either designate 
or characterize: thus the word ‘capacity’ is said to 
designate the power of holding; and ‘ finesse’ charac- 
terizes the people by whom it was adopted; ' This is a 
plain designation of the Duke of Marlborough; one 
kind of stuff used to fatten land is called marle, and 
every one knows that borough is the name of town.’ 
—Swirt. ‘There are faces not only individual, but 
gentilitious and national. European, Asiatick, Chinese, 
African, and Grecian faces are charactertzed.’—AR- 
BUTHNOT. 


NAME, REPUTATION, REPUTE, CREDIT. 


NVame is here taken in the improper sense for a name 
acquired in publick by any peculiarity or quality in an 
object; reputation and repute, trom reputo or re and 
puto to think back, or in reference to some immediate 
object, signifies the state of being thought of by the 
publick, or held in publick estimation; credit (v. Credit) 
signifies the state of being believed or trusted in general. 

JVame implies something more specifick than repu- 
tation; and reputation something more substantial 
than name; a name may be acquired by some casualty 
or by some quality that has more show than-worth; 
reputation is acquired only by tine, and built only on 
merit: a name may be arbitrarily given, simply by way 
of distinction; reputation is not given, but acquired, 
or follows as a consequence of one’s honourable exer- 
tions. A physician sometimes gets a name by a single 
instance of professional skill, which by a combination 
of favourable circumstances he may convert to his 
own advantage in forming an extensive practice; but 
unless he have a commensurate degree of talent, this 
name will never ripen into a solid reputation ; 


Who fears not to do ill, yet fears the name, 
And, free from conscience, is a slave to fame. 
DENHAM. 


‘Splendour of reputation is not to be counted among 
the necessaries of life.,-—JoHNnson. 

Inanimate objects get a name, but reputation is ap- 
plied only to persons or that which is personal. Fashion 
is liberal in giving a name to certain shops, certain 
streets, certain commodities, as well as to certain trades- 
people, and thelike. Universities, academies, and pub- 
lick institutions, acquire a reputation for their learn- 
ing, their skill, their encouragement and promotion of 
the arts or sciences: name and reputation are of a 
more extended nature than repute and credit. Stran- 
gers and distant countries hear of the name and the 
reputation of any thing ; but only neighbours and those 
who have the means of personal observation can take 
a part in its repute and credit. It is possible, therefore, 
to have a name and reputation without having repute 
and ercdit, and vice versd, for the objects which con- 
stitute the former are sometimes different from those 
which produce the latter. A manufacturer has a 
name for the excellence of a particular article of his 
own manufacture; a book has a name among witlings 
znd pretenders to literature: a good writer, however, 
seks to establish his reputation for genius, learning, 
industry, or some praiseworthy characteristick: a 
preacher is in high repute among those who attend him: 
a master gains great credit from the good perform- 
ances of his scholars; ‘ Mutton has likewise been in 
great repute among our valiant countrymen.’~-Appison. 


Would you true happiness attain, 

Let honesty your passions rein, 

So live in credit and esteem, 

And the good name you lost, redeem —Gay. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


Name and repute are taken either in a good a baa 
sense; reputation and credit are taken in the good 
sense only: a person or thing may get a good or an il] 
name; a person or thing may be in good or ill repute ; 
reputation may rise to different degiees of height, or 
it may sink again to nothing, but it never sinks into 
that which is bad; credit may likewise be high or low 
but when it becomes bad it is discredit. Families get 
an ill name for their meanness; houses ef entertain- 
ment get a good mame for their accommodation; 
houses fall into bad repute when said to be haunted ; 
a landlord comes into high repute among his tenants, 
if he be considerate and indulgent towards them. 


CHARACTER, REPUTATION. 


From the natural sense of astamp or mark (v. Cha- 
racter, letter), this word is figuratively employed for 
the moral mark which distinguishes one man from an 
other; reputation, from the French reputer, Latin 
reputo to think, signifies what is thought of a person: 
character lies in the man; it is the mark of what he is; 
it shows itself on all occasions: reputation depends 
upon others; it is what they think of him. 

A charaeter is given particularly: a reputation is 
formed generally. Individuals give a character of 
another from personal knowledge: publick opinion 
constitute the reputation. Character has always some 
foundation; it is a positive description of something : 
reputation has more of conjecture in it; its source is 
hearsay. 

It is possible for a man to havea fair reputation who 
has not in reality a good character; although men of 
really good character are not likely to havea bad repu- 
tation; ‘Let a man think what multitudes of those 
among whom he dwells are totally ignorant of hisname 
and character; how many imagine themselves too 
much occupied with their own wants and pursuits to 
pay him the least attention; and where his reputation 
is in any degree spread, how often it has been attacked, 
and how many rivals are daily rising to abate it’— 
BualRr. 


er 


FAME, REPUTATION, RENOWN. 


Fame, from the Greek ¢npi to say, is the most noisy 
‘and uncertain; it rests upon report: reputation (v. 
Character, reputation) is silent and solid; it lies mere 
in the thoughts, and is derived from observation: re. 
nrown, in French renommeée, from nom a name, signifies 
the reverberation of a name; it is as loud as fame, but 
more substantial and better founded; hence we say that 
a person’s fame has gone abroad; his reputation is 
established ; and he has got renown. 

Fame may be applied to any object, good, bad, or 
indifferent ; 

Europe with Afric in his fame shall join, 

But neither shore his conquests shall confine. 

Dryprn. 


Reputation is applied only to real eminence in some ° 
department; ‘Pope doubtless approached Addison, 
when the reputation of their wit first brought them 
together, with the respect due to a man whose abilities 
were acknowledged.—Jounson. Renown is employed 
only for extraordinary men and brilliant exploits: 
‘ Well constituted governments have always made the 
profession of a physician both honourable and advan- 
tageous. Homer’s Machaon and Virgil’s lapis were 
men of renown, heroesin war.’—JoHNSON. ‘The fame 
of a quack may be spread among the ignorant multi- 
tude by means of a lucky cure, or the fame of an au- 
thor may be spread by means of a popular work; ‘The 
artist finds greater returns in profit, as the author in 
fame.’—Appison. The reputation of a physician rests 
upon histried skill and known experience; the renown 
of a general is proportioned to the magnitude of his 
achievements; 


How doth it please and fill the memory, 

With deeds of brave renown, while on each hand 
Historick urns and breathing statues rise, 

And speaking busts.—Dyer. 


FAME, REPORT, RUMOUR, HEARSAY. 


Fame (v. Fame) has a reference to the thing whick 
gives birth to it; it goes about of itself without any 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


apparent instrumentality. The report, from re and 
porto, to carry back, or away from an object, has 
always a reference to the reporter. Rumour, in Latin 
rumo*, from ruo to rush or to flow, has a reference to 
the flying nature of words that are carried ; it is there- 
fore properly a flying report. Hearsay refers to the, 
receiver of that which is said; it is limited therefore to 
a small number of speakers or reporters. The fame 
serves to form or establish a character either of a per- 
son or a thing; it will be good or bad according to cir- 
cumstances; the fame of our Saviour’s miracles went 
abroad through the land ; 


Space may produce new worlds, whereof so rife 
There went a fame in heav’n, that he ere long 
Intended to create.—MILTON. 


The report serves to communicate information of 
events; it may be more or less correct according to the 
veracity or authenticity of the reporter; reports of 
victories mostly precede the official confirmation; 
‘What liberties any man may take in imputing words 
to me which I never spoke, and what credit Cesar may 
give to such reports, these are points for which it is by 
no means in my power to be answerable.’—MrLMoTH 
(Letters of Cicero). The rumour serves the purposes 
of fiction; it is more or less vague, according to the 
temper of the times and the nature of the events; every 
battle gives rise to a thousand rumours ; 


For which of you will stop 
The vent of hearing, when loud rumour 
Speaks 7—SHAKSPEARE. 


The hearsay serves for information or instruction, and 
is seldom so incorrect as it is familiar; ‘What in- 
fluence can a mother have over a daughter, from 
whose example the daughter can only have hearsay 
benefits ?—RICHARDSON. 


FAMOUS, CELEBRATED, RENOWNED, 
ILLUSTRIOUS. 


Famous signifies literally having fame or being the 
cause of fame; it is applicable to that which causes a 
noise or sensation; to that which is talked of, written 
upon, discussed, and thought of; to that which is re- 
ported of far and near; to that which is circulated 
among all ranks and orders of men: celebrated signifies 
literally kept in the memory by a celebration or memo- 
rial, and is applicable to that which is praised and 
nonoured with solemnity: renovned signifies literally 
possessed of a name, and is applicable to whatever ex- 
tends the name, or causes the name to be often re- 
peated: illustrious signifies literally what has or gives 
a lustre; it is applicable to whatever confers dignity. 

Famous is a term of indefinite import; it conveys of 
itself frequently neither honour nor dishonour, since 
it is employed indifferently a8 an epithet for things 
praiseworthy or otherwise ; it is the only one of these 
terms which may be used in a bad sense. The others 
rise in a gradually good sense; ‘I thought it an agree- 
able change to have my thoughts diverted from the 
greatest among the dead and fabulous heroes, to the 
most famous among the real and living..—Appison. 

* The celebrated is founded upon merit and the dis- 
play of talent in the arts and sciences; it gains the 
subject respect; ‘While I was in this learned body, I 
applied myself with so much diligence to my studies, 
that there are very few celebrated books either in the 
learned or modern tongues which I am not acquainted 
with.'—Appison. The renowned is founded upon the 
possession of rare or extraordinary qualities, upon 
successful exertions and an accordance with publick 
opinion ; it brings great honour or glory to the subject; 


Castor and Pollux first in martial force, 
One bold on foot, and one renown’d for horse. 
Pore. 


The illustrious is founded upon those solid qualities 
which not only render one known but distinguished ; 
it ensures regard and veneration; ‘The reliefs of the 
envious man are those little blemishes that discover 
themselves in an illustrious character.-—AppIson. 

A person may be famous for his eccentricities; 
eclebrated as an artist, a writer, or a player; renowned 


* Vide Abbe Girard; - Fameux, illustre, celebre, 
yenommeé ” 


A473 


as a warriour or a statesman; illustrious as a prince, 
a statesman, or a senator. 

The maid of Orleans, who was decried by the Eng- 
lish, and idolized by the French, is equally famous in 
both nations. There are celebrated authors whom to 
censure even in that which is censurable, would en- 
danger one’s reputation. The renowned heroes of 
antiquity have, by the perusal of their exploits, given 
birth to a race of modern heroes not inferiour to them- 
selves. Princes may shine in their lifetime, but they 
cannot render themselves illustrious to posterity ex 
cept by the monuments of goodness and wisdom which 
they leave after them. 


— 


NOTED, NOTORIOUS. 


Noted (v. Distinguished) may be employed either in 
a good or a bad sense; notorious is never used buting 
bad sense: men may be noted for their talents, or their 
eccentricities ; they are notorious only for their vices: 
noted characters excite many and diverse remarks from 
their friends and their enemies; notorious characters 
are universally shunned ; 


An engineer of noted skill, 
Engag’d to stop the growing ill.—Gay. 


‘What principles of ordinary prudence can warrant 4 
man to trust a notorious cheat?’—Souru. 


DISTINGUISHED, CONSPICUOUS, NOTED, 
EMINENT, ILLUSTRIOUS. 


Distinguished signifies having a mark of distinction 
by which a thing is to be distinguished; conspicuous, 
in Latin conspicuus, from conspicio, signifies easily 
to be seen; noted, from notus known, signifies well 
known; eminent, in Latin eminens, from emineo or e 
and maneo, signifies remaining or standing out above 
the rest; zllustrious, in Latin alustris, from lustre to 
shine, signifies shone upon. 

The idea of an object having something attached to 
it to excite notice is common to all these terms. 

Distinguished in its general sense expresses little 
more than this idea; the rest are but modes of the 
distinguished. A thing is distinguished in proportion 
as it is distinct or separate from others; it is conspicw 
ous in proportion as it is easily seen; it is noted in pro- 
portion as it is widely known. In this sense a rank is 
distinguished ; a situation ts conspicuous ; a place is 
noted. Persons are distinguished by external marks or 
by characteristick qualities; persons or things are con- 
spicuous mostly from some external maik ; persons or 
things are noted mostly by collateral circumstances. 

Aman may be distinguished by his decorations, or 
he may be distinguished by his manly air, or by his 
abilities; ‘It has been observed by some writers that 
man is more distinguished from the animal world by 
devotion than by reason.’—Appison. A personis con- 
spicuous by the gaudiness of his dress; a house is con 
spicuous that stands on a hill; 


Before the gate stood Pyrrhus, threat’ning loud, 
With glit?ring arms, conspicuous in the crowd. 
DRYDEN. 


A person is noted for having performed a wonderful 
cure; a place is noted for its fine waters; ‘Upon my 
calling in lately at one of the most noted Temple coffee- 
houses, I found the whole room, which was full of 
young students, divided into several parties, each of 
which was deeply engaged in some controversy.’— 
BUDGELL. 

We may be distinguished for things, good, bad, or 
indifferent: we may be conspicuous for our singulari- 
ties or that which only attracts vulgar notice: we may 
be noted for that which is bad, and mostly for that 
which is the subject of vulgar discourse: we can be ~ 
eminent and illustrious only for that which is really 
good and praiseworthy; the former applies however 
mostly to those things which set a man high in the 
circle of his acquaintance; the latter to that which 
makes him shine before the world. A man of distin- 
guished talent will be apt to excite envy if he be not 
also distinguished for his private virtue: affectation is 
never better pleased than when it can place itself in 
such a conspicuous situation as to draw all eyes upon 
itself: lovers of fame are sometimes contented to ren 
der themselves noted for their vices or absurdities 


474 


nothing is more gratifying to a man than to render 
himself eminent for his proressional skill; ‘Of Prior, 
eminent as he was both by his abilities and station, very 
few memorials have been le*t by his contemporaries.’— 
Jounson. It is the lot of but few to be illustrious, 
and those few are very seldom to be envied ; 


Hail, sweet Saturnian soil! of fruitful grain 
Great parent, greater of zllustrious men. 
DRYDEN. 


In an extended and moral application, these terms 
may be employed to heighten the character of an ob- 
ject; a favour may be said to be distinguished, piety 
eminent, and a name illustrious; ‘Amid the agita- 
tions of popular government, occasions will sometimes 
be afforded for eminent abilities to break forth with 
peculiar lustre. But while publick agitations allow a 
few individuals to be uncommonly distinguished, the 
general condition of the publick remains calamitous 
and wretched.’—BLaIR. 


Next add our cities of illustrious name, 
Their costly labour and stupendous frame 
DRYDEN. 


SIGNAL, MEMORABLE. 


Signal signifies serving as a sign; memorable signi- 
fies worthy to be remembered. 

They both express the idea of extraordinary, or 
being distinguished from ordinary, or being distin- 
guished from every thing else: whatever is signal de- 
serves to be stamped on the mind, and to serve asa 
sign of some property or characteristick ; whatever is 
memorable impresses upon the memory, and refuses to 
be forgotten: the former applies to the moral cha- 
racter; the latter to events and times: the Scriptures 
furnish us with many signal instances of God’s ven- 
geance against impenitent sinners, as also of his favour 
towards those who obey his will; ‘We find, in the 
Acts of the Apostles, not only no opposition to Chris- 
tianity from the Pharisees, but several signal occa- 
sions in which they assisted its first teachers.’— 
Worron. The Reformation is a memorable event in 
the annals of ecclesiastical history; ‘That such de- 
liverances are actually afforded, those three memorable 
examples of Abimelech, Esau, and Balaam sufficiently 
demonstrate.’— SourTu. 


TO SIGNALIZE, DISTINGUISH. 


To signalize, or make one’s self a sign of any thing, 
is a much stronger term than simply to distinguish; it 
is in the power of many to do the latter, but few only 
have the power of effecting the former; the English 
have always stignalized themselves for their uncon- 
querable valour in battle ; ‘The knight of La Mancha 
gravely recounts to his companion the adventure by 
which he is to signalize himself.’—Jounson. There is 
no nation that has not distinguished itself, at some 
period or another, in war; 


The valued file 
Distinguishes the swift, the slow, the subtle. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


OF FASHION, OF QUALITY, OF 
DISTINCTION. 


These epithets are employed promiscuously in collo- 
quial discourse; but not with strict propriety ;* by 
men of fashion are understood such men as live in the 
fashionable world, and keep the best company; ‘The 
free manner in which people of fashion are discoursed 
on at such meetings (of tradespeople), is but a just re- 
proach of their failures in this kind (in payment).’— 
Streets. By men of quality are understood men of 
rank or title; ‘The single dress of a lady of quality is 
often the product of a hundred climes.’—Appison. 
By men of distinction are understood men of honour- 
able superiority, whether by wealth, office, or pre- 
eminence in society ; ‘It behooves men of distinction, 
with their power and example, to preside over the pub- 
lick diversions in such a manner as to check any thing 
that tends to the corruption of manners.’—STEELE. 


* Vide Trusler: “Of fashion, of quality, of dis- 
zinction. ’ 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


Gentry and merchants, though not men of quality, 
may, by their mode of living, be men of fashion; and 
by the office they hold in the state, they may likewise 
be men of distinction. 


PROMINENT, CONSPICUOUS. 


Prominent signifies hanging over; conspicuous ‘» 
Distinguished) signifies easy to be beheld: the former 
is, therefore, to the latter, in some measure, as the spe 
cies to the genus: what is prominent is, in general, on 
that very account conspicuous ; but many things may 
be conspicuous besides those which are prominent. 
The terms prominent and conspicuous have, however 
an application suited to their peculiar meaning: nothing 
is prominent but what projects beyond a certain line 
every thing is conspicuous which may be seen by many : 
the nose on a man’s face is a prominent feature, owing 
to its projecting situation; and it is sometimes conspi 
cuous, according to the position of the person: a figure 
ina painting is said to be prominent, if it appears te 
stand forward or before the others; but it is not pro 
perly conspicuous, unless there be something in it 
which attracts the general notice, and distinguishes it 
from all other things: on the contrary, it is conspi- 
cuous, but not expressly prominent, when the colours 
are vivid ; ‘ Lady Macbeth’s walking in her sleep isan 
incident so full of tragick horrour, that it stands out as 
a prominent feature in the most sublime drama in the 
world.—CuMBERLAND. ‘That innocent mirth which 
had been so conspicuous in Sir Thomas More’s life, did 
not forsake him to the last.’-- ADDISON. 


BRIGHTNESS, LUSTRE, SPLENDOUR, 
BRILLIANCY. 


Brightness, from the English bright, Saxon breorht, 
probably comes, like the German pracht splendour, 


from the Hebrew pD*y3 to shine or glitter; Zustre, in 


French lustre, Latin lustrum a purgation or cleansing, 
that is, to make clean or pure ; splendour, in French 
splendeur, Latin splendor, from splendeo to shine, 
comes either from the Greek ozAndds embers, or oxevOijs 
a spark; brilliancy, from brilliant and briller to 
shine, comes from the German brille spectacles, and 
the middle Latin beryllus a crystal. 

Brightness is the generick, the rest are specifick 
terms: there cannot be lustre, splendour, and brii 
liancy, without brightness ; but there may he bright- 
ness Where these do not exist. These terms rise in 
sense; lustre rises on brightness, splendour on lustre, 
and brilliancy on splendour. 

Brightness and lustre are applied properly to na 
tural lights; splendour and brilliancy have been more 
commonly applied to that which is artificial: there is 
always more or less brightness in the sun or moon; 
there is an occasional lustre in all the heavenly bodies 
when they shine in their unclouded brightness ; there 
is splendour in the eruptions of flame from a voleano 
or an immense conflagration; there is briiliancy in a 
collection of diamonds. There may be both splendour 
and brilliancy in an illumination: splendour arises 
from the mass and richness of light; brzdliancy from 
the variety and brightness of the lights and colours. 
Brightness may be obscured, lustre may be tarnished, 
splendour and brilliancy diminished. 

The analogy is closely preserved in the figurative 
application. Brightness attaches to the moral cha- 
racter of men in ordinary cases; ‘ Earthly honours are 
both short-lived in their continuance, and, while they 
last, tarnished with spots and stains. On some quarter 
or other their brightness is obscured. But the honour 
which proceeds from God and virtue is unmixed and 
pure. Itis a lustre which is derived from heaven.’— 
Buiarr. Lustre attaches to extraordinary instances of 
virtue and greatness; splendour and dbrilliancy attach 
to the achievements of men; ‘ Thomson’s diction is in 
the highest degree florid and luxuriant, such as may 
be said to be to his images and thoughts ‘‘ both their 
lustre and their shade ;”’ such as invest them with 
splendour through which they are not easily discerni- 
ble’—Jounson. ‘There is an appearance of brii- 
liancy in the pleasures of high life which naturally 
dazzles the young.’—Crata. 

Our Saviour is strikingly represented to us as the 
brightness of his Father’s glory, and the express image 


{of his person. The humanity of the English in the 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


four of conquest adds a lustre to their victories which 
are either splendid or brilliant, according to the num- 
ber and nature of the circumstances which render 
thein remarkable. 


FIRE, HEAT, WARMTH, GLOW. 


In the proper sense these words are easily distin- 
guished, but not so easily in the improper sense; and 
as the latter depends principally upon the former, it is 
not altogether useless to enter into some explanation of 
their physical meaning. 

Fire is with regard to heat as the cause to the 
effect: it is itself an inherent property in some material 
bodies, and when in action communicates heat ;* fire 
is perceptible to us by the eye, as well as the touch ; 
heat is perceptible only by the touch: we distinguish 
fire by means of the flame it sends forth, or by the 
changes which it produces upon other bodies ; but we 
discover heat only by the sensations which it produces 
in ourselves. 

Fire has within itself the power of communicating 
heat to other bodies at a distance from it; but heat, 
when it lies in bodies without jire, is not communi- 
cable or even perceptible, except by coming in contact 
with the body. | Fire is producible in some bodies at 
pleasure, and when in action will communicate itself 
without any external influence; but heat is always to 
be produced and kept in being by some external 
agency: fire spreads; but heat dies away. Fire is 
producible only in certain bodies; but heat may be pro- 
duced in many more bodies; fire may be elicited from 
a flint, or from wood, steel, and some few other mate- 
rials; but heat is producible, or exists to a greater or 
less degree, in all material substances. 

Heat and warmth differ principally in degree; the 
latter being a gentle degree of the former. The term 
heat is, however, in its most extensive sense applicable 
to that universal principle which pervades all nature, 
animate and inanimate, and seems to vivify the whole; 
it is this principle which appears either under the form 
of fire, or under the more commonly conceived form of 
heat, as it is generally understood, and as I have here 
considered it. Heat in this limited sense is less active 
than fire, and more active than warmth; the former is 
produced in bodies, either by.the violent action of fire, 
asin the boiling of water, the melting of lead, or the 
violent friction of two hard bodies; the latter is pro- 
duced by the simple expulsion of the cold, as in the 
case of feathers, wool, and other substances, which 
produce and retain warmth. 

Heat may be the greatest possible remove, but warmth 
may be the smallest possible remove, from cold; the 
latter is opposed to the cool, which borders on the cold. 
Heat is that which to our feelings is painful; but 
warmth is that which is always grateful. In animate 
bodies jive cannot long exist, as it is in its nature con- 
suming and destructive; it is incompatible with animal 
life: heat will not exist, unless when the body is in a 
diseased or disordered state: but warmth is that por- 
tion of heat which exists in every healthy subject; by 
this the hen hatches and rears her young, by this the 
operation of gestation is carried on in the female. 
Glow is a partial heat or warmth which exists or is 
known to exist, mostly in the human frame; it is com- 
monly produced in the body when it is in its most 
vigorous state, and its nerves are firmly braced by 
the cold. 

From the above analysis the figurative application 
of these terms, and the grounds upon which they are 
so employed, will be easily discerned. As jire is the 
strongest and most active principle in nature, which 
seizes every thing within its reach with the greatest 
possible rapidity, genius is said to be possessed of 
fire which flies with rapidity through all the regions 
of thought, and forms the most lively images and com- 
binations ; 

That modern love is no such thing, 
As what those ancierit poets sing, 
A fire celestial, chaste, refined.—Swirt. 


But when fire is applied to the eye or the looks, it bor- 
rows its meaning from the external property of flame, 
which is very aptly depicted in the eye or the looks of 
lively people. As heat is always excessive and mostly 
violent, those commotions and fermentations of the 


* Vide Eberhardt: “ Hitze, feuer, warme.” 


475 


mind which flow from the agitation of the passions, 
particularly of the angry passions, is termed heat. 
As warmth is a gentle and grateful property, it hag 
with most propriety been ascribed to the affections 
As glow is a partial but vivid feeling of the body, 
so is friendship a strong but particular affection of 
the mind: hence the propriety of ascribing a glow to 
friendship 

Age damps the jireof the poet. Disputants in the 
heat of the contest are apt to forget all the forms of 
good-breeding ; ‘The heat of Milton’s mind might be 
said to sublimate his learning.”—Jounson. A man 
of tender morai feelings speaks with warmth of a 
noble action, or takes a warm interest in the concerns 
of the innocent and the distressed; ‘I fear I have 
pressed you farther upon this occasion than was neces- 
sary: however, [ know you will excuse my warmth in 
the cause of a friend.,—MrLmouru (Letters of Cicero 
to Cesar). A youth in the full glow of friendship 
feels himself prepared to make any sacrifice in sup- | 
porting the cause of his friend ; 


The frost-concocted glebe 
Draws in abundant vegetable soul, 
And gathers vigour for the coming year: 
A stronger glow sits on the lively cheek 
Of ruddy fire—THomson. 


FERVOUR, ARDOUR. 


Fervour, from ferveo to boil, is not so violent a heat 
as ardour, from ardeo to burn. The affections are 
properly fervent; the passions are ardent: we are 
fervent in feeling, and ardent in acting: the fervour 
of devotion may be rational; but the ardour of zeal is 
mostly intemperate. The first martyr, Stephen, was 
filled with a holy fervour; St. Peter, in the ardour of 
his zeal, promised his master to do more than he was 
able to perform; ‘The joy of the Lord is not to be 
understood of high raptures and transports of religious 
fervour.”—Buarr. ‘Do men hasten to their devotions 
with that ardour that they would to a lewd play ?’- 
Souru. 


HOT, FIERY, BURNING, ARDENT. 
Hot, in German heiss, Latin estus, comes from the 


Hebrew WN fire; fiery signifies having fire; burning, 
the actual state of burning ; ardent, the having ardour 
(v. Fervour). 

These terms characterize either the presence of heat 
or the cause of heat; hot is the general term which 
marks simply the presence of heat: fiery goes farther, 
it denotes the presence of fire which is the cause of 
heat; burning denotes the action of fire, and conse- 
quently is more expressive than the two; ardent, 
which is literally the same in signification, is employed 
either in poetry or in application to moral objects: a 
room is hot; a furnace or the tail of a comet fiery; a 
coal burning ; the sun ardent ; 


Let loose the raging elements. Breath’d hot 
From all the boundless furnace of the sky, 
And the wide, glittering waste of burning sand 
A suffocating wind the pilgrim smites 

With instant death. T Homson. 


E’en the camel feels, 
Shot through his wither’d heart, the fiery blast. 
THOMSON. 
The royal eagle-draws his vigorous young, 
Strong pounc’d, and ardent with paternal fire. 
THOMSON. 


In the figurative application, a temper is said to be 
hot or fiery; rage is burning; the mind is ardent in 
pursuit of an object, Zeal may be hot, fiery, burning, 
and ardent; but in the first three cases, it denotes ihe 
intemperance of the mind when heated by religion or 
politicks ; the latter is admissible so Jong as it is con- 
fined to a good object. 


ee 


RADIANCE, BRILLIANCY 


Both these terms express the circumstance of a great 
light in a body: but radiance, from radius a ray, de- 
notes the emission of rays, and is, therefore, peculiarly 
applicable to bodies naturally luminous, like the 
heavenly bodies; and brilliancy (v. Bright) denotes 
the whole body of light emitted and may, therefore 


476 


be applied equally to natural and artificial light. The 
radiancy of the sun, moon, and stars constitutes a 
part of their beauty; the brilliancy of a diamond is 
trequently compared with that of a star. 


TO SHINE, GLITTER, GLARE, SPARKLE, 
RADIATE. 


Shine, in Saxon schinean, German scheinen, is in all 
probability connected with the words show, see, &c. ; 
glitter and gtare are variations from the German 
gleissen, gldnzen, &c. which have a similar meaning ; 
to sparkle signifies to produce sparks ; and spark is 
in Saxon spearce, Low German and Dutch spark; to 
radiate is to produce rays, from the Latin radius a 
ray. 

The emission of light is the common idea conveyed 
by these terms. To shine expresses simply this general 
idea; glitter and the other verbs include some colla- 
teral ideas in their signification. 

To shine is a steady emission of light; to glitter is 
én unsteady emission of light, occasioned by the re- 
flection on transparent or bright bodies: the sun and 
moon shine whenever they make their appearance ; 
but aset of diamonds glitter by the irregular reflection 
of the light on them; or the brazen spire of a steeple 
glitters when the sun in the morning shines upon it. 
fn a moral application, what shines appears with a 
true light; 


Yet something shines more glorious in his word, 
His mercy this —W=ALLER. 


What glitters appears with a false or borrowed light ; 
‘The happiness of success glittering before him with- 
draws his attention from the atrociousness of the 
guilt.’.—JoHNSON. 

Shine specifies no degree of light; it may be barely 
sufficient to render itself visible, or it may be a very 
strong degree of light: glare on the contrary denotes 
the highest possible degree of light: the sun frequehtly 
glares, when it shines only at intervals; ‘ This glorious 
morning star was not the transitory light of a comet 
which shines and glares for a while, and then pre- 
sently vanishes into nothing..—Sournu. All naked 
light, the strength of which is diminished by any 
shade, will produce a glare, as the glare of the eye 
when fixed full upon an object; 


Against the Capitol I met a lion, 
Who glar’d upon me, and went surly by 
Without annoying me.—SHAksPEARE. 


To shine is to emit light ina full stream; but to 
sparkle is to emit it in small portions; and to radiate 
is to emit it in long lines. The fire sparkles in the 
burning of wood; or the light of the sun sparkles 
when it strikes on knobs or small points: the sun ra- 
diates when it seems to emit its light in rays; 


His eyes so sparkled with a lively flame. 
DRYDEN. 

Now had the sun withdrawn his radiant light. 
DRYDEN. 


FLAME, BLAZE, FLASH, FLARE, GLARE. 


Flame, in Latin flamma, from the Greek ¢\éyw to 
burn, signifies the luminous exhalation emitted from 
fire ; blaze, from the German bdlasen to blow, signifies 
a flame blown up, that is, an extended flame ; flash and 
flare, which are but variations of flame, denote dif- 
ferent species of flame; the former a sudden flame, the 
latter a dazzling, unsteady flame. Glare, which is a 
variation of glow, denotes a glowing, that is a strong 
flame, that emits a strong light: a candle burns only 
by flame, paper commonly by a blaze, gunpowder by a 
Mash, a torch by a flare, and a conflagration by a 
glare; ; 

His lightning your rebellion shall confound, 

And hurl ye headlong: flaming to the ground. 
Pope. 

Swift as a flood of fire when storms arise 

Floats the wide field, and blazes to the skies. 
Pore. 

Have we not seen round Britain’s peopled shore, 

Her useful sons exchang’d for useless ore, 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


Seen all her triumphs but destruction haste, 
Like flaring tapers brightening as they waste. 
GoLpsMITR. 


Ev’n in the height of noon oppress’d, the sun 
Sheds weak and blunt, his wide refracted ray, 
Whence glaring oft, with many a broaden’d orb 
He frights the nations—THomson. 


GLARING, BAREFACED, 


Glaring is here used in the figurative sense, drawn 
from its natural signification of broad light, which 
strikes powerfully upon the senses; barefaced signifies 
literally having a bare or uncovered face, which de 
notes the absence of all disguise or all shame. 

Glaring designates the thing; barefaced charac- 
terizes the person: a glaring falsehood is that which 
strikes the observer in an instant to be falsehood; a 
barefaced lie or falsehood betrays the effrontery of him 
who utters it. A glaring absurdity will be seen in- 
stantly without the aid of reflection; ‘‘The glaring 
side is that of enmity.—Burxe. A Garefaced piece 
of impudence characterizes the agent as more than 
ordinarily lost to all sense of decorum; ‘ The animosi- 
ties increased, and the parties appeared barefaced 
agajnst each other.’-—CLaARENDON. 


GLEAM, GLIMMER, RAY, BEAM. 


Gleam is in Saxon gleomen, German glimmen, av. 
Glimmer is a variation of the same verb; ray is con: 
nected with the word row; beam comes from the Ger 
man baum a tree. 

Certain portions of light are designated by all these 
terms: but gleam and glimmer are indefinite ; ray and 
beam are definite. A gleam is properly the commence- 
ment of light, or that portion of opening light which 
interrupts the darkness; a glimmer is an unsteady 
gleam ; 

A dreadful gleam from his bright armour came, 
And from his eye-balls flash’d the living flame. 
Pope. 
‘The glimmering light which shot into the chaos from 
the utmost verge of the creation, is wonderfully beau- 
tiful and poetick.’——Appison. Ray and beam are por- 
tions of light which emanate from some luminous 
body ; the former from all luminous bodies in general 
the latter more particularly from the sun: the former 
is, as its derivation denotes, a row or line of light 
issuing in a greater or less degree from any body; the 
latter is a great line of light, like a pole issuing from a 
body; 
A sudden ray shot beaming o’er the plain, 
And show’d the shores, the navy, and the main 
Pore 
The stars shine smarter; and the moon adorns, 
As with unborrow’d beams, her horns. 
DRYDEN 


There may be a gleam of light visible on the wall ot a 
dark room, or a glimmer if it be moveable ; there may 
be rays of light visible at night on the back ef a glow- 
worm, or rays of light may break through the shutters 
of aclosed room; 


The stars emit a shiver’d rayT HoMson. 


The sun in the height of its splendour sends forth its 
beams ; and in the same manner the human counte 
nance or eyes may be said to send forth beams ; 


The modest virtues mingle in her eyes, 

Still on the ground dejected, darting all 

Their humid beams into the blooming flowers. 

THOMSON. 

Gleam and ray may be applied figuratively ; beam only 
in the natural sense: a gleam of light may break in on 
the benighted understanding; but a glimmer of light 
rather confuses; rays of light may dart into the mind 
of the most ignorant savage who is taught the prin- 
a of Christianity by the pure practice of its pro- 
essors. 


CLEAR, LUCID, BRIGHT, VIVID. 


Clear, v. To absolve ; lucid, in Latin lucidus, from 
luceo to shine, and luz light, signifies having light 


oright, v. Brightness ; vivid, Latin vividus from vivo 
to live, signifies being in a state of life. 

These epithets mark a gradation in their sense: the 
idea of-lightis common to them; but cleav expresses 
less than lucid, lucid than bright, and bright less than 
vivid: a mere freedom from stain or dulness consti- 
tutes clearness ; 


Some choose the clearest light, 
And boldly challenge the most piercing eye. 
RoscoMMON. 
The return of light, and consequent removal of dark- 
ness, constitutes lucidity ; 


Nor is the stream 
Of purest crystal, nor the lucid air, 
Though one transparent vacancy it seems, 
Void of their unseen people.-—THoMSON. 


Brightness supposes a certain strength of light; 


This place, the brightest mansion of the sky, 
I’ll call the palace of the Deity.—DrybEn. 


Vividness indicates freshness combined with strength, 
and even a degree of’ brilliancy ; 


From the moist meadow to the wither’d hill, 

Led by the breeze, the vivid verdure runs, 

And swells, and deepens to the cherish’d eye. 
THOMSON. 


A sky is clear that is divested of clouds; the atmo- 
sphere is /ucid in the day, but not in the night; the sun 
shines bright when it is unobstructed by any thing 
the atmosphere ; lightning sometimes presents a vivid 
redness, and sometimes a vivid paleness: the light of 
the stars may be clear,and sometimes bright, but never 
vivid ; the light of the sun is rather dvight than clear 
or vivid; the light of the moon is either clear, bright, 
or vivid. 

These epithets may with equal propriety be applied 
to colour, as well as to light: a clear colour is unmixed 
with any other; a bright colour has something striking 
and strong in it; a vivid colour something lively and 
fresh in it. 

In their mocal application these epithets preserve a 
similar distinction: a conscience is said to be clear 
when it is free from every stain or spot; ‘I look upon a 
sound imagination as the greatest blessing of life, next 
to a clear judgement, and agood conscience.’—-AppIson. 
A deranged understanding may have lucid intervals; 
‘I believe were Rousseau alive, and in one of his lucid 
intervals, he would be shocked at the practical phrensy 
of his scholars.—-Burke. A bright intellect throws 
light on every thing around it; 


But in a body which doth freely yield 

His parts to reason’s rule obedient, 

There Alma, like a virgin queen most bright, 
Doth flourish in all beauty excellent.—SrenseEr. 


A vivid imagination giows with every image that na- 
ture presents ; 


There let the classick page thy fancy lead 
Through rural scenes, such as the Mantuan swain 
Paints in the matchless harmony of song, 

Or catch thyself the landscape, glided swift 
Athwart imagination’s vivid eye—THomson. 


/ 


PELLUCID, TRANSPARENT. 


Pellucid, in Latin petiucidus changed from perlu- 
cidus, signifies very shining; transparent, in Latin 
transparens, from trans through or beyond, and pareo 
to appear, signifies visible throughout. 

Pellucid is said of that which is pervious to the light, 
or that into which the eye can penetrate ; transparent 
is said of that which is throughout bright: a stream is 
pellucid ; it admits of the light so as to reflect objects, 
but it is not transparent for the eye. 


CLEARLY, DISTINCTLY. 


That is seen clearly of which one has a general 
view ; that is seen distinctly which is seen so as to dis- 
tinguish the several parts. 

We see the moon clearly whenever it shines; but 
we cannot see the spots in the moon distinctly without 
the help of glasses. 

What we see distinctly must be seen clearly, but a 
thing may be seen clearly without being seen dis- 
tinctly. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


477 


A want of light, or the intervention of other objects, 
prevents us from seeing clearly; distance, or a defect 
in the sight, prevents us from seeing distinctly. 

* Old men often see clearly but not distinctly; they 
perceive large or luminous objects at a distance, but 
they cannot distinguish such small objects as the cha 
racters of a book without the help of convex glasses ; 
short-sighted persons, on the contrary, see near objects 
distinctly, but they have no clear vision of distant 
ones, unless they are viewed through concave glasses ; 
‘The custom of arguing on any side, even against our 
persuasion, dims the understanding, and makes it by 
degrees lose the faculty of discerning clearly between 
truth and falsehood.’—Locxkr. ‘ Whether we are able 
to comprehend all the operations of nature, and the 
manners of them, it matters not to inquire; but this is 
certain, that we can comprehend no more of them than 
we can distinctly conceive.’—Lockr. 


CLEARNESS, PERSPICUITY. 


Clearness, from clear (v. Clear, lucid), is here usea 
figuratively, to mark the degree of light by which one 
sees things distinctly; perspicuity, in French perspi- 
cuité, Latin perspicuttas from persprcuus and perspicio 
to look through, signifies the quality of being able to 
be seen through. 

These epithets denote qualities equally requisite to 
render a discourse intelligible, but each has its peculiar 
character. { Clearness respects our ideas, and springs 
from the distinction of the things themselves that are 
discussed : perspicuity respects the mode of expressing 
the ideas, and springs from the good qualities of style. 
It requires a clear head to be able to see a subject in all 
its bearings and relations; to distinguish all the niceties 
and shades of difference between things that bear a 
strong resemblance, and to separate it from all irrele- 
vant objects that intermingle themselves with it. But 
whatever may be our clearness of conception, it is re- 
quisite, if we would communicate our conceptions te 
others, that we should observe a purity in our mode of 
diction, that we should be particular in the chvice of 
our terms, careful in the disposition of them, and ac- 
curate in the construction of our sentences; that is 
perspicuity, which, as it is the first, so, according to 
Quiniilian, it is the most important part of composition. 

Clearness of intellect is a natural gift; perspicuity 
is an acquired art: although intimately connected with 
each other, yet it is possible to have clearness without 
perspicuity, and perspicuity without clearness. Peo- 
ple of quick capacities will have clear ideas on the 
subjects that offer themselves to their notice, but for 
want of education they may often use improper or am 
biguous phrases; or by errours of construction render 
their phraseology the reverse of perspicuous: on the 
other hand, it is in the power of some to express them- 
selves perspicuously on subjects far above their com- 
prehension, from a certain facility which they acquire 
of catching up suitable modes of expression. 

The study of the classicks and mathematicks are 
most fitted for the improvement of clearness ; the study 
of grammar, and the observance of good models, will 
serve most effectually for the acquirement of pers»2- 
cuity; ‘ Whenever men think clearly and are tho- 
roughly interested, they express themselves with per- 
spicuity and force..—Rogertson. ‘No modern orator 
can dare to enter the lists with Demosthenes and Tully. 
We have discourses, indeed, that may be admired for 
their perspicuity, purity, and elegance; but can pro- 
duce none that abound in a sublimity which whirls 
away the auditor like a mighty torrent.’.-Warron. 


FAIR, CLEAR. 


Fair, in Saxon fagar, probably from the Latin pul 
cher beautiful; fair (v. Clear) is used in a positive 
sense; clear in a negative sense: there must be some 
brightness in what is fair; there must be no spots in 
what is clear. The weather is said to be fair, which 
is not only free from what is disagreeable, but some- 
what enlivened by the sun; it is clear when it is fre, 
from clouds or mists. A fatr skin approaches t 
white; a clear skin is without spots or irregularities ; 


* Vide Trusler: ‘ Clearly, distinctly.” 
+ Vide Abbe Girard: “ Clarté, perspicuite - 


478 


His fair large front, and cyes sublime, declar’d 
Absolute rule.-—MiLTon. 


I thither went 
With unexperienced thought, and laid me down 
On the green bank, to look into the clear 
Smooth lake —MILTON. 


In the moral application, a fair fame speaks much in 
praise of a man; a clear reputation is free from faults. 
A fair statement contains every thing that can be said 
pro and con; a clear statement is free from ambiguity 
dr obscurity. Fairness is something desirable and in- 
viting ; clearness is an absolute requisite, it cannot be 
dispensed with. 


APPARENT, VISIBLE, CLEAR, PLAIN, 
OBVIOUS, EVIDENT, MANIFEST. 


Apparent, in Latin apparens, participle of appareo 
to appear, signifies the quality of appearing; viszble, 
in Latin viszbilis, from visus, participle of video to see, 
signifies capable of being seen; clear, v. Clear, lucid; 
plain, in Latin planus even, signifies what is so smooth 
and unencumbered that it can be seen; obvious, in 
Latin obvius, compounded of ob and via, signifies the 
quality of lying in one’s way, or before one’s eyes; 
evident, in French evident, Latin evidens, from video, 


Greek efdw, Hebrew yy‘y" to know, signifies as good as 
certain or known; “manifest, in French manifeste, 
Latin manifestus, compounded of manus the hand, and 
festus, participle of the old verb fendo to fall in, signi- 
fies the quality of falling in or coming so near that it 
can be laid hold of by the hand. 

These words agree in expressing various degrees in 
the capability of seeing; but visible is the only one used 
purely in a physical sense; apparent, clear, plain, and 
obvious are used physically and morally ; evident and 
manifest solely in a moral acceptation. That which 
is simply an object of sight is viszble ; 

The visible and present are for brutes: 
A slender portion, and a narrow bound.—Youne. 


That of which we see only the surface is apparent ; 
‘ The perception intellective often corrects the report of 
phantasy, as in the apparent bigness of the sun, and 
the apparent crookedness of the staff in air and water.’ 
—Hatr. The stars themselves are visible to us; but 
their size is merely apparent: the rest of these terms 
denote not only what is to be seen, but what is easily 
to be seen: they are all applied as epithets to objects 
of mental discernment. 

What is apparent appears but imperfectly to view ; 
it is opposed to that which is real: what is clear is to 
be seen in all its bearings; it is opposed to that which 
is obscure: what is plain is seen by a plain understand- 
ing; it requires no deep reflection nor severe study ; 
it is opposed to what is intricate: what is obvious pre- 
sents itself readily to the mind of every one; it is seen 
at the first glance, and is opposed to that which is ab- 
struse: what is evident is seen forcibly, and leaves no 
hesitation on the mind ; it is opposed to that which is 
dubious: manifest is a greater degree of the evident ; 
it strikes on the understanding and forces conviction ; 
it is opposed to that which is dark. 

A contradiction may be apparent ; on closer obser- 
vation it may be found not to be one. Men’s virtues 
or religion may be only apparent; ‘The outward and 
apparent¥sas-ctity of actions should flow from purity of 
heart. —Rogers. A case is clear; it is decided on 
immediately ; ‘We pretend to give aclear account how 
thunder and lightning are produced..—Trmpire. A 
truth is plain; it is involved in no perplexity; itis not 
multifarious in its bearings: a falsehood is plain; it 
admits of no question; ‘It is plain that yur skill in 
literature is owing to the knowledge of Greek and La- 
tin, which that they are still preserved among us, can be 
ascribed only to a religious regard.—BrRKELEY. A 
reason is obvious; it flows out of the nature of the 
case; ‘It is obviows to remark that we follow nothing 
heartily unless. carried to it by inclination, —Grove. 
A proof is evident ; it requires no discussion, there is 
nothing in it that clashes or contradicts; the guilt or 
innocence of a person is evident when every thing 
serves to strengthen the conclusion; ‘It is evident that 
fame, considered merely as the immortality of a name, 
is not less likely to be the reward of bad actions than 
of good.,.—Jounson. A contradiction or absurdity is 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. ; 


manifest, which is felt by all as soon as itis perceivea, 
¢ Among the many inconsistencies which folly produces 
in the human mind, there has often been observed a 
manifest and striking contrariety between the life of an 
author and his writings.'—JoHnson. 


APPEARANCE, AIR, ASPECT. 


Appearance, which signifies the thing that appears, 
is the generick: air, v. Air, manner; and aspect, in 
Latin aspectus, from aspicio to look upon, signifying 
the thing that is looked upon or seen, are specifick 
terms. ‘Che whole external form, figure, or colours, 
whatever is visible to the eye, is its appearance ; ‘The 
hero answers with the respect due to the beautiful 
appearance she made.’--STEELE. Airis a particular 
appearance of any object as far as it is indicative of 
its quality, condition, or temper; an aiz of wretched- 
ness or of assumption; ‘Some who had the most as- 
suming air went directly of themselves to errour with- 
out expecting a conductor.’,—PAaRNELL. speci is the 
partial appearance of a body as it presents one of its 
sides to view; a gloomy or cheerful aspect; ‘ Her 
motions were steady and composed, and her aspect 
serious but cheerful; her name was Patience.’—Apb 
DISON. 

It is not safe to judge of any person or thing alto- 
gether by appearances ; the appearance and reality are 
often at variance: the appearance of the sun is that of 
a moving body, but modern astronomers are of opinion 
that it has no motion round the earth; there are par- 
ticulartowns, habitations, or rooms, which have always 
an air of comfort, or the contrary; this is a sort of 
appearance the most to be relied on. Politicians of a 
certain stamp are always busy in judging of the future 
from the aspect of affairs; but their predictions, like 
those of astrologers, who judge from the aspect of the 
heavens, turn out to the discredit of the prophet. 


HIDEOUS, GHASTLY, GRIM, GRISLY. 


Hideous, in French hideux, comes probably from 
hide, signifying fit only to be hidden from the view ; 
ghastly signifies like a ghost; grim, in German grimm, 
signifies fierce ; grisly, from grizzle, signifies grizzled, 
or motley-coloured. 

An unseemly exteriour is characterized by these 
terms ; but the hideous respects natural objects, and the 
ghastly more properly that which is supernatural or 
what resembles it. A mask with monstrous grinning 
features looks hideous ; 


From the broad margin to the centre grew 
Shelves, rocks, and whirlpools, Atdeous to the view. 
FaLconer. 


A human form with a visage of deathlike paleness is 
ghastly ; 
And death 
Grinn’d horribly a ghastly smile.—MitTon. 


The grim is applicable only to the countenances; dogs 
or wild beasts may look very grim ; 


Even hell’s grim king Alcides’ pow’r confess’d.—Porr. 


Grisly refers to the whole form, but particularly to the 
colour; as blackness or darkness has always something 
terrifick in it, a grisly figure, having a monstrous as- 
semblage of dark colour, is particularly calculated to 
strike terrour ; 


All parts resound with tumults, plaints, and fears, 
And grisly death in sundry shapes appears.—Popr, 


Hideous is applicable to objects of hearing also, asa 
hideous roar; but the rest to objects of sight only. 


FACE, FRONT, 


Figuratively designate the particular parts of bodies 
which bear some sort of resemblance to the human 
face or forehead. , 

The face is applied to that part of bodies which 
serves as an index or rule, and contains certain marks 
to direct the observer; the front is employed for that 
part which is most prominent or foremost: hence we 
speak of the face of a wheel or clock, the face of a 
painting, or the face of nature; but the front of 2 
house or building, and the frrnt of a stage: hence 
likewise, the propriety of the expressions, to put 8 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


good face ona thing, to show a bold front; ‘ A com- 
mon soldier, a child, a girl, the door of an inn, have 
changed the face of fortune, and almost of nature.’— 
BuRKE. 


Where the deep trench in length extended lay, 
Compacted troops stand wedged in firm array, 
A dreadful front.—Porn. 


FACE, COUNTENANCE, VISAGE, 


Face, in Latin facies, from facie to make, signifies 
the whote form or make; counterance, in French 
contenance, from the Latin contineo, signifies the con- 
tents, or what is contained in the face; visage, from 
visuo and video to see, signifies the particular form of 
the face as it presents itself to view; properly speak- 
ing a kind of countenance. 

The face consists of a certain set of features; the 
countenance consists of the general aggregate of looks 
produced by these features ; the visage consists of such 
looks in particular cases: the face is the work of nature; 
the countenance and visage are the work of the mind: 
the face remains the same, but the countenance and 
visage are changeable. The face belongs to brutes as 
well as men; the countenance is the peculiar property 
of man; visage is a term peculiarly applicable to su- 
periour beings ; it is employed only in the grave or lofty 
style ; ‘ No part of the body besides the face is capable 
of as many changes as there are different emotions in 
the-mind, and of expressing them all by those changes.’ 
—-Huaues. ‘As the countenance admits of so great 
variety it requires also great judgement to govern it.’— 
Hua@ueEs. 

A sudden trembling seized on all his limbs 

His eyes distorted grew, his visage pale; 

His speech forsook him.—Otway. 


TO GAPE, STARE, GAZE. 


To gape, in German gaffen, Saxon geopnian to make 
open or wide, is to look with an open or wide mouth; 
stare, from the German starr fixed, signifies to look 
with a fixed eye; gaze comes very probably from the 
Greek dydouac to admire, because it signifies to look 
steadily from a sentiment of admiration. 

Gape and stare are taken in the bad sense; the 
former indicating the astonishment of gross ignorance ; 
the latter not only ignorance but impertinence: gaze is 
Saken always in a good sense, as indicating a laudable 
feeling of astonishment, pleasure, or curiosity. A 
clown gapes at the pictures of wild beasts which he 
sees at a fair; ‘It was now a miserable spectacle to 
see us nodding and gaping at one another, every man 
talking, and no man heard.’—Sir Joun MANDEVILLE. 
An impertinent fellow stares at every woman he looks 
at, and stares a modest woman out of countenance; 


Astonish’d Aunus just arrives by chance 

To see his fall, nor farther dares advance ; 

But, fixing on the maid his horrid eye, 

He stares and shakes, and finds it vain to fly. 
DRYDEN. 


A lover of the fine arts will gaze with admiration and 
delight at the productions of Raphael or Titian; 


For while expecting there the queen, ‘he rais’d 

His wond’ring eyes, and round the temple gaz’d, 

Admir’d the fortune of the rising town, 

The striving artists, and their art’s renown. 

DRYDEN. 

When a person is stupified by affright, he gives a va- 
cant stare. Those who are filled with transport gaze 
on the object of their ecstasy. 


VIEW, SURVEY, PROSPECT. 


View, v. To look, and survey, compounded of vey 
or view and sur over, mark the act of the person, 
namely, the looking at a thing with more or less atten- 
tion: prospect, from the Latin prospectus and pro- 
spicio to see before, designates the thing seen. We 
take a view orsurvey ; the prospect presents itself: the 
view is of an indefinite extent; the survey is always 
comprehensive in its nature. Ignorant people take 
but narrow views of things; men take more or less 
enlarged views, according to their cultivation: the ca 
pacious mind of a genius takes a survey of all nature; } 


479 


Fools view but part, and not the whole survey, 
So crowd existence all into a day.--Junyns. 


The view depends altogether on the train of a person’s 
thoughts; the prospect is set before him, it depends 
upon the nature of the thing; our views of advance- 
ment are sometimes very fallacious ; our prospects are 
very delusive; both occasion disappointment; the 
former is the keener, as we have to charge the miscal- 
culation upon ourselves, Sometimes our prospects 
depend upon our views, atleast in matters of religion; 
he who forms erroneous views of a future state has but 
a wretched prospect beyond the grave; 


No land so rude but looks beyond the tomb 
For future prospects in a world to come.—J£NYNS 


VIEW, PROSPECT, LANDSCAPE. 


View and prospect (v. View, prospect), though ap- 
plied here to external objects of sense, have a similar 
distinction as in the preceding article. The view is not 
only that which may be seen, but that which is actually 
seen; the prospect is that which may be seen: that 
ceases, therefore, to be a view, which has not an im- 
mediate agent to view ; although a prospect exists con- 
tinually, whether seen or not: hence we speak with 
more propriety of our vzew being intercepted, than our 
prospect intercepted; aconfined and bounded vie2, but 
a lively or dreary prospect. ‘The terms, however, are 
are sometimes indifferently applied; 


Thus was this place 
A happy rural seat of various views.—MILTON. 


Now skies and seas their prospect only bound. 
DRYDEN. 


View is an indefinite term; it may be said either of a 
number of objects, or of a single object, of a whole or 
of a part; prospect is said only of an aggregate number 
of objects: we may have a view of a town, of a num- 
ber of scattered houses, of a single house, or of the 
spire of a steeple; but a prospect comprehends all that 
comes Within the range of the eye. View may be said 
of that which is seen directly or indirectly; prospect 
only of that which directly presents itself to the eye; 
hence a drawing of an object may be termed a view, 
although not a prospect. View is confined to no par- 
ticular objects; prospect mostly respects rural objects; 
and landscape respects no others. Landscape, land- 
skip, or landshape denotes any portion of country whieh 
is ina particular form: hence the landscape is a spe- 
cies of prospect. A prospect may be wide, and com- 
prehend an assemblage of objects both of nature and 
art; but a landscape is narrow, and lies within the 
compass of the naked eye: hence it is also that land- 
scape may be taken also for the drawing of a landscape, 
and consequently for a species of view: the taking of 
views or landscapes is the last exercise of the learner 
in drawing; 
So lovely seem’d 
That landscape, and of pure now purer air 
Meets his approach.—MiILTon. 


VISION, APPARITION, PHANTOM, SPECTRE, 
GHOST. 


Vision, from the Latin visus seeing or seen, signifies 
either the act of seeing or the thing seen; apparition, 
from appear, signifies the thing that appears. As the 
thing seen is only the improper signification, the term 
vision is never employed but in regard to some agent: 
the vision depends upon the state of the visual organ; 
the vision of a person whose sight is defective will fre- 
quently be fallacious; he will see some things doubie 
which are single, long which are short, and the like. 
In like manner, if the sight be miraculously impressed 
his vision will enable him to see that which is super- 
natural; hence it is that vision is either true or false, 
according to the circumstances of the individual; and a 
vision, signifying a thing seen, is taken for a super- 
natural exertion of the vision: apparition, on the con- 
trary, refers us to the object seen; this may be true or 
false according to the manner in which it presents itself. 

Joseph was warned by a vision to fly into Egypt 
with his family; *Mary Magdalen was informed of 
the resurrection of our Saviour by an apparition: 


* Vide Trusler: ‘‘ Vision, apparition ’ 


480 


feverish people often think they see visions ; timid and 
credulous people sometimes take trees and posts for 
, apparitions ; 

Visions and inspirations some expect 

Their course here to direct—CowLry. 


Fu(l fast he flies, and dares not look behind him, 
Till out of breath he overtakes his fellows, 

Who gather round and wonder at the tale 

Of horrid apparttion.—Biair. 


Phantom, from the Greek gaiyw to appear, is used 
for a false apparition, or the appearance of a thing 
otherwise than what itis; thus the 7gnis fatuus, vul- 
garly called Jack-o’-Lantern, is a phantom; besides 
which there are many phantoms of a moral kind 
which haunt-the imagination ; ‘ The phantoms which 
haunt a desert are want, and misery, and danger.’— 
JOHNSON. 

Spectre, from specio to behold, and ghost, from geist 
8 spirit, are the apparitions of immaterial substances. 
The spectre is taken for any spiritual being that ap- 
pears; but the ghost is taken only for the spirits of 
departed men who appear to their fellow-creatures: 
a spectre is sometimes made to appear on the stage; 
ghosts exist mostly in the imagination of the young 
and the ignorant; 


Rous’d from their slambers, 
Jn grim array the grisly spectres rise.--BLaIR. 
The lonely tower 
{s also shunn’d, whose mournful chambers hold, 
So night-struck fancy dreams, the yelling ghost. 
‘THOMSON. 


RETROSPECT, REVIEW, SURVEY. 


Retrospect is literally looking back, from retro be- 
hind, and spicto to behold or cast an eye upon; a 
review is a view repeated; and a survey is a looking 
over at once, from the French sur over, and voir 
to see. 

A retrospect is always taken of that which is past 
and distant; a review may be taken of that which is 
present and before us; every retrospect is a species of 
review, but every review is not aretrospect. We take 
a retrospect of our past life in order to draw salutary 
reflections from all that we have done and suffered; 
we take a review of any particular circumstance which 
is passing before us, in order to regulate our present 
conduct. The retrospect goes further by virtue of the 
mind’s power to reflect on itself, and to recall all past 
images to itself; the review may go forward by the 
exercise of the senses on external objects.. The his- 
torian takes a retrospect of all the events which have 
happened within a given period; the journalist takes 
a review of all the events that are passing within the 
time in which he is living; ‘ Believe me, my lord, I look 
upon you as aspirit entered into another life, where 
you ought to despise all little views and mean retro- 
spects. —PopPEe (Letters to Atierbury). ‘The retro- 
spect of life is seldom wholly unattended by uneasi- 
ness and shame. It too much resembles the review 
which a traveller takes from some eminence of a 
barren country.,—Bair. 

The review may be said of the past as well as the 
present; it is a vzew not only of what is, but what has 
been: the survey is entirely confined to the present; it 
is a view only of that which is; ‘Every man accus- 
tomed to take a survey of his own notions, will, by a 
slight retrospection, be able to discover that his mind 
has undergone many revolutions.’—Jounson. 

We take a review of what we have already viewed, 
in order to get a more correct insight into it; we take 
a survey of a thing in all its parts in order to get a 
comprehensive view of it, in order to examine it in all 
its bearings. A general occasionally takes a review of 
all his army; he takes a survey of the fortress which 
he is going to besiege or attack. 


REVISAL, REVISION, REVIEW. 


Revisal, revision, and review, all come from the 
Latin video to see, and signify looking back upon a 
thing or looking at it again: the terms revisal and re- 
vision are however mostly employed in regard to what 
is written; revzew is used for things in general. The 
revisal of a book is the work of the author, for the 
purposes of correction; ‘There is in your persons a 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES 


difference and a peculiarity of character preservea 
through the whole of your actions, that I could never 
imagine but that this proceeded from a Jong and care- 
ful revisal of your work.’—Lorrus. ‘The review of a 
book is the work of the critick, for the purpose of esti- 
mating its value; ‘A commonplace book accustoms 
the mind to discharge itself of its reading on paper, 
instead of relying on its natural powers of retention 
aided by frequent revisions of its ideas.”.—EaRrL OF 
CuaTHam. Revisal and revision differ’ neither in 
sense nor application, unless that the former is more 
frequently employed abstractedly from the object 7e- 
vised, and revision mostly in conjunction: whoever 
wishes his work to be correct, will not spare a revisal; 
the revision of classical books ought to be intrusted 
only to men of profound erudition. The term revision 
may also sometimes be applied to other objects besides 
those of literature; ‘How enchanting must such a 
review (of their memorandum books) prove to those 
who make a figure in the polite world.—Hawkgrs 
WORTH. 


TO ECLIPSE, OBSCURE. - 


Eclipse, in Greek éxdei{ts, comes from ékXelxw to 
fail, signifying to cause a failure of light: obscure, from 
the adjective obscure (v. Dark), signifies to cause the 
intervention of ashadow. 

In the natural as well as the moral application, 
eclipse is taken in a particular and relative significa- 
tion; obscure is used in a general sense. Heavenly 
bodies are eclipsed by the intervention of other bodies 
between them and the beholder ; things are in general 
obscured which are in any way rendered less striking 
or visible. To eclipse is therefore a species of ob- 
scuring : that is always obscured which is eclipsed; 
but every thing is not eclipsed which is obscured. 

So figuratively real merit is eclipsed by the interven- 
tion of that which is superiour ; 


Sarcasms may eclipse thine own, 
But cannot blur my lost renown.—BuTLeER. 


Merit is often obscured by an ungracious exteriour in 
the possessor, or by the unfortunate circumstances of 
his life; ‘Among those who are the most richly en- 
dowed by nature and accomplished by their own in- 
dustry, how few are there whose virtues are not ob- 
scured by the ignorance, prejudice, or envy of their 
beholders.’—A DDISON. 


DARK, OBSCURE, DIM, MYSTERIOUS. 


Dark, in Saxon deore, is doubtless connected with 
the German dunkel dark and duztst a vapour, which ig 
a cause of darkness; obscure, in Latin obscurus, com- 
pounded of ob and scurus, Greek oxtspds and ockia a 
shadow, signifies literally interrupted by a shadow; 
dim is but a variation of dork, dunkel, &c. 

Darkness expresses more than obscurity : the former 
denotes the total privation of light; the latter only the 
diminution of light. 

Dark is opposed to light; obscure to bright: what is 
dark is altogether hidden; what is obscure is not to be 
seen distinctly, or without an effort. 

Darkness may be used either in the natural or moral 
sense; obscurity only in the moral sense; in this case 
the former conveys a more unfavourable idea than the 
latter: darkness serves to cover that which ought not 
to be hidden; obscurity intercepts our view of that 
which we would wish to see: the former is the conse- 
quence of design; the latter of neglect or accident: 
the Jetter sent by the conspirator in the gunpowder 
plot to his friend was dark ; 


Why are thy speeches dark and troubled, 
As Cretan seas when vex’d by warring winds? 
Smiru. 


All passages in ancient writers which allude to circum- 
stances nu longer known, must necessarily be obscure ; 
‘ He that reads and grows no wiser seldom suspects hig 
own deficiency, but complains of hard words and ob 
scure sentences.’—JoHnson. A corner may be said ta 
be dark or obscure ; but the former is used literally and 
the latter figuratively: the owl is obliged, from the 
weakness of its visual organs, to sek the darkest cor- 
ners in the daytime; men of distorted minds often 
seek obscure corners, only from disappointed ambition. 
Dim expresses a degree of darkness, but it is em 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


ployed more in relation to the person seeing than to the 
Object seen. The eyes are said to grow dim, or the 
sightdim. The light is said to be dim, by which things 
are but dimly seen; 


The stars shall fade away, the sun himself 

Grow dim with age, and nature sink in years, 

But thou shalt flourish in immortal youth. 
ADDISON. 


Mysterious denotes a species of the dark, in relation 
to the actions of men: where a veil is intentionally 
thrown over any object so as to render it as incom- 
prehensible as that which is sacred. Dark is an epi- 
thet taken always in the bad sense, but mysterious is 
always in an indifferent sense. We are told in the 
Sacred Writings, that men love darkness rather than 
light, because their deeds are evil. Whatever, there- 
fore, is dark in the ways ot men, is naturally presumed 
to be evil; but things may be mysterious in the events 
of human life, without the express intention of an in- 
dividual to render them so. The speeches of an as- 
sassin and conspirator will be dark; ‘Randolph, an 
agent extremely proper for conducting any dark in- 
trigue, was despatched into Scotland, and, residing se- 
cretly among the lords of the congregation, observed 
and quickened their motions..—RoBeRTson. Any 
intricate affair which involves the characters and con- 
duct of men may be mysterious ; ‘ The affection which 
Marty in her letter expresses for Bothwell, fully accounts 
for every subsequent part of her conduct, which, with- 
out admitting this circumstance, appears altogether 
mysterious and inconsistent.’-—ROBERTSON. 

The same distinction exists between these terms 
when applied to the ways of Providence, which are 
said to he sometimes dark, inasmuch as they present a 
cloudy aspect; and mostly mysterious, inasmuch as 
they are past finding out. 


UNSEARCHABLE, INSCRUTABLE. 


These terms.are both applied to the Almighty, but 
not altogether indifferently ; for that which is unsearch- 
able is not set at so great a distance from us as that 
which is inscrutable: for that which is searched is in 
common concerns easier to be found than that which 
requires a scrutiny. The ways of God are all, to us 
finite creatures, more or less unsearchable ; 


Things else by me unsearchable, now heard 
With wonder.—Mi.Ton. 


The, mysterious plans of Providence as frequently 
evinced,in the affairs of men are altogether inscrutable ; 
‘To expect that the intricacies of science will be 
pierced by a careless glance, is to expect a particular 
privilege; but to suppose that the maze is inscrutable 
to diligence, is to enchain the mind in voluntary 
shackles.’—JOHNSON 


OPAQUE, DARK. 


Opaque, in Latin opacus, comes from ops the earth, 
because the earth is the darkest of all bodies; the 
word opaque is to dark as the species to the genus, for it 
expresses that species of darkness which is inherent in 
solid bodies, in distinction from those which emit light 
from themselves, or admit.of light into themselves; it 
is therefore employed scientifically for the more vul- 
gar-and familiar term dark. On this ground, the earth 
is termed an opaque body in distinction from the sun, 
moon, or other luminous bodies: any solid substance, 
@8 a tree or a stone, is an opaque body, in distinction 
om gtass, which is a clear or transparent body. 


But all sunshine, as when his beams at noon, 
Culminate from th’ equator as they now 
Shot upward still, whence no way round 
Shadow from body opaque can fali.—MiTon. 


SHADE, SHADOW. 


Shade and shadow, in German schatten, are in all 
probability connected with the word shine, show, (v. 
To show, &c.) 

Both these terms express that darkness which is oc- 
casioned by the sun’s rays being intercepted by any 
body; but shade simply expresses the absence of the 
light, and shadory signifies also the figure of the body 
which thus intercepts the light. ‘Frees ree pro- 


| 


481 


duce a shade, by means of their branches and leaves 
and wherever the image of the tree is reflected on the 
earth, that forms its shadew. It is agreeable in the 
heat of summer to sit in the shade; 


Welcome, ye shades! ye bowery thickets, hail! 
‘THOMSON. 


The constancy with which the shadow follows the man 
has been proverbially adopted as a simile for one whe 
clings close to another ; 


At every step, 
Solemn and slow, the shadows blacker fall, 
And all is awful listening gloom around. 
THOMSON 


The. distinction between these terms, in the moral 
sense, is precisely the same: a person is said to be in 
the shade, if he lives in obscurity, or unnoticed; “ the 
law (says St. Paul) is a shadow of things to come.” 


TO DISAPPEAR, VANISH. 


To disappear signifies not to appear (v. Air); vanish, 
in French evanir, Latin evaneo or evanesco, com- 
pounded of e and vaneo, in Greek gaivw to appear, 
signifies to go out of sight. 

To disappear comprehends no particular mode of 
action; to vanish includes in it the idea of a rapid mo- 
tion. A thing disappears either gradually or suddenly ; 
it vanishes on a sudden: it disappears in the ordinary 
course of things; it vanishes by an unusual effort, a 
supernatural or a magick power. Any object that re 
cedes or moves away will soon disappear ; 


Red meteors ran across th’ ethereal space, 
Stars dtsappear’d, and comets took their place 
DRYDEN. 


In fairy tales things are made to vanish the instant 
they are beheld; ‘ While I was lamenting this sudden 
desolation that had been made before me, the whole 
scene vanished.—Avpison. To disappear is often a 
temporary action; to vanish generally conveys the 
idea of being permanently lost to the sight. The stars 
appear and disappear in the firmament; lightning 
vanishes with a rapidity that is unequalled. 


TO LOOK, APPEAR. 


Look is here taken in the neuter and improper sense, 
signifying the act of things figuratively striving to be 
seen; appear, from the Latin appareo or pareo, Greek 
mdpetpt, Signifies to be present or at liand, within sight. 

The look of a thing respects the impressions which 
it makes on the senses, that is, the manner in which it 
looks; its appearance implies the simple act of its 
coming into sight: the look of any thing is therefore 
characterized as good or bad, mean or handsome, ugly 
or beautiful; the appearance is characterized as early 
or late, sudden or unexpected: there is something very 
unseemly in the look of a clergyman affecting the airs 
of a fine gentleman; the appearance of the stars in an 
evening presents an interesting view even to the ordi- 
nary beholder. As what appears must appear in some 
form, the signification of the term has been extended 
to the manner of the appearance, and brought still 
nearer to look in its application; in this case, the term 
look is rather more familiar than that of appearance. 
Wwe may speak either of regarding the look or the ap- 
pearance of a thing, as far as it may impress others; 
but the latter is less colloquial than the former: a man’s 
conduct is said to look rather than to appear ill; but 
on the other hand, we say a thing assumes an appear- 
ance, or has a certain appearance. 

Look is always employed for what is real; what a 
thing looks is that. which it really is: appear, however, 
sometimes refers not only to what is external, but to 
what is superficial. If we say a person looks ill, it 
supposes some positive and unequivocal evidence of 
illness: if we say he appears to be ill, it is a less posi- 
tive assertion than the former; it leaves room for 
doubt, and allows the possibility of a mistake. We 
are at liberty to judge of things by their looks, without 
being chargeable with want of judgement; but as ap- 
pearances are said to be deceitful, it becomes necessary 
to admit them with caution as the rule of our judge 
ment. Look is employed mostly in regard to objects 
of sense; appearance respects natural and moral of 


482 


jects indifferently’ the sky looks lowering; an object 
appears through a microscope greater than it really is ; 


Distressful nature pants , 


The very streams look languid from afar. 
THOMSON. 


A person’s conduct appears in a more culpable light 
when seen through the representation of an enemy; 
‘ Never does liberty appear more amiable than under 
the government ofa pious and good prince.’—ADDISON. 


LOOK, GLANCE. 


Look w Air) is the generick, and glance (v. To 
glance at) the specifick term; that is to say, a casual 
or momentary look: a look may be characterized as 
severe or mild, fierce or gentle, angry or kind; a glance 
as hasty or sudden, imperfect or slight: so likewise we 
speak of taking a look, or catching a glance ; 


Here the soft flocks, with the same harmless look 
They wore alive.—THomson. 


The tiger, darting fierce 
tmpetuous on his prey, the glance has doom’d. 
THOMSON. 


TO LOOK, SEE, BEHOLD, VIEW, EYE. 


Look, in Saxon locan, Upper German lugen, comes 
from luz light, and the Greek dw to see; see, in Ger- 
man sehen, probably a variation from the Latin wzdeo 
to see: behold, compounded of the intensive be and 
hold, signifies to hold or fix the eye on an object; view, 
from the French voir, and the Latin video, signifies 
simply to see; to eye, from the noun eye, naturally sig- 
nifies to fathom with the eye. 

We look voluntarily; we see involuntarily: the eye 
sees; the person looks: absent people often see things 
before they are fully conscious that they are at hand: 
we may look without seeing, and we may see without 
looking : near-sighted people often look at that which 
is too distant to strike the visual organ. To behold is 
to look at for a continuance; to view is to look atin all 
directions; to eye is to look at earnestly, and by side 
glances: that which is seen may disappear in an in- 
stant; it may strike the eye and be gone: but what is 
looked at must make some stay; consequently, light- 
ning, and things equally fugitive and rapid in their 
flight, may be seen, but cannot be looked at. 

To look at is the familiar, as well as the general term, 
in regard to the others; we look at things in general, 
which we wish to see, that is, to see them cle@ly, fully, 
and in all their parts; but we dchold that which excites 
a moral or intellectual interest; ‘ The most unpardon- 
able malefactor in the world going to his death, and 
hearing it with composure, would wimthe pity of those 
who should behold him.’—Stertze. We view that 
which demands intellectual attention; 


They climb the next ascent, and, looking down, 

Now at a nearer distance view the town; 

The prince with wonder sees the stately tow’rs 

(Which late were huts and shepherds’ bow’rs). 
DrypbeEn. 


We eye that which gratifies any particular passion ; 


Half afraid, he first 
Against the window beats, then brisk alights 
On the warm hearth; then, hopping o’er the floor, 
Eyes all the smiling family askance.—Tuomson. 


An inquisitive child Zooks at things which are new to 
1, but does not behold them; we look at plants, or 
finery, or whatever gratities the senses, but we do not 
behold them: on the other hand, we behold any spec- 
tacle which excites our admiration, our astonisoment, 
our pity, or our love: we look at objects in order to 
observe their external properties; but we vez them in 
order to find out their component parts, their internal 
properties, their powers of motion and action, &c.: we 
look at things to gratify the curiosity of the moment, 
or for mere amusement ; but the’ jealous man eyes his 
rival, in order to mark his movements, his designs, and 
his successes; the envious man eyes him who is in 
prosperity, with a malignant desire to see him humbled. 

To look is an indifferent, to behold and view are good 
and honourable actions; to eye, as the act of persons, 
is commonly a m2an, and even base action. 


‘ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


LOOKER-ON, SPECTATOR, BEHOLDER, 
OBSERVER. 


The looker-on and the spectator are both opposed te 
the agents or actors in any scene; but the former is 
still more abstracted from the objects he sees than the 
latter. 

A looker-on (v. To look) is careless; he has no part 
and takes no part in what he sees; he looks on, be- 
cause the thing is before him, and he has nothing else 
to do: a spectator may likewise be unconcerned, but 
in general he derives amusement, if nothing else, from 
what he sees. A clown may be a looker-on, who with 
open mouth gapes at all that is before him, without 
understanding any part of it; but he who looks on to 
draw a moral lesson from the whole.js in the moral 
sense not an uninterested spectator; * Lookers-on 
many times see more than gamesters.’—Bacon. 


But high in heaven they sit, and gaze from far, 
The tame spectators of his deeds of war.—Popz. 


The beholder has a nearer interest than the specta 
tor; and the observer has an interest not less near 
than that of the beholder, but somewhat different. the 
beholder has his affections roused by what he sees; 
‘Objects imperfectly discerned take forms from the 
hope or fear of the beholder..—Jounson. The ob- 
server has his understanding employed in that which 
passes before him; ‘Swiftwas an exact observer of 
life’— JoHnson. The beholder indulges himself in 
contemplation ; the observer is busy in making it sub- 
servient to some proposed object; every beholder of our 
Saviour’s sufferings and patience was struck with the 
conviction of his Divine character, not excepting even 
some of those who were his most prejudiced adver- 
saries; every calm observer of our Saviour’s words 
and actions was convinced of his Divine mission 


TO SEF, PERCEIVE, OBSERVE. 
See, in the «:ei:man sehen, Greek @Oedopar, Hebrew 


Wy}, is a general term; it may be either a voluntary 
or involuntary action; perceive, from the Latin per- 
cipio or per and capio to take into the mind, is always 
a voluntary action; and observe (v. To notice) is an 
intentional action. The eye sees when the mind is 
absent ; the mind and the eye perceive in conjunction : 
hence, we may say that a person sees, but does not 
perceive; we observe, not merely by a simple act of the 
mind, but by its positive and fixed exertion. We see 
a thing without knowing what it is; we perceive a 
thing, and. know what it is, but the impression passes 
away; we observe a thing, and afterward retrace the 
image of it in our mind. We seea star when the eye 
is directed towards it; we perceive it move if we louk 
at it attentively; we observe its position in different 
parts of the heavens. The blind cannot see, the ab- 
sent Cannot perceive, the dull cannot observe. 

Seetng, as a corporeal action, is the act only of the 
eye; perceiving and observing are actions in which all 
the senses are concerned. We see colours, we per- 
ceive the state of the atmosphere, and observe its 
changes. Seeing is sometimes extended to the mind’s 
operations, in which it has an indefinite meaning ; but 
perceive and observe have both a definite sense: we 
may see a thing distinctly and clearly, or otherwise; 
we perceive it always with a certain degree of dis- 
tinctness; and observeit with a positive degree of mi- 
nuteness: we see the truth of aremark; we perceive 
the(force of an objection ; we observe the reluctance. of 
aperson. It is farther to be observed, however, that 
when see expresses a mental operation, it expresses 
what is purely mental; perceive and observe are ap- 
plied to such objects as are seen by the senses as well 
as the mind. 

See is either employed as a corporeal or in¢orporeal 
action; perceive and observe are obviously a junction 
of the corporeal and incorporeal We see the light 
with our eyes, or we see the truth of a proposition 
with our mind’s eye; 

There plant eyes, all mist from thence 

Purge and disperse, that I may sce and tell 

Of things invisible to mortal sight —Mu.Tron. 


We perceive the difference of climate, or we perceeve 
the difference in the comfort of our situation; 


Sated at length, ere long I might perceive 
Strange alteration in me.—MiLTon. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


We observe the motions of the heavenly bodies; ‘ Every 

part of your last letter glowed with that warmth of 

friendship, which, though it was by no means new to 

me, [ could not but observe with peculiar satisfaction.’ 
Mrvmotu (Letters of Cicero). 


TO SEEM, APPEAR. 


The idea of coming to the view is expressed by both 
these terms; but the word seem rises upon that of 
appear. Seem, from the Latin similis like, signifies 
literally to appear like, and is therefore a species of 
appearance, Which is from the Latin appareo or pareo, 
and the Greek zapefuc to be present, signifies to be 
preseat, or before the eye. Every object may appear; 
but nothing seems, except that which the mind admits 
to appear in any given form. To seem requires:some 
reflection and comparison of objects in the mind one 
with another; this term is, therefore, peculiarly appli- 
cable to matters that may be different from what they 
appear, or of an indeterminate kind: that the sun seems 
to move, is a conclusion which we draw from the ex- 
ercise of our senses, and by comparing this case with 
others of a similar nature; itis only by a farther re- 
search into the operations of nature that we discover 
this to be no conclusive proof of its motion. To ap- 
pear, on the contrary, is the express act of the things 
themselves on us; it is, therefore, peculiarly applicable 
to such objects as make animpression onus: to appear 
is the same as to present itself; the stars appear in the 
firmament, but we do not say that they seem there; 
the sun appears dark through the clouds. 

They are equally applicable to moral as well as 
natural objects with the above-mentioned distinction. 
Seem is said of that which is dubious, contingent, or 
future; appear of that whichis actual, positive, and 
past. A thing seems strange which we are led to con- 
clude as strange from what we see of it; a thing ap- 
pears clear when we have a clear conception of it; a 
plan seems practicable or impracticable; an author 
appears to understand his subject, or the contrary. It 
seems as if all efforts to reform the bulk of mankind 
will be found inefficient; it appears from the long ca- 
talogue of vices which are still very prevalent, that 
little progress has hitherto been made in the work of 
reformation ; 


Lash’d into foam, the fierce conflicting brine 

Seems o’er a thousand raging waves to burn. 
‘THOMSON. 

O heavenly poet! such thy verse appears, 

So sweet, so charming to my ravish’d ears.—DRYDEN. 


TO PERCEIVE, DISCERN, DISTINGUISH. 

Perceive, in Latin percipio, or per and capio, sig- 
aifies to take hold of thoroughly ; discern, v. Discern- 
ment. 

To perceive (v. To see) is a positive, to discern a 
relative, action: we perceive things by themselves; we 
discern them amid many others: we perceive that 
which is obvious; we discern that which is remote, 
or which requires much attention to get an idea of it. 
We perceive by a person’s looks and words what he 
intends; we discern the drift of his actions. Wemay 
perceive sensible or spiritual objects; we commonly 
discern only that which is spiritual; we percezve light, 
darkness, colours, or the truth or falsehood of any 
thing; 

And lastly, turning inwardly her eyes, 

Perceives how all her own ideas rise.—JENYNS. 


We discern characters, motives, the tendency and con- 
sequences of actions, &c.; ‘One who is actuated by 
party spirit, is almost under an incapacity of discern- 
ing either real blemishes or beauties..—Appison. It 
is the act of a child to perceive according to the quick- 
ness of its senses; itis the actof aman to discern ac- 
cording tothe measure of his knowledge and under- 
standing. 

To discern and distinguish (v. fal baa approach 
the nearest in sense to each other; but the former sig- 
nifies to see only one thing, the latter to see two or 
more in quick succession. We discern what lie in 
things; we distinguish things according to their out- 
ward marks; we discern things in order to under- 
stand theiressences; we distinguish in order not to con- 
tound them together Experienced and discreet people 

31* 


483 


may discern the signs of the times; it is just to dig 
tinguish between an action done from inadvertence 
and that which is done from design. ‘The conduct 0. 
people is sometimes so veiled by art, that it is not easy 
to discern their object; ‘ The custom of arguing on any 
side, even against our persuasions, dims the under- 
standing, and makes it by degrees lose the faculty of 
discerning between truth and falsehood.’—Lockg. 
It is necessary to distinguish between practice and 
profession; ‘ Mr. Boyle observes, that though the mole 
be not totally blind (as is generally thought), she has 
not sight enough to distinguish objects.’—ADDISON 


TO OBSERVE, WATCH. 


These terms agree in expressing the act of looking 
at an object; but to observe (v. To notice) is not to 
look after so strictly as is implied by to watch (v. To 
watch) ; a general observes the motions of an enemy 
when they are in no particular state of activity; he 
watches the motions of an enemy when they are ina 
state of commotion: we observe a thing in order to 
draw an inference from it; we watch any thing in 
order to discover what may happen: we observe with 
coolness; we zoatch with eagerness: we observe care- 
fully ; we watch narrowly: the conduct of mankind 
‘in general is observed; 


Nor must the ploughman less observe the skies. 
DRYDEN 
The conduct of suspicious individuals is watched ; 
For thou know’st 
What hath been warn’d us, what malicious foe 
Watches, no doubt, with greedy hope to find, 
His wish and best advantage, us asunder.—M1LTon 


WAKEFUL, WATCHFUL, VIGILANT. 


We may be wakeful without being watchful; but 
we cannot be watchful without being wakeful. 

Wakefulness is an affair of the body, and depends 
upon the temperament; zoatchfulness is an affair of 
the will, and depends upon the determination. Some 
persons are more wakeful than they wish to be; 


Musick shall wake her, that hath power to charm 
Pale sickness, and avert the stings of pain ; 

Can raise or quell our passions, and becalm 

In sweet oblivion the too wakeful sense.—F Enron. 


Few persons are as watchful as they ought to be; 
‘He who remembers what has fallen out will be 
watchful against what may happen.’—Soutru. Vigi- 
lance, from the Latin vigzl, and the Greek d@ya\Xdw 
to be on the alert, expresses a high degree of watch- 
fulness: a sentinel is watchful who on ordinary oc- 
casions keeps good watch; but it is necessary for him, 
on extraordinary occasions, to be vigilant, in order to 
detect whatever may pass. 

We are watchful mostly in the proper sense of 
watching ; but we may be vigilant in detecting moral 
as well as natural evils; ‘Let a man strictly observe 
the first hints and whispers of good and evil that pass 
in his heart: this will keep conscience quick and vigi 
lant.’—Souru. 


TO ABSTRACT, SEPARATE, DISTINGUISH. 


To abstract, from the Latin abstractum, participle 
of abstraho to draw from, signifies to draw one thing 
from another; separate, in Latin separatus, participle 
of separo, is compounded of se and paro to dispose 
apart, signifying to put things asunder, or at a distance 
from each other; distinguish, in French distinguer, 
Latin distingwo, is compounded of the separative pre 
position dis and tingo to tinge or colour, signifying to 
give different marks by which things may be known 
from each other. 

Abstract is used for the most part in the moral or 
spiritual sense; separate mostly in a physical sense: 
distinguish either in a moral or physical sense: we 
abstract what we wish to regard particularly and indi 
vidually ; we separate what we wish not to be united; 
we distinguish what we wish not to confound. The 
mind performs the office of abstraction for itself; 
separating and distinguishing are exerted on externa 
objects.* Arrangement, place, time, and circum 


* Vide Abbe Girard: “ Distinguer, separer. 


€84 


stances serve to separate: the ideas formed of things, 
the outward marks attached to them, the qualities at- 
tributed to them serve to distinguish. 

By the operation of abstraction the mind creates for 
itself a multitude of new ideas: in the act of separa- 
tion bodies are removed from each other by distance 
of place: in the act of distinguishing objects are dis- 
covered to be similar or dissimilar. Qualities are 
abstracted from the subjects in which they are in- 
herent: countries are separated by mountains or seas: 
their inhabitants are distinguished by their dress, lan- 
guage, or manners. The mind is never less abstracted 
from one’s friends than when separated from them by 
immense oceans: it requires a keen eye to distinguish 
objects that bear a great resemblance to each other. 
Volatile persons easily abstract their minds from the 
most solemn scenes to fix them on trifling objects that 
pass before them; ‘We ought to abstract our minds 
from the observation of an excellence in those we con- 
verse with, till we have received some good informa- 
tion of the disposition of their minds.’—STEELe. An 
unsocial temper leads some men to separate them- 
selves from all their companions; ‘It is an eminent 
instance of Newton’s superiority to the rest of man- 
kind that he was able to separate knowledge from 
those weaknesses by which knowledge is generally 
disgraced.’—Jounson. An absurd ambition leads 
others to distinguish themselves by their eccentri- 
cities; ‘Fontenelle, in his panegyrick on Sir Isaac 
Newton, closes a long enumeration of that philoso- 
pher’s virtues and attainments with an observation 
that he was not distinguished from other men by any 
singularity either natural or affected..—JoHnson. 


ABSENT, ABSTRACTED, DIVERTED, 
DISTRACTED. 


Absent, in French absent, Latin absens, comes from 
aband sum to be from, signifying away or at a dis- 
tance from all objects; abstracted, in French abstrait, 
Latin abstractus, participle of abstraho, or ab and 
traho to draw from, signifies drawn or separated from 
all objects; diverted, in French divertir, Latin diverto, 
“compounded of di or dis asunder and verto to turn, 
signifies to turn aside from the object that is present; 
distracted of course implies drawn asundcy by different 
objects. 

A want of attention is implied in all these terms, 
but in different degrees and under different circum- 
stances. 

Absent and abstracted denote a total exclusion of 
present objects; diverted and distracted a misapplied 
attention to surrounding objects, an attention to such 
things as are not the immediate object of concern. 

Absent and abstracted differ less in sense than in 
application: the former is an epithet expressive either 
of a habit or a state, and precedes the noun; the latter 
expresses a state only, and is never adjoined to the 
noun: we say, @ man is absent or an absent man; he 
is abstracted, but not an abstracted man, although 
when applied to other objects it may be applied to 
denote a temporary state ; 


A voice, than human more, th’ abstracted ear 
Of fancy strikes, ‘‘ Be not afraid of us, 
Poor kindred man.’”’—THomson. 


We are absent or abstracted when not thinking on 

what passes before us; we are diverted when we listen 

_ to any other discourse than that which is addressed to 
us; We are distracted when we listen to the discourse 
of two persons at the same time. 

The absent man has his mind and person never in 
the same place: he is abstracted from all the surround- 
ing scenes; his senses are locked up from all the ob- 
jects that seek for admittance; he is often at Rome 
while walking the streets of London, or solving a 
problem of Euclid in a social party; ‘ Theophrastus 
called one who barely rehearsed his speech, with his 
eyes fixed, an “absent actor.””’—Hucues. The man 
who is diverted seeks to be present at every thing; he 
is struck with every thing, and ceases to be attentive 
to one thing in order to direct his regards to another; 
5e turns from the right to the left, but does not stop to 
hink on any one point; ‘ The mind is refrigerated by 
nterruption; the thoughts are diverted from the prin- 
-ipal subject; the reader is weary, he knows not why.’ 
~—Jounson (Preface to Shakspeare). ‘The distracted 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


man can be present at nothing, as all objects str’ke hint 
with equal force; his thoughts are in a state of vacii 
lation and confusion; ‘He used to rave for his Ma- 
rianne, and call upon her in his distracted fits’ 
ADDISON. 

A habit of profound study sometimes causes ab 
sence; it is well for such a mind to be sometimes 
diverted: the ardent contemplation of any one subject 
occasions frequent abstractions ; if they are too fre- 
quent, or ill-timed, they are reprehensible: the juvenile 
and versatile mind is most prone to be diverted ; it fol- 
lows the bias of the senses, which are caught by the 
outward surface of things; it is impelled by curiosity 
to look rather than to think: a well-regulated mind is 
rarely exposed to distractions, which result from con 
trariety of feeling, as well as thinking, peculiar to per-~ 
sons of strong susceptibility or dull comprehension. 

The absent man neither derives pleasure from so 
ciety, nor imparts any to it; his resources are in him- 
self. The man who is easily diverted is easily pleased ; 
but he may run the risk of displeasing others by the 
distractions of his mind. 'The distracted man is a 
burden to himself and others. 


TO DISTINGUISH, DISCRIMINATE. 


To distinguish (v. To abstract) is the general, te 
discriminate (v. Discernment) is the particular, term 
the former is an indefinite, the latter a definite, action 
To discriminate is in fact to distinguish specifically 
hence we speak of a distinction as true or false, but 
of a discrimination as nice. 

We distinguish things as to their divisibility or 
unity ; we discriminate them as to their inherent pro- 
perties: we distinguish things that are alike or unlike 
to separate or collect them; we discriminate those that 
are different, for the purpose of separating one from 
the other: we distinguish by means of the senses as 
well as the understanding; we discriminate by the 
understanding only: we distinguish things by their 
colour, or we distinguish moral objects by their truth 
or falsehood; 


’T is easy to distinguish by the sight 
The colour of the soil, and black fron: white 
DRYDEN 


We discriminate the characters of men, or we dis 
criminate their merits according to circumstances; 
‘A satire should expose nothing but what is corrigible, 
and make a due discrimination between those whe 
are and those who are not the proper objects of it.’— 
ADDISON. 


TO DIVIDE, SEPARATE, PART. 


To divide signifies the same as in the preceding; to 
separate, in Latin separatus, participle of separo, cr 
se apart and paro to dispose, signifies to put things 
asunder, or at a distance from each other; to part 
signifies to make into parts. 

That is said to be divided which has been, or is 
conceived to be, a whole; that is separated which 
might be joined: a river divides a town by running 
through it; 

Nor cease your sowing till mid-winter ends, 

For this, through twelve bright signs Apollo guides 

The year, and earth in several climes divides. 

DRypDEN. 


Mountains or seas separate countries; ‘Can a body be 
inflammable from which it would puzzle a chymist te 
separate an inflammable ingredient ?’—BoyLr. To 
divide does not necessarily include a separation; 
although a separation supposes a division: an army 
may be divided into larger or smaller portions, and yet 
remain united ; but during a march, or an engagement, 
these companies are frequently separated. 

Opinions, hearts, minds, &c. may be divided; cor- 
poreal bodies only are separated: the minds of men 
are often most divided, when in person they are least 
separated; and those, on the contrary, who are sepa- 
rated at the greatest distance from each other may be 
the least divided; ‘Where there is the greatest and 
most honourable love, it is sometimes better to be 
joined in death, than separated in life..—Srrxr.e. 

To part approaches nearer to separate than to 
divide: the latter is applied to things only; the twe 
former to persons, as well as things: a thing becomes 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES., 


smaller ny being divided; ‘If we divide the life of 
most mca into twenty parts, we shall find at least 
nineteen of them filled with gaps and chasms, which 
are neither filled up with pleasure or business.’— 
AppISsON. One thing loses its junction with, or cohe- 
sion to, another, by being parted: a loaf of bread is 
divided by being cut into two; two loaves are parted 
which have been baked together. 

Sometimes part, as well as divide, is used in the ap- 
plication of that which is given to several, in which 
case they bear the same analogy as before: several 
things are parted, one thing is divided: a man’s per- 
sonal effects may be parted, by con:mon consent, 
among his children; but his estate, or the value of it, 
must be divided: whatever can be disjoined without 
losing its integrity is parted, otherwise it is divided: in 
this sense our Saviour’s garments are said to have been 
parted, because they were distinct things; but the ves- 
ture which was without seam must have been divided 
if they had not cast lots for it. 

As disjunction is the common idea attached to both 
separate and part, they are frequently used in relation 
to the same objects: houses may be both separated 
and parted; they are parted by that which does not 
keep them at so great a distance, as when they are said 
to be separated: two houses are parted by a small 


opening between them; they are separated by an inter- |, 


vening garden: fields are with more propriety said to 
be separated; rooms are said more properly to be 
parted. 

With regard to persons, part designates the actual 
leaving of the persom; separate is used in general for 
that which lessens the society: the former is often 
casual, temporary, or partial; the latter is positive and 
serious: the parting is momentary ; 

The prince pursu’d the parting deity 

With words like these, ‘‘ Ah, whither do you fly ? 

Unkind and cruel to deceive your son.’’-—DrypDEn, 


The separation may be longer or shorter ; ‘I pray let 
me retain some room, though never so little, in your 
thoughts, during the time of this our separation.’— 
Howrwu.. Two friends partin the streets after a casual 
meeting; two persons separate on the road who had 
set out to travel together: men and their wives often 
part without coming to a positive separation. some 
couples are separated from each other in every respect 
but that of being directly parted: the moment of part- 
ing between friends is often more painful than the 
eeparation which afterward ensues. 


TO DIVIDE, DISTRIBUTE, SHARE. 


To divide, in Latin divido, from di or dis and vido, 
in the Etruscan iduo to part, which comes from the 
Greek cis déw into two, signifies literally to make into 
two; distribute, in Latin distributus, from distribuo, 
or dis and tribuo, signifies to bestow apart; share,from 
the word shear, and the German scheeren, signifies sim- 
ply to cut. 

The act of dividing does not extend beyond the thing 
divided; that of distributing and sharing compre- 
hends also the purpose of the action: we divide the 
thing; we distribute to the person: we may divide 
therefore without distributing ; or we may divide in 
order to distribute : thus we divide our land into dis- 
tinct fields for our private convenience; or we divide 
a sum of money into so many parts, in order to distri- 
bute itamong a given number of persons; 


Let old Timotheus yield the prize, 
Or both divide the crown ; 
He rais’d a mortal to the skies, 
She drew an angel down.—DRryYDEN. 


Two urns by Jove’s high throne have ever stood 
The source of evil one, and one of good; 

Froin thence the cup of mortal man he fills, 
Blessings to these, to those distributes ill.—Popr. 


On the other hand, we may distribute without dividing ; 
for guineas, books, apples, and many other things may 
be distributed, which require no division. 

To share is to make into parts the same as divide, 
and it is to give those parts to som.e persons, the same 
as distribute: but the person who shares takes a part 
himself ; 

Why grieves my son? Thy anguish let me share, 

Reveal the cause, and trust a parent’s care.—Porr. 


485. 


He who distributes gives it always to others; ‘ Provi 
dence has made an equal distribution of natural gifts 
whereof each creature severaily has a share.’--L’ Es 
TRANGE. A loaf is divided in order to be eaten: 
bread is distributed in loaves among the poor; the loaf 
is shared by a poor man with his poorer neighbour, or 
the profits of a business are shared by the partners. 

To share may imply either to give or receive; to dis- 
tribute implies giving only: we share our own with 
another, or another shuves what we have; but wedis- 
tribute our own to others; ‘ They will be so much the 
more careful to determine properly as they shall (will) 
be obliged to share the expenses of maintaining the 
masters. —MELMOTH (Letters of Pliny). 


TO DISPENSE, DISTRIBUTE. 


Dispense, from the La.in pendo to pay or bestow, sig- 
nifies to bestow in different directions; and distribute 
from the Latin tribuo to bestow, signifies the same 
thing. 

Dispense is an indiscriminate action; distribute isa 
particularizing action: we dispense to all; we distri 
bute to each individually: nature dispenses her gifts 
bountifully to all the inhabitants of the earth; 


Though Nature weigh our talents, and dispense 

To every man his modicum of sense; 

Yet much depends, as in the tiller’s toil, 

On culture, and the sowing of the soil. 
Cowregr. 


A parent distributes among his children different tokens 
of his parental tenderness ; ‘Pray be no niggard in dis- 
tributing my love plentifully among our friends at the 
inns of court..—HoweE LL. 

Dispense is an indirect action that has no immediate 
reference to the receiver; distribute isa direct and per- 
sonal action communicated by the giver to the receiver: 
Providence dispenses his favours to those who put a 
sincere trust in him; ‘ Those to whom Christ has com- 
mitted the dispensing of his Gospel.’—-Drcay oF 
Piety. A prince distributes marks of his favour and 
preference among his courtiers; ‘The king sent overa 
great store of gentlemen and warlike people, among 
whom he distributed the land.’-—-SrEnsER on Ireland: 


PART, DIVISION, PORTION, SHARE. 


Part, in Latin pars, comes from the Hebrew wd 
to divide, signifying the thing divided or parted from 
another ; division signifies the same as portion; por- 
tion, in Latin portio, is supposed to be changed from 
partio, which comes from partior to distribute, and 
originally from the Hebrew, asthe word part; share, 
in Saxon scyran to divide, comes in all probability from 


the Hebrew 43U% to remain, that is, what remains after 
a division. 

Part is a term not only of more general use, but of 
more comprehensive meaning than division; it is al- 
ways employed for the thing dzvzded, but division may 
be either employed for the act of dividing, or the thing 
that is divided: but in all cases the word division has 
always a reference to some action, and the agent by 
whom it has been performed; whereas part, which is 
perfectly abstract, has altogether lost this idea. We 
always speak of a part as opposed to the whole, but 
of a division as it has been made of the whole. 

A part is formed of itself by accident, or made by 
design ; a division is always the effect of design: a part 
is indefinite as to its quantity or nature, it may be large 
or small, round or square, of any dimension, of any 
form, of any size, or of any character; but a division 
is always regulated by some certain principtes, it de- 
pends upon the circumstances of the divisor and thing 
to be divided. A page, aline,or a word isthe part of 
any book; but the books, chapters, sections, and para- 
graphs are the divisions of the book. Stones, wood, 
water, air, and the like, are parts of the world; fire, 
air, earth, and water are physical divisions of the 
globe; continents, seas, rivers, mountains, and the 
like, are geographical divisions, under which are like- 
wise included its political dzvzszons into countries, 
kingdoms, &c. ; 

Shall little haughty Ignorance pronounce 

His works unwise, of which the smzllest part 

Exceeds the narrow vision of her inind 7—THomsox 


486 


* A divieron (in a discourse) should be natural and sim- 
ple.’—Buiarr. FEN 
A part may be detached from the whole ; a division 
is always conceived of in connexion with the whole; 
portion and share are particular species of divisions, 
which are said of such matters as are assignable to in- 
dividuals; portion respects individuals without any 
distinction ; 
The jars of gen’rous wine, Acestes’ gift, 
He set abroach, and for the feast prepar’d, 
In equal portions with the ven’son shar’ d. 
DRYDEN. 


Share respects individuals specially referred to ; 


The monarch, on whom fertile Nile bestows 

All which that grateful earth can bear, 

Deceives himself if he suppose 

That more than this falls to his share——CowLEy. 


The portion of happiness which falls to every man’s 
lot is more equal than is generally supposed ; the share 
which partners have in the profits of any undertaking 
depends upon the sum which each has contributed 
towards its completion. The portion is that which 
simply comes to any one; but the share, is that which 
belongs to him by acertain right. According to the 
ancient customs of Normandy, the daughters could 
have no more than a third part of the property for 
their share, which was divided in equal portions be- 
tween them. 


PART, PIECE, PATCH. 
Part signifies the same as in the preceding article; 


piece, in French piece, comes from the Hebrew 08) 
to diminish; whence also comes patch, signifying the 
thing in its diminished form, that which is less than a 
whole. The part in its strict sense is taken in con- 
~exion with the whole; the piece is the part detached 
from the whole; the patch is that piece which is distin- 
guished from others. Things may be divided into parts 
without any express separation; but when divided into 
pieces they are actually cut asunder. Hence we may 
speak of a loaf as divided into twelve parts when it is 
conceived only to be so; and divided into twelve 
pieces, when it is really so. On this ground, we talk of 
the parts of a country, but not of the pieces; andof a 
ptece of land, not a part of land: so likewise letters 
are said to be the component parts of a word, but the 
half or the quarter of any given letter is called a piece. 
The chapters, the pages, the lines, &c. are the various 
paris of a book; certain passages or quantities drawn 
from the book are called pieces; the parts of matter 
may be infinitely dtcomposed; various bodies may be 
formed out of so ductile a piece of matter as clay. 
The piece is that which may sometimes serve as a 
whole; but the patch is that which is always broken 
and disjointed,—something imperfect: many things 
may be formed out of a piece; but the patch only 
serves to fill up a chasm. 


TO PARTAKE, PARTICIPATE, SHARE. 


Partake and participate, the one English, and the 
other Latin, signify literally to take a part in a thing. 
The former is employed in the proper or improper 
sense; and the latter in the improper sense only: we 
may partake of a feast, or we may partake of pleasure; 
but we participate only in pleasure or pain, &c. 

To partake is a selfish action; to participate is either 
aselfish or a benevolent action: we partake of that 
which pleases ourselves; 


All else of nature’s common gift partake, 
Unhappy Dido was alone awake.—DryDENn. 


We participate in that which pleases another ; 


Our God, when heav’n and earth he did create, 
Form’d man, who should of both participate 
DrnuHAM. 


We partake of 1 meal with a friend ; we participate in 
the xifts of Providence, or in the enjoyments which 
anotner feels. 

To partake is the act of taking the thing, or getting 
the thing to one’s self; to share is the act of having a 
title to a share, or being in the habits of receiving a 
share: we may, therefore, partake of a thing without 
sharing it, and share it without partaking. We par- 


ENGLISH SYNONYMEsS. 


take of things mostly through une medium of the senses» 
whatever, therefore, we take part in, whether grata. 
tously or casually, that we may be said to partake of; 
in this manner we partake of an entertainment with 
out sharing it; or we partake ina design, &e. ; 


,By-and-by, thy bosom shall partake 
The secrets of my heart.—SHAKSPEARE. 


On the other hand, we share things that promise to be 
of advantage or profit, and what we share is what we 
claim; inthis manner we share a sum of money which 
has been left to us in common with others; 


Avoiding love, I had not found despair, 
But shar’d with savage beasts the common air. 
DRYDEN. 


DEAL, QUANTITY, PORTION. 


Deal, in Saxon del, Dutch deed, and German theil, 
from d@len, theilen, &c. to divide, signifies literally the 
thing divided or taken off; quantity, in Latin quantitas, 
comes from quantum, signifying how much; portion, 
through the Latin pars and portio, comes from the 


Hebrew w\5) to divide, signifying, like the word deal, 
the thing taken off. 

Deal always denotes something great, and cannot be 
coupled with any epithet that Goes not express much: 
quantity is a term of relative import; it either marks 
indefinitely the how, or so much of a thing, or may be 
defined by some epithet to express much or little: por- 
tion is of itself altogether indefinite, and admits of being 
qualified by any epithet to express much or little: deal 
is a term confined to familiar use, and sometimes sub 
stituted for guantity, and son.etimes for portion. Itis 
common to speak of a deal or a quantity of paper, a 
great deal or a great quantity of money ; likewise of a 
great deal or a great portion of pleasure, a great deal 
or a great portion of wealth: and in some cases deal 
is more usual than either guantity or portion, asa deal 
of heat, a deal of rain, a deal of frost, a deal of noise, 
and the like; but it is altogether inadmissible in the 
higher style of writing; ‘ This, my inquisitive temper, 
or rather impertinent humour, of prying into ali sorts 
of writing, with my natural aversion to loquacity, 
gives me a good deal of employment when I enter any 
house in the country.’—Appison. ‘There is never 
room in the world for more than a certain quantity or 
measure of renown.’——JOHNSON.- 

Portion is employed only for that which is detached 
from the whole; quantity may sometimes be employed 
for a number of wholes. We may speak of a large or 
a small quantity of books; a large or a small quantity 
of plants or herbs; but a large or a small portion of 
food, a large or small portion of colour. Quantity is 
used only in the natural sense: portion also in the 
moral application, and mostly in the sense of a stated 
quantity. Material substances, as wood, stone, metals, 
and liquids, are necessarily considered with regard to 
quantity; the qualities of the mind and the circum- 
stances of human life are divided into portions. A 
builder estimates the quantity of materials which he 
will want. for the completion of a house; the work 
man estimates the portion of labour which the work 
will require; 

In battles won, fortune a part did claim, 
And soldiers have their portion in the fame. 
WALLER 


oe 


TO COMMUNICATE, IMPART. 


Communicate, in Latin communicatus, participle of 
communico, contracted from communifico, signifies to 
make common property with another; zmpart, com- 
pounded of im and part, signifies to give in part to 
another. 

Imparting is a species of communicating ; one al- 
ways communicates in imparting, but not vice versa. 

Whatever can be enjoyed in common with others is 
communicated ; whatever can be shared by another is 
imparted ; what one knows or thinks is communicated, 
or made commonly known; what one feels is imparted 
and participated in: intelligence or information is 
communicated ; ‘ A man who publishes his works in a 
volume has an infinite advantage over one who com- 
municates his writings to the world in loose tracts ’=- 
ADDISON. Secrets or sorrows are imparted, 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


Yet hear what an unskilful friend may say, 

As if a blind man should direct your way: 

So I myself, though wanting to be taught, 

May yet ¢mpart a hint that's worth your thought. 
GOLDING. 


Lhose who always communicate all they hear, some- 
times communicate more than they really know; it is 
the characteristick of friendship to allow her votaries 
fo impart their joys and sorrows to each other. 

A person may communicate what belongs to another, 
as well as that which is his own; but he imparts 
that only which concerns or belongs to himself: an 
openness of temper leads some men to communicate 
their intentions as soon as they are formed; loquacity 
impels others to communicate whatever istold them: a 
generosity of temper leads some men to impart their 
substance for the relief of their fellow-creatures; a 
desire for sympathy leads others to 7mpart their senti- 
ments. There is a great pleasure in communicating 
good intelligence and in imparting good advice. 


COMMUNICATIVE, FREE, 


Are epithets that convey no respectful sentiment of 
the object to which they are applied: a person is com- 
municative, who is ready to tell all he knows; he is 
free, when he is ready to say all he thinks: the commu- 
nicative person has no regard for himself; the free 
person has no regard for others. 

A communicative temper leads to the breach of all 
confidence; a free temper leads to violation of all de- 
cency: communicativeness of disposition produces 
much mischief; freedom of speech and behaviour oc- 
casions much offence. Communicatinveness is the ex- 
cess of sincerity ; it offends by revealing what it ought 
to conceal: freedom is the abuse of sincerity ; it offends 
by speaking what it ought not to think. 

These terms are sometimes taken in a good sense; 
when a person is communicative for the instruction or 
amusement of others, and is free in imparting to others 
whatever he can of his enjoyments; ‘The most mise- 
rable of all beings is the most envious; as on the other 
hand the most communicative is the happiest.’-—GRove. 
‘ Aristophanes was in private life of a free, open, and 
companionable temper.,-—CUMBERLAND. 


COMMUNION, CONVERSE. 


Vommunion, from commune and common, signifies the 
act of making common (v. Common) ; converse, from 
the Latin cenverto to convert or translate, signifies a 
transferring. ‘ 

Both these terms imply a communication between 
minds; but the former may take place without corpo- 
teal agency, the latter never does; spirits hold commu- 
nion with each other, or men may hold spiritual com- 
munion with God; ‘ Where a long course of piety and 
close communion with God has purged the heart and 
rectified the will, knowledge will break in upon such 
a soul.’—Soutu. People hold converse together ; 


In varied converse softening every theme, 

You frequent pausing turn ; and from her eyes, 
Where meeken’d sense, and amiable grace, 

And lively sweetness dwell, enraptured drink 
That nameless spirit of ethereal joy.—THomson. 


For the same reason a man may hold communion 
with himself; he holds converse always with another. 


COMMUNITY, SOCIETY. 


Both these terms are employed for a body of rational 
beings; community, from communitas and communis 
common (v. Common), signifies abstractedly the state 
of being common, and in an extended sense those who 
are in a state of common possession; society, in Latin 


socictas, from socius a companion, signifies the state of | 


being companions, or those who are in that state. 
Community in any thing constitutes a community; a 
common interest, a common language, a common go- 
vernment, is the basis of that community which is 
formed by any number of individuals; communities 
are therefore divisible into large or small; the former 
may be states, the latter families; ‘Was there ever 
any community so corrupt as not to include within it 
individuals of real worth ?’—Bratr. The coming to- 


487 


gether of many constitutes a society; societies are 
either private or publick, according to the purpose fo? 
which they meet together; friends form societies fo. 
the purpose of pleasure; indifferent persons form se- 
cteties tor the purposes of business; ‘The great com- 
munity of mankind is necessarily broken into smaller 
independent soczeties.’—J OHNSON. 

Community has always a restrictive and relative 
sense; society has a general and unlimited import: 
the most dangerous members of the community are 
those who attempt to poison the minds of youth with 
contempt for religion and disaffection to the state; the 
morals of soctety are thus corrupted as it were at the 
fountain-head. 

Community refers to spiritual as well as corporeal 
agents; society mostly to human beings only: the 
angels, the saints, and the spirits of just men made 
perfect, constitute a community; with them there is 
more communion than association. 


CONVIVIAL, SOCIAL, SOCIABLE. 


Convivial, in Latin convivialis, from convivo to live 
together, signifies being entertained together; social, 
from soctus a companion, signifies pertaining to com- 
pany. 

The prominent idea in convivial is that of sensual 
indulgence; the prominent idea in social is that of en- 
joyment from an intercourse with ‘society. The con- 
vivial is a species of the soctal; it is the socéal in mat- 
ters of festivity. What is convivial is social, but 
what is social is something more; the former is ex- 
celled by the latter as much as the body is excelled by 
the mind. We speak of convivial meetings, convivial 
enjoyments, or the convivial board; but social inter- 
course, social pleasure, social amusements, and the 
like; ‘It is related by Carte, of the Duke of Ormond, 
that he used often to pass a night with Dryden, and 
those with whom Dryden consorted; who they were 
Carte has not told, but certainly the convivial table at 
which Ormond sat was not surrounded witha plebeian 
society.’—Jounson. ‘ Plato and Socrates shared many 
social hours with Aristophanes.’-—-CumBERLAND. 

Social signifies belonging or allied to a companion, 
having the dispesition of a companion; sociable, from 
the same root, signifies able or fit to be a companion; 
the former is an active, the latter a passive quality: 
social people seek others; sociable people are sought 
for by others. It is possible for a. man to be social and 
not sociable; to be sociable and not social: he who 
draws his pleasures from society without communica- 
ting his share to the common stock of entertainments 
is social but not sociable; men of a taciturn disposi 
tion are often in this case; they receive more than they 
give: he, on the contrary, who has talents to please 
company, but not the inclination to go into company, 
may be sociable, but is seldom social ; of this descrip- 
tion are humorists who go into company to gratify 
their pride, and stay\ away to indulge their humour. 
Social and sociable are likewise applicable to things, 
with a similar distinction ; social intercourse is that 
intercourse which men have together for the purposes 
of society; social pleasures are what they enjoy by as- 
sociating together ; 


Social friends, 
Attun’d to happy unison of soul.—THomson. 


A path or a carriage is denominated sociable which 
encourages the association of many ; ‘Sciences are of 
a sociable disposition, and flourish best in the neigh- 
bourheod of each other.’"— BLACKSTONE. 


SOCIETY, COMPANY. 


Society (v. Association) and company (v. Associa- 
tion) here express either the persons associating or 
the act of associating. 

In either case, society is a general, and company a 
particular, term ; as respects persons associating, society 
comprehends either all the associated part of mankind, 
as when we speak of the laws of society, the well-being 
of society; or it is said only of a particular number of 
individuals associated: in which latter case it comes 
nearest to company, and differs from it only as to the 
purpose of the association. A soctety is always formed 
for some solid purpose, as the Humane Society: and 


488 


the company 1s always brought together for pleasure or 
pront, as has already been observed. . 

Good sense teaches us the necessity of conforming 
to the rules of the society to which we belong; good 
breeding prescribes to us to render ourselves agreeable 
to the company of which we form a part. so ee 

When expressing the abstract action of associating, 
society is even more general and indefinite than before ; 
it expresses that which is common to mankind; and 
company that which is peculiar to individuals. The love 
of society is inherent in our nature; it is weakened or 
destroyed only by the vice of our constitution or the 
derangement of our system ; 


Solitude sometimes is best society, 
And short retirement urges sweet return.—MiLTon. 


Every one naturally likes the company of his own 
friends and connexions: in preference to that of 
strangers. Society is a permanent and habitual act; 
company is only a particular act suited to the occa- 
sion; it behooves us to shun the society of those from 
whom we can learn no good, although we may some- 
times be obliged to be in their company. The society 
of intelligent men is desirable for those who are en- 
tering life; the company of facetious men is agreeable 
in travelling; ‘ Company, though it may reprieve aman 
from his melancholy, cannot secure him from his con- 
science.’—Souru. 


ASSOCIATE, COMPANION, 


Associate, in Latin associatus, participle of associo, 
compounded of as or ad and soczo to ally, signifies one 
united with a person; companion, from company, sig- 
nifies one that bears company (v. To accompany). 

Associates are habitually together; companions are 
only occasionally in each other’s company: as our 
habits are formed from our associates, we ought to be 
particular in our choice of them; as our companions 
contribute much to our enjoyments, we ought to choose 
such as are suitable to ourselves; ‘ We see many strug- 
gling single about the world, unhappy for want of an 
associate, and pining with the necessity of confining 
their. sentiments to their own bosoms.’—JoHNSON. 
Many men may be admitted as companions, who would 
not altogether be fit as associates; ‘There is.a degree 
of want by which the freedom of agency is almost de- 
stroyed, and long association with fortuitous compa- 
nions will at last relax the strictness of truth, and abate 
the fervour of sincerity..—JoHnson. 

An associate may take part with us in some basi- 
ness, and share with us in the labour; ‘ Addison con- 
tributed more than a fourth part (of the last volume of 
the Spectator), and the other contributors are by no 
means unworthy of appearing as his associates.’— 
Jounson. A companion takes part with us in some 
concern, and shares with us in the pleasure or the pain ; 


Thus while the cordage stretch’d ashore may guide 
Our brave companions through the swelling tide; 
This floating lumber shall sustain them o'er 

The rocky shelves, in safety to the shore.— FALCONER. 


ASSOCIATION, SOCIETY, COMPANY, 
PARTNERSHIP. 


All these terms denote a union of several persons 
into one body. 

Association \v. To associate) is general, the rest 
specifick. Whenever we habitually or frequently meet 
together for some common object, it is an association. 
Associations are therefore political, religious, commer- 
cial, and literary ; a soczety is an association for some 
specifick purpose, moral or religious, civil or political; 
a company is, in this application of the term, an asso- 
ciation of many for the purpose of trade; a partner- 
ship is an association of a few for the same object. 

Whenever association is used in distinction from 
the others, it denotes that which is partial in its ob- 
ject and temporary in its duration. It is founded on 
unity of sentiment as well as unity of object; but it 
is mostly unorganized, and kept together only by the 
spirit which gives rise to it. It is not, however, the 
less dangerous on this account; and when politicks are 
the subject, it commonly breathes a spirit hostile to 
the established order of things; as the last thirty years 
have evinced to us by woful experience; ‘ For my own 
part I could wish that all honest men would enter into 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


an association for the support of one another against 
the endeavours of those whom they ought to look upor 
as their common enemies, whatever side they may be- 
long to.’ ADDISON. 

A society requires nothing but unity of object, which 
is permanent in its nature; it is well organized, and 
commonly set on foot to promote the cause of humanity, 
literature, or religion. No country can boast such nu- 
merous and excellent soczeties, whether of acharitable, 
a religious, ora literary description, as England; ‘ What 
Ihumbly propose to the publick is, that there may bea 
society erected in London to consist of the most skilful 
persons of both sexes, for the inspection of modes and 
fashions.’—BupGELL 

Companies are brought together for the purposes of 
interest, and are dissolved when that object ceases to 
exist; their duration depends on the contingencies of 
profit and loss. The South Sea Company, which was 
founded on an idle speculation, was formed for the ruin 
of many, and dispersed almost as soon as it was formed. 
The East India Company, on the other hand, which is 
one of the grandest that ever was raised, promises as 
much permanency as is commonly allotted to human 
transactions; ‘ The nation is a company of players.’ 
ADDISON. 

Partnerships are altogether of an individual and pri- 
vate nature. As they are without organization and 
system, they are more precarious than any other asso- 
ciation. ‘Their duration depends not only on the 
chances of trade, but the compatibility of individuals 
to co-operate in a close point of union. They are 
often begun rashly and end ruinously; ‘Gay was the 
general favourite of the whole association of wits; but 
they regarded him as a playfellow rather than a part- 
ner, and treated him with more fondness than respect.’ 
—Jounson. The term partnership is sometimes used 
figuratively, in reference to other objects; ‘ Soczety is 
a partnership in all science; a partnership in every 
virtue and in all perfection,—-BurkKE 


ASSOCIATION, COMBINATION. 


Association, v. Associate; combination, from the 
Latin combino, or con and binus, signifies tying two 
into one. 

An association is something less binding than & com- 
bination; associations are formed for purposes of 
convenience; combinations are formed to serve either 
the interests or passions of men. The word associa- 
tion is therefore always taken in a good or an indiffer 
ent sense; combination in an indifferent or bad sense. 
An association is publick; it embraces all classes of 
men: a combination is often private, and includes only 
a particular description of persons. .@ssociations are 
formed for some general purpose; ‘In my yesterday’s 
paper I proposed that the honest men of all parties 
should enter into a kind of association for the defence 
of one another.’—Appison. Combinations are fre- 
quently formed for particular purposes, which respect 
the interest of the few, to the injury of many; ‘The 
cry of the people in cities and towns, though unfortu- 
nately (from a fear of their multitude and combination) 
the most regarded, ought in fact to be the least regarded, 
on the subject of monopoly.’—BurkE. Associations 
are formed by good citizens ; combinations by discon- 
tented mechanicks, or low persons ingeneral. The Jat- 
ter term may, however, be used in a good sense when 
taken for the general act of combining, in which case 
it expresses a closer union than assoctation; ‘There 
is no doubt bet all the safety, happiness, and conve- 
nience that men enjoy in this life, is from the combina- 
tion of particular persons into societies or corporations. 
—SourTu. 

When used for things, association is a natural ac- 
tion; combination an arbitrary action. Things assa- 
ciate of themselves, but combinations are formed either 
by design or accident. Nothing will associate but 
what harmonizes: things the most opposite in their 
nature are combined together. We associate persong 
with places, or events with names; discordant proper 
ties are combined in the same body. With the name 
of one’s birthplace are associated pleasurable recol 
lections; virtue and vice are often so combined in the 
same character as toform acontrast. ‘The association 
of ideas is a remarkable phenomenon of the human 
mind, but it can never be admitted as solving any dif 
ficulty respecting the structure and composition of the 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


- 


soul; ‘ Meekness andcourtesy will always recommend 
the first address, but soon pall and nauseate unless 
they are associated with more sprightly qualities.’— 
JouNson. The combination of letters forms syllables, 
and that of syllables forms words; ‘Before the time 
of Dryden, those happy combinations of words which 
distinguish poetry from prose had heen rarely at- 
tempted.’—JoHNSON. 


COMBINATION, CABAL, PLOT, CONSPIRACY. 


_ Combination, v. Association, combination; cabal, 
In French cabale, comes from the Hebrew kabala, 
signifying a secret science, pretended to by the Jewish 
Rabbi, whence it is applied to any association that has 
a pretended secret; plot, in French complot, is derived, 
like the word complicate, from the Latin plico to en- 
tangle, signifying any intricate or dark concern; con- 
spiracy, in French conspiration, from con and spiro 
to breathe together, signifies the having one spirit. 

An association for a bad purpose is the idea common 
to all these terms, and peculiar to combination. A 
combination may be either secret or open, but secrecy 
forms a necessary part in the signification of the other 
terms; a cabal is secret as to its end; a plot and con- 
spiracy are secret both as to the means and the end. 

Combination is the close adherence of many for 
their mutual defence inbtaining their demands, or 
resisting the claims of others. f* cabal is the in- 
trigue of a party or faction, formed by cunning prac- 
tices in order to give a turn to the course of things to 
its own advantage: the naturaland ruling idea of cabal 
is that of assembling a number, and mancuvring se- 
cretly with address. A plot is a clandestine union of 
some persons for the purpose of mischief: the ruling 
idea in a plot is that of a complicated enterprise formed 
in secret, by two or more persons. A conspiracy isa 
general intelligence among persons united to effect 
some serious change: the ruling and natural idea in 
this word is that of unanimity and concert in the pro- 
secution of a plan. 

A combination is seldom of so serious a nature asa 
cabal or a plot, though always objectionable; a com- 
bination may have many or few. A cabal requires a 
number of persons sufficient to form a party, it gains 
strength by numbers; a plot is generally confined to a 
few, it diminishes_its security by numbers; a con- 
spiracy mostly requires many for the fulfilment of its 
purposes, although it is thereby the more exposed to 
discovery. 

Selfishness, insubordination, and laxity of morals 
give rise to combinations; they are peculiar to me- 
chanicks, and the lower orders of society; ‘The pro- 
tector, dreading combinations between the parliament 
and the malecontents in the army, resolved to allow no 
leisure for forming conspiracies against him.—Hume. 
Restless, jealous, ambitious, and little minds are ever 
forming cabals ; they are peculiar to courtiers; 


I see you court the crowd, 
When with the shouts of the rebellious rabble, 
I see you borne on shoulders to cabuls.—DrypuEN. 


Malignity, revenge, and every foul passion is concerned 
in forming plots ; 


Oh! think what anxious moments pass between 
The birth of plots, and their last fatal periods. 
ADDISON. 


Disaffected subjects and bad citizens form con- 
spiracies, which are frequently set on foot by disap- 
pointed ambition ; 


O Conspiracy! | 
Sham’st thou to show thy dangerous brow by night, 
When evils are most free.—SHAKSPEARE. 


The object of a combination, although not less formi- 
dable than the others, is not always so criminal; it 
rests on a question of claims which it proposes to de- 
cide by force; the end is commonly as unjustifiable as 
the means: to this description are the combinations 
formed by journeymen against their masters, which 
are expressly contrary to law. The object of a cabal 
is always petty, and mostly contemptible ; its end is to 
gain favour, credit, and influence ; to be the distributor 
of places, honours, emoluments, reputation, and all 


* Vide Roubaud: 


** Cabale, complot, conspiration, 
eonjuratior. i 


489 


such contingencies as are eagerly sought for by the 
great mass of mankind: at court it makes and unmakes 
ministers, generals, and officers; in the republick of 
letters it destroys the reputation of authors, and blasts 
the success of their works; in publick societies it stops 
the course of equity, and nips merit in the bud ; in the 
world at large it isthe never-ending source of vexation, 
broils, and animosities. A plot has always the object 
of committing some atrocity, whether of a private or 
publick nature, as the murder or plunder of individu 

als, the traitorous surrender of a town, or the destrue 

tion of something very valuable. Astarba in Telema- 
chus is represented as having formed a plot for the 
poisoning of Pygmalion: the annihilation of the Eng 

lish government was the object of that plot which re 

ceived the name of gunpowder treason. The object 
of a conspiracy is oftener to bring about some evi! 
change in publick than in private concerns; it is com 

monly directed against the governour, in order to over 

turn the government: in a republick, conspiracies are 
justified and hailed as glorious events when sanctioned 
by success: the conspiracy of Brutus against Cesar is 
always represented by the favourers of a republick ag 
a magnanimous exploit. Where every man can rule, 
there will always be usurpers and tyrants, and where 
every man has an equal right to set himself up against 
his ruler, there will never be wanting conspiracies to 
crush the usurpers; hence usurpations and conspira- 
cies succeed each other as properly and naturally in 
republicks as cause and effect; the right of the strongest, 
the most daring, or the most unprincipled, is the only 
right which can be acknowledged upon the principles 
of republican equality : on the contrary, in a monarchy, 
where the person of the sovereign and his authority 
are alike sacred, every conspirator to his country, and 
every conspiracy, does no less violence to the laws of 
God, than to those of man. 


FELLOWSHIP, SOCIETY. 


Both these terms are employed to denote a close in 
tercourse; but fellowshzp is said of men as individu 
als, society of them collectively: we should be carefu 
not to hold fellowship with any one of bad character 
or to join the society of those who profess bad prin 
ciples; 

Ill becomes it me 
To wear at once thy garter and thy chains; 
Though by my former dignity I swear, 
That were I reinstated in my throne, 
Thus to be join’d in fellowship with thee 
Would be the first ambition cf my soul. 

GILBERT WEST 

Unhappy he! who from the first of joys, 
Society, cut off, is left alone, 
Amid this world of death.— THomson. 


TO ASSEMBLE, MUSTER, COLLECT. 


Assemble, in French assembler, Latin adsimulare 
or assimulare, from similis like and simul together, 
signifies to make alike or bring together; muster, ix. 
German mustern to set out for inspection, comes from 
the Latin monstror to show or display; collect, iw 
Latin collectus, participle of colligo, compounded of 
col or con and lego to bind, signifies to bring together, 
or into one point. 

Assemble is said of persons only; muster and collect 
of persons or things. To assemble is to bring together 
by a call or invitation; to muster is to bring togethe 
by an act of authority, into one point of view, at one 
time, and from one quarter; to collect is to bring to- 
gether at different times, and from different quarters: 
the parliament is assembled: soldiers are mustered 
every day in order to ascertain their numbers; 


Assemble all their choirs, and with their notes, 
Salute and welcome up the rising sun.— OT wav. 


An army is collected in preparation for war: * king 
assembles his council im order to consult wiih them or 
publick measures; a general musters his forzes before 
he undertakes an expedition, and collezcs snore troops 
if he finds himself too weak. 

Collect is used for every thing which can be brough 
together in numbers; muster is ured figuratively for 
bringing together, for an iinme“sate purpose, Wha’ vey 


490 


is in one’s possession: books, coins, curiosities, and the 
like, are collected; a person’s resources, his strength, 
courage, resolution, &c., are mustered: some persons 
have a pleasure in collecting all the pieces of antiquity 
which fall in their way; 


Each leader now his scatter’d force conjoins 

In close array, and forms the deep’ning lines ; 

Not with more ease the skilful shepherd swain 

Collects his flock, from thousands on the ee 
OPE. 


On a trying occasion it is necessary to muster all the 
tortitude of which we are master; 


Oh? theu hast set my busy brain at work! 
And now she musters up a train of images. 
Rowe 


TO ASSEMBLE, CONVENE, CONVOKE. 


Assemble, v. To assemble, muster ; convene, in Latin 
conveniv, signifies to come or bring together; convoke, 
in Latin convoco, signifies to call together. 

The idea of collecting many persons into one place, 
for a specifick purpose, is common to all these terms. 
4ssemble conveys this sense without any addition; 
convene and convoke include likewise some collateral 
idea: people are assembled, whenever they are con- 
vened or convoked, but not vice versd. Assembling is 
mostly by the wish of one; convening by that of seve- 
ral: a crowd is assembled by an individual in the 
streets ; a meeting is convened at the desire of a certain 
number of persons: people are assembled either on 
publick or private business; they are always convened 
ona publick occasion. A king assembles his parlia- 
ment; a particular individual assembles his friends; 


He ceas’d; the assembled watriours all assent, 
All but Atrides.—CUMBERLAND. 


The inhabitants of a district are convened : 


They form one social shade, as if conven’d 
By magick summons of the Orphean lyre. 
CowPpar. 


Animals also as well as men may be said to be essem- 
bled or convened ; 


Where on the mingling boughs they sit embowered 

All the hot noon, till cooler hours arrive, 

Faint underneath, the household fowls convene. 
THOMSON. 


There is nothing imperative on the part of those 
that assemble or convene, and nothing binding on those 
assembled or convened; one assembles or convenes by 
invitation or request; one attends to the notice or not 
at pleasure. To convoke, on the other hand, is an act 
of authority: it is the call of one who has the authority 
to give the call; it is heeded by those who feel them- 
selves bound to attend. Assembling and convening 
are always for domestick or civil purposes: convoking 
is always employed in civil or spiritual matters: a 
dying man assembles his friends round his death-bed ; 
a meeting is convened in order to present an address; 
the dignitaries in the church are convoked by the su- 
preme authority, or a king convokes his council ; 


Here cease thy fury, and the chiefs and kings, 
Convoke to council, weigh the sum of things. 
Pore. 


ASSEMBLY, ASSEMBLAGE, GROUP, 
COLLECTION. 


Assembly, assemblage, are collective terms derived 
from the verb assemble; group comes from the Italian 
gruppo, which among painters signifies an assemblage 
of figures,in one place; collection expresses the act of 
collecting, or the body collected (v. To assemble, 
muster). 

Assembly respects persons only; assemblage, things 
only; group and collection, persons or things: an as- 
sembly is any number either brought together, or come 
together of themselves; an assemblage is any number 
standing together: a group is come together by acci- 
dent, or put together by design; a collection is mostly 
put or brought together by design. 

A general alarm will cause an assembly to disperse ; 

Love and marriage are the natural effects of these 
mniversary assemblies. —BupGELL. An agreeable 


nn nn 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


assemblage of rural objects, whether in nature or m 
representation, constitutes a landscape : 


O Hertford! fitted or to shine in courts 

With unaffected grace, or walk the plain 

With innocerice and meditation join’d 

In soft assemblage, listen to my song. 
THOMSON. 


A painting will sometimes consist only of a group of 
figures, but if they be well chosen it will sometimes 
produce a wonderful effect: a collection of evil-minded 
persons ought to be immediately dispersed by the au 
thority of the magistrate. In a large assembly you 
may sometimes observe a singular assemblage of cha- 
racters, countenances, and figures; when people come 
together in great numbers on any occasion, they will 
often form themselves into distinct groups ; 


A lifeless group the blasted cattle lie. 
THOMSON 


The collection of scarce books and curious editions has 
become a passion, which is justly ridiculed under the 
title of bibliomania; ‘ There is a manuscript at Oxford 
containing the lives of a hundred and thirty-five of the 
finest Persian poets, most of whom left very ample col- 
lections of their poems behind them.’—Si1r W. Jonzs 


ASSEMBLY, COMPANY, MEETING, CONGRE 
GATION, PARLIAMENT, DIET, CONGRESS, 
CONVENTION, SYNOD, CONVOCATION, 
COUNCIL. 


An assembly (v. To assemble, musézer) is simply the 
assembling together of any number of persons, or the 
persons so assembled: this idea is common to all the 
rest of these terms, which differ in the object, mode, 
and other collateral circumstances of the action; 
company, a body linked together (v. Te accompany), 
is an assembly for purposes of amusement; meet- 
ing, a body met together, is an assembly for general 
purposes of business; congregation, a body flocked or 
gathered together, from the Latin grez a flock, is an 
assembly brought together from congeniality of senti- 
ment, and community of purpose; parliament, in 
French parlement, from parler to speak, signifies an 
assembly for speaking or debating on important mat- 
ters; diet, from the Greek dcarréw 10 govern, is an as 
sembly for governing or regulating affairs of state; 
congress, from the Latin congredior to march in a 
body, is an assembly coming together in a formal man 
ner from distant parts for the special purposes; con- 
vention, from the Latin convenio to come together, is 
an assembly coming together in an unformal and pro- 
miscuous manner from a neighbouring quarter; synod, 
in Greek odvados, compounded of adv and 6dds, signi- 
fies literally going the same road, and has been em- 
ployed to signify an assembly for consultation on mat 
ters of religion; convocation is an assembly convokea 
for an especial purpose; council is an assembly for 
consultation either on civil or ecclesiastical affairs. 

An assembly is, in its restricted sense, publick, and 
under certain regulations; ‘Lucan was so exasperated 
with the repulse, that he muttered something to him- 
self, and was heard to say, ‘‘that since he could not 
have a seat among them himself, he would bring in 
one who alone had more merit than their whole as- 
sembly ;’’. upon which he went to the door and brought 
in Cato of Utica.—Appison. A company is private, 
and confined to friends and acquaintances; ‘As I am 
insignificant to the company in publick places, and as 
it is visible I do not come thither as most do to show 
myself, I gratify the vanity of all who pretend to make 
an appearance.’ —STrELse. A meeting is either pub 
lick or private: a congregation is always publick 
Meetings are held by all who have any common busi 
ness to arrange or pleasure to enjoy; ‘It is very na | 
tural for a man who is not turned for mirthful meetings 
of men, or assemblies of the fair sex, to delight in that 
sort of conversation which we meet with in coffee- 
houses."—STEeELE. A congregation in its limited 
sense consists of those who follow the same form of 
doctrine and discipline; ‘As all innocent means are te 
be used for the propagation of truth, I would not deter 
those who are employed in preaching to common con- 
gregations from any practice which they may find 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


peisuasive.’—JoHNsoN, But the term may be ex- 
tended to bodies either of men or brutes congregated 
for some common purpose; 


Their tribes adjusted, clean’d their vig’rous wings, 
And many a circle, many a short essay, 

Wheel’d round and round: in congregation full 
The figur’d flight ascends.—THomson. 


All these different kinds of assemblies are formed by 
individuals in their private capacity; the other terms 
designate assemblies that come together for national 
purposes, with the exception of the word convention, 
which may be either domestick or political. 

A parliament and diet are popular assemblies under 
a monarchical form of government; congress and con- 
vention are assemblies under a republican government: 
of the first description are the parliaments of England 
and France, the diets of Germany and Poland, which 
consisted of subjects assembled by the monarch, to 
deliberate on the affairs of the nation; ‘The word 
parliament was first applied to general assemblies of 
the states under Louis VII. in France, about the 
middle of the tweifth century.,—BLacxksTonge. ‘What 
further provoked their indignation was that instead of 
twenty-five pistoles formerly allowed to each member 
for their charge in coming to the diet, he had presented 
them with six only.’—StTrEe.tx. Of the latter descrip- 
tion are the congress of the United Provinces of 
Holland, and that of the United States of America, 
and the late national convention of France: but there 
is this difference observable between a congress and a 
convention, that the former consists of deputies or 
delegates from higher authorities, that is, from inde- 
pendent governments already established; but a con- 
vention is a self-constituted assembly, which has no 
power but what it assumes to itself; ‘ Prior had not, 
however, much reason to complain; for he came to 
London, and obtained such notice, that (in 1691) he 
was sent to the congress at the Hague, as secretary 
to the embassy.’.—Jounson. ‘The office of conser- 
vators of the peace was newly erected in Scotland; 
and these, instigated by the clergy, were resolved, since 
they could not obtain the King’s consent, to summon 
in his name, but by their own authority, a convention 
of states.’——-Humr. 

A synod and convocation are in religious matters 
what a diet and convention are in civil matters: the 
former exist only under an episcopal form of govern- 
ment; the latter may exist under any form of church 
discipline, even where the authority lies in the whole 
body of the ministry; ‘A synod of the celestials was 
convened, in which it was resolved that patronage 
should descend to the assistance of the sciences.’— 
Jounson. ‘The convocation is the miniature of a 
parliament, wherein the archbishop presides with 
regal state.,—BLACKSTONE. 

A council is more important than all other species 
of assembly; it consists of persons invested with the 
highest authority, who, in their consultations, do not 
so much transact ordinary concerns, as arrange the 
forms and fashions of things. Religious councils used 
to determine matters of faith and discipline; political 
counctls frame laws and determine the fate of em- 
pires; 


Inspir’d by Juno, Thetis’ godlike son 
Conven’d to council all the Grecian train. 
Pore. 


——— 


GUEST, VISITER, OR VISITANT. 


Guest, from the northern languages, signifies one 
who is entertained; visiter is the ane who pays the 
visit. The guest is to the visiter as a species to the 
genus: every guest is a visiter, but every visiter is 
not a guest. The visiter simply comes to see the 
person, and enjoy social intercourse; but the guest 
also partakes of hospitality. We are visiters at the 
tea-table, at the card-table, and round the fire: we are 
guests at the festive board; 


Some great behest from heav’n 
To us perhaps he brings, and will vouchsafe 
This day to be our guest.—MILToN. 


No palace with a lofty gate he wants, 
T’ admit the tides of early visitants.—Drypnn. 


491 


COLLEAGUE, PARTNER, COADJUTOR, 
ASSISTANT. 


Colleague, in French collégue, Latin coilega, com 
pounded of col or con and legatus sent, signifies seut 
or employed upon the same business; partner, from 
the word part, signifies one having a part or share. 

Colleague is more noble than partner . men in the 
highest offices are colleagues ; tradesmen, mechanicks, 
and subordinate persons are partners: every Roman 
consul had a colleague; every workman has com 
monly a partner. 

Colleague is used only with regard to community of 
office; partner is most generally used with regard te 
community of interest: whenever two persons are 
employed to act tegether on the same business they 
stand in the relation of colleagues to each other; 
whenever two persons unite their endeavours either 
in trade or in games they are denominated partners: 
ministers, judges, commissioners, and plenipotentia- 
ries are colleagues ; 


But from this day’s decision, from the choice 

Of his first colleagues, shall succeeding times 

Of Edward judge, and on his frame pronounce, 
West. 


Bankers, merchants, chess-players, card-players, and 
the like, have partners ; 


And lo! sad partner of the general care, 
Weary and faint I drive my geo. tar. 
W ARTON 


Coadjutor, compounded of co or con and adjutor a 
helper, signifying a fellow-labourer, is more noble than 
assistant, which signifies properly one that assists or 
takes a part; the latter being mostly in a subordinate 
station, but the former is an equal. 

The assistant performs menial offices in the minor 
concerns of life, and a subordinate part at all times; 
the coadjutor labours conjointly in some concern of 
common interest and greal, importance. An assistant 
is engaged for a compensation; a coadjutor is a volun- 
tary fellow-labourer. In every publick concern where 
the purposes of charity or religion are to be promoted, 
coadjutors often effect more than the original pro- 
moters; ‘Advices from Vienna import that the Arch- 
bishop of Saltzburg is dead, who is succeeded by Count 
Harrach, formerly bishop of Vienna, and. for these 
last three years coadjutor to the said Archbishop.’— 
Steevie. In the medical and scholastick professions 
assistants are indispensable to relieve the pressure of 
business; ‘As for you, gentlemen and ladies, my as- 
sistants and grand juries, I have made choice of you 
on my right-hand, because I know you to be very 
jealous of your honour; and you on my left, because 
I know you are very much concerned for the reputa- 
tion of others.—ApDpDISON. Coadjutors ought to be 
zealous and unanimous; assistants ought to be assi 
duous and faithful. be 


ALLY, CONFEDERATE, ACCOMPLICE. 


Although the terms ally and confederate are derived 
from the words alliance and confederacy (v. Alliance), 
they are used only in part of their acceptations. 

An ally is one who forms an alliance in the political 
sense; a confederate,is one who forms confederacies 
in general, but more particularly when such confede- 
racies are unauthorized. 

The Portuguese and English are allies; ‘We could 
hinder the accession of Holland to France, either as 
subjects with great immunities for the encouragement 
of trade, or as an inferiour and dependent ally under 
their protection.—Trmpir. William Tell had some 
few particular friends who were his confederates ,; 
‘Having learned by experience that they must expect 
a vigorous resistance from this warlike prince, they 
entered into an alliance with the Britons of Cornwall, 
and landing two years after in that country made an 
inroad with their confederates into the county of 
Devon.’—Hume. This latter term is however used 
with more propriety in its worst sense, for an associate 
in a rebellious faction, as in speaking of Cromwell 
and his confederates who were concerned in the death 
of the king. : ‘ 

Confederate and accomplice both imply a partner in 
some proceeding, but they differ as to the nature of 
the proceeding: in the former case it may be lawful or 


42 


unlawful; in the latter unlawful only. In this latter 
sense a confederate is a partner in a plot or secret asso- 
ciation: an accomplice is a partner in some active vio- 
lation of the laws. Guy Fawkes retained his resolu- 
tion tili the last extremity, not to reveal the names of 
his confederates: it is the common refuge of all rob- 
bers and desperate characters to betray their accom- 
plices in order to screen themselves from punishment ; 


Now march the bold confed’rates through the plain, 
Well hors’d, well clad, a rich and shining train. 
DRYDEN. 


It is not improbable that the Lady Mason (the grand- 
mother of Savage) might persuade or compel his mother 
to desist, or perhaps she could not easily find accom- 
plices wicked enough to. concur in so cruel an action, 
as that of banishing him to the American plantations.’ 
— JOHNSON. 


—— 


ALLIANCE, LEAGUE, CONFEDERACY. 


Alliance, in French alliance, from the Latin alligo to 
knit or tie together, signifies the moral state of being 
tied; league, in French ligue, comes from the same 
verb ligo to bind; confederacy or confederation, in 
Latin confederatio, from con and fedus an agreement, 
or fides faith, signifies a joining together under a cer- 
tain pledge. 

* Relationship, friendship, the advantage of a good 
understanding, the prospect of aid in case of necessity, 
are the ordinary motives for forming alliances. A 
league is a union of plan, and a junction of force, for 
the purpose of effectuating some common enterprise, 
or obtaining some common object. A confederacy isa 
union of interest and support on particular occasions, 
for the purpose of obtaining a redress of supposed 
wrong, or of defending right against usurpation and 
Oppression. . 

Treaties of alliance are formed between sovereigns ; 
it is a union of friendship and convenience esncluded 
upon precise terms, and maintained by honour or good 
faith. Leagues are mostly formed between parties or 
small communities ; as they are occasioned by circum- 
stances of an imperative nature, they are in this man- 
ner rendered binding on each party. Confederacies 
are formed between individuals or communities; 
they continue while the impelling cause that set them 
in motion remains; and every individual is bound 
more by a common feeling of safety, than by any ex- 
press contract. 

History mentions frequent alliances which have 
been formed between the courts of England and Por- 
tugal; 

Who but a fool would wars with Juno choose, 
And such alliances and such gifts refuse ? 
DRYDEN. 


The cantons of Switzerland were bound to each other 
by a famous league, which was denominated the Hel- 
vetic league, and which took its rise in a confederacy 
formed against the Austrian government by William 
Tell and his companions; 


Rather in leagues of endless peace unite, 
And celebrate the hymenial rite.—Appison. 


The history of mankind informs us that a single 
power is very seldom broken by a confederacy.’— 
JOHNSON. 

Confederacy is always taken in a civil or political 
sense; alliance and league are sometimes employed in 
amoral sense; the former being applied to marriage, 
the latter to plots or factions. Alliance istaken only in 
a good acceptation ; leagwe and confederacy frequently 
in relation to that which is bad. Alliances are formed 
for the mutual advantage of the parties concerned; 
‘Though domestick misery must follow an alliance 
with a gamester, matches of this sort are made every 
day.’—CuMBERLAND. Leagues may have plunder for 
their object, and confederacies may be treasonable; 

Tiger with tiger, bear with bear, you’ll find 
In leagues offensive and defensive join’d. 
TATE. 
When Babel was confounded, and the great 
Confederacy of projectors wild and vain 


* Vide Girard and Roubaud: “ Alliance, ligue, con- 
federation.” 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


Was split into diversity of tongues, 
Then, as a shepherd separates his flock, _ 
These to the upland, to the valley those, 
God drave asunder.—CowPrEr. 


ALLIANCE, AFFINITY. 


Alliance, v. Alliance, league; affinity, in Latin aff- 
nitas, from af or ad and jinis a border signifies a con- 
tiguity of borders. 

Alliance is artificial: afini/y is natural; an alliance is 
formed either by persons or by circumstances ; an affinity 
exists of itself: an alliance subsists between persons 
only in the proper sense, and between things figura- 
tively ; ‘Religion (in England) has maintained a pro- 
per alliance with the state.—Buam. An affinity exists 
between things as well as persons; ‘It cannot be 
doubted but that signs were invented originally to ex- 
press the several occupations of their owners; and to 
bear some affinity, in their external designations, with 
the wares to be disposed of’—BatuurstT. The alli- 
ance between families is matrimonial ; 


O horrour! horrour! after this alliance 
Let tigers match with hinds, and wolves with sheep, 
And every creature couple with its foe.—DryDEN. 


The affinity arises from consanguinity 


BAND, COMPANY, CREW, GANG, 


Band, in French bande, in German, &c. band, from 
binden to bind, signifies the thing bound ; company, v. 
To accompany ; crew, from the French cru, participle 
of croitre, and the Latin cresco to grow or gather, sig- 
nifies the thing grown or formed into a mass; gang, in 
Saxon, German, &c. gang a walk, from gehen to go, 
signifies a body going the same way. 

_ All these terms denote a small association for a par- 
ticular object: a band is an association where men ars 
bound together by some strong obligation, whetha 
taken in a good or bad sense, as a band of soldiers, a 
band of robbers; 


Behold a ghastly band 

Each a torch in his hand! 

These are Grecian ghosts that in battle were slain, 
And unbury’d remain, 

Inglorious in the plain. —DrypEn. 


A company marks an association for convenience with- 
out any particular obligation, as a company of travel- 
lers, acompany of strolling players; ‘ Chaucer supposes 
in his prologue to his tales that a company of pilgrims 
going to Canterbury assemble at an Inn in Southwark, 
and agree that for their common amusement on the road 
each of them shajJl tell at least one tale in going to Can 
terbury, and another in coming back from thence.’— 
TYRWHIT. 

Crew marks an association collected together by some 
external power, or by coincidence of plan and motive: 
in the former case it is used fora ship’s crew ; in the 
latter and bad sense of the word it is employed for 
any number of evil-minded persons met together 
from different quarters, and co-operating for some bad 
purpose ; 

The clowns, a boist’rous, rude, ungovern’d crew, 
With furious haste to the loud summons flew. 
Dryven. 


Gang is mostly used ina bad sense for an association 
of thieves, murderers, and depredators in general; for 
such an association is rather a casual meeting from the 
similarity of pursuits, than an organized body under 
any leader: it is more in common use than band: the 
robbers in Germany used to form themselves into bands 
that set. the government of the country at defiance: 
housebreakers and pickpockets commonly associate 
now in gangs ; 

Others again who form a gang,~ 

Yet take due measures not to hang * 

In magazines their forces join, 

By legal methods to purloin—Matier. 


TROOP, COMPANY. 
In a military sense a troop is among the horse what 
a company is among the foot; but this is only a par= 
tial acceptation of theterms. Trogp, in French troupe 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


Spanish tropa, Latin turba, signifies an indiscriminate 
multitude; company (v. T'o accompany) is any number 
joined together, and bearing each other company: 
hence we speak of a troop of hunters, a company of 
players; a troop of horsemen, a company of travellers. 


ACCOMPANIMENT, COMPANION, 
CONCOMITANT. 


Accompaniment is properly a collective term to ex- 
press what goes in company, and is applied only to 
things; companion, which also signifies what is in the 
company, is applied either to persons or to things; con- 
comitant, from the intensive syllable con and comes a 
companion, implies what is attached to an object, or 
goes in its train, and is applied only to things. 

When said in relation to things, accompaniment im- 
plies anecessary connexion; companion an incidental 
connexion: the former is as a part to a whole, the latter 
is as one whole to another: the accompaniment belongs 
to the thing accompanied, inasmuch as it serves to ren- 
der it more or less complete ; the companion belongs to 
the thing accompanied, inasmuch as they correspond: 
in this manner singing is an accompaniment in instru- 
mental musick ; subordinate ceremonies are the accom- 
paniments in any solemn service; ‘We. may well be- 
lieve that the ancient heathen bards, who were chiefly 
Asiatick Greeks, performed religious rites and ceremo- 
nies in metre with accompaniments of musick, to 
which they were devoted in the extreme.’—CumBER- 
Lanp. A picture may be the companion of another 
picture from their fitness to stand together; ‘ Alas, my 
soul! thou pleasing companion of this body, thou fleet- 
ing thing that art now deserting it, whither art thou 
flying ?—STEE ez. 

The concomitant is as much of an appendage as the 
accompaniment, but it is applied only to moral objects: 
thus morality is a concomitant to religion; ‘As the 
beauty of the body accompanies the health of it, so cer- 
tainly is decency concomitant to virtue.’—Hueurs. 


TO ACCOMPANY, ATTEND, ESCORT, 
WAIT ON. 


Accompany, in French accompagner, is compounded 
of ac or ad and compagner, in Latin compagino to put 
or join together, signifying to give one’s company and 
presence to any object, to join one’s self toits company ; 
attend, in French attendre, compounded of at or ad and 
tendo to tend or incline towards, signifies to direct 
one’s notice or care towards any object; escort, in 
French escorter, from the Latin cohors a cohort or 
band of soldiers that attended a magistrate on his going 
into a province, signifies to accompany by way of 
safeguard. 

We accompany* those with whom we wish to go; 
we attend those whom we wish to serve; we escort 
those whony we are called upon to protect or guard. 
We accompany our equals, we attend our superiours, 
and escort superiours or inferiours. The desire of 
pleasing or being pleased actuates in the first case; the 
desire of serving or being served, in the second case; 

he fear of danger or the desire of security, in the last 
lace. 

One is said to have a numerous company, a crowd 
=f attendants, and a strong escort; but otherwise one 
Jerson only may accompany or attend, though several 
are wanting for an escort. Friends accompany each 
other in their excursions; ‘This account in some 
measure excited our curiosity, and at the entreaty of 
the ladies I was prevailed upon to accompany them to 
he playhouse, which was no other than a barn’— 
GOLDSMITH. Princes are attended with a considerable 
retinue whenever they appear in publick, and with a 
strong escort when they travel through unfrequented 
and dangerous roads, ‘ When the Marquis of Whar- 
.on was appointed Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, Addi- 
son attended him ashissecretary..—Jounson. Creiisa 
the wife of Aineas accompanied her husband on his 
eaving Troy ; Socrates was attended by a number of 
his illustrious pupils, whom he instructed by his ex- 
ample and his doctrines; St. Paul was escorted asa 
prisoner by a band of three hundred men; ‘ He very 
prudently called up four or five of the hostlers that be- 
onged to the yard, and engaged them to enlist vider 


* Vide Girard: ‘‘ Accompagner, escorter.” 


493 


his command as an escort to the coach.—Haw tue 
WORTH. » 

Accompany and attend may likewise be said of per 
sons as well as things. In this case the former is ap- 
plied to what goes with an object so as to form a part 
of it; the latter to that which follows an object as a 
dependant upon it; ‘The old English plainness and 
sincerity, that generous integrity of nature and honesty 
of disposition, which always argues true greatness of 
mind, and is usually accompanied with undaunted 
courage and resolution, is ina great measure lost among 
us.’—TILLoTson. ‘ Humility lodged in a worthy mind 
is always attended with a certain homage, which nec 
haughty soul, with all the arts imaginable, can pur 
chase.’--Hueurs. Pride is often accompanied wia 
meanness, and attended with much inconvenience .e 
the possessor; ‘ The practice of religion wil! not o1ly 
be attended with that pleasure which naturally ace m- 
panies those actions to which we are habituated, out 
with those supernumerary joys that rise from the zon- 
sciousness of such a pleasure.’—ADDISON. 

Attend (v. To attend to) is here employed in the 
improper sense for the devotion of the person to an 
object. To wart on is the same as to wait for or ex- 
pect the wishes of another. 

Attendance is an act of obligation; waiting on that 
of choice. <A physician attends his patient; a member 
attends in parliament; one gentleman waits on an- 
other. We attend a person at the time and place ap 
pointed; we wait on those with whom we wish ta 
speak. Those who dance attendance on the great 
must expect every mortification; it is wiser, therefore, 
only to wazt on those by whom we can be received 
upon terms of equality. 

Attend and wait on are likewise used for being 
about the person of any one; to attend is to bear com 
pany or be in readiness to serve; to wazt on is actually 
to perform some service. A nurse attends a patient in 
order to afford him assistance as occasion requires; 
the servant waits on him to perform the menial duties, 
Attendants about the great are always near the person: 
but men and women in wazting are always at call. 
People of rank and fashion have a crowd of attend 
ants, : 


At length, her lord descends upon the plain 
In pomp, attended with a num’rous train.—Drypea. 


Those of the middle classes have only those who wazé 
on them; ‘One of Pope’s constant demands was of 
coffee in the night; and to the woman that waited on 
him in his chamber he was very burdensome; but 
he was caretul to recompense her want of sleep.’— 
JOHNSON. 


PROCESSION, TRAIN, RETINUE. 


Procession, from the verb proceed, signifies the act of 
going forward or before, that is, in the present instance, 
of going before others, or one before another; train in 
all probability comes from the Latin traho to draw, 
signifying the thing drawn after another, and in the 
present instance the persons who are led after, or fol- 
low, any object; retinue, from the verb to retain, signi- 
fies those who are retained as attendants. 

All these terms are said of any number of persons 
who follow in a certain order; but this, which is the 
leading idea in the word procession, is but collateral 
in the terms train and retinue: on the other hand, 
the procession. may consist of persons of all ranks and 
stations; but the train and retinue apply only to such as 
follow some person or thing in a subordinate capacity : 
the former in regard to such as make up the conclud- 
ing part of some procession; the latter only in regard 
to the servants or attendants on the great. At funerals 
there is frequently along train of coaches belonging to 
the friends of the deceased, which close the procession ; 
princes and nobles never go out on state or publick ec- 
casions, without a numerous retinue. , 

The beauty of every procession consists in the order 
with whichevery one keeps his place, and the regu- 
larity with which the whole goes forward ; 


And now the priests, Potitius at their head, 
In skins of beasts involv’d, the long procession \ed. 
DRYDEN. 
The length of the train is wha: renders it most worthy 
of notice; 


494 ENGLISH 


My train are men of choice and rarest parts, 

That in the most exact regard support 

The worships of their names.—SHAKSPEARE. 
Train is also applied to other objects besides persons; 


The moon, and all the starry train, 

Hung the vast vault of heav’n.—Gay. 
The number of the retinue in Eastern nations is one 
criterion by which’the wealth of the individual is esti- 
mated ; 

Him and his sleeping slaves, he slew; then spies 

Where Remus with his rich retinue lies.—DryDrEn. 


MULTITUDE, CROWD, THRONG, SWARM. 


The idea of many is common to all these terms, and 
peculiar to that of multitude, from the Latin multus ; 
crowd, from the verb to crowd, signifies the many that 
crowd together; throng, from the German drdéngen to 
press, signifies the many that press together ; and swarm, 
from the German schwdaérmen to fly about, signifies 
running together in numbers. 

These terms vary, either in regard to the object, or 
the circumstance: multitude is applicable to any ob- 
ject; crowd, throng, and swarm are in the proper sense 
applicable only to animate objects: the first two in 
regard to persons; the latter to animals in general, but 
particularly brutes. A multitude may he either in a 
stagnant or a moving state; all the rest denote a mul- 
titude in a moving state ; 


A multitude is incapable of framing orders. 
TEMPLE. 


A crowd is always pressing, generally eager and tu- 
multuous ; 


‘The crowd shall Cesar’s Indian war behold. 
DrypDeEn. 


A throng may be busy and active, but not always 
pressing or incommodious. This term is best adapted 
to poetry to express a multitude of agreeable objects; 


I shone amid the heavenly throng.—Mason. 


It is always inconvenient, sometimes dangerous, to 
go into acrowd; it is amusing to see the throng that 
is perpetually passing in the streets of the city; the 
swarm is more active than either of the two others; 
‘t is commonly applied to bees which fly together in 
numbers, but sometimes to human beings, to denote 
their very great numbers when scattered about; thus 
the children of the poor in low neighbourhoods swarm 
in the streets ; 

Numberless nations, stretching far and wide, 

Shall (I foresee it) soon with Gothick swarms come 

forth, 

From ignorance’s universal North.—Swirr. 


MEETING, INTERVIEW. 


Meeting, from to meet, is the act of meeting or 
coming into company ; interview compounded of inter 
between, and view to view, is a personal view of each 
other. The meeting is an ordinary concern, and its 
purpose familiar; meetings are daily taking place be- 
tween friends; 


Ihave not joy’d an hour since you departed, 

For publick miseries and private fears; 

But this biess’d meeting has o’erpaid them all. 
DRYDEN. 


The interview is extraordinary and formal; its object 
is commonly business ; an interview sometimes takes 
place between princes or commanders of armies; 


His fears were, that the interview between 
England and France might through their amities 
Breed him some prejudice.—SuaKsPrare. 


TO FREQUENT, RESORT TO, HAUNT. 


Frequent comes from frequent, in Latin frequens 
crowded, signifying to come in numbers, or come often 
to the same place; resort, in French resortir, com- 
pounded of ve and sortir, signifies to go backward and 
forward ; haunt comes from the French hanter, which 
is of uncertain original. 

Frequent is more commonly used for an individual 
who does often to a place; resort and haunt for a 


SYNONYMES. 


number of individuals. A man is said to frequent a 
publick place ; but several persons may resert to a pri 
vate place: men who are not fond of home frequent 
taverns; in the first ages of Christianity, while per- 
secution raged, the disciples used to resort to private 
places for purposes of worship. 

Frequent and resort are indifferent actions; but 
haunt is always used in a bad sense. A man may 
frequent a theatre, a club, or any other social meeting, 
innocent or otherwise; ‘For my own part I have ever 
regarded our inns of court as nurseries of statesmen 
and lawgivers, which makes me often frequent that 
part of the town.’—BupeeELL. People from different 
quarters may resort to a fair, a church, or any other 
place where they wish to meet for a common purpose; 


Home is the resort 
Of love, of joy, of peace, and plenty, where, 
Supporting and supported, polish’d friends 
And dear relations mingle into bliss.—THoMmson. 


Those who haunt any place go to it in privacy for some 
bad or selfish purpose ; 


But harden’d by affronts, and still the same, 

Lost to all sense of honour and of fame, 

Thou yet canst love to haunt the great man’s board, 
And think no supper good but with a lord.—Lewis. 


Our Saviour frequented the synagogues: the followers 
of the prophet Mahomet resort to his tomb at Mecca; 
thieves haunt the darkest and most retired parts of the 
city in order to concert their measures for obtaining 
plunder. 


PEOPLE, NATION. 


People, in Latin populus, comes from the Greek \ads 
people, zAnOvs a multitude, and zodds many. Hence 
the simple idea of numbers is expressed by the word 
people; but the term nation, fron: natus, marks the 
connexion of numbers by birth: peopleis, therefore, the 
generick, and nation the specilick term. A nation isa 
people connected by birth; there cannot, therefore, 
strictly speaking, be a nation without a people; but 
there may be a people where there is not a nation. 
* The Jews are distinguished as a people or a nation, 
according to the different aspects under which they are 
viewed: when considered as an assemblage, under the 
special direction of the Almighty, they are termed the 
people of God; but when considered in regard to their 
common origin, they are denominated the Jewish na- 
tion. ‘The Americans, when spoken of in relation to 
Britain, are a distinct people, because they have each 
a distinct government; but they are not a distinct na- 
tion, because they have a common descent. On this 
ground the Romans are not called the Roman nation, 
because their origin was so various, but the Roman 
people, that is, an assemblage living under one form of 
government. 

In a still closer application people is taken for a part 
of the state, namely, that part of a state which consists 
of a multitude, in distinction from its government; 
whence arises a distinction in the use of the terms; 
for we may speak of the British people, the French 
or the Dutch people, when we wish merely to talk of 
the mass, but we speak of the British nation, the 
French nation, and the Dutch nation, when publick 
measures are in question, which emanate front the go- 
vernment, or the whole people. The English people 
have ever been remarkable for their attachment to 
liberty ; ‘It is too flagrant a demonstration how much 
vice is the darling of any people, when many among 
them are preferred for those practices for which in 
other places they can scarce be pardoned.’—Sovutu. 
The abolition of the slave trade is one of the most glo- 
rious acts of publick justice, which was ever performed 
by the British nation ; ‘When we read the history of 
nations, what do we read but the crimes and follies of 
men ?’/—Buarir. The impetuosity and volatility of the 
French people render them peculiarly unfit to legislate 
for themselves; the military exploits of the French 
nation have rendered them a highly distinguished pzo- 
ple in the annals of history. Upon the same ground 
republican states are distinguished by the name of 
people; but kingdoms are commonly spoken of in his- 
tory as nations. Hence we say, the Spartan people, 


* Vide Roubaud: “ Nation, people.” 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


the Athenian people, the people sf Genoa, the people 
of Venice; but the nations of Europe, the African 
rations, the English, French, German, and Italian 
nations. 


PEOPLE, POPULACE, MOB, MOBILITY. 


People and populace are evidently changes of the 
same word to express anumber. The signification of 
these terms is that of a number gathered together. 
People is said of any body supposed to be assembled, 
as well as really assembled ; 


The people like a headlong torrent go, 
And every dam they break or overflow. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


Poputace is said of a body only, when actually as- 
sembled ; 


The pliant populace, 
Those dupes of novelty, will bend before us. 
MALLrr. 


The voice of the people cannowalways be disregarded ; 
the populace of England are fond of dragging their fa- 
vourites in carriages. 

Mob and mobility are from the Latin mobilis, signi- 
fying moveableness, which is the characteristick of the 
multitude; hence Virgil’s mobile vulgus. These terms, 
therefore, designate not only what is low, but tumult- 
uous. <A mob is at all times an object of terrour: the 
mobility, whether high or low, are a fluttering order 
that mostly run from bad to worse; ‘ By the senseless 
and insignificant clink of misapplied words, some rest- 
less demagogues had inflamed the mind of the sottish 
mobile to a strange, unaccountable abhorrence of the 
best of men.’—SoutTuH. 


ed 


PEOPLE, PERSONS, FOLKS. 


The term people has already been considered in two 
acceptations (v. People, nation; People, populace), 
under the general idea of an assembly ; but in the pre- 
sent case it is employed to express a small number of 
individuals: the word people, however, is always con- 
sidered. as one undivided body, and the word person 
may be distinctly used either in the singular or plural; 
as we cannot say one, two, three, or four people ; but 
we may say oné, two, three, or four persons: yet on 
the other hand, we may indifferently say, such people 
or persons ; many people or persons; some people or 
persons, and the like. 

With regard to the use of these terms, which is al- 
together colloquial, people is employed in general pro- 
positions ; and persons in those which are specifick or 
referring directly to some particular individuals: peoe- 
ple are generally of that opinion; some people think so; 
some people attended ; 


Performance is even the duller for 

His act; and, but in the plainer and simple 
Kind of the people, the deed is quite out of 
Use.—SHAKSPEARE. 


There were but few persons present at the entertain- 
ment; the whole company consisted of six persons; 
¢You may observe many honest, inoffensive persons 
strangely run down by an ugly word.’—Sourn. 

As the term people is empioyed to designate a pro- 
miscuous multitude, it has acquired a certain mean- 
ness of acceptation which makes it less suitable than 
the word persons, when people of respectability are 
referred to: were I to say, of any individuals, I do not 
know who those people are, it would not be so respect- 
ful as to say, Ido not know who those persons are: in 
like manner, One says, from people of that stamp bet- 
ter is not to be expected; persons of their appearance 
do not frequent such places. 

Folks, through the medium of the northern Jan- 
guages, comes from the Latin vulgus, the common 
people: it is not unusual to say good people, or good 
folks ; and in speaking jocularly to one’s friends, the 
latter term is likewise admissible: but in the serious 
style it is never employed except in a disrespectful 
manner: such folks (speaking of gamesters) are often 
put to sorry shifts; ‘I paid some compliments to great 
folks, who like to be compliniented.’—Hrrrinea. 


495 


GENTILE, HEATHEN, PAGAN. 
*The Jews comprehended all strangers under the 


name of [7}°}} nations or gentiles : among the Greeks 
and Romans they were designated by the name of bar- 
barians. By the name Gentile was understood espe- 
cially those who were not of the Jewish religion, in- 
cluding, in the end, even the Christians; for, as Fleury 
remarks, there were some among these uncircumcised 
Gentiles, who worshipped the true God, and were per- 
mitted to dwell in the holy land, provided they ob- 
served the law of nature and abstinence; ‘ There 
might be several among the Gentiles in the same con 
dition that Cornelius was before he became a Chris- 
tian.’—TILLOTSON. 

Some learned men pretend that the Gentiles were 
so named from their having only a natural Jaw, and 
such as they imposed on themselves, in opposition to 
the Jews and Christians, who have a positive revealed 
Jaw to which they are obliged to submit. 

Frisch and others derive the word heathen from the 
Greek £6vos, a nation, which derivation is corroborated 
by the translation in the Anglo-saxon law of the word 
haethne by the Greek &6vos. Adelung, however, thinks 
it to be more probably derived from the word heide a 
field, for the same reason as pagun is derived from 
pagus a Village, because when Constantine banished 
idolaters from the towns they repaired to the villages, 
ana secretly adhered to their religious worship, whence 
they were termed by the Christians of the fourth cen- 
tury Pagani, which, as he supposes, was translated 
literally into the German heidener a villager or wor- 
shipper in the field. Be this as it may, it is evident 
that the word Heathen is in our language more appli- 
cable than Pagan, to the Greeks, the xomans, and the 
cultivated nations who practisea idolatry ; and, on the 
other hand, Pagan is more properly employed for any 
rude and uncivilized people who worship false gods. 

The Gentile does not expressly believe in a Divine 
Revelation; but he either admits of the truth in part, 
or is ready to receive it: the Heathen adopts a posi 
tively false system that is opposed to the true faith; the 
Pagan is the species of Heathen who obstinately per- 
sists in a worship which is merely the fruit of his own 
imagination. The Heathens or Pagans are Gentiles ; 
but the Gentiles are not all either Heathens or Pagans 
Confucius and Socrates, who rejected the plurality of 
gods, and the followers cf Mahomet, who adore the 
true God, are, properly speaking, Gentiles. ‘The wor- 
shippers of Jupiter, Juno, Minerva, and all the deitic 
of the ancients, are termed Heathens. 'The worship- 
pers of Fo, Brama, Xaca, and all the deities of savage 
nations, are termed Pagans. 

The Gentiles were called to the true faith, and 
obeyed the call: many of the illustrious Heathens 
would have doubtless done the same, had they enjoyed 
the same privilege; ‘Not that I believe that all the 
virtues of the Heathens were counterfeit, and destitute 
of an inward principle of goodness. God forbid we 
should pass so hard a judgement upon those excellent 
men, Socrates, and Epictetus, and Antoninus.’—TIL 
LOTSON. 

There are many Pagans to this day who reject this 
advantage, to pursue their own blind imaginations; 


And nations Jaid in blood; dread sacrifice 
To Christian pride! which had with horror shock 
The darkest Pagans, offered to their gods.—Y oune 


FAMILY, HOUSE, LINEAGE, RACE. 


Divisions of men, according to some rule of rela. 
tionship or connexion, is the common idea in these 
terms. 

Family, from the Latin familia a family, and famu- 
lus a servant, in Greek 6yu:Afa an assembly, and the 


Hebrew Soy to labour, is the most general term, being 
applicable to those who are bound together upon the 
principle of dependence; house figuratively denotes 
those who live in the same house, and is commonly ex 
tended in its signification to all that passes under the 
same roof: hence we rather say that a woman ma- 
nages her family ; that a man rules his house. 

The family is considered as to its relationships, 
the number, union, condition, and quality of its mem 


* Vide Roubaud: ‘ Geniils, patens”’ 


ENGLISH 


bers: the house is considered more as to what is trans- 
acted within its walls. We speak of a numerous 
famaly, a united or affectionate family, a mercantile 
house; the house (meaning the members of the house 
of parliament). If a man cannot find happiness in 
the bosom of his family, he will seek for it in vain 
elsewhere ; ‘ T'o live in a family where there is but one 
heart and as many good strong heads as persons, and 
to have a place in that enlarged single heart, is such a 
state of happiness as [cannot hear of without feeling 
the utmost pleasure. —FixLpine. The credit of a 
house is to be kept up only by prompt payments; or, in 
a general sense of the term, the business of the house 
is performed by the domesticks; ‘ They two together 
rule the house. ‘The house I call here the man, the 
woman, their children, their servants.’-—Smiru. 

In an extended application of these words they are 
made to designate the quality of the individual, in 
which case family bears the same familiar and indis- 
criminate sense as before: house is employed as a term 
of grandeur. 

* When we consider the family in its domestick re- 
Jations; in its habits, manners, connexions, and cir- 
cumstances; we speak of a genteel fumily, a respect- 
able family, the royal family; ‘An empty man of a 
great family is a creature that is scarce conversible.’ 
—Appison. When we consider the family with re- 
gard to its political and civil distinctions, its titles, and 
its power, then we denominate it a house, as an illus- 
trious house; the house of Bourbon, of Brunswick, or 
of Hanover; the imperial house of Austria. Any sub- 
ject may belong to an ancient or noble family. Princes 
are said to be descended from ancient howses ; ‘The 
princes of the house of Tudoz, partly by the vigour of 
their administration, partly by the concurrence of fa- 
vourable circumstances, had been able to establish a 
more regular system of government.’-—-Humr. A man 
is said to be of a family or of no family: we may say 
likewise that he is of a certain house; but to say that 
he is of no house would be superfluous.t In republicks 
there are families but not houses, because there is no 
nobility ; in China likewise, where the private virtues 
only distinguish the individual or his family, the term 
house is altogether inapplicable. 

Family includes in it every circumstance of connex- 
ion and relationship; lineage respects only consan- 
guinity: family is employed mostly for those who are 
coeval; lineage is generally used for those who have 
gone before. When the Athenian general Iphicrates, 
son of a shoemaker, was reproached by Hermodius 
with his birth, he said, I had rather be the first than 
the last of my family. David was of the lineage of 
Abraham, and our Saviour was of the lineage of 
David ; 

We want not cities, nor Sicilian coasts, 
Where king Acestes Trojan lineage boasts. 
DRYDEN. 


Race, from the Latin radiz a root, denotes the origin 
or that which constitutes their original point of resem- 
blance. A family supposes the closest alliance; a race 
supposes no closer connexion than what a common 
property creates. Family is confined to a compara- 
tively small number; ‘A nation properly signifies a 
great number of families derived from the same blood, 
born in the same country, and living under the same 
government and civil constitutions.—Trmpir. Race 
*s 2 term of extensive import, including all mankind, 
as the human race; or particular nations, as the race 
of South Sea islanders; or a particular family, as the 
race of the Heraclides: from Hercules sprung a race 
of heroes; 

Nor knows our youth of noblest race, 

To mount the manag’d steed or urge the chase; 

More skill’d in the mean arts of vice, 

The whirling trogue or law-forbidden dice. 
FRANCIS. 


490 


NATAL, NATIVE, INDIGENOUS. 


Natal, in Latin natalis, from natus, signifies be- 
onging to one’s birth, or the act of one’s being born; 
but native, in Latin nativus, likewise from natus, 
signifies having the origin or beginning ; indigenous, in 


‘ 
* Vide Abbe Girard: “ Famille, maison.” 
+ Atbe Roubaud: ‘ Race lineage, famille, maison.” 


SYNONYMES. 


Latin endigena, from inde and genitus, signifies sprung 
from a particular place. 

The epithet natal is applied only to the circumstance 
of a man’s birth, as his natal day; his natal hour 
a natal song; a natal star ; 


Safe in the hand of one disposing pow’r, 
Or in the natal or the mortal hour.—Pops. 


Native has a more extensive meaning, as it compre 
hends the idea of one’s relationship by origin to an 
object; as one’s native country, one’s native soil, 
native village, or native place, native language, and 
the like, 


Nor can the grov’ling mind 

In the dark dungeon of the limbs confin’d, 
Assert the native skies or own its heav’nly kind. 
DryDEn. 


Indigenous is the same with regard to plants, as native 
in regard to human beings or animals; but it is some- 
times applied to people when taken in a collective 
sense , ‘ Negroes were all transported from Africa, and 
are not ¢ndigenous or proper natives of America’ 


¥ 
NATIVE, NATURAL. 


Native (v. Natal) is to natural.as a species to the 
genus: every thing native is according to its strict sig- 
nification natural; but many things are natural which 
are not native. Of a person we. may say that his 
worth is native, to designate that it is some valuable 
property which is born with him, not foreign to him, 
or ingrafted upon his character: but we say of his 
disposition, that it is natural, as opposed to that which 
is acquired by habit. Native is always employed in a 
good sense, in opposition to what is artful, assumed, 
and unreal; ‘In heaven we shall pass from the dark- 
ness of our native. ignorance into the broad light of 
everlasting day..—Sourtu. Natural is used in an in- 
different sense, as opposed to whatever is the efiect of 
habit or circumstances; ‘Scripture ought to be under- 
stood according to the familiar, natwral way of con 
struction’—-Souru. When children display them 
selves with all their native simplicity, they are inte 
resting objects of notice: when they display their natu 
ral turn of mind, it is not always that which tends ta 
raise human nature in our esteem. 


RELATION, RELATIVE, KINSMAN, 
KINDRED. 


Relation is here taken to express the person related, 
and is the general term both in sense and application; 
relative is employed only as respects the particular in- 
dividual to whom one is related; kinsman designates 
the particular kind of relation; and kindred is a col- 
lective term to comprehend al! one’s relations, or those 
who are akin to one. In abstract propositions we 
speak of relations; a man who is without relations 
feels himself an outcast in society; ‘You are not te 
imagine that I think myself discharged from the duties 
of gratitude, only because my relations do not adjust 
their looks to my expectation.’—Jounson. In desig- 
nating one’s close and intimate connexion with persone 
we use the term relative; our near and dear relatives 
are the first objects of our regard; ‘It is an evil un- 
dutifulness in friends and relatives, to suffer one to 
perish without reproof’—Taytor. In designating 
one’s relationship and connexion with persons, kins- 
man is preferable; when aman has not any children 
he frequently adopts one of his kinsmen as his heir: 
when the ties of relationship are to be specified in the 
persons of any particular family, they are denominated 
kindred ; aman cannot abstract himself from his kin- 
dred while he retains any spark of human feeling; 
‘Herod put all to death whom he found in Trechoritis 
of the families and kindred of any of those at Repta’ 
~—PRIDEAUX 


KIND, SPECIES, SORT. 


Kind comes most probably from the Teutonick kind 
a child, signifying related, or of the same family; spe- 
cies, in Latin species, from specio to behold, signifies 
literally the form or appearance, and in an extended 
sense that which comes under a particular form; sort, 
in Latin sors a lot, signifies that which constitutes 
particular lot or parcel. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


Rind and species are both employed in their proper 
sense; sort has been diverted from its original mean- 
ing by colloquial use: kind is ;roperly employed for 
animate objects, particularly for mankind, and impro- 

erly for moral objects; species is a term used by phi- 
losophers, classing things according to their external or 
internal properties. Kind, as a term in vulgar use, has 
@ less definite meaning than species, which serves to 
form the groundwork of science: we discriminate 
things in a loose or general manner by saying that they 
are of the animal or vegetable kind, of the canine o1 
feline kind ; but we discriminate them precisely if we 
say that they are a species of the arbutus, of the 
pomegranate, of the dog, the horse, and the like. By 
the same rule we may speak of a species of madness, 
a species of fever, and the like; ‘If the French should 
succeed in what they propose, and establish a demo- 
cracy in a country civcumstanced like France, they will 
establish a very bad government, a very bad species of 
tyranny.’——Burke. Because diseases have been 
brought under a systematick arrangement: but, on the 
other hand, we should speak of a kind of language, a 
kind of feeling, a kind of influence; and in similar 
cases where a general resemblance is to be expressed ; 
‘An ungrateful person is a kind of thoroughfare or 
common shore for the good things of the world to pass 
into.’—Souta. 

Sort may be used for either kind or species ; it does 
not necessarily imply any affinity, or common property 
in the objects, but simple assemblage, produced as it 
were by sors, chance: hence we speak of such sort of 
folks or people; such sort of practices; different sorts 
of grain; the various sorts of merchandises: and in 
similar cases where things are sorted or brought to- 
gether, rather at the option of the person, than accord- 
ing to the nature of the thing; ‘The French made and 
recorded a sort of institute and digest of anarchy, 
called the rights of man.’—BuRKE. 


KINDRED, RELATIONSHIP, AFFINITY, 
CONSANGUINITY. 


The idea of.a state inf which persons are placed with 
regard to each other is common to all these terms, 
which differ principally in the nature of this state. 
Kindred signifies that of being of the same kind (v. 
Kind); relationship signifies that of holding a nearer 
relation than others (v. To connect); affinity (v. Alli- 
ance) signifies that of being affined or coming close to 
each other’s boundaries; consanguinity, from sanguis 
the blood, signifies that of having the same blood. 

The kindred is the most general state here expressed : 
it may embrace all mankind, or refer to particular 
families or communities; it depends upon possessing 
the common property of humanity, or of being united 
dy some family tie; 


Like her, of equal kindred to the throne, 
You keep her conquests, and extend your own 
DryDEn, 


The philanthropist claims kindred with all who are 
unfortunate, when it is in his power to relieve them. 
The term kindred is likewise distinguished from the 
rest, as it expresses not only a state, but the persons 
collectively who are in that state ; ‘Though separated 
from my kindred by little more than half a century of 
miles, I know as little of their concerns as if oceans 
and continents were between us.’—CowPER. 

Relationship is a state less general than kindred, but 
more extended than either affinity or consanguinity ; 
j° uprities to particular families only, but it applies to 
all ot the same family, whether remotely or distantly 
related ; ‘ Herein there is no objection to the succession 
of a relation of the half-blood, that is, where the rela- 
tionship proceeds not from the same couple of ances- 
tors (which constitutes a kinsman of the whole blood), 
but from a single ancestor only.”—BuacxstTong. The 
term relationship is likewise extended to other subjects 
besides that of families. Men stand in different rela- 
tions to each other in society; ‘The only general pri- 
vate relation now remaining to be discussed is that of 
guardian and ward.—In examining this species of re- 
lationship I shall first consider the different kind of 
guardians.’—BLacKsTONE. 

Affinity denotes a close relationship, whether of an 
artificial or a natural kind. there is an affinity between. 
the husband and the wife in consequence of ee mar- 


SS 


rer 


fed 


49% 


riage tle; and there is an affinity between those who 
descend from the same pareuls or relations in a direct 
line. Consanguinity is, strictly speaking, this latter 
species of descent; and the term is mostly employed 
in all questions of law respecting descent and inherit- 
ance; ‘ Consanguinity or rélation by blood, and affinity 
or relation by marriage, are canonical disabilities (to 
contract a marriage)..—BLAacKsTONR. 


RACE, GENERATION, BREED. 


Race, v. Family; generation, in Latin gemeratio 
from genero, and the Greck ysvvdw, to engender or 
beget, signifies the thing begotten; breed signifies that 
which is bred (v. To breed.) 

‘These terms are all employed in regard to a number 
of animate objects which have the same origin; the 
former is said only of human beings, the latter only of 
brutes: the term is employed in regard to the dead as 
well as the living; generation is employed only in re 
gard to the living: hence we speak of the race of the 
Heraclide, the race of the Bourbons, the race of the 
Stuarts, and the like ; but the present generation, the 
whole generation, a worthless generation, and the like ; 
‘Where races are thus numerous and thus combined, 
none but the chief of a clan is thus addressed by his 
name.’—JOHNSON. 


Like leaves on trees the race of man is found, 

Now green in youth, now with’ring on the ground, 

So generations in their course decay, 

So flourish:these when those are pass’d away. 
Pore. 


Breed is said of those animals which are brought forth, 
and brought up in the same manner. Hence we deno- 
minate some domestick animals as of a good breed, 
where particular care is taken not only as to the ani 

mals from which they come, but also of those which 
are brought forth ; 


Nor last forget thy faithful dogs, but feed 
With fatt’‘ning whey the mastiff’s gen’rous breed 
DrypDEn 


TO BREED, ENGENDER. 


Breed, in Saxon breetan, is probably connected with 
braten to roast, being an operation principally per 
formed by fire or heat; engender, compounded of en 
and gender, from genitus participle of gigno, signifies 
to lay or communicate the seeds for production. 

These terms are figuratively employed for the act of 
procreation. 

To breed is to bring into existence by a slow opera- 
tion; to engender is to be the author or prime cause 
of existence. So, in the metaphorical] sense, frequent 
quarrels are apt to breed hatred and animosity: the 
levelling and inconsistent conduct of the higher classes 
in the present age serves to engender a spirit of insub 
ordination and assumption in the inferiour order. 

Whatever breeds acts gradually ; whatever engen 
ders produces immediately, as cause and effect. Un 
cleanliness breeds diseases of the body; want of occu 
pation b7eeds those of the mind; ‘The strong desire of 
fame breeds several vicious habits in the mind.’-—Ap- 
DISON. Playing at chance games engenders a love of 
money ; ‘ Eve’s dream is full of those high conceits en- 
gendering pride, which, we are told, the Devil en 
deavoured to instil into her.—Appison. 


LAND, COUNTRY. 


Land, in German land, &c. from lean and line, sig- 
nifies an open, even space, and refers strictly to the 
earth; country,in French contrée, from con and terra, 
signifies lands adjoining so as to form one portion. 
The term land, therefore, properly excludes the idea of 
habitation ; the term country excludes that of the earth, 
or the parts of which it is composed. hence we speak 
of the Jared, as rich or poor, according to what it 
yields ; of a country, as rich or poor, according to what 
its inhabitants possess: so, in like manner, we say, the 
land is ploughed or prepared for receiving the grain; 
but the country is cultivated; the cowntry is under a 
good government; or, a man’s country is dear to him 
In an extended application, however, these words may 
be put for one another: the word land may sometimes 
be put for any portion of land that is under a govern 


498 


ment, as the Jand of liberty ; ‘ You are still in the land 
of the living, and have all the means that can be de- 
sired, whereby to prevent your falling into condemna- 
tion.’—Bxrveriper. Country may be put for the soil, 
as arich country ; ‘ We love our country as the seat of 
religion, liberty, and laws.’—Buatr. 


NEIGHBOURHOOD, VICINITY. 


Neighbourhood, from nigh, signifies the place which 
is nigh, that is, nigh to one’s habitation; vicinity, from 
vicus a village, signifies the place which does not ex- 
veed in distance the extent of a village. 

Neighbourhood, which is of Saxon origin, and first 
admitted into our language, is employed in reference to 
the inhabitants, or in regard to inhabited places; that 
is, it signifies either a community of neighbours, or the 
place they occupy: but vzcznity, which in Latin bears 
the same acceptation as neighbourhood, is employed in 
English for the place in general, that is, near to the per- 
son speaking, whether inhabited or otherwise: hence 
the propriety of saying, a populous neighbourhood, a 
quiet neighbourhood, a respectable neighbourhood, and 
a pleasant neighbourhood, either as it respects the peo- 
ple or the country; to live in the vicinity of a man - 
factory, to be in the vicinity of the metropolis or of the 
sea; ‘Though the soul be not actually debauched, yet 
it is something to be in the neighbourhood of destruc- 
tion”—Soutn. ‘The Dutch, by the vicinity of their 
settlements to the coast of Caraccas, gradually en- 
grossed the greatest part of the cocoa trade.’—Ro- 
BERTSON. 


DISTRICT, REGION, TRACT, QUARTER. 


District, in Latin districtus, from distringo to bind 
separately, signifies a certain part marked off specifi- 
cally; region, in Latin regio from rego to rule, signifies 
a portion that is within rule; tract, in Latin tractus, 
from traho to draw, signifies a part drawn out; quarter 
signifies literally a fourth part. 

These terms are all applied to country: the former 
two comprehending divisions marked out on political 
grounds; the latter a geographical or an indefinite divi- 
sion: district is smaller than a region; the former 
refers only to part of a country, the latter frequently 
applies to a whole country: a quarter is indefinite, and 
may be applied either to a quarter of the world or a 
particular neighbourhood: a tract is the smallest por- 
tion of all, and comprehends frequently no more than 
what may fall within the compass of the eye. We 
consider a district only with relation to government; 
every magistrate acts within acertain district; ‘The 
very inequality of representation, which is so foolishly 
complained of, is perhaps the very thing which pre- 
vents us from thinking or acting as members for dis- 
tricts.—Burkr. We speak of a region when con- 
sidering the circumstances of climate, or the natural 
properties which distinguish different parts of the 
earth, as the regions of heat and cold; 


Between those regions and our upper light 
Deep forests and impenetrable night 
Possess the middle space.—DrypeEn. 


We speak of a tract to designate the land that runs on 
in a line, as a mountainous tract; so likewise figura- 
tively to pursue a tract or a line of thinking; 


My timorous muse 
Unambitious tracts pursues.—CowLey. 


We speak of the quarter simply to designate a point of 
the compass; as a person lives in a certain guarter of 
the town that is north, or south-east, or west, &c. and 
so also in an extended application, we say, to meet 
with opposition in an unexpected quarter ; ‘here is no 
man in any rank who is always at liberty to act as he 
would incline. In some quarter or other he is limited 
ay circumstances.’—BLair. 


TO FOUND, GROUND, KEST, BUILD. 


Found, in French fonder, Latin fundo, comes from 
fundus the ground, and, like the verb ground, properly 
signifies to make firm in the ground, to make the 
ground the support. 

To found implies the exercise of art and contrivance 
in making a support; to ground signifies to lay a thing 
eo deep that it may not totter; it is merely in the moral 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


sense that they are here considered, as the yerb te 
ground with this signification is never used otherwise 
Found is applied to outward circumstances; ground to 
what passes inwardly: a man founds his charge 
against another upon certain facts that are come to hig 
knowledge; he grounds his belief upon the most sub- 
stantial evidence: a man should be cautious not te 
make any accusations which are not well founded ; 
nor to indulge any expectations which are uot well 
grounded: monarchs commonly found their claims to 
a throne upon the right of primogeniture ; ‘The only 
sure principles we can Jay down for regulating our con- 
duct must be founded on the Christian religion.’”— 
Buair. Christians ground their hopes of immortality 
on the word of God; ‘ I know there are persons whe 
look upon these wonders of art (in ancient history) as 
fabulous ; but I cannot find any ground for such asus- 
picion.’—ADDISON. 

To found and ground are said of things which de- 
mand the full exercise of the mental powers; to rest is 
an action of Jess importance: whatever is founded re- 
quires and has the utmost support; whatever is rested 
is more by the will of the individual: a man founds 
his reasoning upon some unequivocal fact; he rests his 
assertion upon mere hearsay; ‘Our distinction must 
rest upon a steady adherence to rational religion, when 
the multitude are deviating into licentious and crimi- 
nal conduct.’—Buair. ‘The words found, ground, and 
rest have always an immediate reference to the thing 
that supports; to duzld has an especial reference to 
that which is supported, to the superstructure that is 
raised: we should not say that a person fownds an 
hypothesis, without adding something, as observa- 
tions, experiments, and the like, upon which it was 
founded ; but we may speak of his simply building sys- 
tems, supposing them to be the mere fruit of his dis- 
tempered imagination; or we may say that a system 
of astronomy has been built upon the discovery of Co- 
pernicus respecting the motion of the earth; ‘ They 
who from a mistaken zeal fur the honour of Divine 
revelation, either deny the existence, or vilify the au- 
thority, of natural religion, are not aware, that by dis- 
allowing the sense of obligation, they undermine the 
foundation on which revelation builds its power & 
commanding the heart.’—B.uairR. 


FOUNDATION, GROUND, BASIS. 


Foundation and ground derive their meaning and 
application from the preceding article: a report is said 
to be without any foundation, which has taken its rise 
in mere conjecture, or in some arbitrary cause indepen- 
dent of all fact; ‘If the foundation of a high name 
be virtue and service, all that is offered against it is but 
rumour, which is too short-lived to stand up in compe- 
tition with glory, which is everlasting.".—STEELr. A 
man’s suspicion is said to be without ground, which is 
not supported by the shadow of external evidence: 
unfounded clamours are frequently raised against the 
measures of government; groundless jealousies fre- 
quently arise between families, to disturb the harmony 
of their intercourse; ‘ Every subject of the British go- 
vernment has good grounds for loving and respecting 
his country.,—BLarm. 

Foundation and basis may be compared with each 
other, either in the proper or the improper significa 
tion: both foundation and basis are the lowest parts 
of any structure; but the former lies under ground, 
the latter stands above: the foundation supports some 
large and artificially erected pile; the basis supports a 
simple pillar: hence we speak of the foundation of 
St. Paul’s, and the base or basis of the monument: 
this distinction is likewise preserved in the moral ap- 
plication of the terms: disputes have too often their 
foundation in frivolous circumstances; treaties have 
commonly their basis in acknowledged general prin- 
ciple; with governments that are at war pacifick ne- 
gotiations may be commenced on the basis of the ut? 
possidetis ; ‘It is certain that the basis of all lasting 
reputation is laid in moral worth.’—Btatr. 


TO BUILD, ERECT, CONSTRUCT 


Build, in Saxon bytlian, French datir, German 
bauen, Gothick boa, bua, bygga, to erect houses, from 


the Hebrew J\'3 a habitation; erect, in Frencheriger, 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


Latin crectus, participle of ertgo, compounded of e 
and rego, comes from the Greek dpéyw to stretch or 
extend, signifies literally to carry upward ; construct, 
in Latin constructus, participle of construo, com- 
puunded of con together, and strwo to put, in Greek 


spwvvdue to strow, in Hebrew Jy} to dispose or put 


in order, signifies to form together into a mass 

The word build by distinction expresses the purpose 
of the action; erect indicates the mode of the action; 
construct indicates contrivance in the action. 

What is built is employed for the purpose of re- 
ceiving, retaining, or confining; wliat is erected is 
placed in an elevated situation; what is constructed is 
put together with ingenuity. 

Allthat is buzlé may be said to be erected or con- 
structed; but all that is erected or constructed is not 
said to be duzlt; likewise what is erected is mostly 
constructed, though not vice versd. We build from 
necessity; we erect for ornament; we construct for 
utility and convenience. Houses are built, monuments 
erected, machines are constructed ; ‘ Montesquieu wit- 
tily observes, that by building professed madhouses, 
men tacitly insinuate that all who are out of their 
senses are to be found only in those places..—-W aRTON. 
‘Tt is as rational to live in caves till our own hands 
have erected a palace, as to reject all knowledge of ar- 
chitecture which our understandings will not supply.’ 
—Jounson. ‘From the raft or canoe, which first 
served to carry a savage over the river, to the construc- 
tion of a vessel capable of conveying a numerous crew 
with safety to a distant coast, the progress in improve- 
ment is immense. —ROBERTSON. 


ARCHITECT, BUILDER. 


Architect, from architecture, in Latin architectus, 
from architectura, Greek doxirexrovik}, compounded 
of doxds the chief, and reyv7} art or contrivance, sig- 
nifies the chief of contrivers; builder, from the verb 
to build, denotes the person concerned in buildings, 
who causes the structure of houses, either by his 
money or his personal service. 

An architect is an artist employed only to form the 
plans for large buildings; ‘ Rome will bear witness 
that the English artists are as superiour in talents as 
they are in numbers to those of all nations besides. I 
reserve the mention of her architects as a separate 
tlass..—CuUMBERLAND. A builder is a simple trades- 
man, or é€ven workman, who builds common dwelling- 
houses; ‘ With his ready money, the builder, mason, 
and carpenter are enabled to make their market of 
gentlemen in his neighbourhood who inconsiderately 
employ them.’—STEELE. 


EDIFICE, STRUCTURE, FABRICK. 


Edifice, in Latin edificium, from edifico or edes and 
‘acio, to make a house, signifies properly the house 
made; structure, from the Latin structura and struo 
xo raise, signifies the raising a thing, or the thing 
-aised; fabrick, from the Latin fabrico, signifies the 
fabricating or the thing fabricated. 

Edifice in its proper sense is always applied to a 
wilding; structure and fabrick are either employed 
as abstract actions, or the results and fruits of actions: 
in the former case they are applied to many objects be- 
sidesbuildings; structure referring to the act of raising 
or setting up together; fabrick to that of framing or 
contriving. 

As the edzjice bespeaks the thing itself, it requires no 
modification, since it conveys of itself the idea of 
something superiour; * The levellers only pervert the 
natural order of things; they load the edifice of so- 
eiety, by setting up in the air what the solidity of the 
structure requires to be on the ground.’—Burxr. The 
word structure must always be qualified; it is em- 
ployed only to designate the mode of action; ‘In the 
whole structure and constitution of things, God hath 
shown himself to be favourable to virtue, and inimical 
io vice and guilt.,—Buatr. The fabrick is itself a 
species of epithet; it designates the object as something 
<ontrived by the power of art or by design; 

By destiny compell’d, and in despair, 
The Grecks grew weary of the tedious war, 
And, by Minerva’s aid, a fabrick rear’d. 


DRYDEN. 
32* 


49% 


The edifices dedicated to the service of religion have 
in all ages been held sacred: it is the business of the 
architect to estimate the merits or demerits of the 
structure: when we take a survey of the vast fabrick 
of the universe, the mind becomes bewildered with 
contemplating the infinite power of its Divine Author. 

When employed in the abstract sense of actions, 
structure is limited to objects of magnitude, or such as 
consist of complicated parts; fabrick is extended to 
every thing in which art or contrivance is requisite ; 
hence we may speak of the structure of vessels, and 
the fabrick of cloth, iron ware, and the like. 


CORNER, ANGLE. 


Corner answers to the French coin, and Greek ywvia, 
which signifies either a corner or a hidden plaice ; an- 
gle, in Latin angulus, comes in all probability from 
ayKay the elbow. 

The vulgar use of corner in the ordinary concerns 
of life, and the technical use of angle in the science 
of mathematicks, is not the only distinction between 
these terms. 

Corner properly implies the outer extreme point of 
any solid body ; angle, on the contrary, the inner ex- 
tremity produced by the meeting of two right lines. 
When speaking therefore of solid bodies, corner and 
angle may be both employed; but in regard to simple 
right lines, the word angle only is applicable: in the 
former case a corner is produced by the meeting of the 
different parts of a body whether inwardly or out 
wardly; but an angle is produced by the meeting ot 
two bodies: one house has many corners; two houses 
or two walls, at least, are requisite to make an engle ; 
‘ Jewellers grind their diamonds with many sides and 
angles, that their lustre may appear many ways.’— 
DERHAM. 

We likewise speak of making an angle by the di- 
rection that is taken in going either by land or sea, 
because such)a course is equivalent to a right line; in 
that case the word corner could not be substituted: 
on the other hand, the word corner is often used fora 
place of secrecy or obscurity, agreeably to the deriva- 
tion of the term; ‘Some men, like pictures, are fitter 
for a corner than for a full light. —Porg 


PILLAR, COLUMN. 


Pillar, in French pilier, in all probability comes 
from pile, signifying any thing piled up in an artificial 
manner. Column, in Latin columna, comes from calu- 
men & prop or support. In their original meaning, 
therefore, it is obvious that these words differ essen- 
tially, although in their present use they refer to the 
same object. The pillar mostly serves as a column or 
support, and the column is always a pillar ; but some- 
times a pillar does not serve as a prop, and then it is 
called by its own name; but when it supplies the place 
of a prop, then it is more properly denominated a 
column ; 


Whate’er adorns 
The princely dome, the column, and the arch, 
The breathing marbles, and the sculptur’d gold, 
Beyond the proud possessor’s narrow claim, 
His tuneful breast enjoys. —AKENSIDE. 


Hence the monument is a pillar, and not a column; 
but the pillars on which the roofs of churches are 
made to rest, may with more propriety be termed co 
lumns. Pillar is more frequently employed in a moral 
application than column, and in that case it always im- 
plies a prop; ‘ Withdraw religion, and you shake all 
the piliars of morality.—Buarr. Government is the 
pillar on which all social order rests. 


LODGINGS, APARTMENTS. 


A lodging, or a place to lodge or dwell in, compre 
hends single rooms, or many rooms, or in fact any 
place which can be made to serve the purpose ; apart 
ments respect only suits of rooms: apartments, there 
fore, are, in the strict sense, lodgings ; but all lodgings 
are not apartments: on the other hand, the word 
lodgings is mostly used for rooms that are Jet out te 
hire, or that serve a temporary purpose; but the word 
apartments may be applied to the suits of rooms in 
any large house: hence the word lodging becomes o» 


600 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


one ground restricted in its use, and apartments on the , ‘The Lay itself is either lost or buried, perhaps fes 
other: all apartments to let out for hire are lodgings , ; ever, in one of those sepulchres of MSS. which by 


but apartments not to let out for hire are not lodgings. 


MONUMENT, MEMORIAL, REMEMBRANCER. 


Monument, in Latin monumentum or monimentum, 
from moneo to advise or remind, signifies that which 
puts us in mind of something ; memorial, from memory, 
signifies the thing that helps the memory; and remem- 
brancer, from remember (v. Memory), the thing that 
causes to remember. 

From the above it is clear that these terms have, in 
their original derivation, precisely the same significa- 
tion, and differ only in their collateral acceptations; 
monument is applied to that which is purposely set up 
to keep a thing in mind; memorials and remembrancers 
are any things which are calculated to call a thing to 
mind. a monument is used to preserve a publick object 
of notice from being forgotten; a memorial serves to 
keep an individual in mind: the monument is com- 
monly understood to be a species of building; as a 
tomb which preserves the memory of the dead, or a 
pillar which preserves the memory of some publick 
event: the memorial always consists of something 
which was the property, or in the possession, of an- 
other; as his picture, his handwriting, his hair, and 
the like. The Monument at London was built to com- 
memorate the dreadful fire of the city in the year 1666: 
friends who are at a distance are happy to have some 
token of each other’s regard, which they likewise keep 
as a memorial of their former intercourse. 

The monument, in its proper sense, is always made 
of wood or stone for some specifick purpose; but, in 
the improper sense, any thing may be termed a monu- 
ment when it serves the purpose of reminding the 
publick of any circumstance: thus, the pyramids are 
monuments of antiquity; the actions of a good prince 
are more lasting monuments than either brass or mar- 
ble; ‘If (in the Isle of Sky) the remembrance of papal 
superstition is obliterated, the monuments of papal 
piety are likewise effaced.’-—JoHNSON. 

Memorials are always of a private nature, and at 
the same time such as remind us naturally of the object 
to which they have belonged; this object is generally 
some person, but it may likewise refer to some thing, 
if it be of a personal nature: our Saviour instituted 
the Sacrament of the Lord’s Supper as a memorial of 
his death; ‘Any memorial of your good-nature and 
friendship is most welcome to me.’—Popr. 

A memorial respects some object external of our- 
selves; the remembrancer is said of that which directly 
concerns ourselves and our particular duty; a man 
leaves memorials of himself to whomsoever he leaves 
his property; but the remembrancer is that which we 
acquire for ourselves: the memorial carries us back to 
another ; the remembrancer brings us back to ourselves: 
the memorial revives in our minds what we owe to 
another; the remembrancer puts us in mind of what 
we owe to ourselves; it is that which recalls us to a 
sense of our duty: a gift is the best memorial we can 
give of ourselves to another: a sermon is often a good 
remembrancer of the duties which we have neglected 
to perform; ‘When God is forgotten, his judgements 
are his remembrancers..—CowPer. 


GRAVE, TOMB, SEPULCHRE. 


All these terms denote the place where bodies are 
deposited. Grave, from the German grabento dig, has 
a reference to the hollow made in the earth; tomd, 
from tumulus and tumeo to swell, has a reference to the 
rising that is made above it; sepulchre, from sepelio 
to bury, has a reference to the use for which it is em- 
ployed. From this explanation it is evident, that these 
terms have a certain propriety of application; ‘ tosink 
into the grave’ is an expression that carries the thoughts 
where the body must rest in death; 


The path of glory leads but to the grave.—Gray. 


To inscribe on the tomb, or to encircle the tomd with 
flowers, carries our thoughts to the external of that 
place in which the body is interred ; 


Nor you, ye proud, impute to these the fault, 

If mem’ry o’er their tombs no trophies raise.—Gray. 
To inter in a sepulchre, or to visit or enter a sepulchre, 
reminds us of a place in which bodies are deposited; 


courtesy are called libraries. —TyRWwuHirt 


TO ADORN, DECORATE, EMBELLISH. 


Adorn, in Latin adorno, is compounded of the in- 
tensive syllable ad and orno, in Greek @patw to make 
beautiful, signifying to dispose for the purpose of orna 
ment; decorate, in Latin decoratus, participle of decore, 
from decorus becoming, signifies to make becoming, 
embellish, in French embellir, is compounded of the 
intensive syllable em or in and bellir or bel, in Latin 
bellus handsome, signifying to make handsome. 

One adorns by giving the best external appearance 
to a thing: 


As vines the trees, as grapes the vines adorn. 
DRywEN. . 


One decorates by annexing something to improve its 
appearance; ‘ A few years afterward (1751), by the 
death of his father, Lord Lyttleton inherited a baronet’s 
title, with a large estate, which, though perhaps he did 
not augment, he was careful to adorn by a house of 
great elegance, and by much attention to the decoration 
of his park.’—Jounson, One embellishes by giving a 
finishing stroke to a thing that is well executed; ‘I 
shall here present my reader with a letter from a pro- 
jector, concerning a new office which he thinks may 
very mnuch contribute to the embellishment of the city.’ 
—Anppison. Females adorn their persons by the choice 
and disposal of their dress: a headdress is decorated 
with flowers, or a room with paintings: fine writing is 
embellished by suitable flourishes. 

Adorn and embellish are figuratively employed; de- 
corate only in the proper sense. The mind is aderned 
by particular virtues which are implanted in it; @ nar- 
rative is embellished by the introduction of some strik- 
ing incidents. : 


an 


OBLONG, OVAL. 


Oblong, in Latin oblongus, from the intensive syila- 
ble ob, signifies very long, Jonger than it is broad; oval 
from the Latin ovwm an egg, signifies egg-shaped. 

The oval is a species of the oblong: what is oval is 
oblong ; but what is oblong is not always oval.  Ob- 
long is peculiarly applied to figures formed by right 
lines, that is, all rectangular parallelograms, except 
squares, are oblong; but the oval is applied to curvi- 
linear oblong. figures, as ellipses, which are distin 
guished from the circle: tables are oftener oblong than 
oval; garden beds are as frequently oval as they are 
oblong. 


—_—_—— 


GLOBE, BALL. 


Globe, in Latin globus, comes probably from the 
Greek y#dogos a hillock of earth; ball, in Teutonick 
ball, is doubtless connected with the words bowl, bow, 
bend, and the like, signifying that which is turned or 
rounded. 

- Globe is to ball as the species to the genus; a globe 
is a ball, but every ball is not a globe. The globe does 
not in its strict sense require to be of an equal rotun- 
dity in all its parts; it is properly an irregularly round 
body ; ‘It is said by modern philosophers, that not only 
the great globes of matter are thinly scattered througk 
the universe, but the hardest bodies are so porous, that 
if all matter were compressed to perfect solidity, it 
might be contained in a cube of a few feet.,—Jounson. 
A ball on the other hand is generally any round body, 
but particularly one that is entirely regularly round: 
the earth itself is therefore properly denominated a 
globe, from its unequal rotundity; and for the same 
reason the mechanical body which is made to repre- 
sent the earth is also denominated a globe; butin the 
higher style of writing the earth is frequently deno 
minated a ball, and in familiar discourse every solid 
body which assumes a circular form is entitled a ball : 


What though in solemn silence all 

Move round the dark terraqueous ball, 

In reason’s ear they all rejoice, 

And utter forth a glorious voice—Appisox. 


ENGLISH, SYNONYMES. 


TO EMIT, EXHALE, EVAPORATE 


Emii, from the Latin emitto, expresses properly the 
act of sending out. exhale, from halitus the breatn, 
and evaporate, from vapor vapour or steam, are both 
modes of emitting. 

Emit is used to express a more positive effort to send 
out; exhale and evaporate designate the natural and 
progressive process of things: volcanoes emzé fire and 
flames ; 


Full in tne blazing sun great Hector shin’d 

Like Mars commission’d to confound mankind; 

His nodding helm emzts a streamy ray, 

His piereing eyes through all the battle stray.—Popr. 


The earth exhales the damps, or flowers exhale per- 
fumes ; 


Here paus’d a moment, while the gentle gale 
Convey’d that freshness the cool seas exhale. 
PopPE. 


Liquids evaporate; ‘ After allowing the first fumes 
and heat of their zeal to evaporate, she (Elizabeth) 
called into her presence a certain number of each 
house.’--RoBERTSON. 

Animals may emit by an act of volition; things ez- 
hale or evaporate by an external action upon them: 
they exhale that which is foreign to them; they eva- 
porate that which constitutes a part of their substance. 

The pole-cat is reported to emzt such a stench from 
itself when pursued, asto keep its pursuers at a dis- 
tance from itself: bogs and fens exhale their moisture 
when acted upon by the heat: water evaporates by 
means of steam when put into a state of ebullition. 


ERUPTION, EXPLOSION. 


The eruption, from e and rumpo, signifies the break- 
ing forth, that is, the coming into view by a sudden 
bursting; explosion, from ex and plaudo, signifies 
bursting out with a noise: hence of flames there will 
be properly an eruption, but of gunpowder an eaplo- 
sion ; volcanoes have their eruptions at certain inter- 
vals, which are sometimes attended with explosions : 
on this account the term eruption is applied to the 
human body, for whatever comes out as the effects of 
humour, and may be applied in the same manner to 
any indications of humour in the mind; the term ez- 
plosion is also applied to the agitations of the mind 
which burst out; ‘Sin may truly reign where it does 
not actually rage and pour itself forth in continual 
eruptions.’—SoutH. ‘aA burst of fury, an exclama- 
tion seconded by a blow, is the first natural explosion 
of a soul so stung by scorpions as Macbeth’s.'—Cum- 
BERLAND. 


BREACH, BREAK, GAP, CHASM. 


Breach and break are both derived from the same 
verb break (v. To break), to denote what arises from 
being broken, in the figurative sense of the verb itself; 
gap, from the English gape, signifies the thing that 
gapes or stands open; chasm, in Greek xdopa from 
xaivw, and the Hebrew f})})) to be open, signifies the 
thing that has opened itself. 

The idea of an opening is common to these terms, 
but they differ in the nature of the opening. A breach 
and a gap are the consequence of a violent removal 
whick destroys the connexion; a break and a chasm 
may arise from the absence of that which would form 
aconnexion. A breach ina wall is made by means of 
cannon ; 


A mighty breach is made; the rooms conceal’d 
Appear, and all the palace is reveal’d.—DRYDEN. 


Gaps in fences are commonly the effects of some vio- 
lent effort to pass through ; 


Or if the order of the world below 

Will not the gap of one whole day allow, 

Give me that minute when she made her vow. 
DRYDEN. 


A break is made in a page of printing by leaving off in 
the middle of a line; ‘ Considering probably, how much 
Homer had been disfigured by the arbitrary compilers 
of his works, Virgil, by his will, obliged Tucca and 
Varius to add nothing, nor so much as fill upthe breaks 


601 


‘ The whole chasm in nature, from a plant to a man, fs 
filled up with diverse kinds of creatures.’.—Avnigon. 
A breach and a chasm always imply a larger open 
ing than a break or gap. A gap may be madema 
knife; a breach is always made in the walls of a build 
ing or fortification: the clouds sometimes separate so 
as to leave small breaks; the ground is sometimes so 
convulsed by earthquakes as to leave frightful chasms 
Breach and chasm are used morally ; break and gap 
seldom otherwise than in application to natural ob- 
jects. Trifling circumstances occasion wide breaches 
in families; 
When breach of faith join’d hearts does disengage, 
The calmest temper turns to wildest rage.—Lrr. 


The death of relatives often produces asad chasm in 
the enjoyments of individuals; 


Some lazy ages, lost in ease, 

No action leave to busy chronicles; 

Such, whose supine felicity but makes 

In story chasms, in epochas mistakes.—DrypENn 


TO BREAK, RACK, REND, TEAR. 


Break, in Saxon brecan, Danish and Low German 
breken, High German brechen, Latin frango, Greek 


Bonyvipe, Bonxviw, Chaldee D553 to separate; rack 


comes from the same source as break ; it is properly 
the root of this word, and an onomatopeia, conveying 
a sound correspondent with what is made by breaking ; 
rak in Swedish, and racco in Icelandish, signifies a 
breaking of the ice; rend is in Saxon hrendan, hred- 
dan, Low German ritan, High German vezssen to split, 


Greek pijcow, Hebrew Py) to break in pieces; tear, in 


Saxon taeran, Low German tiren, High German zer- 
ren, is an intensive verb from ziehen to pull, Greek 
Tpww, Tétow to bruise, Hebrew %}j5 to split, divide, or 
cleave. 

The forcible division of any substance is the com 
mon characteristick of these terms. 

Break is the generick term, the rest specifick: every 
thing racked, rent, or torn is broken, but not vice versa. 
Break has however a specifick meaning, in which it is 
comparable with the others. Breaking requires less 
violence than either of the others: brittle things may 
be broken with the slightest touch, but nothing can be 
racked without intentional violence of an extraordinary 
kind. Glass is quickly broken; a table is racked. 
Hard substances only are broken or racked ; but every 
thing of a soft texture and composition may be rent 
or torn. 

Breaking is performed by means of a blow; racking 
by that of a violent concussion; but rending and tear- 
ing are the consequences of a pull. Any thing of 
wood or stone is broken; any thing of a complicated 
structure, with hinges and joints, is racked; cloth is 
rent, paper is torn. Rend is sometimes used for what 
is done by design; a tear is always faulty. Cloth is 
sometimes rent rather than cut when it is wanted to 
be divided; but when it is tov # is injured.. These 
terms are similarly distinguished in their figurative 
application ; 

But out affection! 
All bond and privilege of nature break. 
SHAKSPEARE 


Long has this secret struggl’d in my breast; 
Long has it rack’d and rent my tortur’d bosom. 
SMITH 


The people vend the skies with loud applause, 
And heaven can hear no other name but yours. 
DRYDEN. 


She sigh’d, she sobb’d, and, furious with despair, 
She rent her garments, and she tore her hair. 
DRYDEN. 


Who would not bleed with transport for his country 
Tear every tender passion from his heart? 
THOMSON. 


TO BREAK, BRUISE, SQUEEZE, POUND, 
CRUSH. 


Break, v. To break, rack; bruise, in French briser 


he had !eft in his poem..—Watsu. A chasm is left in | Saxon brysed, not improbably from the same source as 


writing when any words in the sentence are omitted; 


nress: squeeze, in Saxon cwysin, Low German guietsen, 


502 


quoesen, Swedish guesa, Latin gzatio to shake, or pro- 
duce a concussion; pound, iu Saxon punian, is not im- 
probably derived by a change of Jetters from the Latin 
txndo to bruise; crush, in French ecraser, is most pro- 
bably only a variation of the word squeeze, like crash, 
or squash. 

Break always implies the separation of the compo- 
nent parts of a body; bruise denotes simply the de- 
ttroying the continuity of the parts. Hard, brittle 
substances, as glass, are broken ; 


Dash my devoted bark! ye surges, break it! 
’T is for my ruin that the tempest rises.—Rowe. 


Soft, pulpy substances, as flesh or fruits, are bruised ; 


Yet lab’ring well his little spot of ground, 

Some scatt’ring potherbs here and there he found; 

Which, cultivated with his daily care, 

And, bruis’d with vervain, were his daily fare. 
DRYDEN. 


The operation of bruising is performed either by a 
violent blow or by pressure; that of squeezing by 
compression only. Metals, particularly lead and silver, 
may be bruesed; fruits may be either bruised or 
squeezed. In this latter sense bruise applies to the 
harder substances, or indicates a violent compression ; 
squeeze is used for soft substances or a gentle com- 
pression. The kernels of nuts are bruised ;_ oranges 
or apples are squeezed ; 


He therefore first among the swains was found, 

To reap the produce of his labour’d ground, 

And squeeze the combs with golden liquor crown’d. 
DRYDEN. 


To pound is properly to bruzse in a mortar so as to 
produce a separation of parts; 


And where the rafters on the columns meet, 

We push them headlong with our arms and feet: 

Down goes the top at once; the Greeks beneath 

Are piecemeal torn, or pounded into death. 
DRYDEN. 


To crush is the most violent and destructive of all 
operations, which amounts to the total dispersion of all 
the parts of a body; ‘Such were the sufferings of our 
Lord, so great and so grievous as none of us are in any 
degree able to undergo. That weight under which he 
crouched, would crush us.’—TILLoTSON. 

What is broken may be made whole again; what is 
bruised or squeezed may be restored to its former tone 
and consistency; what is pounded is only reduced to 
smaHer parts for convenience; but what is crushed is 
destroyed. When the wheel of a carriage passes over 
any body that yields to its weight, it crushes it to 
powder; thus in the figurative sense this term marks 
a total annihilation: if a conspiracy be not crushed in 
the bud, it will prove fatal to the power which has suf 
fered it to grow; 


To crush rebellion every way is just.—Darcy. 


TO BREAK, BURST, CRACK, SPLIT. 


Break, v. To break, rack; burst, in Saxon beorstan, 
bersten, byrsten, Low German baisten, basten, High 
German bersten, Old German bresten, Swedish brysta, 
is but a variation of break; crack is in Saxon cearcian, 
French cracguer, High German krachen, Low German 
kraken, Danish krakke, Greek xpéxeev, which are in all 
probability but variations of break, &c., split, in 
Dutch split, Danish splitter, Low German splieten, 
High German spalten, Old German spilten, Swedish 
splita, which are all connected with the German plat- 
zen to burst, from the Greek ozadvocopat to tear or 
split, and the Hebrew pelah to separate, palect or palety 
to cut in pieces. 

Break denotes a forcible separation of the consti- 
tuent parts of a body. Burst and crack are onoma- 
topelas or imitations of the sound which are made in 
bursting and cracking. Splitting is a species of 
cracking that takes place in some bodies in a similar 
manner without being accompanied with the noise. 

Breaking is generally the consequence of some ex- 
ternal violence: every thing that is exposed to violence 
may without distinction be broken ; 

Ambitious thence the manly river breaks, 

And gathering many a flood, and copious fed 
With all the mellowed treasures of the sky, 
winds in progressive majesty along.—THOMSON. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


Bursting arises mostly from an extreme tension: net 
low bodies, when over-filled, burst ; 


Off, traitors! Off! or my distracted soul 
Will burst indignant from this jail of nature. 
THOMSON. 


Cracking is caused by the application of excessive 
heat, or the defective texture of the substance: glass 
cracks ; the earth cracks; leather cracks ; 


And let the weighty roller run the round, 

To smooth the surface of th’ unequal ground; 

Lest crack’d with summer heats the flooring flies, 

Or sinks, and through the crannies weeds arise. 
DRYDEN 


Splitting may arise from a combination of externa) 
and internal causes: wood in particular is liable to 
split; 
Is ’t meet that he 

Should leave the helm, and like a fearful lad, 

With tearful eyes, add water to the sea ? 

While in bis mean, the ship splits on the rock, 

Which industry and courage might have saved. 

SHAKSPEARE. 


A thing may be broken in any shape, form, and degree. 
bursting leaves a wide gap; cracking and splitting 
leave along aperture; the latter of which is commonly 
wider than that of the former. 


oo 


RUPTURE, FRACTURE, FRACTION. 


Rupture, from rumpo to break or burst, and fracture 
or fraction, from frango to break, denote different 
kinds of breaking, according to the objects to which 
the action is applied. Soft substances may suffer a 
rupture; as the rupture of a blood-vessel: hard sub- 
stances a fracture; as the fracture of abone. Rup- 
ture and fraction, though not fracture, are used in an 
improper application; as the rupture of a treaty, or the 
fraction of a unit into parts; ‘To be an enemy, ang 
once to have been a friend, does it not imbitter the 
rupture ??—SoutTH. 


And o’er the high-pil’d hills of fraciz’d earth, 
Wide dash’d the waves.--THOMSON. 


FRAGILE, FRAIL, BRITTLE. 


Fragile and frail, in French fréle, both come from the 
Latin fragilis, signifying breakable; but the former is 
used in the proper sense only, and the latter more gene- 
rally in the improper sense: man, corporeally consi- 
dered, is a fragile creature, his frame is composed of 
fragile materiais, mentally considered, he is a frail 
creature, for he is liable to every sort of frailty ; 

What joys, alas! could this frail being give, 
That I have been so covetous to live.—Drypsn 

Brittle comes from the Saxon brittan to break, and 
by the termination le or lis, denotes likewise a capacity 
to break, that. is, properly breakable; but it conveys a 
stronger idea of this quality than fragile: the latter 
applies to whatever will break from the effects of time; 
brittle to that which will not bear a temporary violence: 
in this sense all the works of men are fragzle, and in 
fact all sublunary things; ‘ An appearance of delicacy, 
and even of fragility, is almost essential to beauty .’— 
Burke. But glass, stone, and ice are peculiarly de- 
nominated brittle; \and friendships are sometimes 
termed brittle; ‘The brittle chain of this world’s 
friendships is as effectually broken when one is “ obli- 
tus meorum,”’ as when one is * obliviscendus et illis,”* ’ 
—CrorrT. 


SAP, UNDERMINE. 


Sa» signifies the juice which springs from the rom 
of a tree; hence to sap signifies to come at the root of 
any thing by digging: to undermine signifies to form a 
mine under the ground, or under whatever is upon the 
ground: we may sap, therefore, without undermining ; 
and undermine without sapping: we may sap the 
foundation of a house without making any mine un: 
derneath}; and in fortifications we may undermine 
either a mound, a ditch, or a wall, without striking 
immediacely at the foundation: hence, in the moral 
application, to sap is a more direct and decisive mode 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


ot destruction , undermine is a gradual, and may be a 
partial, action. Infidelity saps the morals of a nation; 


With morning drams, 
A filthy custom which he caught from thee, 
Clean from his former practice, now he saps 
His youthful vigour.—CumMBERLAND. 


Courtiers undermine one another’s interests at court; 
‘To be a man of business is, in other words, to be a 
plague and spy, a treacherous supplanter and under- 
miner of the peace of families.’—Sourn. 


TO ERADICATE, EXTIRPATE, EXTERMINATE. 


To eradicate, from radix the root, is to get out by the 
root; eztirpate, from ex and stirps the stem, is to get 
out the stock, to destroy it thoroughly. In the natural 
sense we may eradicate noxious weeds whenever we 
pull thei from the ground ; but we can never extirpate 
all noxious weeds, as they always disseminate their 
seeds and spring up afresh. These words are seldomer 
used in the physical than in the moral sense; where 
the former is applied to such objects as are conceived 
to be plucked up by the roots, as habits, vices, abuses, 
evils; and the latter to whatever is united or supposed 
to be united into a race er family, and is destroyed 
coot and branch. Youth is the season when vicious 
habits may be thoroughly eradicated ; ‘It must be 
every man’s care to begin by eradicating those corrup- 
tions which, at different times, have tempted him to 
violate conscience.’—Buair. By the universal deluge 
the whole human race was extirpated, with the excep- 
tion of Noah and his family ; 


Go thou, inglorious, from th’ embattled plain ; 
Ships thou hast store, and nearest to the main: 
A nobler care the Grecians shali employ, 

To combat, conquer, and extirpate Troy.—Porr. 


Exterminate, in Latin exterminatus, participle of 
extermino, from ez or extra, and terminus, signifies to 
expel beyond a boundary (of life), that is, out of exist- 
ence. It 1s used only in regard to such things as have 
life, and designates a violent and immediate action; 
extirpate, on the other hand, may designate a progres- 
sive action: the former may be said of individuals, 
but the latter is employed in the collective sense only. 
Plague, pestilence, famine, extirpate: the sword exter- 
minates ; ‘So violent and black were Hainan’s pas- 
sions, that he resolved to exterminate the whole nation 
fo which Mordecai belonged.’—Buair. 


TO DEFACE, DISFIGURE, DEFORM. 


Deface, disfigure, and deferm signify literally to 
spoil the face, figure, and form. 

Deface expresses more than either deform or dis- 
figure. 'To deface is an act of destruction ; it is the 
actual destruction of that which has before existed: to 
disfigure is either an act of destruction or an erroneous 
execution, whieh takes away the figure: to deform 
is altogether an imperfect execution, which renders the 
form what it should not be. A thing is defaced by 
design ; it is disfigured either by design or accident; 
it is deformed either by an errour or by the nature of the 
thing. 

Persons only deface; persons or things disfigure ; 
things are most commonly deformed of themselves. 
That may be defaced, the face or external surface of 
which may be injured or destroyed ; 


Yet she had heard an ancient rumour fly 

(Long cited by the people of the sky), 

That times to come should see the Trojan race 

Her Carthage ruin, and her tow’rs deface.—DrvypkEn. 


That may be disfigured or deformed, the figure or form 
of which is imperfect or may be rendered imperfect ; 
‘It is but too obvious that errours are committed in this 
part of religion (devotion). These frequently dis- 
Jigure its appearance before the world, and subject it 
to unjust reprcach.’—Brarr. 

A hbeauteous maid above; but magick art 

With barking dogs deform’ d her nether part. 

DRYDEN. 
A fine painting or piece of writing is defaced which is 
torn or besmeared with dirt: a fine building is dis- 
ferred by any want of symmetry in its parts: a build- 
is deformed that is made contrary to all form. A 


503 


statue may be defaced, disfigured, and deformed: it is 
defaced when any violence is done to the face or any 
outward part of the body ; it is disfigured by the loss 
ota limb; it is deformed if made contrary to the per 
fect form of a person or thing to be represented. 

Inanimate objects are mostly defaced or disfigu7ed, 
but seldom deformed ; animate objects are either dis- 
Jjigured or deformed, but not defaced. A person may 
disfigure himself by his dress; he is deformed by the 
hand of nature. 


BANE, PEST, RUIN. 


Bune, in its proper sense, is the name of a poisonous 
plant; pest, in French peste, Latin pestis a plague, 
from pastum, participle of pasco to feed upon or con- 
sume; ruin, in French ruine, Latin ruina, from rue 
to rush, signifies the falling into a run, or the cause 
of ruin. 

These terms borrow their figurative signification 
from three of the greatest evils in the world; namely, 
poison, plague, and destruction. Bane is said of 
things only ; pest of persons only : whatever produces 
a deadly corruption is the bane ; whoever is as ob- 
noxious as the plague is a pest: luxury is the bane of 
civil society ; gaming is the bane of ali youth; syco- 
phants are the pests of society ; 


First dire Chimzra’s conquest was enjoined ; 
This pest he slaughter’d (for he read the skies), 
And trusted heaven’s informing prodigies.—Popg. 


Be this, O mother! your religious care ; 

I go to rouse soft Paris to the war. 

Qh! would kind earth the hateful wretch embrace, 

That pest of Troy, that ruin of our race. 

Beep to the dark abyss might he descend, 

Troy yet should flourish, and my sorrows end. 
PorE. 


Bane when compared with ruin does not convey so 
strong a meaning; the former in its positive sense is 
that which tends to mischief ; 


Piere’d through the dauntless heart then tumbles slain, 
And from his fatal courage finds his bane.—Popr. 


Ruin is that which actually causes ruin: a love of 
pleasure is the bane of all young men whose fortune 
depends on the exercise of their talents: drinking is 
the ruin of all who indulge themselves in it to excess 


POISON, VENOM. 


Poison, in French pozson, comes from the Latin 
potia a potion or drink; wenom, in French venin, 
Latin vexenum, comes probably from vene the veins, 
Wecause it circulates rapidly through the veins, and 
infects the blood in a deadly manner. 

Poison is a general term; in its original meaning it 
signifies any potion which acts destructively upon the 
system ; venom is a species of deadly or malignant 
poison: a poison may be either slow or quick; a 
venom is always most active in its nature: a poison 
must be administered inwardly to have its effect; a 
venom Will act by an external application: the juice 
of the hellebore is a potsow ; the tongue of the adder 
and the tooth of the viper contain venom; many 
plants are unfit to be eaten on account of the poisonous 
quality which is in them; the Indians are in the habit 
of dipping the tips of their arrows in a venomous juice, 
which renders the slightest wound mortal. 

The moral application of these terms is clearly 
drawn from their proper acceptation: the poison must 
be infused or injected into the subject; the venom acta 
upon him externally: bad principles are justly com- 
pared to a poison, which some are so unhappy as to 
suck in with their mothers’ milk ; ‘ The Devil can con- 
vey the poison of his suggestions quicker than the agi- 
tation of thought or the strictures of fancy.’—Sourna. 
The shafts of envy are peculiarly’ venomous when 
directed against those in elevated situations ; 

As the venom spread 


Frightful convulsions writh’d his tortur’d limbs. 
FENTON. 


TO OVERTURN, OVERTHROW, SUBVERT, 
INVERT, REVERSE. 


To overturn is simply to turn over, which may be 
More or less gradual: but to overthrow is to threw 


504 


over, which will be more or less violent. To overturn 
is to turn a thing either with its side or its bottom 
upward; but to subvert is to turn that under which 
should be upward: to reverse is to turn that before 
which should be behind ; and to invert is to place that 
on its head which should rest on its feet. These terms 
differ. accordingly in their application and circurm- 
stances: things are overturned by contrivance and 
gradual means; infidels attempt to overturn Chris- 
Uanity by the arts of ridicule and falsehood ; 

An age is rip’ning in revolving fate, 

When Troy shall overturn the Grecian state. 

DRYDEN. 


The French revolutionists overthrew their lawful 
government by every act of violence ; 


Thus prudes, by characters o’erthrown, 
Imagine that they raise their own.—Gay. 


To overturn is said of small matters; to subvert only 
of national or large concerns: domestick economy nay 
be overturned ; religious or political establishments may 
be subverted; ‘ Others, from publick spirit, laboured 
to prevent a civil war, which, whatever party should 
prevail, must shake, and perhaps subvert, the Spanish 
power.’-—RoBERTsoN. That may be overturned 
which is simply set up; that is subverted which has 
been established : an assertion may be overturned ; the 
best sanctioned principles may by artifice be subverted. 

To overturn, overthrow, and subvert generally in- 
volve the destruction of the thing so overturned, over- 
thrown, or subverted, or at least render it for the time 
useless, and are, therefore, mostly unallowed acts; 
but reverse and invert, which have a more particwar 
application, have a less specifick character of propriety : 
we may reverse a proposition by taking the negative 
instead of the affirmative ; a decree may be reversed 
so as torender it nugatory; but both of these acts may 
be right or wrong, according to circumstances; ‘Our 
ancestors affected a certain pomp of style, and this 
affectation, I suspect, was the true cause of their so 
frequently znverting the natural order of their words, 
especially in poetry.—TyrrwuiTt. The order of 
particular things may be tnverted to suit the con- 
venience of parties; but the order of society cannot 
be inverted without subverting all the principles on 
which civil society is built; ‘He who walks not up- 
rightly has neither from the presumption of God’s 
mercy reversing the decree of his justice, nor from his 
own purposes of a future repentance, any sure ground 
to set his foot upon.’—Souru. 


TO OVERWHELM, CRUSH. 


To overwhelm (v. To overbear) is to cover with a 
heavy body, so that one should sink under it: to crush 
is to destroy the consistency of a thing by violent pres- 
sure. A thing may be crushed by being overwhelmed, 
but it may be overwhelmed without being crushed ; 
and it may be crushed without being overwhelmed. 
The girl Tarpeia, who betrayed the Capitoline hill to 
the Sabines, is said to have been overwhelmed with 
their arms, by which she was crushed to death. When 
many persons fall on one, he may be overwhelmed, 
Dut not necessarily crushed ; when a wagon goes over 
a body, it may be crushed, but not overwhelmed; ‘Let 
not the political metaphysicks of Jacobins break prison, 
to burst like a Levanter, to sweep the earth with their 
hurricane, and to break up the fountains of the great 
deep to overwhelm us.’—BuRKE. 


Melt his cold heart, and wake dead nature in him, 
Orush him in thy arms.—Otway. 


TO ROT, PUTREFY, CORRUPT. 


The dissolution of bodies by an internal process is 
implied by all these terms: but the first two are applied 
to natural bodies only; the Jast to all bodies natural 
and moral. Rotis the strongest of all these terms; it 
denotes the last stage in the progress of dissolution: 
putrefy expresses the progress towards rottenness; and 
corruption the commencement. After fruit has ar- 
rived at its maturity or proper state of ripeness, it rots ; 


Debate destroys despatch, as fruits we see 
Rot when they hang too long upon the tree. 
DENHAM. 
Meat which is kept too long putreyies ; 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


And draws the copious stream from swampy fetia, 
Where putrefaction into life ferments.—THOMSON 


There is a tendency in all bodies to corruption; sron 
and wood corrupt with time; whatever is made, 01 
done, or wished by men, is equally liable to be corrwet 
or to grow corrupt ; 


After that they again returned heene, | 

That in that gardin planted be agayne 

And grow afresh, as they had never seene 
Fleshy corruption nor mortal payne.—SPENSER 


DESTRUCTION, RUIN. 


Destruction, from destroy, and the Latin destrue, _ 
signifies literally to unbuild that which is raised up; 
ruin, from the Latin rwo to fail, signifies to fall into 
pieces: destruction is an act of insmediate violence; 
ruin is a gradual process: a thing is destroyed by some 
external action upon it; a thing falls to ruin of itself. 
We witness destruction wherever war or the adverse 
elements rage; we withess ruin whenever the works 
of man are exposed to the effects of time. Neverthe 
less, if destruction be more forcible and rapid, ruin is 
on the other hand more sure and complete. What is 
destroyed may be rebuilt or replaced; but what is 
ruined is lost for ever; it is past recovery. 

When houses or towns are destroyed, fresh ones 
rise up in their place; but when commerce is ruined, 
it seldom returns to its old course. 

Destruction admits of various degrees: ruin issome- 
thing positive and general. The property of a man 
may be destroyed to a greater or less extent without 
necessarily involving his ruin ; 


Destruction hangs o’er yon devoted wall, 
And nodding [lion waits th’ impending fall.—Pops. 


The ruin of a whole family is oftentimes the conse 
quence of destruction by fire; 


The day shall come, that great avenging day, 
Which Troy’s proud glories in the dust shall lay; 
When Priam’s pow’rs, and Priam’s self, shall fall, 
And one prodigious ruin swallow all.-—-Popr. 


The health is destroyed by violent exercise or some 
other active cause; it is ruined by a course of impru- 
dent conduct. 

The happiness of a family is destroyed by broils and 
discord; the morals of a young man are ruined bya 
continued intercourse with vicious companions. 
Destruction may be used either in the proper, or the 
improper sense ; ruzm has mostly a moral application. 
The destruction of both body and soul is the con- 
sequence of sin; the xuinz of a man, whether in his 
temporal or spiritual concerns, is inevitable, if he follow 
the dictates of misguided passion. 


DESTRUCTIVE, RUINOUS, PERNICIOUS. 


Destructive signifies producing destruction (v. De- 
struction) ; ruinous, either having or causing ruin (9 
Destruction) ; pernicious, from the Latin pernicies or 
per and neco to kill violently, signifies causing violent 
and total dissolution. 

Destructive and ruinous, as the epithets of the pre- 
ceding terms, have a similar distinction in their sense 
and application: fire and sword are destructive things ; 
a poison is destructive; consequences are ruinous; & 
condition or state is ruinous ; intestine commotions 
are ruinous to the prosperity of a state; 


’*T is yours to save us if you cease to fear ; 
Flight, more than shameful, is destructive here. 
Popr. 
‘There have been found in history few conquests more 
ruinous than that of the Saxons.’—Humeg. 
Pernicious approaches nearer to: destructive than to 
ruinous; both the former imply tendency to dissolu- 
tion, which may be more or less gradual; but the latter 
refers us to the result itself, to the dissolution as already 
having taken place: hence we speak of the instrument 
or cause as being destructive or pernicious, and the 
action or event as ruinous ; destructive is «pplied in 
the most extended sense to every object which haa 
been created or supposed to be so; pernicious is appli 
cable only to such objects as act only in a limited way 
sin is equally destructine to both body and soul; cer 
tain food is pernicious to the body; certain books are 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


sernicious to the mind; ‘The effeets of divisions (in 
a state) are pernicious to the last degree, not only with 
regard to those advantages which they give the com- 
mon enemy ; but to those private evils which they pro- 
duce in the heart of almost every particular person.’-— 
ADDISON. 


TO CONSUME, DESTROY, WASTE. 


Consume, in French consumer, Latin consumo, com- 
pounded of con and sumo, signifies to take away alto- 
gether; destroy, in Latin destruo, compounded of de 
privative and sérwo to build, signifies to undo or scat- 
ter that whica has been raised; waste, from the adjec- 
tive waste or desert, signifies to make waste or naked. 

The idea of bringing that to nothing which has been 
something is common to all these terms. 

What is consumed is lost for any future purpose; 
what is destroyed is rendered unfit for any purpose 
whatever: consume may therefore be to destroy as the 
means to the end; things are often destroyed by being 
consumed: when food is consumed it serves the in- 
tended purpose; but when it is destroyed it serves no 
purpose, and is.likewise unfit for any. 

When iron is consumed by rust, or the body by dis- 
ease, or a house by the flames, the things in these cases 
are literally destroyed by consumption: on the other 
hand, when life or health is taken away, and when 
things are either worn or torn so as to be useless, they 
are destroyed ; 


Let not a fierce unruly joy 
The settled quiet of the mind destroy.— ADDISON. 


In the figurative signification consume is synonymous 
with waste: the former implies a reducing to nothing ; 
the latter conveys also the idea of misuse: to waste is 
to consume uselessly ; much time is consumed in com- 
plaining, which might be employed in remedying the 
evils complained of; ‘ Mr. Boyle, speaking of a certain 
mineral, tells us that a man may consume his whole 
life in the study, without arriving at the knowledge of 
its qualities..—Apprson. Idlers waste their time be- 
cause they do not properly estimate its value: those 
who consume their strength and their resources in fruit- 
less endeavours to effect what is impracticable, are 
unfitted for doing what might be beneficial to them- 
selves: it is an idle waste of one’s powers to employ 
them in building up new systems, and making men dis- 
satisfied with those already established ; 

For this I mourn, till grief or dire disease, 


Shall waste the torm whose'crime it was to please. 
Popr. 


° 


TO DEMOLISH. RAZE, DISMANTLE, 
DESTROY. 


The throwing down what has been built upis the 
common idea included in all these terms. 

Demolish, from the Latin demolior, and moles a 
mass, signifies to decompound what has been ina mass ; 
raze like erase (v. To blot out) signifies the making 
smooth or even with the ground; dismanile, in French 
demanteler, signifies to deprive of the mantle or 
guard; destroy, from the Latin destruo, compounded of 
the pyivative de and struo to build, signifies properly to 
pull down. 

A fabrick is demolished by scattering allits compo- 
nent parts; itis mostly an unlicensed act of caprice; 
it is * razed by way of punishment, that it may be left 
as a monument of publick vengeance; a fortress is dis- 
mantled from motives of prudence, in order to render 
it defenceless; places are destroyed by various means 
and from various motives, that they may not exist any 
longer. 

Individuals may demolish ; justice causes a razure ; 
a general orders towers to be desmantled and fortifica- 
tions to be destroyed ; 


From the demolish’d tow’rs the Trojans throw 
Huge heaps of stones, that falling crush the foe. 
DRYDEN. 


Great Diomede has compass’d round with walls 
The city which Argyripa he calls, 

From his own Argos nam’d; we touch’d with joy 
The royal hand that raz’d unhappy Troy.—Drypen. 


* Vide Abbe Girard: “ Demolir, raser, demanteler, 
getruire ” 


505 


O’er the drear spot see desola:ion spread, 
And the dismantled walls in ruin lie—Moors. 


We, for myself I speak, and all the name 

Of Grecians who to Troy’s destruction came, 

Not one but suffered and too dearly bought 

The prize of honour whichin arms he sought. 
DRYDEN 


TO BEREAVE, DEPRIVE, STRIP. 


Bereave, in Saxon bereafian, German berauben, &c 
is compounded of be and reave or rob, Saxon reafian, 
German rauben, Low German roofen, &c. Latin ra- 
pina and rapio to catch or seize, signifying to take 
away contrary to one’s wishes; deprive, compounded 
of de and prive, French priver, Latin privo, from pri- 
wus private, signifies to make that one’s own which 
was another’s; strip is in German streifen, Low Ger- 
man stretpen, stroepen, Swedish stréfva, probably 
changed from the Latin surrzpio to snatch by stealth, 

To bereave expresses more than deprive, but less 
than strip, which in this sense is figurative, and de- 
notes a total bereavement ; one is bereaved of children, 
deprived of pleasures, and stripped of property: we 
are bereaved of that on which we set most value; 
the act of bereawing does violence to our inclination: 
we.are deprived of the ordinary comforts and conve- 
niences of life; they cease to be ours: we are stripped 
of the things which we most want; we are thereby 
rendered as itwere naked. Deprivations are prepara 
tory to bereavements ; if we cannot bear the one pa 
tiently, we may expect to sink under the other; com 
mon prudence should teach us to look with unconcern 
on our deprivations: Christian faith should enable us 
to consider every bereavement as a step to perfection; 
that when stripped of all worldly goods we may be 
invested with those more exalted and lasting honours 
which await the faithful disciple of Christ. 

We are bereaved of our dearest hopes and enjoy- 
ments by the dispensations of Providence; 


O first-created Being, and thou great Word, 

Let there be light, and light was over all; 

Why am I thus Jereav’d thy prime decree ? 
MiLTon. 


Casualties deprive us of many little advantages or 
gratifications which fall in our way ; 


Too daring bard! whose unsuccessful pride 

Tl’ immortal muses in their art defied ; 

Th’ avenging muses of the light of day 

Depriv'd his eyes, and snatch’d his voice away. 
Pops. 


Men are active in stripping each other of their jus 
rights and privileges; ‘From the uncertainty of life, 
moralists have endeavoured to sink the estimation of 
its pleasures, and if they could not strzp the seductions 
of vice of their present enjoyment, at least to \uad 
them with the fear of their end..—MacxeEnzir. 


DEPREDATION, ROBBERY. 


Depredation, in Latin depredatio, from preda.a 
prey, signifies the act of spoiling or laying waste, as 
well as taking away; robbery, on the other hand, sig 
nifies simply the removal or taking away from another 
by violence. Every depredation, therefore, includes a 
robbery, but not vice versa. A depredation is always 
attended with mischief tosome one, though not always 
with advantage to the depredator; but the robber 
always calculates’ on getting something for himself. 
Depredations are often committed for the indulgence 
of private animosity; robbery is always committed 
from a thirst for gain. 

Depredation is either the publick act of a commu- 
nity, or the private act of individuals; robbery mostly 
the private act of individuals. Depredations are com- 
mitted wherever the occasion offers ; in open or covert 
places: robberies are committed either on the persong 
or houses of individuals. In former times neighbour 
ing states used to commit frequent depredations on 
each other, even when not in a state of open hostility; 
robberies were, however, then less frequent than at 
present; ‘ As the delay of making war may sometimes 
be detrimental to individuals, who have suffered by 
depredations from foreign potentates, our laws have 


506 


in some respects, armed the subject with powers to 
imnpel the prerogative, by directing the ministers to 
issue letters of marque.’—BuacksTone. ‘ From all 
this, what is my inference? That this new system of 
robbery in France cannot be rendered safe by any art.’ 
—BuRKE 

Depredation is used in the proper and bad sense, 
for animals as well as for men; robbery may be em- 
ployed figuratively and in the indifferent sense. Birds 
are great depredators in the cornfields; bees may be 
said to plunder or rob the flowers of their sweets. 


TO DEPRIVE, DEBAR, ABRIDGE. 


Deprive (v. To bereave) conveys the idea of either 
taking away that which one has, or withholding that 
which one may have; debar, from de and bar, signify- 
ng to prevent by means of a bar, conveys the idea 
only of withholding; abridge (v. To abridge) conveys 
that also of taking away. Depriving is a coercive 
measure; debar and abridge are merely acts of autho- 
rity. We are deprived of that which is of the first 
necessity ; we are debarred of privileges, enjoyments, 
opportunities, &c.; we are abridged of comforts, plea- 
sures, conveniences, &c. Criminals are deprived of 
their liberty ; their friends are in extraordinary cases 
debarred the privilege of seeing them; thus men are 
often abridged of their comforts in consequence of 
their own faults. 

Deprivation and debarring sometimes arise from 
things as well as persons; abridging is always the 
voluntary act of conscious agents. Misfortunes some- 
times deprive a person of the means of living ; the 
poor are often debarred, by their poverty, of the op- 
portunity to learn their duty; it may sometimes be 
necessary to abridge young people of their pleasures 
when they do not know how to make a good use of 
them. Religion teaches men to be resigned under the 
severest deprivations ; it is painful to be debarred the 
society of those we love, or to abridge others of any 
advantage which they have been in the habit of en- 
joying. 

When used as reflective verbs they preserve the 
same analogy in their signification. An extravagant 
person deprives himself of the power of doing good; 
‘Of what small moment to your real happiness are 
many of those injuries which draw forth your resent- 
ment? Can they deprive you of peace of conscience, 
of the satisfaction of having acted a right part ?’— 
Briain. A person may debar himself of any pleasure 
from particular motives of prudence; ‘ Active and 
masculine spirits, in the vigour of youth, neither can 
nor ought to remain at rest. If they debar themselves 
from aiming at a noble object, their desires will move 
downward.’—Hvueurs. A miser abridges himself of 
every enjoyment in order to gratify his ruling passion ; 
‘The personal liberty of individuals in this kingdom 
cannot ever be abridged at the mere discretion of the 
magistrate.’—BLACKSTONE. 


CAPTURE, SEIZURE, PRIZE. 


Capture, in French capture, Latin captura, from 
captus, participle of capio to take, signifies either the 
act of taking, or the thing taken, but mostly the’ for- 
mer; seizure, from seize, in French saisir, signifies 
only the act of seizing ; prize, in French prise, from 
pris, participle of prendre to take, signifies only the 
thing taken. 

Capture and seizure differ in the mode: a capture is 
made by force of arms; a seizure by direct and per- 
sonal violence. The capture of a town or an island 
requires an army; the seizure of property is effected 
by the exertions of an individual. A seizure always 
requires some force, which a capture does not. A 
capture may be made on an unresisting object; it is 
merely the taking into possession: a seizure supposes 
much eagerness for possession on the one hand, and 
reluctance to yield on the other. Merchant vessels are 
captured which are not in a state to make resistance; 
contraband goods are seized by the police officers. 

A capture has always something legitimate init; itis 
a publick measure flowing from authority, or in the 
course of lawful warfare; ‘ Thelate Mr. Robert Wood, 
in his essay on the original genius and writings of 
Homer, inclines to think the Hliad and Odyssey were 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


finished about half a century after the capture of Tray. 
—CoumBrrrany. A seizure isa private measure, fre 
quently as unlawful and unjust as it is violent; it de- 
pends on the will of the individual; ‘Many of the 
dangers imputed of old to exorbitant wealth are now 
atanend. The rich are neither waylaid by robbers, 
nor watched by informers; there is nothing to he 
dreaded from proscriptions or seizures.’ JOHNSON. A 
capture is general, it respects the act of taking: a 
prize is particular, it regards the object taken, and its 
value to the captor: many captures are made by sea 
which never become prizes; * Sensible of their own 
force, and allured by the prospect of so rich a prize, 
the northern barbarians, in the reign of Arcadius and 
Honorius, assailed at once all the frontiers of the Ro- 
man empire.’"—HuME. 


BOOTY, SPOIL, PREY. 


These words mark a species of capture. 

Booty, in French butin, Danish bette, Dutch buyt, 
Teutonick beute, probably comes from the Teutonick 
bat a useful thing, denoting the thing taken for its use ; 
spoil, %1 French depouillé, Latin spolium, in Greek 
oxvAov, signifies the things stripped off from the dead, 


from cvAdw, Hebrew D to spoil; prey, in French 
prote, Latin preda, is not improbably changed from 
prendo, prendo, or prehendo to lay hold of, signifying 
the thing seized. 

The first two are used as military terms or in attacks 
on an enemy, the latter in cases of particular violence. 
The soldier gets his booty; the combatant his spotls ; 
the carnivorous animal his prey. Booty respects what 
is of personal service to the captor; spoils whatever 
serves to designate his triumph ; prey includes what- 
ever gratifies the appetite and is to be consumed. 
When a town is taken, soldiers are too busy in the 
work of destruction and mischief to carry away much 
booty ; in every battle the arms and personal property 
of the slain enemy are the lawful spoils of the victor; 
the hawk pounces on his prey, and carries him up te 
his nest; 


°T was in the dead of night, when sleep repairs 
Our bodies worn with toils, our minds with cares, 
When Hector’s ghost before my sight appears: 

A bloody shroud he seem’d, and bath’d in tears, 
Unlike that Hector who return’d from toils 

Of war, triumphant in AZacian spoils.—DRypDEN. 


Greediness stimulates to take booty; ambition pre 
duces an eagerness for spoils; a ferocious appetite 
impels to a search for prey. Among the ancients the 
prisoners of war who were made slaves constituted a 
part of their booty; and even in later periods such a 
capture was good booty, when ransom was paid for 
those who could liberate themselves. Among some 
savages the head or limb of an enemy constituted part 
of their spoils. Among cannibals the prisoners of war 
are the prey of the conquerors. 

Booty and prey are often used in an extended and 
figurative sense. Plunderers obtain a rich booty; the 
diligent bee returns loaded with its booty;* ‘When 
they (the French National Assembly) had finally de- 
termined on a state resource from church booty, they 
came on the 14th of April, 1790, to a solemn resolu 
tion on the subject.—-Burxer. It is necessary that 
animals should become a prey to man, in order that 
man may not become a prey to them; every thing in 
nature becomes a prey to another thing, which in its 
turn falls a prey to something else. All is change but 
order. Man is a prey to the diseases of his body or 
his mind, and after death to the worms ; 


The wolf, who from the nightly ford 
Forth drags the bleating prey, ne’er drank her milk, 
Nor wore her warming fleece.—’THoMSON. 


RAVAGE, DESOLATION, DEVASTATION. 


Ravage comes from the Latin rapio, and the Greek 
dord>w, signifying a seizing or tearing away; desola- 
tion, from solus alone, signifies made solitary or re- 
duced to solitude; devastation, in Latin devastatzo, 
from devasto to lay waste, signifies reducing to a wast 
or desert. 


* Vide Roubaud. ‘ Proie, butin ” 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


Ravage expresses less than either desolation or de- 
vastation: a breaking, tearing, or destroying is Im- 
plied in the word ravage; but the desolation goes to 
the entire unpeopling a land, and the devastation to the 
entire clearing away of every vestige of cultivation. 
Torrents, flames, tempests, and wild beasts ravage ; 


Beasts of prey retire, that all night long, 

Urg’d by necessity, had rang’d the dark, 

As if their conscious ravage shunn’d the light, 
Asham’d.—THomson. 


War, plague, and famine desolate ; 


Amid thy bow’rs the tyrant’s hand is seen, 
And desolation saddens all thy green. 
GOLDSMITH. 


Armies of barbarians, who inundate a country, carry 
devastation with them wherever they go; ‘How much 
the strength of the Roman republick is impaired, and 
what dreadful devastation has gone forth into all its 
provinces!"—Merutmotu (Letters of Cicero). * No- 
thing resists ravages, they are rapid and terrible; 
nothing arrests desolation, it is cruel and unpitying ; 
devastation spares nothing, it is ferocious and inde- 
fatigable. Ravages spread alarm and terrour; deso- 
lation, grief and despair; devastation, dread and 
horrour. 

Ravage is employed likewise in the moral applica- 
tion; desolation and devastation only in the proper ap- 
plication to countries. Disease makes its ravages on 
beauty; death makes its ravages among men in amore 
terrible degree at one time than at another; 


Would one think ’t were possible for love 
To make such ravage in a noble soul ?—AppIson. 


OVERSPREAD, OVERRUN, RAVAGE. 


To overspread signifies simply to cover the whole 
surface of a body; but to overrun is a mode of spread- 
ing, namely, by running: things in general, therefore, 
are said to overspread which admitof extension; no- 
thing can be said to overrun but what literally or 
figuratively runs: the face is overspread with spots; 
the ground is overrun with weeds. ‘To overrun and 
to ravage are both employed to imply the active and 
extended destruction of an enemy ; but the former ex- 
presses more than the latter; a smal! body may ravage 
In particular parts; but immense numbers are said to 
overrun, as they run into every part: the Barbarians 
overran all Europe, and settled in different countries ; 
detachments are sent out to ravage the country or 
neighbourhood; ‘The storm of hail and fire, with the 
darkness that overspread the land for three days, are 
described with great strength. —Appison. ‘ Most des- 
potick governments are naturally overrun with igno- 
rance and barbarity..—-Appison. ‘ While Herod was 
absent, the thieves of Trachonites ravaged with their 
depredations all the parts of Judea and Celo-Syria 
that lay within their reach..—Pripgaux. 


RAPINE, PLUNDER, PILLAGE. 


The idea of property taken from another contrary to 
his consent is included in all these terms: but the term 
rapine includes most violence; plunder includes most 
removal or carrying away; pillage most search and 
scrutiny after. A soldier, who makes a sudden incur- 
sion into an enemy’s country, and carries away what- 
ever comes within his reach, is guilty of rapine ; 


Upon the banks 
Of Tweed, slow winding thro’ the vale, the seat 
Of war and rapine once.—SoMERVILLE. 


Robbers frequently carry away much plunder when 
they break into houses ; ‘ Ship-money was pitched upon 
as fit to be formed by excise and taxes, and the burden 
of the subjects took off by plunderings and sequestra- 
tions..—Sourn. When an army sack a town they 
strip it of every thing that is to be found, and go away 
loaded with pillage; ‘Although the Eretrians for a 
time stood resolutely to the defence of their city, it was 
given up by treachery on the seventh day, and pillaged 
and destroyed in a most barbarous manner by the Per- 


* Vide Roubaud: “ Ravager, desoler, devaster, sac- 
cager.’’ 


50? 


sians..—CuMBERLAND. Mischief and bluwdshed attend 
rapine; loss attends plunder ; distress aud ruin follow 
wherever there has been pillage. 


RAPACIOUS, RAVENOUS, VORACIOUS. 

Rapacious, in Latin rapaz, from rapio to seize, sig- 
nifies seizing or grasping a thing with an eager desire 
to have; ravenous, from the Latin rabies a fury, and 
rapvo to seize, signifies the same as rapacious ;.vora 
cious, from voro to devour, signifies an eagerness ta 
devour. 

The idea of greediness, which forms the leading 
features in the signification of all these terms, is varied 
in the subject and the object: rapacious is the quality 
peculiar to beasts of prey, or of men who are actuated 
by a similar spirit of plunder; ‘A display of our 
wealth before robbers is not the way to restrain their 
boldness, or to lessen their rapacity..—Burkk. Ra- 
venous and voracious are common to all animals, 
when impelled by hunger. The beasts of the forest 
are rapacious at all times; all animals are more or less 
ravenous OF voracious, as Circumstances may make 
them: the rapacious applies to the seizing of other 
animals as food; the ravenous applies to the seizing of 
any thing which one takes for one’s food ; 


Asain the holy fires on altars burn, 
Aad once again the rav’nous birds return. 
DRYDEN. 


A lion is rapacious when it seizeson its prey; it is 
ravenous in the act of consuming it. The word 
ravenous respects the haste with which one eats; the 
word voracious respects the quantity which one con- 
sumes ; 


Ere you remark another’s sin, 

Bid thy own conscience look within ; 
Control thy more voracious bill, 

Nor for a breakfast nations kill.—Gay. 


A ravenous person is loath to wait for the dressing of 
his food; he consumes it without any preparation: a 
voracious person not only eats in haste, but he con 
sumes great quantities, and continues to do so for 4 
long time. Abstinence from food, for an unusual 
length; will make any healthy creature ravenous ; habit 
ual intemperance in eating, or a diseased appetite, wik 
produce voracity. 

As the leading idea in the term rapacious is that of 
plunder, it may be extended to things figuratively . 
‘ Any of these, without regarding the pains of church 
men, grudge them those small remains of ancient piety, 
which the rapacity of some ages has scarce left to the 
church.’—SprarT. 


SANGUINARY, BLOODY, BLOOD-THIRSTY. 


Sanguinary, from sanguis, is employed both in the 
sense of bloody or having blood; blood-thirsty, or the 
thirsting after blood: sanguinary, in the first case, re- 
lates only to blood shed, as asanguinary engagement, 
or a sanguinary conflict; ‘They haveseen the French 
rebel against a mild and lawful monarch with more 
fury than ever any people has been known to rise 
against the most illegal usurper or the most sanguinary 
tyrant..—Burke. Bloody is used in the familiar ap- 
plication, to denote the simple presence of blood, as a 
bloody coat, or a bloody sword ; 

And from the wound, 
Black blondy drops distill’d upon the ground. 
DRYDEN. 


In the second case, sanguinary is employed to cha 
racterize the tempers of persons only ; blood-thirsty to 
characterize the tempers of persons or animals: the 
French revolution has given us many specimens how 
sanguinary men may become who are abandoned to 
their own furious passions; tigers are by nature the 
most blood-thirsty of all creatures; ‘The Peruvians 
fought not like the Mexicans, to glut blood-thirsty divi- 
nities with human sacririces.’—RoOBERTSON. 


TO ENCROACH, INITA2ENCH, INTRUDE, 
- INVADE, INFRINGE. 


Encroach, in French encrocher, is compounded of ex 


or in and crouch cringe or creep, signifying to creep inte 
any thing; intrench, compounded of in and trench, sig: 


508 


nifies to trench or dig beyond one’s own into another’s 
ground, intrude, from the Latin intrudo, signifies lite- 
rally to thrust upon; and invade, from invado, signifies 
to march in upon; infringe, from the Latin enfringo, 
compounded of in and frango, signifies to break in 
upon. 

Pall these terms denote an unauthorized procedure ; 
but the two former designate gentle or silent actions, 
the latter violent if not noisy actions. 

Encroach is often animperceptible action, performed 
with such art as to elude observation ; it is, according 
to its derivation, an insensible creeping into: intrench 
is in fact a species of encroachment, namely, that per- 
ceptible species which consists in exceeding the bound- 
aries in marking out the ground or space: it should be 
one of the first objects of a parent to check the first in- 
dications of an encroaching disposition in their chil- 
dren; according to the building laws, it is made action- 
able for any one to intrench upon the street or publick 
road with their houses or gardens. 

In an extended application of these terms we may 
speak of encroaching on a person's time, or intrench- 
ing on the sphere, &c. of another: intrude and invade 
designate an unauthorized entry; the former in viola- 
tion of right, equity, or good manners; the latter in 
violation of publick law: the former is more commonly 
applied to individuals; the latter to nations or large 
communities: unbidden guests intrude themselves 
sometimes into families to their no small annoyance; 
an army never invades a country without doing some 
mischief: nothing evinces a greater ignorance and im- 
pertinence than to 7nérude one’s self into any company 
where we may of course expect to be unwelcome ; in 
the feudal times, when civil power was invested in the 
hands of the nobility and petty princes, they were in- 
cessantly invading each other’s territories; ‘It is ob- 
gerved by one of the fathers that he who restrains him- 
self in the use of things lawful will never encroach 
upon things forbidden’—Jounson. ‘Religion zn- 
trenches upon none of our privileges, invades none of 
our pleasures.’--Soutu. ‘One of the chief character- 
isticks of the golden age, of the age in which neither 
care nor danger had intruded on mankind, is the com- 
munity of possessions.’--JOHNSON. 

Invade has likewise an improper as well as a proper 
acceptation ; in the former case it bears a close analogy 
to infringe: we speak of invading rights, or infring- 
ing rights; but the former is an act of greater violence 
than the latter: by an authorized exercise of power 
the rights of a people may be invaded; by gradual 
steps and imperceptible means their liberties may be 
infringed : invade is used only for publick privileges ; 
infringe is applied also to those which belong to -indi- 
viduals. 

King John of England invaded the rights of the 
Barons in so senseless a manner as to give them a 
colour for their resistance; it is of importance to the 
peace and well-being of society that men should, in 
their different relations, stations, and duties, guard 
against any infringement on the sphere or depart- 
ment of such as come into the closest connexion with 
them ; 


No sooner were his eyes in slumber bound, 
When from above a more than mortal sound 
Invades his ears.—DRYDEN. 


‘The King’s partisans maintained that, while the prince 
commands no military force, he will in vain by violence 
attempt an infringement of laws so clearly defined by 
means of late disputes..—Hume. 


TO INFRINGE, VIOLATE, TRANSGRESS. 


Infringe, v..To encroach; violate, from the Latin 
vis force, signifies to use force towards; transgress, v. 
Offence. 

Civil and moral laws are infringed by those who act 
in opposition to them; ‘I hold friendship to be a very 
holy league, and no less than a piacle to infringe it.’ 
—Howe.tu. Treaties and engagements are violated 
by those who do not hold them sacred ; 


No violated leagues with sharp remorse 
Shall sting the conscious victor.—SoMERVILLE. 


The bounds which are prescribed by the moral law are 
transgressed by those who are guilty of any excess; 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


Why hast thou, Satan, broke the bounds prescrib’a 
To thy transgressions 2—MILTON. 


It is the business of government to see that the rights 
and privileges of individuals or particular bodies be 
not infringed: policy but too frequently runs counter 
to equity; where the particular interests of princes are 
more regarded than the dictates of conscience, treaties 
and compacts are first violated. and then justified: the 
passions, when not kept under proper control, will 
ever hurry men on to transgress the limits of right 
reason. 


INFRINGEMENT, INFRACTION. 


Infringement and infraction, which are both de- 
rived from the Latin verb infringo or frango (v. To 
infringe), are employed’ according to the different 
senses of the verb infringe; the former being applied 
to the rights of individuals, either in their domestick 
or publick capacity; and the latter rather to national 
transactions. Politeness, which teaches us what is 
due to. every man in the smallest concerns, considers 
any unasked-for interference in the private affairs of 
another as an infringement; ‘We see with Orestes 
(or rather with Sophocles), that ‘it is fit that such 
gross infringements of the moral law (as parricide) 
should be punished with death.”?’—-MacKkunzinr. 
Equity, which enjoins on nations as well as individu- 
als, an attentive consideration to the interests of the 
whole, forbids the infraction of a treaty in any case; 
‘No people can, without the infraction of the universal 
league of social beings, incite those practices in an 
other dominion which they would themselves punish 
in their own.’—JOHNSON. 


INVASION, INCURSION, IRRUPTION, 
INROAD. 


The idea of making a forcible entrance into a foreign 
territory is common to all these. Invasion, from vado 
to go, expresses merely this general idea, without any 
particular qualification ; incursion, from curro to run, 
signifies a hasty and sudden invasion ; irruption, from 
rumpo to break, signifies a particularly violent invasion ; 
inroad, from in and road, signifies a making a road or 
way for one’s self, which includes invasion and occu- 
pation. Jnvasion is said of that which passes in dis- 
tant lands; Alexander znvaded India; Hannibal crossed 
the Alps, and made an invasion into Italy; 


The nations of the Ausonian shore 

Shall hear the dreadful rumour, from afar, 

Of arm’d invasion, and embrace the war. 
DRYDEN 


Incursion is said of neighbouring states; the bor 
derers on each side the Tweed used to make frequent 
incursions into England or Scotland; ‘ Britain by its 
situation was removed from the fury of these bar 
barous incursions.—Houme. Jnvasion is the act of a 
regular army; it is a systematick military movement:» 
irruption is the irregular and impetuous movement of 
undisciplined troops. The invasion of France by the 
allies was one of the grandest military movements that 
the world ever witnessed ; the zrruption of the Goths 
and Vandals into Europe has been acted over again by 
the late revolutionary armies of France; ‘The study 
of ancient literature was interrupted in Europe, by the 
irruption of the northern nations.’—JoHNsON. 

An invasion may be partial and temporary ; one in- 
vades from various causes, but not always from hos- 
tility to the inhabitants: an imroad is made by a con- 
queror who determines to dispossess the existing oc- 
cupier of the land: izvasion is therefore to inroad only 
as ameanstoanend. He who invades a country, and 
gets possession of its strong places so as to have an 
entire command of the land, is said to make inroads 
into that country; but since it is possible to get forcible 
possession of a country by other means besides that of, 
a military entry, there may be an inroad where there 
is no express invasion ; ‘From Scotland we have had 
in former times some alarms, and inroads into the 
northern parts of this kingdom.’—Bacon. Alexander 
made such inroads into Persia, as to become master of 
the whole country; but the French republick, and all 
its usurped authorities, made inroads into different 
countries by means of spies and revolutionary incen 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


liaries, who effected more than the sword in subjecting 
them to the power of France. 

‘These terms bear a similar distinction in the im- 
proper sense. In this case invasion is figuratively em- 
ployed to express a violent seizure, in general of what 
belongs to individuals, particularly that which he 
enjoys by civil compact, namely, his rights and privi- 
leges. ‘The term may also be extended to other objects, 
as when we speak of invading a person’s province, 
&c.; ‘Encouraged with success, he znvades the pro- 
vince of philosophy.,—Daypren. Things may like- 
wise be said to invade; 


Far off we hear the waves, which surly sound, 
Invade the rocks; the rocks their groans rebound. 
DRYDEN. 


In like manner we speak of the znroads which dis- 
ease makes on the constitution; of the incursion or 
trruption of unpleasant thoughts in the mind; ‘ Rest 
and labour equally perceive their reign of short dura- 
tion and uncertain tenure, and their empire liable to 
inroads from those who are alike enemies to both.’— 
JOHNSON. 

I refrain, too suddenly, 
To utter what will’come at last too soon: 
Lest evil tidings, with too rude trruption, 
Hitting thy aged ear should pierce too deep. 
MiLTon. 


Sins of daily incursion, and such as human frailty is 
unavoidably liable to.—Sourn. 


INTRUDER, INTERLOPER. 


An intruder (v. To intrude) thrusts himself in; an 
interloper, from laufen, runs in between and takes his 
station.. The intruder may be so only for a short space 
of time, in an unimportant degree; or may intrude 
only in unimportant matters; the ¢nterloper abridges 
another of his essential rights and for a permanency. 
A ‘man is an intruder wio is an unbidden guest at the 
table of another; 


Will you, a bold intruder, never learn 
To know your basket and your bread discern ? 
DRYDEN. 


A mam is an interloper when he joins any society in 
such manner as to obtain its privileges, without sharing 
its. burdens; ‘Some proposed to vest the trade to 
America in exclusive companies, which interest would 
render the most vigilant guardians of the Spanish 
commerce, against the encroachments of interlopers.’ 
—Rosertson. The term intruder may, however, be 
applied to any who takes violent or unauthorized pos- 
session of what belongs to another; ‘I would not have 
you to offe, it to the doctor, as eminent physicians do 
not love intruders.—Jounson.. ‘They were but in- 
truders upon the possession during the minority of the 
heir; they knew those lands were the rightful inherit- 
ance of that young lady.’—Davigs. 


TO INTRUDE, OBTRUDE. 


To intrude is to thrust one’s self into a place; to 
obtrude is to thrust one’s self in the way. It is 2n- 
truston to go into any society unasked and undesired ; 
it is obtruding to join any company and take a part in 
the conversation without invitation or consent. We 
violate the rights of another when we intrude; we set 
up ourselves by obiruding : one intrudes with one’s 
person in the place which does not belong to one’s self; 
one obtrudes with one’s person, remarks, &c., upon 
another: a person intrudes out of curiosity or any 
other personal gratification; he obtrudes out of vanity. 

Politeness denominates it intrusion to pass the 
threshold of another, without having first ascertained 
that we are perfectly welcome; modesty denominatea 
it obtruding to offer an opinion in the presence of an- 
other, unless we are expressly invited or authorized by 
our relationship and situation. There is no thinking 
man who does not feel the value of having some place 
of retirement, which is free from the intrusion of all 
impertinent visitants; it is the fault 0. young persons, 
who have formed any opinions for themselves, to ob- 
trude them upon every one who will give them a 
hearing 

In the moral acceptation they preserve the same dis- 
tinction. In moments of devotion the serious man 
endeavours te prevent the intrusion of improper ideas 


509 


in his mind: ‘ The znirwston of scruples, and the re 
collection of better notions, will not suffer some to live 
contented with their own conduct.’—JoHnson. The 
stings of conscience obtrude themselves upon the guilty 
even in the season of their greatest merriment; ‘ Artista 
are sometimes ready to talk to an incidental inquirer 
as they do to one another, and to make their know- 
ledge ridiculous by injudicious obtruston.’—Jounson, 


TO ABSORB, SWALLOW UP, INGULF, 
ENGROSS. 


Absarb, in French absorber, Latin absorbeo, is com 
pounded of ab and sorbeo to sup up, in distinction from 
swallow up; the former denoting a gradual consump 
tion; the latter a sudden envelopement of the whole 
object. The excessive heat of the sun absorbs all the 
nutritious fluids of bodies animal and vegetable. 
The gaming table is a vortex in which the principle of 
every man is swallowed up with his estate; ‘Surely 
the bare remembrance that a man was formerly rich or , 
great cannot make him at all happier there, where an 
infinite happiness or an infinite misery shall equally 
swallow up the sense of these poor felicities..—Souru 
Ingulf, compounded of in and gulf, signifies to be en- 
closed in a great gulf, which is a strong figurative re- 
presentation for being swallowed up. As it applies to 
grand and sublime objects, it is used only in the higher 
style; 

Ingulf’d, all helps of art we vainly try 
To weather leeward shores, alas! too nigh. 
FALCONER. 


Engross, which is compounded of the French words 
en gros in whole, signifies to purchase wholesale, so ag 
to swallow up the profits of others. In the moral ap- 
plication, therefore, it is very analogous to absorb. 

The niind is absorbed in the contemplation of any 
subject, when all its powers are so bent upon it as not 
to admit distraction ; 


Absorbed in that immensity I see, , 
I shrink abased, and yet aspire to thee.—CowrrR 


The mind is engrossed by any subject when the 
thoughts of it force themselves upon its contemplation 
to the exclusion of others which should engage the 
attention. ‘Those two great things that so engross 
the desires and designs of both the nobler and ignobler 
sort of mankind, are to be found in religion, namely, 
wisdom and pleasure.—Soutu. The term engrose 
may also convey the idea of taking from another, as 
well as taking to ourselves, which it is still more dis- 
tinguished from the other terms; ‘This inconvenience 
the politician must expect from others, as well as they 
have felt from him, unless he thinks that he can en 
gross this principle to himself, and that others cannot 
be as false and atheistical as himself.—SourTu. 


TO MUTILATE, MAIM, MANGLE. 


Mutilate, in Latin mutilatus, from ‘mutilo and mu- 
tilus, Greek pdtiAos or pitvdos Without horns, signifies 
to take off any necessary part; maim and mangle are 
in all probability derived from the Latin mancus, 
which comes from manus, signifying to deprive of a 
hand, or to wound in general. 

Mutilate has the most extended meaning ; it implies 
the abridging of any limb: mangie is applied to irregu- 
lar wounds in any part of the body: mazm is confined 
to wounds in the hands. Men are exposed to be mu 
tilated by means of cannon balls; they are in danger 
of being mangled when attacked promiscuously with 
the sword ; they frequently get maimed when boarding 
vessels or storming places. One is mutilated and 
mangled by active means; one becomes maimed by 
natural infirmity. " 

They are similarly distinguished in the moral appli- 
cation, but maiming is the effect of a direct effort 
whereby an objeet loses its value; ‘ I have shown the 
evil of maiming and splitting religion” —Biair. Man- 
gling is a much stronger term than mutzlating, the lat- 
ter signifies to lop off an essential part; to mangle is 
to mutilate a thing to such a degree as to render it 
useless-or worthless. Every sect of Christians is fona 
of mutilating the Bible by setting aside such parts as 
do not favour their own ideas, so that among them the 
sacred Scriptures have been literally mangled, and 
stripped of all their most important doctrines; ‘How 


510 


Hales would have borne the mutilations which his 
Plea of the Crown has suffered from the editor, they 
who know his character will easily conceive.’-—JoHn- 
son. ‘What have they (the French nobility) done 
that they should be hunted about, mangled, °»* *-- 
tured ?—BurRkE. 


os 


TO KILL, MURDER, ASSASSINATE, SLAY 
OR SLAUGHTER. 


Kill, which is in Saxon cyelan, and Dutch kelan, is 
of uncertain origin; murder, in German mord, &c. is 
eonnected with the Latin mors death: assassinate 
signifies to kill after thc manner of ah assassin; which 
word probably comes. from the Levant, where a prince 
of the Arsacides or assassins, who was called the old 
man of the mountains, lived in a castle between An- 
tioch and Damascus, and brought up young men to lie 
in wait for passengers; slay or slaughter, in German 
schlagen, &c. is probably connected with lzegen to lie, 
signifying to lay low. 

‘Fo kill is the general and indefinite term, signifying 
simply to take away life; to murder is to kill with 
open violence and injustice; to assassinate is to mur- 
der by surprise, or by means of lying in wait; to slay 
is to Kill in battle : to kill is applicable to men, animals, 
and also vegetables; to murder and assassinate to 
men only; to slay mostly to men, but sometimes to 
animals; to slaughter only to animals in the proper 
sense, but it may be applied to men in the improper 
sense, when they are killed like brutes, either as to the 
numbers or to the manner of killing them; ‘The 
fierce young hero who had overcome the Curiatii, 
being upbraided by his sister for having slain her 
lover, in the height of his resentment ills her.,-—Anppt1- 
kon. ‘* Murders and executions are always transacted 
behind the scenes in the French theatre.,—Appison. 
‘The women interposed with so many prayers and 
entreaties, that they prevented the mutual slaughter 
which threatened the Romans and the Sabines.’—Ap- 

*DISON. 


On this vain hope, adulterers, thieves rely, 
And to this altar vile assassins fly.—JENYNS. 


CARNAGE, SLAUGHTER, MASSACRE, 
BUTCHERY. 


Carnage, from the Latin caro carnis flesh, implies 
properly a collection of dead flesh, that is, the reducing 
to the state of dead flesh; slaughter, from slay, is the 
act of taking away life; massacre, in French massacre, 
comes from the Latin mactare, to kill for sacrifice ; 
butchery, from to butcher, signifies the act of butcher- 
ing; in French boucherie, from bouche the mouth, sig- 
nifies the killing for food. Z 

Carnage respects the number of dead bodies made; 
it may be said either of men or animals, but more 
commonly of the former; slaughter respects the act 
of taking away life, and the circumstances. of the 
agent; massacre and butchery respect the circum- 
stances of the objects who are the sufferers of the 
action: the three latter are said of human beings only. 

Carnage is the consequence of any impetuous attack 
from a powerful enemy. Soldiers who get into a be- 
sieged town, or a wolf who breaks into a sheepfold, 
commonly make a dreadful carnage ; 


The carnage Juno from the skies survey’d, 
And, touch’d with grief, bespoke the blue-ey’d maid. 
Porr. 


Slaughter is the consequence of warfare. In battles 
the slaughter will be very considerable where both 
parties defend themselves pertinaciously ; 


Yet, yet a little, and destructive slaughter 
Shall rage around and mar this beauteous prospect. 
Rowe. 


A massacre is the consequence of secret and personal 
resentment between bodies of people. It is always a 
stain upon the nation by whom it is practised, as it 
cannot be effected without a violent breach of confi- 
dence, and a direct act of treachery ; of this description 
was the massacre of thé Danes by the original Britons, 
and the massacre of the Hugenots in France ; 


Our groaning country bled at every vein; _ 
When murders. rapes, and massacres Ber 
OWE. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


Butchery is the general accompaniment of a messacre ; 
defenceless women and children are commonly but 
chered by the savage furies who are most active in 
this work of blood ; 


Let us be sacrificers, but not butchers.—SHAKSPEARE, 


BODY, CORPSE, CARCASS. 


Body is here taken in the improper sense for a dead 
body ; corpse, from the Latin corpus a body, has also 
been turned from its derivation to signify adead body; 
carcass, in French carcasse, is compounded of caro 
and cassa vita, signifying flesh without life. 

Body is applicable to either men or brutes, corpse to 
men only, and carcass to brutes only, unless when 
taken in a contemptuous sense. When speaking of 
any particular person who is deceased we should use 
the simple term body; the body was suffered to lie too 
long unburied: when designating its condition as life- 
less, the term corpse is preferable; he was taken up 
as a corpse: when designating the body as a lifeless 
lump separated from the soul, it may be characterized 
(though contemptuously) as a carcass; the fowls 
devour the carcass ; : 


A groan, as of a troubled ghost, renew’d 

My fright, and then these dreadful words ensued ; 

Why dost thou thus my buried body rend, 

Oh! spare the corpse of thy unhappy friend. 
Drypen. 


On the bleak shore now lies th’ abandon’d king, 
A headless carcass, and a nameless thing. 
DryDEn. 


EMBRYO, FCETUS. 


Embryo, in French embrion, Greek ZuBpvoy, from 
Bovw to germinate, signifies the thing germinated; 
fetus, in French fetus, Latin fetus, from foveo to 
cherish, signifies the thing cherished, both words re- 
ferring to what is formed in the womb of the mother; 
but embryo properly implies the first fruit of concep- 
tion, and the fetus that which is arrived to a maturity 
of formation. _Anatomists tell us that the embryo in 
the human subject assumes the character of the fetus 
about the forty-second day after conception. 

Fetus is applicable only in its proper sense to 
animals: embryo has a figurative application to plants 
and fruits when they remain in a confused and imper- 
fect state, and also a moral application to plans, or 
whatever is roughly conceived in the mind. 


CORPORAL, CORPOREAL, BODILY. 


Corporal, corporeal, and bodily, as their origin be- 
speaks, have all relation to the same object, the body ; 
but the two former are employed to signify relating on 
appertaining to the body; the latter to denote containing 
or forming part of the body. Hence we say, corporal 
punishment, bodily vigour or strength, corporeal sub 
stances; the Godhead bodily, the corporeal frame, 
bodily exertion; ‘Bettesworth was so little satisfied 
with this account, that he publickly professed his 
resolution of a violent and corporal revenge, but the 
inhabitants of St. Patrick’s district imbodied them- 
selves in the Dean’s (Swift’s) defence.’—JoHNson. 

Corporal is only employed for the animal frame in 
its proper sense; corporeal is used for animal sub- 
stance in an extended sense ; hence we speak of cor- 


|poral sufferance and corporeal agents; ‘When the 


soul is freed from all corporeal alliance then it truly 
exists..—Hueurs. Corporeal is distinguished from 
spiritual; bodily from mental. It is impossible to 
represent spiritual beings any other way than under a 
corporeal form; bodily pains, however severe, are fre- 
quently overpowered by mental pleasures ; ‘ The soul 
is beset with a numerous train of temptations to evit 
which arise from bodily appetites.’—BLair. 


CORPOREAL, MATERIAL. 


Corporeal is properly a species of material; what 
ever is corporeal is material, but not vice versd. Cor 
poreal respects animate bodies; material is used for 
every thing which can act on the senses, animate or 
inanimate. ‘The world contains corporeal beings and 
consists of materiai substances ; 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


Trant that corporeal is the human mind, 

tt must have parts in infinitum join’d; 
And each of these must will, perceive, design, 
Aud draw confus’dly in a diff’ rent line.—JENYNs. 


‘In the present material system in which we live, and 
where the objects that surround us are continually ex- 
posed to the examination of our senses, how many 
things occur that are mysterious and unaccountable.’— 
Buair. 


CORPULENT, STOUT, LUSTY. 


Corpulent from corpus the body, signifies having 
fulness of body; stout, in Dutch stott, is no doubt a 
variation of the German stdatig steady, signifying able 
to stand, solid, firm; lusty, in German, &c. lustig 
merry, cheerful, implies here a vigorous state of body. 

Corpulent respects the fleshy state of the body; stout 
respects also the state of the muscles and bones: cor- 

ulence is therefore an incidental property; stoutness 
is a natural property; corpulence may come upon a 
person according to circumstances; ‘ Mallet’s stature 
was diminutive, but he. was regularly formed; his ap- 
pearance, till he grew corpulent, was agreeable, and 
he suffered it to want no recommendation that dress 
could give it.--JoHNson. Stoutness is the natural 
make of the body which is born with us; 


Hence rose the Marsian and Sabellian race, _ 
Strong limb’d and stowt, and to the wars inclin’d. 
DRYDEN. 


Corpulence and lustiness are both occasioned by the 
state of the health; but the former may arise from 
disease; the latter is always the consequence of good 
health: corpulence consists of an undue proportion of 
fat; lustiness consists of a due and full proportion of 
all the solids in the body ; 


Though I look old, yet I amstrong and lusty, 

For in my youth I never did apply 

Hot and rebellious liquors to my blood. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


LEAN, MEAGRE. 


Lean is in all probability connected with line, lank, 
and long, signifying that which is simply long without 
any other dimension; meagre, in Latin macer, Greek 
pexpos small. 

Lean denotes want of fat; meagre want of flesh: 
what is lean is not always meagre; but nothing can 
be meagre without being lean. Brutes as well as men 
are Jean, but men only are said to be meagre: lean- 
ness is frequently connected with the temperament; 
meagreness is the consequence of starvation and dis- 
ease. There are some animals by nature inclined to 
be lean ; a meagre pale visage 1s to be seen perpetually 
in tne haunts of vice and poverty; 


Who ambles time withal 

With a priest that lacks Latin, 

And with a rich man that hath not the gout, 

The one lacking the burthen of lean and 
Wasteful learning; the other knowing nor 
Burthen of heavy tedious penury.—-SHAKSPEARE. 


So thin, so ghastly meagre, and so wan, 
So bare of flesh, he scarce resembled man. 
DRYDEN. 


MEMBER, LIMB. 


Member, in Latin membrum, probably from the 
wreek pépos a part, because a member is properly a 
part; lamb is connected with the word lame. 

Member is a general term applied either to the ani- 
mal body or to other bodies, as a member of a family, 
or a member of a community: limd is applicable to 
animal bodies; limb is therefore a species of member ; 
for every limb is a member, but every member is nota 
limb. 

The members of the body comprehend every part 
which is capable of performing a distinct office, but 
the limbs are those jointed members that are distin- 
guished from the head and the body: the nose and 
the eyes are members but not limbs; the arms and legs 
are properly denominated limbs ; ‘ A man’s limbs (by 
which for the present we only understand those mem- 
bers the loss of which only amounts to mayhem by the 


611 


common law) are the gifts of the wise Creator to ena- 
ble him to protect himself from external injuries’— 
BLACKSTONE. 


a 


ANIMAL, BRUTE, BEAST. 


Animal, in French animal, Latin animal, from ant- 
ma life, signifies the thing having life; brute is in 
French brute, Latin brutus dull, Greek Gapirns, Chal- 


dee F\}95 foolishness: beast, in French béte, Latin 
bestia, changed from bostema, Greek Bookyjpa a beast 
of burden, and Bécxw to teed, signifies properly the 
thing that feeds. 

Animal is the generick, brute and beast are the spe- 
cifick terms. The animal is the thing that lives and 
moves. - If animal be considered as_ thinking, willing, 
reflecting, and acting, it is confined in its signification 
to the human species; if it be regarded as limited in 
all the functions which mark intelligence and will, if 
it be divested of speech and reason, it belongs to the 
brute; if animal be considered, moreover, as to its ap- 
petites, independent of reason, of its destination, and 
consequent dependence on its mental powers; it de- 
scends to the beast. 

Man and brute are opposed. To man an immortal 
soul is assigned; but we are not authorized by Scrip- 
ture to extend this dignity to the brutes. ‘ The brutes 
that perish” is the ordinary mode of distinguishing that 
partof the animal crsation from the superiour order of 
terrestrial beings who are destined to exist in a future 
world. Men cannot be exposed to a greater degradation 
than to be divested of their particular characteristicks, 
and classed under the general name of animal, unless 
we except that which assigns to them the epithet of 
brute or beast, which, as designating peculiar atrocity 
of conduct, does not always carry with it a reproack 
equal to the infamy of a thing; the perversion of th= 
rational faculty is at all times more shocking and dis. 
gracefulthan the absence of it by nature; ‘Some would 
be apt to say, he is a conjurer; for he has found thata 
republick is not made up of every body of animals, but 
is composed of men only and not of horses.’—STEELE 
‘ As nature has framed the several species of beings as 
it were in a chain; so man seems to be placed as the 
middle link between angels and brutes..— ADDISON. 


Whom e’en the savage beasts had spar’d they kill’ , 
And strew’d his mangled limbs about the field. 
DRYDEN. 


—— 


SOUND, TONE. 


Sound, in Latin sonus, and tone, in Latin tonus 
may probably both come from the Greek reivw to stretch 
or exert, signifying simply an exertion of the voice ; but 


I should rather derive sound from the Hebrew pyy. 
Sound is that which issues from any body, so as to 
hecome audible; tone is a species of sound, which is 
produced from particular bodies: the sound may be 
accidental; we may hear the sounds of waters or 
leaves, of animals or men: tones are tliose particular 
sounds which are made either to express a particular 
feeling, or to produce harmony; 2 sheep will cry for 
its lost young in a tone of distress; an organ is so 
formed as to send forth the most solemn tones; ‘The 
sounds of the voice, according to the various touches 
which raise them, form themselves into an acute or 
grave, quick or slow, loud or soft, tone.’—Hueues. 


SMELL, SCENT, ODOUR, PERFUME, 
FRAGRANCE. 


Smell and melt are in all probability connected to- 
gether, because smells arise from the evaporation of 
bodies; scent, changed from sent, comes from the Latin 
sentio, to perceive or feel ; odour, in Latin odor, comes 
from oleo, in Greek 6Gw to smell; perfume, com- 
pounded of per or pro and fumo or fumus a smoke or 
vapour, that is, the vapour that issues forth ; fragrance, 
in Latin fragrantia, comes from fragro, anciently 
frago, that is, to perfume or smell like the fraga cr 
strawberry. 

Smell and scent are said either of that which re 
ceives, or that which gives the smell; the odour, the 
perfume, and fragrance of that which communicates 
the smell. In the first case, smell issaid generally of 
all living things without distinction; scent is said onlv 


612 


of such antinals as have this peculiar faculty of tracing 
objects by their smell: some persons have a much 
quicker smell than others, and some have an acuter 
smell of particular objects than they have of things in 
general: dogs are remarkable for their quickness of 
scent, by which they can trace their masters and other 
objects at an immense distance: other animals are 
gifted with this faculty to a surprising degree, which 
serves them as a means of defence against their ene- 
mies; 

Then curses his conspiring feet, whose scent 

Betrays that safety which their swiftness lent. 

DENHAM. 


In the second case, smell is compared with odour, 
perfume, and fragrance, either as respects the objects 
communicating the smell, or the nature of the smell 
which is communicated. Smell is indefinite in its 
sense, and universal in its application; odour, perfume, 
and fragrance are species of smells; every object is 
said to smell which acts on the olfactory nerves; flow- 
ers, fruits, woods, earth, water, and the like, have a 
smell; but odour is said of that which is artificial; 
the perfume and fragrance of that which is natural: 
the burning of things produces an odour ; 


So flowers are gathered to adorn a grave, 
To lose their freshness among bones and rottenness, 
And have their odowrs stifled in the dust.—Rows. 


The perfume and fragrance arise from flowers or 
sweet smelling herbs, spices, and the like. The terms 
smeld and odour do not specify the exact nature of that 
which issues from bodies; they may both be either 
pleasant or unpleasant; but smell, if taken in certain 
connexions, signifies a bad smell, and odour signifies 
that which issweet: meat which is kept too long will 
have a smell, that is, of course,a bad smell; the odours 
from a sacrifice are acceptable, that is, the sweet odours 
ascend to heaven. Perfume is properly a wide-spread- 
ing smelZ, and when taken without any epithet signi- 
fies a pleasant smell; 


At last a soft and solemn breathing sound 
Rose like a steam of rich distill’d perfumes. 
MILTON. 


Fragrance never signifies any thing but what is good; 
it is the sweetest and most powerful perfume: the 
perfume from flowers and shrubs is as grateful to one’s 
sense as their colours and conformation are to the other; 
the fragrance from groves of myrtle and orange trees 
surpasses the beauty of their fruits or foliage ; 


Soft vernal fragrance clothe the flow’ring earth. 
Mason. 


TO SOAK, DRENCH, STEEP. 


Soak is avariation of suck; drench is a variation of 
drink; steep, inSaxon steapan, &c. from the Hebrew 
satep, signifies to overflow or overwhelm. 

The idea of communicating or receiving a liquid is 
common to these terms. We soak things in water 
when we wish to soften them; animals are drenched 
with liquid as a medicinal operation. <A person’s 
clothes are soaked in rain when the water has pene- 
trated every thread; he himself is drenched in the rain 


when it has penetrated as it were his very body; | 


drench therefore in this case only expresses the idea of 
soak ina stronger manner. To steep isa species of 
soaking employed as an artificial process; to soak is 
however a permanent action by which hard things are 
rendered soft; to steep is a temporary action by which 
soft bodies become penetrated with a liquid: thus salt 
meat requires to be soaked; fruits are sometimes 
steeped in brandy ; 


Drill’d through the sandy stratum, every way 

The waters with the sandy stratum rise, 

And clear and sweeten as they soak along. 
THOMSON. 


And deck with fruitful trees the fields around, 
And with refreshing waters drench the ground. 
DRYDEN, 


O sleep, O gentle sleep, 
Nature’s soft nurse! How have I frighted thee, 
That thou no more wilt weigh my eyelids down, 
And séeep my senses in forgetfulness ? 
SHAKSPEARE 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


TASTE, FLAVOUR, RELISH, SAVOUR. 


Taste comes from the Teutonick tasten to touch 
lightly, and signifies either the organ which is easily 
affected, or the act of discriminating by a light touch 
of the organ, or the quality of the object which affects 
the organ; in this latter sense it is closely allied to the 
other terms; flavour most probably coines from the 
Latin jlo to breathe, sigmfying the rarefied essence of 
bodies which affect the organ of taste; relish is de- 
rived by Minshew from relécher to lick again, signify- 
ing that which pleases the palate so as to tempt toa 
renewal of the act of tasting ; savour, in Latin sapor 
and sapzo to smell, taste, or be sensible, most probably 


comes from the Hebrew FRY the mouth or palate, 
which is the organ of taste. 

Taste is the most general and indefinite of all these ; 
it is applicable to every object that can be applied to 
the orgun of taste, and te every degree and manner in 
which the organ can be affected: some things are 
tasteless, other things have a strong taste, and others 
a mixed taste; 


Ten thousand thousand precious gifts 
My daily thanks employ! 
Nor is the least a cheerful heart, 
That tastes those gifts with joy.— AppIson. 


The flavour is the predominating taste, and conse- 
quently is applied to such objects as may have a dif- 
ferent kind or degree of taste; an apple may not only 
have the general taste of apple, but also a flavour 
peculiar to itself: the favour is commonly said of that 
which is good, as a fine favour, a delicious flavour ; 
but it may designate that which is not’ always agree- 
able, as the flavour of fish, which is unpleasant in 
things that do not admit of such a taste ; ‘The Phi- 
lippick islands give a flavour to our European bowls.’ 
—Appison. The relish is also a particular taste; but 
it is that which is artificial, in distinction from the 
flavour, which may be the natural property. We find 
the flavour such as it is; we give the reltsh such as it 
should be, or we wish it to be: milk and butter receive 
a flavour from the nature of the food with which the 
cow is supplied; sauces are used in order to give a 
relish to the food that is dressed ; ; 


I love the people, 
But do not like to stage me to their eyes, 
Though it do well, I do not relish well 
Their loud applause.— SHAKSPEARE. 


Savour is a term in less frequent use than the others 
but, agreeable to the Latin derivation, it is employed 
to designate that which smells as well as tastes, a 
sweet smelling savour ; 


The pleasant savoury smell 
So quicken’d appetite, that I methought 
Could not but taste-—MILTON. 


So likewise, in the moral application, a man’s actions 
or expressions may be said to savour of vanity. Taste 
and relish may be moreover compared as the act of 
persons: we taste whatever affects our taste; but we 
relish that only which pleases our taste; we taste 
fruits in order to determine whether they are good or 
bad; we relish fruits as a dessert, or at certain seasons 
of the day. So likewise, in the moral application, we 
have a relish for books, for learning, for society, and 
the like. 


PALATE, TASTE. 


Palate, in Latin palatum, comes either from the 
Greek zdw to eat, or, which is more probable, from the 
Etruscan word farlantum, signifying the roof or arch 
of Heaven, or, by an extended application, the roof of 
the mouth; taste comes from the German tasten to 
touch lightly, because the sense of taste requires but 
the slightest touch to excite it. 

Palate is, in an improper sense, employed for taste, 
because it is the seat of taste; but taste is never em- 
ployed for palate: a person is said to have a nice 
palate when he is nice in what he eats or drinks; but 
his taste extends to all matters of sense, as welt az 
those which are intellectual ; 


No fruit ovr palate courts, or flow’r our smell 
TENYNS 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


A mau of taste, or of a nice taste, conveys much more 
ac a characteristick, than a man of a nice palate; the 
former is said only in a good sense; but the latter is 
particularly applicable to the epicure; 


In more exalted joys to fix our taste, 
And wean us from delights that cannot last. 
JENYNS. 


INSIPID, DULL, FLAT. 


A want of spirit in the moral sense is designated by 
these epithets, which borrow their figurative meaning 
from different properties in nature: the taste is refer- 
red to in the word ¢nsipid, from the Latin sapio to 
taste; the properties of colours are considered under 
the word duli (v. Dull) ; the property of surface is re- 
ferred to by the word fiat (v. Flat). As the want of 
flavour in any meat constitutes it zszpid, and renders 
it worthless, so does the want of mind or character in 
a man render him equally insipid, and devoid of the 
distinguishing characteristick of his nature; as the 
beauty and perfection of colours consist in their bright- 
ness, and the absence of this essential property, which 
constitutes dulness, renders them uninteresting objects 
to the eye, so the want of spirit ina moral composition, 
which constitutes its dulness, deprives it at the same 
time of that ingredient which should awaken attention: 
as in the natural world objects are either elevated or 
flat, so in the moral world the spirits are either raised 
or depressed, and such moral representations as are 
calculated to raise the spirits are termed spirited, 
while those which fail in this object are termed fiat. 
An insipid writer is without sentiment of any kind or 
degree; a dull writer fails in vivacity and vigour of 
sentiment; a flat performance is wanting in the pro- 
perty of provoking mirth, which should be its peculiar 
ingredient; ‘ To a covetous man all other things but 
wealth are inszpid.’—SouTu. 

But yet beware of councils when too full, 


Number makes long disputes and graveness dull. 
DrENHAM. 


The senses are disgusted with their old entertain- 
ments, and existence turns flat and inszpid.’—GRoOVE, 


FEAST, BANQUET, CAROUSAL, ENTER- 
TAINMENT, TREAT. 


As feasts, in the religious sense, from festus, are 
always days of leisure, and frequently of publick re- 
soicing, this word has been applied to any social meal 
for the purposes of pleasure: this is the idea common 
to the signification of all these words, of which feast 
seems to be the most general; and for all of which, it 
may frequently be substituted, although they have 
each a distinct application: feast conveys the idea 
merely of enjoyment: bdéxguetis a splendid feast, at- 
tended with pomp and state; it is a term of noble use, 
particularly adapted to peetry and the high style: ca- 
rousal, in French carouse, in Cerman gerdusch, or 
rausch intoxication, from rauschex to intoxicate, is a 
drunken feasé: entertainment and treat convey the 
idea of hospitality. 

A feast may be given »y princes or their subjects, 
by nobility or commonalty ; 


New purple hangings clothe the palace walls, 
And sumptuous feasts are made in spiendid halls. 
DRYDEN. 


The banquet is confined to wen of high estate; and 
more commonly spoken of in former times, when ranks 
and distinctions were less blended than they are at 
present: the dinner which the Lord Mayor of London 
annually gives is properly denominated a feast; the 
mode in which Cardinal Wolsey received the French 
ambassadors might entitle every meal he gave to be 
denominated a banquet ; 


With hymns divine the joyous banquet ends, 
The pans lengthen’d till the sun descends.—Poprz. 


A feast supposes indulgence of the appetite, both in 
eating and drinking, but not intemperately ; a carousal 
is confined mostly to drinking, and that for the most 
part to an excess ; 


This game, these caxousals, Ascanius taught, 
And, building Alba, to the Latins brought. 
: DRYDEN. 
33 


513 


A feast, therefore, is always a good thing, unless it 
ends in a carousal: a feast may be given by one or 
many, at private or publick expense; but an entertazn- 
ment aud a treat are altogether personal acts, and the 
terms are never used but in relation to the agents: 
every entertainment is a feast as far as respects enjoy- 
ment at a social board; but no feast is an entertain- 
ment uuless there be some individual who specifically 
provides for the entertainment of others: we may al! 
be partakers of a feast, but we are guests at an enter- 
tainment; the Lord Mayor’s feast is uot strictly an 
entertainment, although thatof Cardinal Wolsey was 
properly so. an entertainment is given between friends 
and equals, to keep alive the social affections; a treat 
is given by way of favour to those whom one wishes 
to oblige: a nobleman provides an enterta‘nmené for a 
particular party whom he has invited ; ‘I could not 
but simile at the account that was yesterday given me 
of a modest young gentleman, who, being invited to an 
entertainment, though he was not used to drink, had 
not the confidence to refuse his glass in his turn.’— 
Appison. A nobleman may give a treat to his ser- 
vants, his tenants, his tradespeople, or the poor of his 
neighbourhood; ‘1 do not insist that you spread your 
table with so unbounded a profusion as to furnish out 
a splendid treat with the remains.—MrumotH (Let 
ters of Cicero). 

Feast, entertainment, and treat are taken in a more 
extended sense, to express other pleasures besides those 
of the table: feast retains its signification of a vivid 
pleasure, such as voluptuaries derive from delicious 
viands ; entertainment and treat retain the idea of 
being granted by way of courtesy: we speak of a thing 
as being a feast or high delight; ‘ Beattie is the only 
author I know, whose critical and philosophical re- 
searches are diversified and embellished by a poetical 
imagination, that makes even the driest subject and the 
leanest a feast for an epicure in books.’—CowPeEr. 
And of a person contributing to one’s entertainment, 
or giving one a treat; ‘Let us consider to whom we 
are indebted for all these entertaininents of sense.’— 
ADDISON. A 


Sing my praise in strain sublime. 
Treat not me with dogg’re. rhyme.—Swirr 


To an envious man the sight of wretchedness, in a 
once prosperous rival, is a feast; to a benevolent mind 
the spectacle of an afflicted man relieved and com- 
forted is a feast; to a mind ardent in the pursuit of 
knowledge, an easy access to a well-stocked library is 
a continual feast; men of a happy temper give and 
receive entertainment with equal facility; they afford 
entertainment to their guests by the easy cheerfulness 
which they impart to every thing around them; they 
in like manner derive entertainment from every thing 
they see, or hear, or observe: a treat is given ot re- 
ceived only on particular occasions; it depends on the 
relative circumstances and tastes of the giver and re 
ceiver; to one of a musical turn one may give a treat 
by inviting him to a musical party; and to one of an 
intelligent turn it will be equally a treat to be of the 
party which consists of the enlightened and con 
versible. 


FARE, PROVISION. 


Fare, from the German fahren to go or be, signifies 
in general the condition or thing that comes to one: 
provision, from provide, signifies the thing provided for 
one. 

These terms are alike employed for the ordinary 
concerns of life, and may either be used in the limited 
sense for the food one procures, or in general for what 
ever 1S necessary or convenient to be procured: to tim 
term fare is annexed the idea of accident; provision 
includes that of design: a traveller on the continest 
mi&st frequently be contented with humble fare, unless 
he has the precaution of carrying his provtstons with 
him; 

This night at least with me forget your care, 

Chesnuts, and curds, and cream shall be your fare 

DRYDEN. 


The winged nation wanders through the skies, 
And o’er the plains and shady forest flies ; 

They breed, they brood, instruct, and educate. 
And make provision for the future state.--Urypa, 


514 


FOOD, DIET, REGIMEN. 


Food signifies the thing which one feeds apon, in 
Saxon fode, Low German féde or féder, Greek Bérety ; 
diet comes from dcactdw to live medicinally, signifying 
any particular mode of living; regimen, in Latin re- 
gimen, from rego to regulate, signifies a system or 
practice by rule. i ; 

All these terms refer to our living, or that by which 
we live: food is here the general term; the others are 
specifick. Food specifies no circumstance: whatever 
is taken to maintain life is food; diet is properly a 
prescribed or regular food. It is the hard lot of some 
among the poor to obtain with difficulty food and 
clothing for themselves and their families; an atten- 
tion to the diet of children is an important branch of 
their early education; their diet can scarcely be too 
simple: no one can be expected to enjoy his food who 
is not ina good state of health; we cannot expect to 
find a healthy population where there is a spare and 
unwholesome det, attended with hard labour. 

Food is aterm applicable to all living creatures, and 
also used figuratively for what serves to nourish; 
The poison of other states (that is, bankruptcy) 
is the food of the new republick.’—Burkr. Dvet is 
employed only with regard to human beings who make 
choice of their food: corn is as much the natural food 
of some animals as of men; the diet of the peasantry 
consists mostly of bread, milk, and vegetables; ‘The 
dict of men in a state of nature must have been con- 
fined almost wholly to the vegetable kind.’-—Burke. 

Diet and regimen are both particular modes of 
living; but the former respects the quality of food ; the 
latter the quantity as well as quality: dzet is confined 
to modes of taking nourishment; regimen often re- 
spects the abstinence from food, bodily exercise, and 
whatever may conduce to health; diet is generally the 
consequence of an immediate prescription from a phy- 
sician, and during the period of sickness; regimen 
commonly forms a regular part of a nvan’s system of 
living: diet is in certain cases of such importance for 
the restoration of a patient that a single deviation may 
defeat the best medicine; it is the misfortune of some 
people to be troubled with diseases, from which they 
cannot get any exemption but by observing a strict 7e- 
gimen ; ‘Prolongation of life is rather to be expected 
from stated diets than from any common regimen.’— 
Bacon. ‘Ishallalways be able to entertain a friend of 
& philosophical regimen.’—SHENSTONE. 


FEMALE, FEMININE, EFFEMINATE. 


Female is said of thesex itself, and feminine of the 
characteristicks of the sex. Female is opposed to male, 
feminine to masculine. 

In the female character we expect to find that which 
1s feminine. The female dress, manners, and habits 
have engaged the attention of all essayists, from the 
time of Addison to the present period ; 


Cnceamore her haughty soul the tyrant bends, 

To prayers and mean submissions she descends; 

No female arts or aids she left untried, 

Nor counsels unexplor’d, before she died. 
DryDEn. 


The feminine is natural to the female; the effemz- 
nate is unnatural to the male. A feminine air and 
voice, which is truly grateful to the observer in the one 
sex, is an odious mark of effeminacy in the other. 
Beauty and delicacy are feminine properties; 


Her heav’nly form 
Angelick: but more soft and feminine 
Her graceful innocence.—Mi.ron. 


Robustness and vigour are masculine properties ; the 
former therefore when discovered in a man entitle 
him to the epithet of effeminate; ‘Our martial an- 
cestors, like some of their modern successors, had no 
other amusement (but hunting) to entertain. their 
vacant hours; despising all arts as effeminate.’— 
BLACKSTONE. 


GENDER, SEX. 


Gender, in Latin genus, signifies properly a genus 
or kind; sez, in French sexe, Latin sexus, comes from 
the Greek cs signifying the habit or nature. The 
gender is that distinction in words which marks the 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


distinction of sez in things; there are therefore thre 
genders, but only two sexes. By the inflections of 
words are denoted whether things are of this or that 
séx, or of no sez. The genders, therefore, are divided 
in grammar into masculine, feminine, and neuter; and 
animals are divided into male and female sea. 


GOLD, GOLDEN. 


These terms are both employed as epithets, but goa 
is the substantive used in composition, and golden the 
adjective, in ordinary use. ‘The former is strictly ap- 
plied to the metal of which the thing is made, as a 
gold cup, or a gold coin; but the latter to whatever ap- 
pertains to gold, whether properly or figuratively: as 
the golden kion, the golden crown, the golden age, or @ 
golden harvest. 


COOL, COLD, FRIGID. 


In the natural sense, cool is simply the absence of 
warmth; cold and frigid are positively contrary to 
warmth; the former in regard to objects in general, the 
latter to moral objects: in the physical sense the 
analogy is strictly preserved. Cool is used as it re- 
spects the passions and the affections; cold only with 
regard to the affections; frigid only in regard to the 
inclinations. 

With regard to the passions, cool designates a free- 
dom from agitation, which is a desirable quality 
Coolness in atime of danger, and coolness in an argu 
ment, are alike commendable. 

As cool and cold respect the affections, the cool is op- 
posed to the friendly, the cold to the warm-hearted, the 
frigid to the animated; the former is but a degree of 
the latter. A reception is said to be cool ; an embrace 
to be cold; asentiment frigid. Coolness is an enemy 
to social enjoyments; coldness is an enemy to every 
moral virtue; frigidity destroys all force of character. 
Coolness is engendered by circumstances; it supposes 
the previous existence of warmth; coldness lies often 
in the temperament, or is engendered by habit; it is 
always something vicious; frigidity is occasional, and 
is always a defect. Trifling differences produce cool- 
ness sometimes between the best friends; ‘ The jealous 
man’s disease is of so malignant a nature, that it con- 
verts all it takes into its own nourishment. A cool be- 
haviour is interpreted as an instance of aversion: @ 
fond one raises his suspicions..—Appison. ‘l'rade 
sometimes engenders a cold calculating temper in some 
minds; ‘It is wondrous that a man can get over the 
natural existence and possession of his own mind, so 
far as to take delight either in paying or receiving cold 
and repeated civilities. —-SraxLe. Those who are re- 
markable for apathy will often express themselves 
with frigid indifference on the most important sub- 
jects; ‘The religion of the moderns abounds in topicks 
so incomparably noble and exalted, as might kindle the 
flames of genuine oratory inthe most frigid and bar 
ren genius.’—WHaRTON. 


CHILL, COLD. 


Chill and cold are but variations of the same wore, 
in German kalt, &c. 

Child expresses less than cold, that is to say, it ex- 
presses a degree of cold. The weather is often chilly 
in summer; but it is cold in winter. f 

We speak of taking the chill off water when the cold 
is in part removed ; and of a chili running through the 
frame when the cold begins to penetrate the frame that 
is in astate of warmth; 


When men once reach their autumn, fickle joys 
Fall off apace, as yellow leaves from trees; 
Till left quite naked of their happiness, 
In the chili blasts of winter they expire. 
Younwu 


‘ Thus ease after torment is pleasure for a time, and we 
are very agreeably recruited when the body, chillea 
with the weather, is gradually recovering its natural 
tepidity ; but the joy ceases when we have forgot the 
cold.’— JOHNSON. ; 


TO STAIN, SOIL, SULLY, TARNISH. 


_ Stain, v. Blemish ; soil and sully, frcm soi. dirt, sig: 
nify to smear with dirt; tarnish in French terniv 
comes probably from the Latin tero to bruise 


«ihe ye 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


All these terms imply the act of diminishing the 
brightness of an object; but the term stain denotes 
something grosser than the other terms, and is applied 
to inferiour objects: things which are not remarkable 
for purity or brightness may be stained, as hands when 
stained with blood, or a wall stained with chalk; 


Thou, rather than thy justice should be stazned, 
Didst stain the cross.--Y ouNG. 


Nothing is sudlied or tarnished, but what has some in- 
trinsick value; a fine picture or piece of writing may 
be easily soiled by a touch of the finger; ‘I cannot 
endure to be mistaken, or suffer my purer affections to 
be sozled with the odious attributes of covetousness and 
ambitious falsehood..—Lorp WerntworTH. —“e 
finest glass is the soonest tarnished: hence, in the 
moral application, a man’s life may be stained by the 
commission of some gross immorality: his honour may 
be sullied, or his glory tarnished ; 


Oaths would debase the dignity of virtue, 

Else I could swear by him, the power who clothed 
The sun with light, and gave yon starry host 
Their chaste, unsullied lustre.-FRaANCIS. 


tl am not now what I once was; for since I parted 
from thee fate has tarnished my glories..—TRaprp. 


TO SMEAR, DAUB. 


To smear is literally to do over with smear, in Saxon 
smer, German schmeer, in Greek pdposasalve. Todaub, 
from do and ub téber over, signifies literally to do over 
with any thing unseemly, or in an unsightly manner. 

To smear in the literal sense is applied to such sub- 
stances as may be rubbed like grease over a body; if 
said of grease itself it may be proper, as coachmen 
smear the coach wheels with tar or grease; but if said 
of any thing else it is an improper action, and tends to 
disfigure, as children smear their hands with ink, or 
smear their clothes with dirt. To smear and daub are 
both actions which tend to disfigure; but we smear by 
means of rubbing over; we daub by rubbing, throw- 
ing, or any way covering over: thus achild smears 
the window with his finger, or he dawbs the wall with 
dirt. By a figurative application, smear is applied to 
bad writing, and daud to bad painting: indifferent wri- 
ters who wish to exce) are fond of retouching their let- 
ters until they make their performance a sad smear; 
bad artists, who are injudicious in the use of their 
pencil, load their paintings with colour, and convert 
them into daubs. 


MOISTURE, HUMIDITY, DAMPNESS. 


Moisture, from the French mote moist, is probably 
zontracted from the Latin hwmidus, from which hu- 
midity is immediately derived; dampness comes from 
the German dampf a vapour. 

Moisture is used in general to #xpress any small de- 
gree of infusion of a liquid ir a body; humidity is 
employed scientifically to describe the state of having 
any portion of such liquid: hence we speak of the 
moisture of a table, the moisture of paper, or the 
morsture of a floor that has been wetted; but of the 
humidity of the air, or of a wall that has contracted 
moisture of itself. MDampness is that species of mozst- 
ure that arises from the gradual contraction of a liquid 
in bodies capable of retaining it; in this manner a 
cellar is damp, or linen that has lain long by may 
become damp ; 

The plumy people streak their wings with oil, 

To throw the lucid moisture trickling off. 

THOMSON. 
Now from the town 


Buried in smoke, and sleep, an¢ noisome damps, 
Oft let me wander.—THomson. 


NASTY, FILTHY, FOUL. 


Nasty is connected with nauseous, and the German 
nass Wet; filthy and foul are variations from the 
Greek gadios. 

The idea of dirtiness is common to these terms, but 
in different degrees, and with different modifications. 
Whatever dirt is offensive to any of the senses, renders 
that tning nasty which is soiled with it: the filthy ex- 
ceeds the nasty, not only in the quantity but in the 


515 


offensive quality of the dit; and the youl exceeds the 
filthy in the same proportion ; 

We look behind, then view his shaggy beard, 

His clothes were tagg’d with thorns, and filth his 

limbs besmear’d.—DRYDEN. 
Only our foe 
Tempting affronés us with his foul esteem. 
MILTON. 


DREGS, SEDIMENT, DROSS, SCUM, REFUSE. 


Dregs, from the German dreck dirt, signifies the dirty 
part which separates from a liquor; sediment, from 
sedeo to sit, signifies that which settles at the bottom; 
dross is probably but a variation of dregs ; scum, from 
the German schawm, signifies the same as foam or 
froth, or that which rises on the surface of any liquor: 
refuse signifies literally that which is refused or thrown 
away. 

All these terms designate the worthless part of any 
bady; but dregs is taken in a worse sense than sedz- 
ment: for the dregs are that which is altogether of no 
value; but the sediment may sometimes form a neces- 
sary part of the body. The dregs are mostly a sedz- 
ment in liquors, but. many things are a sediment which 
are not dregs. After the dregs are taken away, there 
will frequently remain a sediment ; the dregs are com- 
monly the corrupt part which separates from compound 
liquids, as wine or beer; the sediment consists of the 
heavy particles which belong to all simple liquids, not 
excepting water itself. The dregs and sediment sepa- 
rate of themselves, but the scum and dross are forced 
out by a process; the former from liquids, and the latter 
from solid bodies.rendered liquid or otherwise. 

Refuse, as its derivation implies, is always said of 
that which is intentionally separated to be thrown 
away, and agrees with the former terms only inasmuch 
as they express what is worthless. 

Of these terms, dregs, scum, and refuse admit like- 
wise of a figurative application. Thedregs and scum 
of the people are the corruptest part of any society; 
and the refuse is that which is most worthless and unfit 
for a respectable community; ‘Epitomes of history 
are the corruptions and moths that have fretted and 
corroded many sound and excellent bodies of history 
and reduced them to base and unprofitable dregs.’-- 
Bacon. ‘For it is not bare agitation, but the sediment 
at the bottom that troubles and defiles the water”— 
Soutn. ‘For the composition too, I admit the Alge- 
rine community resemble that of France, being formed 
out of the very scum, scandal, disgrace, and pest of the 
Turkish Asia.’—BurkKE. 


Now cast your eyes around, while I dissolve 

The mist and film that mortal eyes involve: 

Purge from your sight the dross, and make you see 

The shape of each avenging deity.—Drypun. 

Next of his men and ships he makes review, 

Draws out the best and ablest of the crew; 

Down with the falling stream the refuse run 

To raise with joyful news his drooping son. 
ae DryDENn 


TO GLOSS, VARNISH, PALLIATE. 
Gloss and varnish are figurative terms, whicn 
borrow their signification from the act of rendering the 
outer surface of any physical object shining. To gloss, 
which is connected with to glaze, is to give a gloss or 
brightness to.any thing by means of friction, as in the 
case of japan or mahogany: to varnish is to give an 
artificial gloss, by means of applying a foreign sub- 
stance. Hence, in the figurative use of the terms, to 
gloss is to put the best face upon a thing by various 

little distortions and artifices; but to varnish is to do 
the same thing by means of direct falsehood; to pal 
liate, which likewise signifies to give the best possible 
outside to a thing (v. 7'o extenuate), requires still less 
artifice than either. One glosses over that which is 
bad, by giving ita soft name; as when a man’s vices 
are glossed over with the name of indiscretion, or a 
man’s mistress is termed his good friend; ‘ If a jealous 
man once finds a false gioss put upon any single action 
he quickly suspects all the rest..—Appison. One var- 
nishes.a, bad character by ascribing good motives te 
“his bad actions, by withholding many facts that are te 
his discredit, and fabricating other circumstances in hi. 
favour an unvarnished tale contains nothing but th. 


516 


simple truth; the varnished tale on the other hand 
contains a great mixture of falsehood; the French ac- 
counts of their victories in the time of the revolution 
were mostly varnished ; 


The waiting tears stood ready for command, 
And now they flow to varnish the false tale. 
Rowe. 


To paliiate is to diminish the magnitude of an offence, 
by making an excuse in favour of the offender; as 
when an act of theft is palliated by considering the 
starving condition of the thief; ‘A man’s bodily de- 
fects should give him occasion to exert a noble spirit, 
and to palliate those imperfections which are not in 
his power, by those perfections which are.’-—ADDISoN. 


CLOAK, MASK, BLIND, VEIL. 


These are figurative terms, expressive of different 
modes of intentionally keeping something from the 
view of others. ‘They are borrowed from those fami- 
liar objects which serve similar purposes in common 
life. Cloak and mask express figuratively and pro- 
perly more than blind or veil. The two former keep 
the whole object out of sight; the two latter only par- 
tially intercept the view. In this figurative sense they 
are all employed for a bad purpose. 

The cloak, the mask, and the blind serve to deceive 
others; the vezl serves to deceive one’s self. 

The whole or any part of a character may be con- 
cealed by a blind; a part, though not the whole, may 
be concealed by a mask. A blind is not only em- 
ployed to conceal the character but the conduct or pro- 
ceedings. We carry a cloak and a mask about with 
us; but a blind is something external. 

The cloak, as the external garment, is the most con- 
venient of all coverings for entirely keeping concealed 
what we do not wish to be seen; a good outward de- 
portment serves as a cloak to conceal a bad charac- 
ter; ‘When this severity of manners is hypocritical, 
and assumed as a cloak to secret indulgence, it is one 
of the worst prostitutions of religion’—Biair. A 
mask only hides the face; a mask therefore serves to 
conceal only as much as words and looks can effect; 


Thou art no rufiian, who, beneath the mask 
Of social commerce, com’st to rob their wealth. 
THOMSON. 


A blind is intended to shut out the light and prevent 
observation; whatever, therefore, conceals the real 
truth, and prevents suspicion by a false exteriour, is a 
blind; ‘‘Those who are bountiful to crimes will be 
rigid to merit, and penurious to service. Their penury 
iseven held out as a blind and cover to their prodi- 
gality.—Burxker. A veil prevents a person from seeing 
as well as being seen; whatever, therefore, obscures 
the mental sight acts as a veil to the mind’s eye; ‘ As 
soon as that mysterious veil which covers futurity was 
lifted up, all the gayety of life would disappear; its 
flattering hopes, its pleasing illusions would vanish, 
and nothing but vanity and sadness remain.’-—B.air. 

Religion may unfortunately serve to cloak the worst 
of purposes and the worst of characters: its importance, 
in the eyes of all men, makes it the most effectual pass- 
port to their countenance and sanction; and its ex- 
ternal observances render it the most convenient mode 
of presenting a false profession to the eyes of the 
world: those, therefore, who set an undue value on 
the ceremonial part of religion, do but encourage this 
most heinous of all sins, by suffering themselves to be 
imposed upon by a cloak of religious hypocrisy. False 
friends always wear a mask ; they cover a malignant 
heart under the smiles and endearments of friendship. 
Illicit traders mostly make use of some dlind to facili- 
tate the carrying on their nefarious practices. Among 
the various arts resorted to in the metropolis by the 
needy and profligate, none is so bad as that which is 
made to be a blind for the practice of debauchery. 
Prejudice and passion are the ordinary veils which 
obscure the judgement, and prevent it from distinguish- 
ing the truth. 


TO COLOUR, DYE, TINGE, STAIN. 
Colour, .n Latin color, comes probably from colo to 
adorn; dye, in Saxon deagen, is a variation of tinge; 
tinge is in Latin tingo from the Greek révvw to 


°* 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


sprinkle ; stain, like the French desteindre is duc 
Variation of tinge. \ 

To colour is to put colour on; to dye is to dip im any 
colour ; to tinge is to touch lightly with a colour; te 
stain is to put on a bad colour or in a bad manner: we 
colour a drawing, we dye clothes of any colour we 
tinge a painting with blue by way of intermixture we 
stain a painting when we put blue instead of red; 
‘That childish colouring of her cheeks is now as un- 
graceful as that shape would have been when her face 
wore its real countenance.’—STEELE. 


Now deeper blushes ting’d the glowing sky, 
And evening rais’d her silver lamp on high. 
Sir Wo. Jongs. 


‘We had the fortune to see what may be supposed to 
be the occasion of that opinion which Lucian relates: 
concerning this river (Adonis), that is, that this stream 
at certain seasons of the year is of a bloody colour; 
something like this we actually saw come to pass, for 
the water was stained with redness.’-—-MaUNDRELL. 

They aretaken ina moral acceptation with a similar 
distinction: we colour a description by the introduc- 
tion of strong figures, strong facts, and strong expres- 
sions; ‘All these amazing incidents to the inspired 
historians relate nakedly and plainly, without any of 
the colourings and heightenings of rhetorick.’-—W mst. 
Hence the term is employed to denote the giving a 
false or exaggerated representation; ‘He colours the 
falsehood of Aineas by an express command from 
Jupiter to forsake the queen.’—DryprEn. A person is 
represented as dying his hands in blood, who is so 
engaged in the shedding of blood as that he may 
change the colour of his skin, or the soil may be dyed 
in blood ; 


With mutual blood the Ausonian soil is dyed, 
While on its borders each their claim decide. 
DRYDEN. 


A person’s mind is tinged with melancholy or enthu 
siasm; ‘Sir Roger is something of a humorist, and 
his virtues as well as imperfections are tinged by a 
certain extravagance, which makes them particularly 
his—Appison. A man’sch aracter may be said to be 
stained with crimes ; 


Of honour void, of innocence, of faith, of purity, 
Our wonted ornaments, now soil’d and stain’d. 
MILTON. 


COLOUR, HUE, TINT. 


Colour (v. To colour) is here the generick term: hue, 
which is probably connected with eye and view, and 
tint, from tinge, are but modes of colour; the former 
of which expresses a faint or blended colour ; the latter 
a shade of colour. Between the colours of black and 
brown, as of all other leading colours, there are various 
hues and tints, by the due intermixture of which, 
natural objects are rendered beautiful; 


Her colour chang’d, her face was not the same, 
And hollow groans from her deep spirit came. 
DRYDEN 


Infinite numbers, delicacies, smells, 

With hues on hues, expression cannot paint 

The breath of nature, and her endless bloom. 
‘THOMSOR. 


Among them shells of many a tint appear, 
The heart of Venus and her pearly ear. 
Sir Wo. Jones. 


COLOURABLE, SPECIOUS, OSTENSIBLE, 
PLAUSIBLE, FEASIBLE. 


Colourable, from to colour or tinge, expresses the 
quality of being able to give a fair appearance; spe- 
cious, from the Latin specio to see, signifies the quality 
of looking as it ought; ostensible, from the Latin 
ostendo to show, signifies the quality of being akle or 
fit to be shown or seen; plausible, from plaudo.to clap 
or make a noise, signifies the quality of sounding as it 
ought; feasible, from the French faire, and Latin 
facto to do, signifies literally doable ; but here it denotes 
seemingly practicable. 

The first three of these are figures of speech drawn 
from what naturally pleases the eye; plauszble is drawn 
from: what pleases the ear: feaszble takes its significa- 
tion from what meets the judgement or conviction. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


What ts coluurable has an aspect or face upon it that 
fulls suspicion and affords satisfaction; what is spe- 
cious has a fair outside when contrasted with that 
which it may possibly conceal; what is ostensible is 
that which presents such an appearance as may serve 
for an indication of something real; what is plausible 
is that which meets the understanding merely through 
he ear; that which is feasible recommends itself from 
ts intrinsick value rather than from any representation 
given of it. 

A pretence is colourable when it has the colour of 
truth impressed upon it; it is specious when its fallacy 
8 easily discernible through the thin guise it wears; a 
motive is ostensible which is the one soonest to be 
discovered ; an excuse is plausible when the well- 
connected narrative of the maker impresses a belief of 
sts justice; an account is feasible which contains 
nothing improbable or singular. 

It is necessary, in order to avoid suspicion, to have 
some colowrable grounds for one’s conduct when it is 
marked by eccentricity or directed to any bad object; 
All his (James I. of Scotland’s) acquisitions, however 
fatal to the body of the nobles, had been gained by 
attacks upon individuals; and being founded on cir- 
cumstances peculiar to the persons who suffered, might 
excite murmurs and apprehensions, but afforded no 
colourable pretext for a general rebellion..—RoBERT- 
son. Sophists are obliged to deal in specious argu- 
ments for want of more substantial ones in support of 
their erroneous opinions ; ‘ The guardian directs one 
of his pupils to think with the wise, but speak with the 
vulgar. This is a precept specious enough, but not 
always practicable.—Jonnson. Men who have no 
ostensible way of supporting themselves, naturally ex- 
cite the suspicion that they have some illicit source of 
gain; ‘What is truly astonishing, the partisans of 
those two opposite systems were at once prevalent and 
at once employed, the one ostenszbly, the other secretly, 
during the latter part of the reign of Louis XV’— 
Burke. Liars may sometimes be successful in invent- 
ing a plausible tale, but they must not scruple to sup- 
port one lie by a hundred more as occasion requires; 

In this superficial way indeed the mind is capable of 
more variety of plawszble talk, but is not enlarged as 
it ~hould be in its knowledge.—Locker. If what an 
accused person has to say in justification of himself be 
no more than feasible, it will always subject him to 
unpleasant imputations; ‘It is some years since I 
thought the matter feasible, that if I could by an exact 
time-keeper find in any part of the world what o’clock 
it is at Dover, and at the same time where the ship is, 
the problem is solved..—ARBUTHNOT. 


TO COVER, HIDE. t 


Cover, in French couvrir, is contracted from contra 
and owvrir, signifying to do the contrary of open, to 
put out of view : hide, v. To conceal. 

Cover is to hide as the means to the end: we com- 
monly hide by covering ; but we may easily cover 
without Aiding, as also hide without covering. The 
ruling idea in the word cover is that of throwing or 
putting something over a body; in the word hide is 
that of keeping carefully from observation 

To cover is an indifferent action, springing from a 
variety of motives, of convenience, or comfort; to hide 
is an action that springs from one specifick intent, from 
care and concern for the thing, and the fear of foreign 
intrusion. In most civilized countries it is common to 
cover the head: in the eastern countries females com- 
monly wear veils to hide the face. There are many 
things which decency as well as health require to be 
covered ; and others which from their very nature 
must always be hidden. Houses must be covered with 
roofs, and bodies with clothing; the earth contains 
many treasures, which in all probability will always be 
Atdden ; 

Ur lead me to some solitary place 

And cover my retreat from human race.—DryYDEN. 


Hide me from the face 
Of God, whom to behold was then my height 
Of happiness.—Mi.tTon. 


In a moral application, cover may be used in the good 
sense of sheltering ; 


517 


Thou mayst repent, 
And one bad deed with many deeds well done 
Mayst cover.— MILTON. 


And also in the bad sense of hiding by means of false 
hood ; 


Specious names are lent to cover vice.—SPrcvaror. 


COVER, SHELTER, SCREEN. 


Cover properly denotes what serves as a cover, and 
in the literal sense of the verb from which it is derived 
(v. To cover); shelter, like the word shield, comes 
from the German schild, old German schelen, to cover ; 
screen, from the Latin secerno, signifies to keep off or 
apart. 

Cover is literally applied to many particular things 
which are employed in covering; but in the general 
sense which makes it analogous to the other terms, it 
includes the idea of concealing: shelter comprehends 
that of protecting from some immediate or impending 
evil: screen includes that of warding off some trouble. 
A cover always supposes something which can extend 
over the whole surface of a body; a shelter or a screen 
may merely interpose to a sufficient extent to serve 
the intended purpose. Military operations are some- 
times carried on under cover of the night; a bay isa 
convenient shelter for vessels against the violence of 
the winds; a chair may be used as a screen to prevent 
the violent action of the heat, or the external air. 

In the moral sense, a cover may be employed allow 
ably to diminish an imperfection or deformity ; ‘'There 
are persons who cover their own rudeness by calling 
their conduct honest bluntness..—Ricuarpson.: But 
is for the most part taken in the bad sense of an en- 
deavour to conceal the truth: a fair reputation is some- 
times made the cover for the commission of gross 
irregularities in secret; ‘The truth and reason of 
things may be artificially and effectually insinuated 
under the cover either of a real fact, or of a supposed 
one.’—L’Estraneg. When a person feels. himself 
unable to withstand the attacks of his enemies, he 
seeks a shelter under the sanction and authority of a 
great name; 


When on a bed of straw we sink together, 

And the bleak winds shall whistle round our heads, 

Wilt thou then talk to me thus ? 

Thus hush my cares, and shelier me with love 2 
Otway. 


Bad men sometimes use wealth and power to sczeen 
them from the punishment which is due to their 
offences; ‘It is frequent for men to adjudge that in 
an art impossible, which they find that art does not 
effect; by which means they screen indolence and 
ignorance from the reproach they merit..—Bacon. 


TO HARBOUR, SHELTER, LODGE. 


The idea of giving a resting place is common to 
these terms: but harbour (v. To foster) is used mostly 
in a bad sense, at least in its ordinary use: shelter 
{v. Asylum) in an indefinite sense; lodge, in French 
loge, from the German liegen to lie, in an indifferent 
sense. One harbours that which ought not or cannot 
find room any where; ‘ My lady bids me tell you, 
that though she harbours you as her uncle, she is 
nothing allied to your disorders..—SHaKksPeaRE. As 
the word harbour does not, in its original sense, mean 
any thing more than affording entertainment, or re- 
ceiving into one’s house for a time, it may be employed 
in a good sense to imply an act of hospitality ; ‘We 
owe this old house the same kind of gratitude that we 
do to an old friend, who harbours us in his declining 
condition, nay, even in his last extremities.’—Pore. 
One shelters that which cannot find security elsewhere. 
It is for the most part an act of charity, vbligation, or 
natural feeling; ‘The hen shelters her first brood of 
chickens with all the prudence that she ever attains 
—Jonnson. One lodges that which wahts a resting 
place; itis an act of discretion. Thieves, traitors, on 
conspirators are harboured by those who have an in 
terest in securing them from detection: either the 
wicked or the unfortunate may be sheltered from the 
evil with which they are threatened: travellers are 
lodged as occasion may require. 

In the moral sense, 4 man harbours resentment, ili 
will, evil thoughts, and the like; 


518 


She harbours in her breast a furious hate 
(And thou shalt find the dire effects too late), 
Fix’d on revenge, and obstinate to die-—DRryDEN. 


Aman shelters himself from a charge by retorting it 
upon his adversary ; 


In vain I strove to check my growing flame, 
Or shelter passion under friendship’s name ; 
You saw my heart.—Prior. 


A person lodges a complaint or information against 
any one with the magistrate, or a particular passion 
may be lodged in the breast, or ideas lodged in the 
nind; ‘In viewing again the ideas that are lodged in 
the memory, the mind is more than passive.’—Lockg. 


They too are tempered high, 
W ith hunger stung, and wild necessity, 
Nor lodges pity in their shaggy breast—THomson. 


All these terms may be employed also as the acts of 
inconscious agents. Beds and bed-furniture harbour 
vermin; trees, as well as houses, shelter from a storm: 
a ball from a gun lodges in the human body, or any 
other solid substance. 


ns 


HARBOUR, HAVEN, PORT. 


. The idea of a resting piace for vessels is common to 
these terms, of which harbour is general, and the two 
others specifick in their signification. 

Harbour, from the Teutonick herbenger to shelter, 
carries with it little more than the common idea of 
affording a resting or anchoring place; Raven, from 
the Teutonick haben to have or hold, conveys the idea 
of security; port, from the Latin portus and porta a 
gate, conveys the idea of anenclosure. A havenisa 
uatural harbour ; a port is an artificial harbour. We 
characterize a harbour as commodious; a haven as 
snug and secure; a port as safe and easy of access. 
A commercial country profits by the excellence and 
number of its harbours ; it values itself on the security 
of its havens, and increases the number of its ports 
accordingly. A vessel goes into a harbour only fora 
season; it remains in a haven for a permanency; it 
seeks a port as the destination of its voyage. Mer- 
chantmen are perpetually going in and out of a har- 
boxur; 

But here she comes, 

In thecalm harbour of whose gentle breast, 

My tempest-beaten soul may safely rest —DRYDEN. 


A distressed vessel, at a distance from home, seeks 
some haven in which it may winter; 


Safe through the war her course the vessel steers, 
The haven gain’d, the pilot drops his fears. 
| SHIRLEY. 


The weary mariner looks to the port not as the termi- 
nation of his labour but as the commencement of all 
his enjoyments; ‘ What though our passage through 
this world be never so stormy and tempestuous, we 
shall arrive at a safe port.’—TiLLoTson. 


ASYLUM, REFUGE, SHELTER, RETREAT. 


Asylum, in Latin asylum, in Greek acvd\wv, com- 
pounded of a privative and cud} plunder, signified a 
place exempt from plunder, and exactions of every kind, 
and also a privileged place where accused persons were 
permitted to reside without molestation: refuge, in 
Latin refugium, from refugio to fly away, signifies the 
place which one may fly away to: shelter comes from 
shell, in High German schalen, Saxon sceala, &c. from 


the Hebrew xb5D to hide, signifying a cover or hiding- 
place: retreat, in French retraite, Latin retractus, 
from retraho or re and traho to draw back, signifies 
the place that is situated behind or in the back ground. 

Asulum, refuge,and shelter all denote a place of safe- 
ty; but the former is fixed, the two latter are occa- 
sional: the retreat is a place of tranquillity rather than 
of safety. An asylum is chosen by him who has no 
home, a refuge by hirn who is apprehensive of danger: 
the French emigrants found a refuge in England, but 
very few will make it an asylum. The inclemencies 
of the weather make us seek a shelter. The fatigues 
and toils of life make us seek a retreat. 

It is the part of a Christian to afford an asylum to 
the helpless orphan and widow. The terrified pas- 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


senger takes refuge in the first house he comes to, 
when assailed by an evil-disposed mob. The vessel 
shattered in a storm takes shelter in the nearest haven. 
The man of business, wearied with the anxieties and 
cares of the world, disengages himself from the whole, 
and seeks a retreat suited to his circumstances, Ina 
moral or extended application they are distinguished 
in the same manner; ‘ The adventurer knows he hag 
not far to go before he will meet with some fortress 
that has been raised by sophistry for the asylum of 
errour.,—HAWKESWORTH.. ‘ Superstition, now retiring 
from Rome, may yet find refuge in the mountains of 
Tibet.’—CuMBERLAND. 
In rueful gaze 

The cattle stand, and on the scowling heavens 

Cast a deploring eye, by man forsook ; 

Who to the crowded cottage hies him fast, 

Or seeks the shelter of the downward cave. 

‘THOMSON. 


TEGUMENT, COVERING. 


Tegument, in Latin tegumentum, from tego to cover, 
is properly but another word to express covering, yet 
it is now employed in cases where the latter term is in- 
admissible. Covering signifies mostly that which is 
artificial; but tegument is employed for that which is 
natural: clothing is the covering for the body; the 
skin of vegetable substances, as seeds, is called the 
tegument. The covering is said of that which covers 
the outer surface: the tegument is said of that which 
covers the inner surface ; the pods of some seeds are 
lined with a soft tegument. 


SKIN, HIDE, PEEL, RIND. 


Skin, which is in German schin, Swedish sxznns 
Danish skind, probably comes from the Greek oxijvog 
a tent or covering; hide, in Saxon hyd, German haut, 
Low German huth, Latin cutis, comes from the Greek 
KevOety to hide, cover; peel, in German fell, &c. Latin 
pellis a skin, in Greek @e\Xbs or Prods bark, comes 
from ¢Aaw to burst or crack, because the bark is easily 
broken ; rind is in all probability changed from round, 
signifying that which goes round and envelopes. 

Skin is the term in most genera! use, it is applicable 
both to human creatures and to animals ; hide is used 
only for the skins of large animals: we speak of the 
skins of birds or insects; butof the hides of oxen or 
horses, and other animals, which are to be separated 
from the, body and converted into leather. Skin is 
equally applied to the inanimate and the animate 
world; but peel and vind belong only to inanimate ob- 
jects; the skin is generally said of that which is inte 
riour, in distinction from the exteriour, which is the 
pecl: an orange has both its peel and its thin skin un- 
derneath; an apple, a pear, and the like, has a peel. 
The peel is asoft substance on the outside; the rind is 
generally interiour, and of a harder substance: in re- 
gard to astick, we speak of its peel and the inner skzn ; 
in regard to a tree, we speak of its bark and its rind; 
hence, likewise, the term rind is applied to cheese, and 
other incrusted substances that envelope bodies. 


TO PEEL, PARE. 


Peel, from the Latin pellis a skin, is the same as to 
skin or to take off the skin: to pare, from the Latin 
paro to trim or make in order, signifies to smooth. 
The former of these terms denotes a natural, the latter 
an artificial process: the former excludes the idea of a 
forcible separation; the latter includes the idea of se. 
paration by means of a knife or sharp instrument; 
potatoes and apples are peeled after they are boiled; 
they are pared before they are boiled: an orange and 
a walnut are always peeled, but not pared: a cucum- 
ber must be pared and not peeled: in like manner the 
skin may sometimes be peeled from the flesh, and the 
nails are pared. 


oe 


GUISE, HABIT. 


Guise and wise are both derived from the northerp 
languages, and denote the manner; but the former. ig 
employed for a particular or distinguished manner of 
dress; habit, from the Latin habitus a habit, fasnion 
. form, is taken for a settled or permanent mode of 

ress. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


The guise is that which is unusual, and often only 
occasional; the habit is that which is usual among 
particular classes: a person sometimes assumes the 
guise of a peasant, in order the better to conceal him- 
self; he who devotes himself to the clerical profession 
puts on the habit of a clergyman; 

Anubis, Sphinx, 

Idols of antique gaise, and horned Pan, 

Terrifick, monstrous shapes!—Dyerr. 


For ’t is the mind that makes the body rich, 
And as the sun breaks through the darkest cloud, 
So honour appeareth in the meanest habit. 

: SHAKSPEARE. 


TO CONCEAL, HIDE, SECRETE. 


Conceal, v. To conceal; hide, from the German jii- 
then to guard against, and the Old German hedan to 
conceal, and the Greek «etm to cover or put out of 
sight; secrete, in Latin secretus, participle of secerno, 
or se and cerno, to see or know by one’s self, signifies 
to put in 2 place Known only to one’s self. 

Concealing conveys simply the idea of not letting 
come to observation; hiding that of putting under 
cover; secreting that of setting at a distance or in un- 
frequented places: whatever is not:seen is concealed, 
but whatever is hidden or secreted is intentionally put 
outof sight: a person conceals himself behind a hedge ; 
he Aides his treasures in the earth; he secretes what he 
has stolen under his cloak. 

Conceal is more general than either hide or secrete ; 
all things are concealed which are hidden or secreted, 
but they are not always Aidden or secreted when they 
are conceaied: both mental and corporeal objects are 
concealed; corporeal objects mostly and sometimes 
mental ones are hidden; corporeal objects only are 
secreted ; we conceal in the mind whatever we do not 
make known: that is Aidden which may not be dis- 
covered or cannot be discerned; that is secreted which 
may not be seen. Facts are concealed, truths are hid- 
den, goods are secreted. 

Children should never attempt to conceal from their 
parents or teachers any errour they have committed, 
when called upon for an acknowledgment ; 


Be secret and discreet; Love’s fairy favours 
Are lost when not conceal’d.—DRyYDEN. 


We are told in Scripture for our consolation that no- 
thing is kidden which shall not be revealed ; 


Yet to be secret makes not sin the less, 
*T is only hidden from the vulgar view.—DRyYDEN. 


People seldom wish to secrete any thing but with the 
intention of concealing it from those who have a right 
to demand it back; ‘ The whole thing is too manifest 
to admit of any doubt in any man how long this thing 
has been working; how many tricks have been played 
with the Dean’s (Swift’s) papers; how they were se- 
ereted from time to time.’—PorE. i 


— 


CONCEALMENT, SECRECY. 


Concealment (v. To conceal) is itself an action; 
secrecy, from secret, is the quality of an action: con- 
cealment may respect the state of things; secrecy the 
conduct of parsons: things may be concealed so as to 
be known to no one; but secrecy supposes some person 
40 whom the thing concealed is known. 

Concealment has to do with what concerns others; 
secrecy with that which concerns ourselves: what is 
concealed is kept from the observation of others; what 
is secret is known only to ourselves: there may fre- 
quently be concealment without secrecy, although there 
cannot be secrecy without. concealment : concealment 
is frequently practised to the detriment of others; se- 
crecy is alvvays adopted for our own advantage or gra- 
tification: concealment aids in the commission of 
crimes; secrecy in the execusion of schemes: many 
crimes are cominitted with impunity when the per- 
petrators are protected by conceaiment ; ‘ There is but 
one way of conversing safely with all men, that is, not 
by concealing what we say or do, but by saying or 
doing nothing that deserves to be concealed.’—Pork. 
The best concerted plans are often frustrated for want 
of observing secrecy; 


- 


519 


That’s not suddenly to be perform'd 
But with advice and silent secrecy.—SHAKSPEARE, 


Secrecy is, however, in our dealings with others, fre 
quently not less impolitick than it is improper. An 
open and straight forward conduct is as a rule the only 
proper conduct in our commerce with the world ; 


Shun secrecy, and talk in open sight; 
So shall you soon repair your present evil plight. 
SPENSER. 


When concealment is taken as the act of the Divine 
Being, or as the state of things, it is used in the best 
sense; ‘One instance of Divine Wisdom is so illus- 
trious that I cannot pass it over without notice; that 
is, the concealment under which Providence has placed 
the future events of our life on earth.,— BLair. When 
secrecy respects a man’s own concerns with himself or 
his Maker, it is also proper; ‘ It is not with publick as 
with private prayer; in this, rather secrecy is com 
manded than outward show.’—HookeEr. 


TO CONCEAL, DISSEMBLE, DISGUISE 
Conceal, compounded of con and ceal, in French 


celer, Latin celo, Hebrew Ny Ja) to have privately; dzs- 
semble, in French dissimuler, compounded of dis and 
simulo or similis, signifies to make a thing appear un- 
like what it is; désguise, in French disguiser, com- 
pounded of the privative dis or de and gutse, in Ger- 
man wetse a manner or fashion, signifies to take a form 
opposite to the reality. 

To conceal is simply to abstain from making known 
what we wish to keep secret; to dissemble and dis 
guise signify to conceal, by assuming some false ap- 
pearance: we conceal facts; we dissemble feelings; 
we disguise sentiments. 

* Caution only is requisite in concealing ; it may be 
effected by simple silence: art and address must ke 
employed in dissembling; it mingles falsehood with 
all its proceedings: labour and cunning are requisite 
in disguising ; it has nothing but falsehood in all its 
movements. 

The concealer watches over himself that he may not 
be betrayed into any indiscreet communication; the 
dissembler has an eye to others so as to prevent them 
from discovering the state of his heart; disguise 
assumes altogether a different face from the reality, and 
rests secure under this shelter: it is sufficient to con- 
ceal from those who either cannot or will not see; it is 
necessary to dissemble with those who can see without 
being shown; but it is necessary to disguise from those 
who are anxious to discover and use every means to 
penetrate the veil that intercepts their sight. 

-Concealment is a matter of prudence often advisa- 
ble, mostly innocent; when we have not resolution 
to shake off our vices, it is wisdom at least to conceal 
them from the knowledge of others; ‘ Ulysses himself 
adds, he was the most eloquent, and the most silent of 
men; he knew that a word spoke never wrought so 
much good asa word concealed.,—Broomg. ‘ Ridicule 
is never more strong than when it is concealed in gia- 
vity.,—-SPECTATOR. 

According to Girard, it wasa maxim with Louis XI, 
that in order to know how to govern, it was necessary 
to know how to dissemble ; this, he adds, is true in all 
cases even in domestick government; but if the word 
conveys as much the idea of falsehood in French as in 
English, then is this a French and not an English 
maxim; there’ are, however, many cases in which it 
is prudent to dissemble our resentments, if by allowing 
them time to die away we keep them from the know- 
ledge of others. Disguise is altogether opposed to 
candour: an ingenuous mind revolts at it; an honest 
man will never find it necessary, unless the Abbe 
Girard be right, in saying that ‘‘ when the necessity of 
circumstances and the nature of affairs call for disguise 
it is politick,” Yet what train of circumstances car. 
we conceive to exist which will justify policy founded 
upon the violation of truth? Intriguers, conspirators, 
and all who have dishonest purposes to answer, must 
practise disguise as the only means of success; but true 
policy is as remote from disguise as cunning is from 
wisdom; 


* Vide Abbe Girard: “Cacher, dissimuler dé 
vniser ’ 


520 


Let school-taught pride dissemble all it can, 
These little things are great to little man. 
GOLDSMITH. 


‘ Good-breeding has made the tongue ‘alsify the heart, 
and act a part of continual restraint, while nature has 
preserved the eyes to herself, that she may not be dis- 
guised or misrepresented.’—STEELE. 


HYPOCRITE, DISSEMBLER. 


Hypocrite, in Greek broxpuris, from tnd and xpivopat, 
signifies one appearing under a mask; dissembler, 
from dissemble, in Latin dissimulo or dis and similis, 
signifies one who makes himself appear unlike what he 
really is, 

The hypocrite feigns to be what he is not; ‘ In regard 
to others, hypocrisy is not so pernicious as barefaved 
irreligion.—Appison. The dissembler conceals what 
he is: the former takes to himself the credit of virtues 
which he has not; the latter conceals the vices that 
he has; 


So spake the false dissembler unperceived. 
MiLTon. 


Every hypocrite isa dissembler ; but every dissembler 
is not a hypocrite ; the hypocrite makes truth serve the 
purpose of falsehood; the dissembler is content with 
making falsehood serve his own particular purpose. 


SIMULATION, DISSIMULATION. 


Simulation, from similis, is the making one’s self 
like what one is not; and disstmulation, from disst- 
milis unlike, is the making one’s self appear unlike 
what one really is. The hypocrite puts on the sem- 
blance of virtue to recommend himself to the virtuous. 
The dissembler conceals his vices when he wants to 
gain the simple or ignorant to his side; ‘The learned 
make a difference between simulation and dissimula- 
tion. Simulation is a pretence of what is not; and 
dissimulation is aconcealment of what is.—TaTLER. 


SECRET, HIDDEN, LATENT, OCCULT, 
MYSTERIOUS. 


Secret (v. Clandestine) signifies known to one’s self 
only; hidden, v. To conceal; latent, in Latin latens, 
from lateo to lie hid, signifies the same as hidden; 
occult, in Latin occultus, participle of occulo, com- 
pounded of oc or 0b and culo or colo to cover over by 
tilling or ploughing, that is, to cover over with the 
earth; mysterious, v. Dark. 

What is secret is known to some one; what is hid- 
den may be known to no one: it rests in the breast of 
an individual to keep a thing secret; it depends on the 
course of things if any thing remains hidden: every 
man has more or less of that which he wishes to keep 
secret ; the talent of many lies hidden for want of op- 
portunity to bring it into exercise; as many treasures 
lie hidden in the earth for want of being discovered and 
brought to light. A secret concerns only the individual 
or indiwduals who hold it; but that which is hidden 
may concern all the world; sometimes the success of a 
transaction depends upon its being kept secret; the 
stores of knowledge which yet remain hidden may be 
much greater than those which have been laid open; 


Ye boys, who pluck the flow’rs and spoil the spring, 
Beware the secret snake that shoots a sting. 
DRYDEN. 
The blind, laborious mole 
In winding mazes works her hidden hole. 
DRYDEN. 
The latent is the secret or concealed, in cases where 
tought to be open: a latent motive is that whicha 
pee intentionally, though not justifiably, keeps to 
imself; the latent cause for any proceeding is that 
which is not revealed; 
Mem’ry confus’d, and interrupted thought, 
Death’s harbingers, lie /atent in the draught. 
PRIOR. 
Occult and mysterious are species of the hidden: 
she former respecis that which has a veil naturally 
thrown over it; the latter respects that mostly which 
is covered with a superna‘ural veil: an occuli science 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


is one that is kedden from the view of persons in-gene 


{ ral, which ig attainable but by few; occult causes of 


qualities are those which lie too remote to be dis 

covered by the inquirer: the operations of Providence 
are said to be mysterious, as they are altogether past 
our finding out; many points of doctrine in our reli- 
gion are equally mysterious, as connected with and 
dependent upon the attributes of the Deity; ‘Some. 
men have an occult power of stealing on the affections” 
—JOHNSON. 


From his void embrace, 
Mysterious heaven! That moment to the ground, 
A blackened corse, was struck the beauteous maid. 
THOMSON. 


Mysterious is sometimes applied to human transae 
tions in the sense of throwing a veil intentionally over 
any thing, in which sense it is nearly allied to the word 
secret, with this distinction, that what is secret is often 
not known to be. secret ; but that which ts mysterious 
is so only in the eyes of others. Things are sometimes 
conducted with such secrecy that no one suspects what 
is passing until it is seen by its effects; an air of mys- 
tery is sometimes thrown over that which is in reality 
nothing when seen: hence secrecy is always taken in 
a good sense, since it is so great an essential in the 
transactions of men; but mystery is often employed in 
a,bad sense; either for the affected concealment of that 
which is insignificant, or the purposed concealment of 
that which is bad: an expedition is said to be secret, 
but not mysterious ; on the other hand, the disappear- 
ance of a person may be mysterious, but is not said te 
be secret. 


MYSTERIOUS, MYSTICK. 


Mysterious (v. Dark) and mystick are but varia- 
tions of the same original ; the former however is more 
commonly applied to that which is supernatural, or 
veiled in an impenetrable obscurity; the latter to that 
which is natural, but in part concealed from the view; 
hence we speak of the mysterious plans of Providence: 
mystick schemes of theology or mystick principles ; 
‘As soon as that mysterious veil, which now covers 
futurity, was lifted up, all the gayety of life would 
disappear.’—Buair. 


And ye five other wand’ring fires that move 
Tn mystick dance not without song, 
Resound his praise.—MILTon. 


TO ABSCOND, STEAL AWAY, SECRETE 
ONE’S SELF. | 


Abscond, in Latin abscondo, is compounded of abs 
and condo, signifying to hide from the view, which is 
the original meaning of the other words; to abscond 
is to remove one’s self for the sake of not being dis- 
covered by those with whom we are acquainted; to 
steal away is to get away so as to elude observation; to 
secrete one’s self is to get into a place of secreey with- 
out being perceived. p 

Dishonest men abscond, thieves steal away when 
they dread detection, and fugitives secrete themselves. 
Those who abscond will have frequent occasion to 
steal away, and still more frequent occasion to secrete 
themselves. 


CLANDESTINE, SECRET. 


Clandestine, in Latin clandestinus, comes from 
clam secretly ; secret, in French secret, Latin secretus, 
participle of secerno to separate, signifies remote from 
observation. 

Clandestine expresses more than secret. To do a 
thing clandestinely is to elude observation; to do a 
thing secretly is to do it without the knowledge of any 
one: what is clandestine is unallowed, whieh is not 
necessarily the case with what is secreé. 

With the clandestine must be a mixture of art; with 
secrecy, caution and inanagement are requisite: a clan- 
destine marriage is effected by a studied plan to escape 
notice; a secret marriage is conducted by the forbear 
ance of all communication: conspirators have many 
clandestine proceedings and secret meetings: an un 
faithful servant clandestinely conveys his master’s pro 
perty from the premises of his master ; ‘I went to this 
clandestine lodging, and found to my amazement all 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


tne ornaments of a fine gentleman, which he has taken 
upon credit..—JoHnson. A person makes a secret 
communication of his intentions to another; ‘ Some 
may place their chief satisfaction in giving secretly 
what is to be distributed ; others in being the open and 
avowed instruments of making such distributions.’— 
ATTERBURY. 


POLITICAL, POLITICK. 


Political has the proper meaning of the word polity, 
which, from the Greek rodcrefa and réXt¢ a city, signi- 
fies the government either of a city or a country ; polt- 
tick, like the word policy, has the improper meaning of 
the word polity, namely, that of clever management, 
because the affairs of states are sometimes managed 
with considerable art and finesse: hence we speak of 
political government as opposed to that which is ec- 
clesiastick ; and of politick conduct as opposed to that 
which is unwise and without foresight: in political 
questions, it is not politick for individuals to set them- 
selves up in opposition to those who are in power; the 
study of poltticks, as a science, may make a man a 
clever statesman; but it may not always enable him 
to discern true policy in his private concerns; ‘ Ma- 
chiavel laid down this for a master rule, in his polz- 
tical scheme, that the show of religion was helpful to 
the politician.’.—Souru. ‘ A politick caution, a guard- 
ed circumspection, were among the ruling principles 
of our forefathers.’—BuRKE. 


ART, CUNNING, DECEIT. 
Art, in Latin ars, probably comes from the Greek 


dow to fit or dispose, Hebrew fj} to contrive, in 
which action the mental exercises of art priucipally 
consists; cunning is in Saxon cuning, German kennend 
knowing, in which sense the English word was for- 
merly used; decezt, from the Latin deceptum, participle 
of decipio or de and capio, signifies taking by surprise 
or unawares. 

Art implies a disposition of the mind, to use cir- 
cumvention or artificial means to attain an end: cun- 
ning marks the disposition to practise disguise in the 
prosecution of a plan: deceit leads to the practice of 
dissimulation and gross falsehood, for the sake of gra- 
tifying a desire. Art is the property of a lively mind; 
cunning of a thoughtful and knowing mind; dece7t of 
an ignorant, low, and weak mind. 

Art is practised often in self-defence ; as a practice 
therefore it is even sometimes justifiable, although not 
as a disposition: cunning has always self in view; 
the cunning man seeks his gratification without regard 
to others; deceit is often practised to the express in- 
jury of another: the deceitful maa adopts base means 
for base ends. Animals practise art when opposed to 
their superiours in strength ; but they are not artful, 
as they have not that versatility of power which they 
can habitually exercise to their own advantage like 
human beings; ‘It has been a sort of maxim that the 
greatest art is to conceal art; but I know not how, 
among some people we meet with, their greatest cun- 
ning is to appear cunning.—STEELE. Animals may 
be cunning, inasmuch as they can by contrivance and 
concealment seek to obtain the object of their desire ; 
* Cunning can in no circumstance imaginable be a 
quality worthy a man, except in his own defence, and 
merely to conceal himself from such as are so, and in 
such cases it is wisdom.’—Srrete. No animal is de- 
ceitful except man: the wickedest and the stupidest of 
men have the power and the will of decetving and 
practising falsehood upon others, which is unknown 
to the brutes; ‘Though the living man can wear a 
mask and carry on deceit, the dying Christian cannot 
counterfeit.’-—CuMBERLAND. 


ARTFUL, ARTIFICIAL, FICTITIOUS. 


Artful, compounded of.art and ful, marks the qua- 
lity of being full of art (v. Art); artificial, in Latin 
artificialis, from ars and facto to do, signifies done 
with art ; fictitious, in Latin fictitious, from fingo to 
feign, signifies the quality of being feigned. 

Artful respects what is done with art or design; ar- 
tijicial what is done by the exercise of workmanship ; 
fictitious what is made out of the mind. Artful and 


§2\ 


artificial ave used either for natural or moral objects; 
fictitious always for those that are moral: artful is 
opposed to what is artless, artificial to what is na 
tural, fictztéous to what is real: the ringlets of a lady’s 
hair are disposed in an artful manner; the hair itself 
may be artificial: a tale is artful which is told in a 
way to gain credit; manners are artificial which do 
not seem to suit the person adopting them; a story is 
fictitious which has no foundation whatever in truth, 
and is the invention of the narrator. 

Children sometimes tell their stories so artfully as to 
impose on the most penetrating and experienced ; ‘I 
was much surprised to see the ants’ nest which I had 
destroyed, very artfully repaired.’—Appison. Those 
who have no character of their own are induced ta 
take an artificial character in order to put themselveg 
on a level with their associates; ‘If we compare two 
nations in an equal state of civilization, we may re- 
mark that where the greater freedom obtains, there the 
greater variety of artificial wants will obtain also.’— 
CUMBERLAND. Beggars deal in fictitious tales of dis- 
tress in order to excite compassion; ‘Among the nu: 
merous stratagems by which pride endeavours to 
recommend folly to regard, there is scarcely one that 
meets with less success than affectation, or a perpetual 
disguise of the real character by fictitious appearances.? 
— JOHNSON. 


ARTIFICE, TRICK, FINESSE, STRATAGEM 


Artifice, in French artifice, Latin artifex an arti 
ficer, from artem facio to execute an art, signifies the 
performance of an art; trick, in French tricher, comes 
from the German triegen to deceive; finesse, a word 
directly imported from France with all the meaning 
attached to it, which is characteristick of the nation 
itself, means properly fineness; the word fin fine, sig- 
nifying in French, as well as in the northern languages 
from which it is taken, subtlety or mental acumen; 
stratagem, in French stratagéme, from the Greek 
oTpaTiynua and otparnyéw to lead an army, signifies 
by distinction any military scheme, or any scheme con- 
ducted for some military purpose. 

All these terms denote the exercise of an art calcu 
lated to mislead others. Artifice is the generick term; 
the rest specifick : the former has likewise a particular 
use and acceptation distinct from the others: it ex- 
presses a ready display of art for the purpose of extri- 
cating one’s self trom a difficulty, or securing to one’s 
self an advantage. Trick includes in it more of de 
sign to gain something for one’s self, or to act secretly 
to the inconvenience of others:* it is rather a cheat 
on the senses than the understanding. Finesse is a 
species of artifice in which art and cunning are com- 
bined in the management of a cause: it is amixture of 
invention, falsehood, and concealment. Stratagem is 
a display of art in plotting and contriving, a disguised 
mode of obtaining an end. 

Females who are not guarded by fixed principles of 
virtue and uprightness are apt to practise artifices upon 
their husbands. Men without honour, or an honour- 
able means of living, are apt to practise various tricks 
to impose upon others to their own advantage: every 
trade therefore is said to have its tricks; and profes- 
sions are not entirely clear from this stigma, which has 
been brought upon them by unworthy membeis. Di- 
plomatick persons have most frequent recourse to 
finesse, in which no people are more skilful practi- 
tioners than those who have coined the word. Mili- 
tary operations are sometimes considerably forwarded 
by well-concerted and well-timed stratagems to sur- 
prise the enemy. 

An artifice may be perfectly innocent when it serves 
to afford a friend an unexpected pleasure; ‘ Among the 
several artifices which are put in practice by the poets, 
to fill the minds of an audience with terrour, the first 
place is due to thunder and lightning..—Appison A 
trick is childish which only serves to deceive or amuse 
children; ‘Where men practise falsehood and show 
tricks with one another, there will be perpetual sus 
Bicions, evil surmisings, doubts, and jealousies.’— 
Sourn. Stratagems are allowable not in war only; 
the writer of a novel or a play may sometimes adops 
a successful stratagem 10 cause the reader a surprise 


* Trusler: ‘Cunning, finesse device, artifice, trick. 
stratagem.” 


522 


Ox others practise thy Ligurian arts ;® 
The stratagems and tricks of litle hearts 
Are jost on me.—DRyDEN. 


One of the most successful stratagems, whereby 
Mahomet became formidable, was the assurance that 
impostor gave his votaries, that whoever was slain in 
battle should be immediately conveyed to that luxuri- 
ous paradise his wanton fancy had invented.’—STgre.e. 
Finesse is never justifiable ; it carries with it too much 
of concealment and disingenuousness to be practised 
but for selfish and unworthy purposes ; 


Another can’t forgive the paltry arts 

By which he makes his way to shallow hearts, 

Mere pieces of finesse, traps for applause. 
CHURCHILL. 


CUNNING, CRAFTY, SUBTLE, SLY, WILY. 

Cunning, v. Art; crafty signifies having craft, that 
is, according to the original meaning of the word, 
having a knowledge of some trade or art; hence 
figuratively applied to the character ; sudtle, in French 
subtil, and Latin subtilis thin, from sub and tela a 
thread drawn to be fine ; hence in the figurative sense 
in which it is here taken, fine or acute in thought; 
sly is in all probability connected with slow and sleek, 
or smooth ; deliberation and smoothness entering very 
much into the sense of sly; wily signifies disposed to 
wiles or stratagems. 

All these epithets agree in expressing an aptitude to 
employ peculiar and secret means to the attainment of 
an end; they differ principally in the secrecy of the 
means, or the degree of circumvention that is em- 
ployed. The cunning man shows his dexterity simply 
in concealing; this requires little more than reserved- 
ness and taciturnity; ‘There is still another secret 
that can never fail if you can once get it believed, and 
which is often practised by women of greater cunning 
than virtue. This is to change sides for awhile with 
the jealous man, and to turn his own passion upon 
himself’--Appison. The crafty man goes farther ; he 
shapes his werds and actions so as to lull suspicion: 
hence it is that a child may be cunning, but an old 
man will be crafty ; ‘ Cunning is often to be met with 
in brutes themselves, and in persons who are but 
the fetvest removes from them.’—Appison. ‘You will 
find the examples to be few and rare of wicked, un- 
principled men attaining fully the accomplishment of 
their crafty designs.’--BLair. A subtle man has more 
acuteness of invention than either, and all his schemes 
are hidden by a veil that is impenetrable by common 
observation ; the cunning man looks only to the con- 
cealment of an immediate object; the crafty and 
subtle man has a remote object to conceal: thus men 
are cunning in their ordinary concerns ; politicians are 
crafty or subtle; but the former is more so as to the 
end, and the Jatter as to the means. A man is cun- 
ning and crafty by deeds; he is subtle mostly by 
means of words alone, or words and actions combined ; 
‘The part of Ulysses, in Homer’s Odyssey, is very 
much admired by Aristotle, as perplexing that fable 
with very agreeable plots and intricacies, not only by 
the many adventures in his voyage and the subtlety of 
his behaviour, but by the various concealments and 
discoveries of his person in several parts of his poem.’ 
—Appison. Slyness is a vulgar kind of cunning ; the 
sly man goes Cautiously and silently to work; ‘If you 
or your correspondent had consulted me in your Gis- 
course upon the eye, I could have told you that the eye 
of Leonora is slyly watchful while it looks negligent.’ 
—STEELE. Wiliness is a species of cunning or craft, 
applicable only to cases of attack or defence3 


Implore his aid ; for Proteus only knows 

The secret cause, and cure of all thy woes; 

But first the wily wizard must be caught, 

For, unconstrain’d, he nothing tells for nought. 
DRYDEN. 


TO DECEIVE, DELUDE, IMPOSE UPON. 


Deceive, in French décevoir, Latin dectpio, com- 
pounded of de privative, and capzo to take, signifies 
to take wrong; delude, in Latin deludo, compounded 
af de and ludo, signifies to: play upot or to mislead by 
a trick; impose, in Latin imposuz, perfect of impono, 
eignifies literally to lay or put upon. 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


Falsehood is the leading feature in all these terms 
they vary however in the circumstances of the action 
To deceive is the most general of the three; it sig- 
nifies simply to produce a false conviction; the other 
terms are. properly species of deceiving, ineluding 
accessory ideas. Deception may be practised in va- 
rious degrees; deluding is always something positive, 
and considerable in degree. Every false impression 
produced by external objects, whether in trifles or 
important matters, is a deception: delusion is con- 
fined to errours in matters of opinion. We may be 
deceived in the colour or the distance of an object; we 
are deluded in what regards our principles or moral 
conduct; ‘I would have all my readers take care how 
they mistake themselves for uncommon geniuses and 
men above rule, since it is very easy for them to be 
deceived in this particular. —BupGELL. ‘ Deluded by 
a seeming excellence.’—Roscomnon. 

A deception does not always suppose a fault on the 
part of the person deceived, but a delusion does. A 
person is sometimes deceived in cases where deception 
is unavoidable ; 


I now believ’d 
The happy day approach’d, nor are my hopes decezv’d. 
DRYDEN. 


A person is deluded through a voluntary blindness of 
the understanding ; 


Who therefore seeks in these 
True wisdom, finds her not, or by delusion 
Far worse, her talse resemblance only meets. 
PRIOR. 


Artful people are sometimes capable of decetving so as 
not even to excite suspicion; their plausible tales 
justify the credit that is given to them; when the 
ignorant enter into nice questions of politicks or re- 
ligion, it is their ordinary fate to be deluded. 

Deception. is practised by an individual on himself 
or others; 


Wanton women in their eyes 
Men’s decetving's do comprise. — GREENE. 


A delusion is commonly practised on one’s self; 
J, waking, view’d with grief the rising sun, 
And fondly mourn’d the dear delusion gone. 

PRIOR 


An imposition is always practised on another; ‘ As 
there seems to be in this manuscript some anachronisms 
and deviations from the ancient orthography, I am not 
satisfied myself that it is authentick, and not rather the 
production of one of those Grecian sophisters who 
have imposed upon the world several spurious works 
of this nature..—Appison. Men deceive others from 
a variety of motives ; they always impose upon them 
for purposes of gain, or the gratification of ambition. 
Men deceive themselves with false pretexts and false 
confidence ; they delude themselves with vain hopes 
and wishes. 

Professors in religion often deceive themselves as 
much as they do others: the grossest and most dan 
gerous delusion into which they are liable to fall is 
that of substituting faith for practice, and an extrava- 
gant regard to the outward observances of religion 
in lieu of the mild and humble temper of Jesus: no 
imposition was ever so successfully practised upon 
mankind as that of Mahomet. 


DECEIVER, IMPOSTOR. 


Deceiver and impostor, the derivatives from deceive 
and impose, have a farther distinction worthy of notice 

Deceiver isa generick term ; impostor specifick: every 
impostor is a species of deceiver: the words have 
however a distinct use. The deceiver practises decep- 
tion on individuals ; the impostor only on the publick 
at large. The false friend and the faithless lover are 
deceivers ; the assumed nobleman who practises frauds 
under his disguise, and the pretended prince who lays 
claim to a crown to which he was never born, are 
impostors. 

Deceivers are the most dangerous members of 
society; they trifle with the best affections of our 
nature, and violate the most sacred obligations; ‘ That 
tradition of the Jews that Christ was stolen out of the 
grave is ancient; it was the invention of the Jews, 
and denies the integrity of the witnesses of hi# rerur- 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


rection, making them decetvers..—TILLOTSON. IJm- 
postors are seldom so culpable as those who give them 
credit; ‘Our Saviour wrought his miracles frequently, 
and for a long time together: a time sufficient to have 
detecied any impostor in.’—Ti.uotson. It would 
require no small share of credulity to be deceived by 
any of the ¢mpositions which have been hitherto prac- 
tised upon the inconsiderate part of mankind. 


DECEIT, DECEPTION. 


Deceit (v. To deceive) marks the propensity to de- 
ceive, or the practice of deceiving ; deception the act 
of deceiving (v. To deceive). 

A deceiver is full of deceit: but a deception may 
be occasionally practised by one who has not this habit 
of deceiving. Deceit is a characteristick of so base a 
nature, that those who have it practise every species 
of deception in,order to hide their characters from the 
observation of the world. 

The practice of deceit springs altogether from a 
design, and that of the worst kind; but a deception 
may be practised from indifferent, if not innocent, 
motives, or may be occasioned even by inanimate 
objects ; 

I mean to plunge the boy in pleasing sleep, 

And ravish’d in Idalian bow’rs to keep, 

Or high Cythera, that the sweet decezt 

May pss unseen, and none prevent the cheat. 
DRYDEN. 


All the jey or sorrow for the happiness or calamities 
of others is produced by an act of the imagination 
that realizes the event however fictitious, so that we 
feel, while the deception lasts, whatever emotions 
would be excited by the same good or evil happening 
to ourselves.’—JOHNSON. 

A person or a conduct is deceitful ; an appearance 
is deceptive. A deceitful person has always guile in 
his heart and on his tongue: jugglers practise various 
deceptions in the performance of their tricks for the 
entertainment of the populace. Parasites and syco- 
phants are obliged to have recourse to deceit, in order 
to inveigle themselves into the favour of their patrons: 
there is no sense on which a deception can be prac- 
tised with greater facility than on that of sight; some- 
times it is an agreeable deception, as in the case of a 
panoramick exhibition. 


oo 


DECEIT, DUPLICITY, DOUBLE-DEALING. 

Deceit, v. Deceit, deception ; duplicity signifies 
doubleness in dealing, the same as double-dealing 

The former two may be applied either to habitual 
or particular actions, the latter only to particular 
actions. There may be much deceit or duplicity ina 
person’s character or in his proceedings; there is 
double-dealing only where dealing goes forward. The 
deccit may be more or less veiled ; the duplicity lies 
very deep, and is always studied whenever it is put 
into practice. Duplicity in reference to actions is 
mostly employed for a course of conduct: double- 
dealing is but another term for duplicity on particular 
oceasions. Children of reserved characters are tre- 
quently prone to deceit, which grows into consummate 
duplicity in riper years: the wealthy are often exposed 
to much duplicity when they choose their favourites 
among the low and ignorant; ‘The arts of deceit do 
continually grow weaker and less serviceable to them 
that use them.’—TiLLotson. ‘Necessity drove Dry- 
den into a duplicity of character that is painful to 
reflect upon.”—CuMBERLAND.. Nothing gives rise to 
more double-dealing than the fabrication of wills; 
‘Maskwell (in the Double-Dealer) discloses by souilo- 
guy, that his motive for double-dealing was founded 
in his passion for Cynthia..—CumMBERLAND. 


DECEIT, FRAUD, GUILE. 


Deceit (v. Deceit, deception) is allied to fraud in 
seference to actions; to guile in reference to the cha- 
racter. 

Deceit is here, as in the preceding article, indeter- 
minate when compared with fraud, which is a spe- 
cifick mode of deceiving: deceit is practised only in 
private transactions’ fraudis practised towards bodies 


523 


as well as individuals, in publick as well as private. a 
child practises deceit towards its parents; 


With such deceits he gain’d their easy hearts, 
Too prone to credit his perfidious arts—DrypEn. 


Frauds are practised upon government, on the publick 
at large, or on tradesmen; ‘The story of the three 
books of the Sybils sold to Tarquin was all a fraud 
devised for the convenience of state..—PRIDEAUX. 
Deceit involves the violation of moral law, fraud that 
of the civillaw. A servant may decezve his master as 
te the time of his coming or going, but he defrauds 
him of his property if he obtains it by any false means, 
Deceit as a characteristick is indefinite in magnitude ; 
guile marks a strong degree of moral turpitude in the 
individual ; 
Was it for force or guile, 
Or some religious end you rais’d this pile ? 
DRYDEN. 


The former is displayed in petty concerns: the latter, 
which contaminates the whole character, displays itself 
in inextricable windings and turnings that are sug 
gested in a peculiar manner by the author of all evil. 
Deceitful is an epithet commonly and lightly applied 
to persons in general; but guwzleless is applied to cha- 
racters which are the most diametrically opposed to 
and at the greatest possible distance from, that which 
is false. 


ee 


FALLACIOUS, DECEITFUL, FRAUDULENT. 


Fallacious comes from the Latin failaz and fallo 
to deceive, signifying the property of misleading; de- 
ceitful, v. To deceive; fraudulent signifies after the 
manner of a fraud. 

The fallacious has respect to falsehood in opinion; 
deceitful to that which is externally false ; our hopes 
are often fallacious; the appearances of things are 
often deceztful. Fallacious, as characteristick of the 
mind, excludes the idea of design; 


But when Ulysses, with fallacious arts, 

Had made impression on the people’s hearts, 
And forg’d a treason in my patron’s name, 
My kinsman fell_—Dryprn. 


Deceitful excludes the idea of mistake; fraudulent 
is a gross species of the deceztful; ‘Such is the power 
which the sophistry of self-love exercises over us, that 
almost every one may be assured he measures himself 
by a deceitful scale.—Buair. It is a fallacious idea 
for any one to imagine that the faults of others can 
serve as any extenuation of his own; itis a deceitful 
mode of acting for any one to advise another to do thal. 
which he would not do himself; it is fraudulent te 
attempt to get money by means of a falsehood ; 


Iil-fated Paris! slave to womankind, 
As smooth of face as fraudulent of mind.—Pops. 


FALLACY, DELUSION, ILLUSION. 


Fallacy, in Latin failacia, from fallo, has com- 
monly a reference to the act of some conscious agent, 
whose intention is to deceive; the delusion (v. To de- 
ceive) and illusion may be the work of inanimate ob- 
jects. We endeavour to detect the fallacy which lies 
concealed in a proposition; ‘ There is indeed no trans- 
action which offers stronger temptations to fallacy and 
sophistication than epistolary intercourse.’—JoHNSON. 
One endeavours to remove the delusion to which the 
judgement has been exposed ; 


As when a wandering fire, 
Hovering and blazing with delusive light, 
Misleads th’ amaz’d night-wanderer from his way. 
MILTon. 


It ts sometimes difficult to dissipate the 2zlluszon to 
which the senses or the fancy are liable; ‘ Fame, glory, 
wealth, honour, have in the prospect pleasing zl/wstons.’ 
—STELLE. 

In all the reasonings of freethnkers, there are falla- 
cies against which a man cannot always be on his 
guard. The ignorant are perpetually exposed to delu- 
sions when they attempt to speculate on matters of 
opinion; among the most serious of these delusions we 
may reckon that of substituting their own feelings for 
the operations of Divine grace. The ideas of ghosts 


524 


and apparitions are mostly attributable to the zllusions 
of the senses and the imagination. 


FAITHLESS, PERFIDIOUS, TREACHEROUS. 


Faithless (v. Faithless) is the generick term, the 
rest are specifick terms; a breach of good faith is ex- 
pressed by them all, but fazthless expresses no more; 
the others include accessory ideas in per signification : 

erfidious, in Latin perfidiosus, signifies literally break- 
ing through faith in a great degree, and now implies 
the addition of hostility to the breach of fuzth; trea- 
cherous, most probably changed from traitorous, comes 
from the Latin trado to betray, and signifies one spe- 
cies of active hostile breach of faith. 

A faithless man is faithless only for his own inte- 
rest; a perfidious man is expressly so to the injury of 
another. A friend is faithless who consults his own 
safety in the time of need; he is perfidious if he pro- 
fits by the confidence reposed in him to plot mischief 
against the one to whom he has made vows of friend- 
ship. Faithlessness does not suppose any particular 
efforts to deceive; it consists of merely violating that 
faith which the relation produces; perfidy is never so 
complete as when it has most effectually assumed the 
mask of sincerity. Whoever deserts his friend in need 
is guilty of faithlessness ; but he is guilty of perfidy 
who draws from him every secret in order to effect his 
ruin; 


Old Priam, fearful of the war’s event, 

This hapless Polydore to Thracia sent, 

From noise and tumults, and destructive war, 
Committed to the fazthless tyrant’s care.—DRYDEN. 


‘When a friend is turned into an enemy the world is 
just enough to accuse the perfidiousness of the friend, 
rather than the indiscretion of the person who confided 
in him.’—AppIson. 

Incle was not only a faithless but a perfidious lover. 
Faithlessness, though a serious offence, is unhappily 
not unfrequent: there are too many men who are un- 
mindful of their most important engagements; but we 
may hope for the honour of humanity that there are 
not many instances of perfidy, which exceeds every 
other vice in atrocity, as it makes virtue itself subser- 
vient to its own base purposes. 

Perfidy may lie in the will to do; treachery lies 
altogether in the thing done: one may therefore be 
perjidious without being treacherous. A friend is per- 
fidious whenever he evinces his perfidy ; but he is said 
to be treacherous only in the particular instance in 
which he betrays the confidence and interests of an- 
other. I detect a man’s perfidy, or his perfidious aims, 
by the manner in which he attempts to draw my se- 
crets from me; I am made acquainted with his trea- 
chery not before 1 discover that my confidence is be- 
trayed and my secrets are divulged. On the other hand 
we may be treacherous without being perfidious. Per- 
jidy is an offence mostly between individuals; it is 
rather a breach of fidelity (v. Fatth, fidelity) than of 
faith: treachery on the other hand includes breaches 
of private or publick faith. A servant may be both 
‘1 ieaoneled and treacherous to his master; a citizen may 

@ treacherous, but not perfidious towards his country ; 


Shall then the Grecians fly, oh dire disgrace! 
And leave unpunish’d this perysidious race —Porr. 


And had not Heav’n the fall of Troy design'd, 
Enough was said and done t’ inspire a better mind: 
Then had our lances piere’d the treach’rous wood, 
And Iian’s towers and Priam’s empire stood. 
DRYDEN. 


It issaid thatin the South Sea islands, when a chief 
wants a human victim, their officers will sometimes 
invite their friends or relations to come to them, when 
they take the opportunity of suddenly falling upon 
them and despatching them: here is perfidy in the in- 
dividual who acts this false part; and treachery in the 
act of betraying him who is murdered. When the 
schoolmaster of Falerii delivered his scholars to Ca- 
millus, he was guilty of treachery in the act, and of 
perfidy towards those who had reposed confidence in 
him When Romulus ordered the Sabine women to 
be sezed, it was an act of treachery but not of perfidy ; 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


FAITHLESS, UNFAITHFUL. 


Faithless is mostly employed to denote a breach of 
faith; and unfazthful to mark the want of fidelity (v. 
Faith, fidelity). The former is positive; the latter ig 
rather negative, implying a deficiency. A prince, a 
government, a people, or an individual is said to be 
faithless ; 


So spake the seraph Abdiel, faithful found; 
Among the faithless, faithful only he.—M1.'Ton, 


A husband, a wife, a servant, or any individual is said 
to be unfaithful. Meffus Tuffetius, the Alban Dicta 
tor, was faithless to the Roman people when he with 
held his assistance in the battle, and strove to go over 
to the enemy ; 


The sire of men and monarch of the sky 

Th’ advice approv’d, and bade Minerva fly, 

Dissolve the league, and all her arts employ 

To make the breach the faithless act of Troy. 
PorPE. 


At length, ripe vengeance o’er their head impends, 
But Jove himself the faithless race defends.--PoPxr. 


A man is unfaithful to his employer who sees him in- 
jured by others without doing his utmost to prevent it; 
‘Tf you break one jot of your promise, I will think you 
the most atheistical break-promise, and the most un 
worthy that may be chosen out of the gross band of 
the unfatthful..—SHAKSPEARE. AWwomanis faithless 
to her husband who breaks the marriage vow; she is 
unfaithful to him when she does not discharge the 
duties of a wife to the best of her abilities. 

The term unfaithful may also be applied figura 
tively to things; 

If e’er with life I quit the Trojan plain, 

If e’er I see my sire and spouse again, 

This bow, unfaithful to my glorious aims, 

Broke by my hands shall feed the blazing aaa 

OPE. 


TREACHEROUS, TRAITOROUS, 
TREASONABLE. 


These epithets are all applied to one who betrays his 
trust; but treacherous (v. Faithless) respects a man’s 
private relations; tvaztorous, his publick relation to his 
prince and his country: heis a treacherous friend, and 
a traitorous subject. We may be treacherous to our 
enemies as well as our friends, for nothing can lessen 
the obligation to preserve the fidelity of promise; 
‘ This very charge of folly should make men cautious 
how they listen to the treacherous proposals which 
come from his own bosom.’—Souru. We may be 
traitorous to our country by abstaining to lend that aid 
which is in our power, for nothing but death can do 
away the obligation which we owe to it by the law of 
nature; ‘All the evils of war must unavoidably be 
endured, as the necessary means to give success to the 
traitorous designs of the rebel.\—Soutw. T'raitorous 
and treasonable are both applicable to subjects: but 
the former is extended to all publick acts ; the latter only 
to those which affect the supreme power: a soldier is 
traitorous who goes over. to the side of the enemy - 
against his country; a man is guilty of treasonable 
practices who meditates the life of the king, or aims 
at subverting his government: a man may be a traitor 
under all forms of government; but he can be guilty 
of treason only ina monarchical state ; ‘Herod trumped 
up a sham plot against Hyrcanus, as if he held corres 
pondence with Malchus King of Arabia, for accom- 
plishing treasonable designs against him.’—Pripgaux 


INSIDIOUS, TREACHEROUS. 


Insidious, in Latin insidiosus, from insidie strata 
gem or ambush, from ins?deo to lie in wait or ambush, 
signifies after the manner of a stratagem, or prone to 
adopt stratagems ; treacherous is changed from traitor- 
ous, and derived from trado to betray, signifying in 
general the disposition to betray. 

The ztnsidious man is not so bad as the treacherous 
man; for the former only lies in wait to ensnare us, 
when we are off our guard; but the latter throws us 
off our guard, by lulling us into a state of security, in 
order the more effectually to get us into his power: an 


so in like manner when the daughter of Tarpeius } enemy is, therefore, denominated insidious, but a friend 


opened the gates of the Roman citadel to the enemy. 


is treacherous. The insidious man has recourse te 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


a 


various little artifices, by which he wishes to effect his 
purpose, and gain an advantage over his opponent; 
the treacherous man pursues a system of direct false- 
hood, in order to ruin his friend : the insidious man ob- 
jects to a fair and open contest; but the treacherous 
man assails in the dark him whom he should support. 
The opponents to Christianity are fond of inszdious 
attacks upon its sublime truths, because they have not 
always courage to proclaim their own shame; ‘ Since 
men mark all our steps, and watch our haltings, let a 
sense of their insidious vigilance excite us so to behave 
ourselves, that they may find aconviction of the mighty 
power of Christianity towards regulating the passions.’ 
—ATTERBURY. The treachery of some men depends 
for its success on the credulity of others; asin the case 
of the Trojans, who listened to the tale of Simon, the 
Grecian spy ; 

The world must think him in the wrong, 

Would say he made a treach’rous use ~ 

Of wit, to flatter and seduce.—Swirt. 


TO CHEAT, DEFRAUD, TRICK. 


Cheat, in Saxon cettu, in all probability comes from 
captum and capio, as deceit comes from decipio; de- 
fraud, compounded of de and fraud, signifies to prac- 
tise fraud, or to obtain by fraud; trick, in French 
tricher, German triigen, signifies simply to deceive, or 
get the better of any one. 

The idea of deception which is common to these 
terms varies in degree and circumstance. 

One cheats by agross falsehood; one defrauds by a 
settled plan; one tricks by a sudden invention: cheat- 
‘ng is as low in its ends, as it is base in its means; 
“heats are contented to gain by any means: defraud- 
ing is aserious Measure ; its consequences are serious, 
both to the perpetrator and the sufferer. A person 
cheats at play; he defrauds those who place confi- 
dence in him. 

Cheating is not punishable by laws; it involves no 
other consequence than the loss of character: frauds 
are punished in every form, even with death, when the 
occasion requires; they strike at the root of all confi- 
dence, and affect the publick security: tricking is a 
species of dexterous cheating ; the meansand the end 
are alike trifling. Dishonest people cheat; villains 
defraud; cunning people trick. ‘These terms pre- 
serve the same distinction in their extended applica- 
tion ; 

If eer ambition did my fancy cheat 
With any wish so mean as to be great; 
Continue, Heav’n, still from me to remove 
The humble blessings of that life I love. 
Cow Ley. 


Thou, varlet, dost thy master’s gains devour, 
Thou milk’st his ewes, and often twice an hour; 
Of grass and fodder thou defraud’st the dams, 
And of the mother’s dugs the starving lambs. 
DRYDEN. 


He who has the character of a crafty, tricking man is 
entirely deprived of a principal instrument of business, 
trust, whence he will find nothing succeed to his wish.’ 
—Bacon. 


COQUET, JILT. 


There are many jilts who become so from cogucts, 
but one may bea coquet without being a jzlt. Coquetry 
is contented with employing little arts to excite notice ; 
jilting extends to the violation of truth and honour, in 
order to awaken a passion which it afterward disap- 
points. Wanity isthe main spring by which coquets 
and jilts are impelled to action; but the former in- 
dulges her propensity mostly at her own expense only, 
wile the lutter does no less injury to the peace of 
others than she does to her own reputation. The 
coquet makes a traffick of her own charms by seeking 
a multitude of admirers; the jilt sports with the sacred 
passion of love, and barters it for the gratification of 
any selfish propensity. Coquetry isa fault which should 
be guerded against by every female as a snare to her 
own happiness; jilting is a vice which cannot be 
practised without some depravity of the heart; ‘ The 
coquet is indeed one degree towards the jzlt; but the 
heart of the former is bent upon admiri¥® herself, and 


525 


giving false hopes to her lovers; but the latter is not 
contented to be extremely amiable, but she must addte 
that advantage a certain delight in being a torment to 
others.’—STrEcLE. 


oe 


TO INSNARE, ENTRAP, ENTANGLE, 
INVEIGLE. 


The idea of getting any object artfully into ones 
power is commor to all these terms; to insnare is te¢ 
take in or by means Of a snare; to entrap is to take 
in atrap or by means of a trap; to entangle is to take 
in a tangle, or by means of tangled thread; to inveigle 
is to take by means of making blind, from the French 
aveugle blind. 

Insnare and entangle are used either in the natural 
or moral sense; entrap mostly in the natural, zrnveigle 
only in the moral sense. In the natural sense birds are 
ensnared by means of birdlime, nooses, or whatever 
else may deprive them of their liberty: men and beasts 
are entrapped in whatever serves as a trap or enclo- 
sure; they may be entrapped by being lured into a 
house or any place of confinement: all creatures are 
entangled by nets, or that which confines the limbs 
and prevents them from moving forward. 

In the moral sense men are said to be ensnared by 
their own passions and the allurements of pleasure 
into a course of vice which deprives them of the use 
of their faculties, and makes them virtually captives; 
‘This lion (the literary lion) has a particular way of 
imitating the sound of the creature he would ensnare 
—Appison. Men may be entrapped by promises or 
delusive hopés into measures which they afterward 
repent of ; 


Though the new-dawning year in its advance 

With hope’s gay promise may entrap the mind, 

Let memory give one retrospective glance. 
CUMBERLAND. 


Men are entangled by their errours and imprudencies 
in difficulties which interfere with their moral freedom, 
and prevent them from acting uprightly; ‘Some men 
weave their sophistry till their own reason is entan 
gled”—Jounson. Men are inveigled by the artifices 
of others, when the consequences of their own actions 
are shut out from their view, and they are made to 
walk like blind men; ‘Why the inveigling of a wo- 
man before she is come to years of discretion shouid 
not be as criminal as the seducing her before she is ten 
years old, I am ata loss to comprehend.’—Appison 
Insidious freethinkers make no scruple of insnaring 
the immature understanding by the prcposal of such 
doubts and difficulties as shall shake their faith 
When a man is entangled in the evil courses of a 
wicked woman, the more he plunges to get his liberty, 
the faster she binds him in her toils. The practice of 
inveigling young persons of either sex into houses of 
ill fame is not so frequent at present as it was in former 
times. 


TO COAX, WHEEDLE, CAJOLE, FAWN 


Coax probably comes from coke a simpleton, signify 
ing to treat as a simpleton; wheedle isa frequentative 
of wheel, signifying to come round a person with 
smooth art; cajoleis in French cajoler ; to fawn, from 
the noun fawn, signifies to act or move like a fawn. 

The idea of using mean arts to turn people to one’s 
selfish purposes is common to all these terms: coax haa 
something childish in it; zheedle and cajole that which 
is knavish; fawn that which is servile. 

The act of coazing consists of urgent entreaty and 
whining supplication; the act of wheedling consists of 
smooth and winning entreaty ; cajoling consists mostly 
of trickery and stratagem, disguised under a soft ad 
dress and insinuating manners; the act of fawning 
consists of supplicant grimace and anticks, such as 
characterize the little animal from which it derives its 
name; children coaz their parents in order to obtain 
their wishes; ‘The nurse had changed her note, she 
was nuzzling and coazing the child; “that’s a good 
dear,” says she.’—L’Estraneg. The greedy and 
covetous wheedle those of an easy temper; ‘Regulus 
gave his son his freedom in order to entitle him to the 
estate left him by his mother, and when he got into pos- 
session of it endeavoured /as the character of the mar 


ans 


526 


made it generally believed) to wheedle him out of it by 
the most indecent compleisance..—Mrtmorn (Letters 
of Pliny). Knaves cajole thesimple and unsuspect- 
ing; ‘I must grant it a just judgement-upon poets, 
that they whose chief pretence is wit, should be 
treated as they themselves treat fools, that is, be 
cajoled with praises.—Porr. Parasites fawn upon 
those who have the power to contribute to their 
gratification ; 


tihappy he, 

Who, scornful of the flatterer’s fawning art, 
Dreads ev’n to pour his gratitude of heart. 
ARMSTRONG. 


Coazing is mostly resorted to by inferiours towards 
those on whom they are dependent; wheedling and 
cajoling are low practices confined to the baser sort of 
men with each other; fawning, though not less mean 
and disgraceful than the above-mentioned vices, is com- 
monly practised only in the higher walks of life, where 
men of base character, though not mean education, 
come in connexion with the great. 


TO ADULATE, FLATTER, COMPLIMENT. 


Adulate, in Latin adulatus, participle of adulor, is 
changed from adoleo to offer incense; flatter, in French 
flatter, comes from the Latin jflatus wind or air, sig- 
nifying to say what is airy and unsubdstantial; compl- 
ment comes from comply, and the Latin complaceo, to 
please greatly. 

We adulate by discovering in our actions an entire 
subserviency ; we flatter simply by words expressive 
of an unusual admiration ; we compliment by fair lan- 
guage or respectful civilities. An adulatory address 
is couched in terms of feigned devotion to the object; 
a flattering address is filled with the fictitious perfec- 
tions of the object ; a complimentary address is suited 
to the station of the individual and the occasion which 
gives rise to it; it is full of respect and deference. 
Courtiers are guilty of adulation; lovers are addicted 
to flattery; people of fashion indulge themselves in a 
profusion of compliments. 

Adulation can never be practised without falsehood ; 
its means are hypocrisy and lying, its end private 
nterest; ‘The servile and excessive adulation of the 
senate soon convinced ‘Tiberius that the Roman spirit 
had suffered a total change under Augustus.’—Cum- 
BEREAND. Flattery always exceeds the truth: it is 
extravagant praise dictated by an overweening. par- 
tiality, or, what is more frequent, by a disingenuous 
temper; ‘You may be sure a woman loves a man 
when she uses his expressions, tells his stories, or 
imitates his manner. This gives a secret delight; for 
imitation is a kind of artless flattery, and mightily 
favours the principle of self-love..—Sprctraror. Com- 
pliments are not incompatible with sincerity, unless 
they are dictated from a mere compliance to the pre- 
scribed rules of politeness or the momentary desire of 
pleasing ; ‘{ have known a hero complimented upon 
the decent majesty and state he assumed after victory.’ 
—Porr. Adulation may be fulsome, flattery gross, 
compliments unmeaning. Adulation inspires a person 
with an immoderate conceit of his own importance; 
flattery makes him in love with himself; compliments 
make him in good-humour with himself. 


FLATTERER, SYCOPHANT, PARASITE. 


Flatterer, v. To adulate; sycophant, in Greek auxo- 
ddvrns, signified originally an informer on the matter 
of figs, but has now acquired the meaning of an ob- 
sequious and servile person; parasite, in Greek mapd- 
citos, from mapa and otros corn or meat, originally 
referred to the priests who attended feasts, but it is 
now applied to a hanger-on at the tables of the great. 

The flatterer is one who flatters by words; the 
sycophant and parasite is therefore always a flatterer, 
and something more, for the sycophant adopts every 
mean artifice by which he can ingratiate himself, and 
the parasite submits to every degradation and servile 
compliance by which he can obtain his base purpose. 
These terms differ more in the object than in the 
means: the former having general purposes of favour ; 
and the latter particular and still lower purposes to 
answer. Courtiers may be sycophants in order to be 
well with their priace and obtain preferment, but they 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


are seldom parasites, for the latter are generally poor 
and in want of a meal; ‘ Flatterers are the bosom 
enemies of princes..—-Soutnr. ‘ By a revolution in the 
state, the fawning sycophant of yesterday is converted 
into the austere critick of the present hour”—Burxes. 


The first of pleasures 
Were to be rich myself; but next to this 
I hold it best to be a parasite, 
And feed upon the rich.— CUMBERLAND. 


TO GLORY, BOAST, VAUNT. 


To glory is to held as one’s glory ; to boast is to set 
forth to one’s advantage; to vaunt is to boast loudly. 
The first two terms denote the value which the in- 
dividual sets upon that which belongs to himself; the 
last term may be applied to that which respects others 
as well as ourselves. 

To glory is more particularly the act of the mind, 
the indulgence of the interna] sentiment: to boast 
and vaunt denote rather the expression of the senti- 
ment. To gloryis applied only to matters of moment; 
boast is rather suitable to trifling points; maunt is a 
term of less familiar use than either, being suited 
rather to poetry or romance. A Christian martyr 
glories in the cross of Christ; ‘ All the laymen who 
have exerted a more than ordinary genius in their 
writings, and were the glory of their times, were men 
whose hopes were filled with immortality.,.—Appison. 
A soldier boasts of his courage and his feats iri battle; 
‘If a man looks upon himself in an abstracted light, 
he has not much to boast of’—Appison. 


Not that great champion 
Whom famous poets’ verse so much doth vaunt, 
And hath for twelve huge labours high extoll’d 
So many furies and sharp hits did haunt. 
SPENSER 


Glory is but seldom used in a bad sense, and boast 
still seldomer in a good sense, A royalist glortes in 
the idea of supporting his prince and the legitimate 
rights of a sovereign ; but there are republicans and 
traitors who glory in their shame, and boast of the 
converts they make to their lawless cause. It is an 
unbecoming action for an individual to boast of any 
thing in himself; but a nation, in its collective capacity, 
may boast of its superiority without doing violence to 
decorum. An Englishman glories in the reflection of 
belonging to such a distinguished nation, although he 
would do very idly to boast of it as a personal quality ; 
no nation can boast of so many publick institutions for 
the relief of distress as England. 


TO EVADE, EQUIVOCATE, PREVARICATE 


Evade, v. To escape; equivocate, v. Ambiguity; 
prevaricate, in Latin prevaricatus, participle of pre 
and varicor to go loosely, signifies to shift from side 
to side. 

These words designate an artful mode of escaping 
the scrutiny of an inquirer; we evade by artfully 
turning the subject or calling off the attention of the 
inquirer; we equivocate by the use of equivocal ex- 
pressions; we prevaricate by the use of loose and 
indefinite expressions: we avoid giving satisfaction by 
evading ; we give a false satisfaction by eguivocating ; 
we give dissatisfaction by prevaricating. Evading is 
not so mean a practice as equivocating : it may be 
sometimes needful to evade a question which we do not 
wish to answer ; ‘ Whenever a trader has endeavoured 
to evade the just demands of his creditors, this hath 
been declared by the legislature to be an ‘act of bank- 
ruptcy.—BLackstTong. Egquivocations are employed 
for the purposes of falsehood and interest; ‘When 
Satan told Eve “Thou shalt not surely die,” it was 
in his equivocation, ‘Thou shalt not incur present 
death.” ’"—Brown (Vulgar Errours). Prevarications 
are still meaner; and are resorted to mostly by crimi- 
nals in order to escape detection; ‘ There is no pre- 
varicating With God when we are on the very thresh 
old of his presence.’.—CuMBERLAND. 


EVASION, SHIFT, SUBTERFUGE. 
Evasion (v. To evade) is here taken only in the 
bad sense ; shift and subterfuge are modes of evasion: 
the shift signifies that gross kind of evasion by whicb 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


ane attempts to shift off an obligation from one’s self; 
the subterfuge, from subter under and fugio to fly, is 
@ mode of evasion in which one has recourse to some 
screen or shelter. 

The evasion, in distinction from thé others, is re- 
sorted to for the gratification of pride or obstinacy : 
whoever wishes to maintain a bad cause must have re- 
course to evasions ; candid minds despise all evasions , 
* The question of a future state was hung up in doubt, 
or banded between conflicting disputants through all 
the quirks and evasions of sophistry and logick.’— 
CumMBERLAND. The shéft is the trick of a knave; it 
always serves a paltry, low purpose; he who has not 
courage to turn open thief, will use any shifts rather 
than not get money dishonestly; ‘When such little 
shifts come once to be laid open, how poorly and 
wretchedly must that man needs sneak, who finds 
himself both guilty and baffled too.—Souru. The 
subterfuge is the refuge of one’s fears; it is not re- 
sorted to from the hope of gain, but from the fear of a 
loss; not for purposes of interest, but for those of 
character; he who wants to justify himself in a bad 
cause, has recourse to subterfuges ; 


What farther subterfuge can Turnus find ? 
DRYDEN. 


TO ESCAPE, ELUDE, EVADE. 


Escape, in French echapyer, comes in all proba- 
bility from the Latin excipiv iv take out of, to get off; 
elude, v. To avoid ; evade, from the Latin evade, com- 
pounded of e and vado, signifies to go or get out of a 
hing. 

The idea of being disengaged from that which is 
not agreeable is comprehended in the sense of all these 
terms ; but escape designates no means by which this 
is effected ; elude and evade define the means, namely, 
“ve efforts which are used by one’s self: we are simply 
disengaged when we escape; but we disengage our- 
selves when we elude and evade: we escape from 
danger; we elude the search: our escapes are often 
providential, and often narrow; our success in eluding 
depends on our skill: there are many bad men who 
escape hanging by the mistake of a word; there are 
many who escape detection by the art with which 
they elude observation and inquiry; ‘ 

Vice oft is hid in virtue’s fair disguise, 

And in her borrow’d form escapes inquiring eyes. 

SPECTATOR. 


It is a vain attempt 
To bind the ambitious and unjust by treaties ; 
These they e/ude a thousand specious ways. 
THOMSON. 


The earl Rivers had frequently inquired for his son 
(Savage), and had always been amused with evasive 
answers.’—JOHNSON. 

Elude and evade both imply the practice of art; 
but the former consists mostly of actions, the latter of 
words as well as actions: a thief eludes those who are 
im pursuit of him by dexterous modes of concealment; 
he evades the interrogatories of the judge by equivo- 
cating replies. One is said to elude a punishment, and 
to evade a law. 


AMBIGUOUS, EQUIVOCAL. 


Ambiguous, in Latin ambiguus, from ambigo, com- 
pounded of ambo and ago, signifies acting both ways; 
equivocal, in French equivogque, Latin eguivocus, com- 
posed of e@quus and vox, signifies that which may be 
applied equally to two or more objects. 

An ambiguity arises from a too general form of 
expression, which leaves the sense of the author in- 
determinate; an equivocation lies in the power of par- 
ticular terms used, which admit of a double interpre- 
tation: the ambiguity leaves us in entire incertitude 
as to what is meant; the eguivocation misleads us by 
the use of a term in the sense which we do not suspect. 

The ambiguity may be unintentional, arising from 
the nature both of the words and the things; or it 
may be employed to withhold information respecting 
our views ; the eguivocation is always intentional, and 
may be employed for purposes of fraud; ‘ An honest 
man will never employ an equivocul expression; a 
confused man may often utter ambiguous ones without 
any design.’=-BiainR The histories ef heathen nations 


527 


are full of confusion and ambiguity: the heathen 
oracles are mostly veiled by some eguivocation ; of 
this we have a remarkable instance in the oracle of 
the Persian mule, by which Croesus was misled; ‘We 
make use of an equivocation to deceive; of an ambi- 
guity to keep in the dark..—TRusLeR. Ambiguous 
may sometimes be applied to other objects besides 
words ; 


Th’ ambiguous god, who rul’d her lab’ring breast, 

In these mysterious words his mind express’d, 

Some truths reveal’d, in terms involv’d the rest. 
DRYDEN. 


‘The parliament of England is without comparison the 
most voluminous author in the world, and there is such 
a happy ambiguity in its works, that its students 
have as much to say on the wrong side of every ques- 
tion as upon the right’—CumpBer.anp. The term 
equivocal may sometimes be employed in an indifferent 
sense; ‘Give a man all that is in the power of the 
world to bestow, but leave him at the same time under 
some secret oppression or heaviness of heart. Yeu 
bestow indeed the materials of enjoyment, but you de 

prive him of the ability to extract it. Hence pros 

perity is so often an equivocal word, denoting merely 
affluence of possession, but unjustly applied to the vos 

sessor.’—BLaIR. 


TO AVOID, ESCHEW, SHUN, ELUDE. 


Avoid, in French eviter, Latin evito, compounded 
ofe and vito, probably from viduus void, signifies to 
make one’s self void or free from a thing; eschew und 
shun both come from the German scheuen, Sweaish 
sky, &c. when it signifies to fly; elude, in French etu- 
der, Latin eludo, compounded of e and Ludo, signifies to 
get one’s self out of a thing by a trick. 

Avoid is both generick and specifick ; we avoid in es- 
chewing or shunning, or we avoid without eschewing 
or shunning. Various contrivances are requisite for 
avoiding ; eschewing and shunning consist only of go- 
ing out of the way, of not coming in contact; eluding, 
as its derivation denotes, has more of artifice in it than 
any of the former. We avoid a troublesome visiter 
under real or feigned pretences of ill health, prior en 
gagement, and the like; we eschew evil company by 
not going into any but what we know to be good; wa 
shun the sight of an offensive object by turning into an- 
other road; we elude a punishment by getting out of 
the way of those who have the power of inflicting it. 

Prudence enables us to avoid many of the eviis to 
which we are daily exposed; ‘Having thoroughly 
considered the nature of this passion, I have made it 
my study how to avoid the envy that may accrue to 
me from these my speculations.—Strreis. Nothing 
but a fixed principle of religion can enable a man to 
eschew the temptations to evil which lie in his path. 
This term is particularly applicable to poetry and the 
grave style; 


Thus Brute this realm into nis rule subdued, 

Ané reigned long in great felicity, 

Lo» ¢ af his friends and of his fees eschewed. 
SPENSER. 


Fear will lead one to seen a madman, whom it is not 


in one’s power to bind; 


Of many things, some few I shall explain; 

Teach thee to shun the dangers of the main, 

And how at length the promised shore to gain. 
DRYDEN. 


A want of all principle leads a man to elude his cre 
ditors, whom he wishes to defraud ; 


The wary Trojan, bending from the blow, 
Eludes the death, and disappoints his foe.—Popr. 


The best means of avoiding quarrels is to avoid 
giving offence. The surest preservative of our inno- 
cence is to eschew evil company, and the surest pre 
servative of our health is to shun every intemperate 
practice. Those who have no evil design in view will 
have no occasion to elude the vigilance of the law. 

We speak of avoiding a danger, and shunning a 
danger: but to avoid it is m general not to fall inte 
it; to shun it is with care to keep out of the way 
of it. 


528 


TO INVENT, FEIGN, FRAMtn, FABRICATE, 
FORGE. 


Invent, v. To contrive; feign, v. To feign; frame 
signifies to make according toa frame, fabricate, in 
Latin fabricatus, from faber a workman, is changed 
from facio, signifying to make according to art; forge, 
from the noun forge, signifies to make in a forge. 

All these terms are employed to express the produc- 
tion of something out of the mind, by means of its own 
efforts. To invent (v. To contrive) is the general term; 
the other terms imply modes of invention under differ- 
ent circumstances. To invent, as distinguished from 
the rest, is busied in creating new forms, either by 
means of the imagination or the reflective powers; it 
forms combinations either purely spiritual, or those 
which are mechanical and physical: the poet invents 
imagery; the philosopher zmvents mathematical prob- 
Jems or mechanical instruments; ‘Pythagoras invented 
the forty-seventh proposition of the first book of Eu- 
clid..— BARTELET. 

Invent is used for the production of new forms to real 
objects, or for the creation of unreal objects; to feign 
‘y. To feign) is used for the creation of unreal objects, 
or such as have no existence but in the mind: a play 
or story is invented from what passes in the world; 
Mahomet’s religion consists of nothing but inventions : 
the heathen poets feigned all the tales and fables 
which constitute the mythology, or history of their 
deities ; H 

Their savage eyes turned to a modest gaze 

By the sweet power of musick; therefore, the poet 

Did feign that Orpheus drew trees, stones, and floods. 

SHAKSPEARE. 


To frame, or make according to a frame, is a species 
of invention which consists in the disposition as well as 
the combination of objects. Thespis was the inventor 
of tragedy: Psalmanazar framed an entire new lan- 
guage, which he pretended to be spoken on the island 
of Formosa; Solon framed a new set of laws for the 
city of Athens; ft 


Nature hath fram’d strange fellows in her time. 
SHAKSPEARE. 


To invent, feign, and frame are all occasionally em- 
ployed in the ordinary concerns of life, and in a bad 
sense; fabricate and forge are never used any other- 
wise. Jnvent is employed as to that which is the fruit 
of one’s own mind; to feign is employed as to that 
which is unreal ; to frame is employed as to that which 
requires deliberation and arrangement; to fabricate, 
from faber a workman, signifying to make in a work- 
manlike manner, and to forge, signifying to make as in 
a forge, are employed as to that which is absolutely 
false, and requiring more or less exercise of the inventive 
power. A person énvents a lie, and feigns sorrow; in- 
vents an excuse, and feigns an attachment. <A story 
is ¢nvented inasmuch as it is new, and not before con- 
ceived by others, or occasioned by the suggestions of 
others; it is framed inasmuch as it required to be duly 
disposed in all its parts, so as to be consistent ; it is fa- 
bricated inasmuch as it ruus in direct opposition to the 
actual circumstances, and therefore has required the 
skill and labour of a workman; it is forged inasmuch 
as it seems by its utter falsehood and extravagance to 
have caused as much severe action in the brain, as what 
is produced by the fire in a furnace or forge; ‘‘The very 
idea of the fabrication of a new government is enough 
to fill us with horrour.’—Burke. 


As chymists gold from brass by fire would draw, 
Pretexts are into treason forg’d by law.—DEnHaM. 


FICTION, FABRICATION, FALSEHOOD. 


Fiction is opposed to what is real; fabrication, as it 
ts here understood, and falsehood are opposed to what 
is true. Fiction relates what may be, though not what 
is: fabrication.and falsehood relate what is not as what 
is, and vice versd. Fiction serves for amusement and 
instruction; fabrication and falsehood serve to mislead 
aud deceive. Fiction and fabrication both require in- 
vention: fatsehood consists of simple assertions of what 
is not true. The fables of Msop are fictions of the sim- 
plest kind, but yet such as required a peculiarly lively 
fancy and inventive genius to produce: the fabrication 
af a play as the production of Shakspeare’s pen, was 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


once executed with sufficient skill to impose for a time 
upon the publick credulity : a good memory is all that is 
necessary in order to avoid uttering falsehoods that can 
be easily contradicted and confutéd. In an extended 
sense »f the word fiction, it approaches still nearer to the 
sense of fabricate, when said of the fictions of the an- 
cients, which were delivered as truth, although admit- 
ted now to be false: the motive of the narrator is what 
here constitutes the difference; namely, that in the 
former case he believes, or is supposed to believe, what 
he relates to be true, in the latter he knows it to be 
false. ‘The heathen mythology consists principally of 
the fictions of the poets: newspapers commonly abound 
in fabrication ;.* All that the Jews tell us of their two- 
fold Messiah is a mere fiction, framed without as much 
as a pretence to any foundation in Scripture for it.’— 
Pripeaux. ‘The translator or fabricator of Ossian’s 
poems,’—Mason. Sometimes, however, the term fa- 
bricate may be applied to any effort of genius, without 
regard to the veracity of the fabricator ; ‘ With rea- 
son has Shakspeare’s superiority been asserted in the 
fabrication of his preternatural machines.’—CumBER- 
LAND. 

As epithets fictitious and false are very closely allied ; 
for what is fictitious is false, though all that is false is 
not fictitious: the fictitious is that which has been 
feigned, or falsely made by some one; the false ie 
simply that which is false by the nature of the thing: 
the fictitious account is therefore the invention of an 
individual, whose veracity is thereby impeached; but 
there may be many false accounts unintentionally cir- 
culated. 


UNTRUTH, FALSEHOOD, FALSITY, LIE. 


An untruth is an untrue saying ; a falsehood and a 
lie are false sayings: untruth of itself reflects no dis- 
grace on the agent; it may be unintentional or not: a 
falsehood and a lie are intentional false sayings, differ- 
ing only in degree as the guilt of the offender: a false- 
hood is not always spoken for the express intention of 
deceiving, but a die is uttered only for the worst of pur- 
poses. Some persons have a habit of telling falsehoods 
from the mere love of talking: those who are guilty of 
bad actions endeavour to conceal them by Ives. Children 
are apt to speak untruths for want of understand- 
ing the value of words; ‘ Above all things tell no un- 
truth, no, not even in trifles”—Sir Henry Sypnery. 
Travellers from a love of exaggeration are apt to intro- © 
duce falsehoods into their narrations; ‘Many tempta- 
tions to falsehood will occur in the disguise of passions 
too specious to fear much resistance.—Jounson. It 
is the nature of a lie to increase itself to a tenfold de- 
gree; one lie must be backed by many more; ‘ The 
nature of a Jie consists in this, that it is a false signifi- 
cation knowingly and voluntarily used.’.—Sovurn. | 

Falsehood is also used in the abstract sense for what 
is false. Falsity is never used bat in the abstract 
sense, for the property of the false. The former is ge 
neral, the latter particular in the application: the truth 
or falsehood of an assertion is not always to be dis- 
tinctly proved; ‘ When speech is employed only as the 
vehicle of falsehood, every man must disunite himself 
from others.’-—Jounson. The falsity of any particu- 
lar person’s assertion may be proved by the evidence 
of others; 

Can you on him such falsities obtrude ? 


And as a mortal the Most Wise delude? 
SANDYs. 


TRUTH, VERACITY. 


Truth belongs to the thing; veraczty to the person: 
the truth of the story is admitted upon the veracity of 
the narrator; ‘I shal! think myself obliged for the 
future to speak always in truth and sincerity of heart. 
—Appison. ‘Many relations of travellers have been 
slighted as fabulous, till more frequent voyages have 
confirmed their veracity.’.—Jounson. 


TO FEIGN, PRETEND. 


Feign, in Latin fingo or figo, from the Greek myyw 
to fix or stamp; pretend, in Latin pretendo, signifies 
properly to stretch before, that is, to put on the outside 

These words may be used either for doing or saying ; 
they are both opposed to what is true, but they diffes 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


frum the motive of the agent. To feign is taken either 
in a bad or an indifferent sense; to pretend always in 
a bad sense. One feigns in order to gain some future 
end; a person feigns sickness in order to be excused 
from paying a disagreeable visit ; one pretends in order 
to serve a present purpose; a child pretends to have 
fost his book who wishes to excuse himself for his 
idleness. 

To feign consists often of a line of conduct; to pre- 
tend consists always of words. Ulysses feigned mad- 
ness in order to escape from going to the Trojan war. 
According to Virgil, the Grecian Sinon pretended to be 
a deserter come over to the Trojan camp. In matters 
of speculation, to feign is to invent by force of the 
‘magination; to pretend is to set up by force of self- 
‘onceit. Itis fezgned by the poets that Orpheus went 
fown into hell and brought back Euridice his wife; 


To win me from his tender arms, 
Unnumber’d suitors came 

Who prais’d me for imputed charms, 
And felt or feign’d a flame.—GoLDsMITH. 


Infidel philosophers pretend to account for the most 
mysterious things in nature upon natural, or, as they 
please to term it, rational principles; ‘ An affected de- 
licacy is the common improvement in those who pre- 
tend to be refined above others.’ —STEELE. 


SPURIOUS, SUPPOSITIOUS, COUNTERFEIT. 


Spurious, in Latin spurius, from oropa, because the 
ancients called the female spurium; hence, one who 
is of uncertain origin on the father’s side is termed 
spurious; suppositious, from suppose, signifies to be 
supposed or conjectured, in distinction from being 
positively known; counterfeit, v. To imitate. 

All these terms are modes of the false; the two 
former indirectly, the latter directly; whatever is un- 
certain that might be certain, and whatever is con- 

ectural that might be conclusive, are by implication 

alse; that which is made in imitation of another 
thing, so as to pass for it as the true one, is positively 
false. Hence, the distinction between these terms, and 
the ground of their applications. An illegitimate off- 
spring is said to be spurious in the literal sense of the 
word, the father in this case being always uncertain ; 
and any offspring which is termed spurious falls neces- 
sarily under the imputation of not being the offspring 
of the person whose name they bear. In the same 
manner an edition of a work is termed spurious which 
comes out under a false name, or a name different from 
that in the titlepage; ‘ Being to take leave of England, 
I thought it very handsome to take my leave also of 
you, and my dearly honoured mother, Oxford; other- 
wise both of you may have just grounds to cry me up, 
you for a forgetful friend, she for an ungrateful son, if 
not some spurious issue.—HowrLL. Suppositious 
expresses more or less of falsehood, according to,the 
nature of the thing. A suppositious parent implies 
little less than a directly false parent; but in speaking 
of the origin of any thing in remote periods of an- 
tiquity, it may be merely suppositious or conjectural 
from the want of information; ‘ The fabulous tales of 
early British history, suppositious treaties and char- 
ters, are the proofs on which Edward founded his title 
to the sovereignty of Scotland.—RosBERTSON. Coun- 
terfeit respects rather works of art which are exposed 
to imitation: coin is counterfeit which bears a false 
stamp, and every invention which comes out under the 
sanction of the inventor’s name is likewise a counter- 
feit if not made by himself or by his consent ; 

Words may be counterfeit, 
False coin’d, and current only from the tongue, 
Without the mind.—SouTHeErRn. 


TO IMITATE, COPY, COUNTERFEIT. 


The idea of taking a likeness of some object is com- 
mon to all these terms; but imitate (v. To follow) is 
the generick, copy (v. To copy) and counterfeit \v. Spu- 
rious) the specifick: to imitate is to take a general 
likeness; to copy, to take an exact likeness; to coun- 
terfeit, to take a false likeness: to imitate is, therefore, 
almost always used in a good or an indifferent sense ; 
to copy mostly, and to counterfeit always, in a bad 
sense: to imitate an author’s style is at all times 
allowable for one who cannot form a style for o enaak : 


529 


but to copy an author’s style would be a too slavish 
adherence even for the dullest writer. Tc imitate ig 
applicable to every object, for every external object is 
susceptible of zmztation; and in man the imitative 
faculty displays itself alike in the highest and the 
lowest matters, in works of art and in moral conduct, 
‘ Poetry and musick have the power of imitating the 
manners of men.’—S1r Wo. Jones. To copy is ap 
plicable only to certain objects which will admit of a 
minute likeness being taken; thus, an artist may be 
said to copy from nature, which is almost the only cir- 
cumstance in which copying is justifiable, except when 
it is a mere manual act; to copy any thing in others, 
whether it be their voice, their manners, their lan- 
guage, or their works, is inconsistent with the inde- 
pendence which belongs to every rational agent; 
‘Some imagine, that whatsoever they find in the pic- 
ture of a master, who has acquired reputation, must 
of necessity be excellent; and never fail when they 
copy, to follow the bad as well as the good things.’— 
Drypen. In a general application, however, the term 
copy may be used in an indifferent sense ; 


The mind, impressible and soft, with ease 
Imbibes and copies what she hears and ‘sees. 
Cowrrr. 


To counterfeit is applicable but to few objects, and 
happily practicable but in few cases; we may counter- 
fet the coin, or we may counterfeit the person, or the 
character, or the voice, or the handwriting of any one 
for whom we wouid wish to pass; but if the likeness 
be not very exact, the falsehood is easily detected ; 


I can counterfeit the deep tragedian, 


Speak and look big, and pry on every side. 
SHAKSPEARE 


TO IMITATE, MIMICK, MOCK, APE. 


Imitate, v. To follow; mimick, from the Greek 
ppos, has the same origin as imitate ; mock, in French 
mocquer, Greek pwkaw to laugh at; to ape signifies to 
imitate like an ape. 

To imitate is here the general term: to mimick and 
to ape are both species of vicious zmitation. 

One imitates that which is deserving of zmitation, 
or the contrary: one mimicks either that which is not 
an authorized subject of imitation, or which is im#- 
tated so as to excite laughter. A person wishes to 
make that his own which he zmitates, but he mimicks 
for the entertainment of others; 


Because we sometimes walk on two. 
I hate the zmitating crew.—Gay. 


The force of example is illustrated by the readiness 
with which people imitate each other’s actions when 
they are in close intercourse: the trick of mimickry is 
sometimes carried to such an extravagant pitch that 
no man, however sacred his character, or exalted his 
virtue, can screen himself from being the object of 
this species of buffoonery: to ape is a serious though 
an absurd act of imitation ; 


A courtier any ape surpasses; 

Behold him humbly cringing wait 

Upon the minister of state. 

View him soon after to inferiours 

Aping the conduct of superiours.—SwirF 


To mimick is a jocose act of zmitation ; 


Nor will it less delight th’ attentive sage 

T’ observe that instinct which unerring guides 

The brutal race which mimicks reason’s love. 
SoMERVILL} 


To mock is an ill-natured, or at least an unmeaning, act 
of imitation ; 
What though no friends in sable weeds appear, 
Grieve for an hour, perhaps, then mourn a year, 
And bear about the mockery of wo 
To midnight dances.—Pork. 
The ape imitates to please himself, but the mimick 
imitates to please others. The ape seriously tries t@ 
come as near the original as he can; the mzmick tries 
to render the imitation as ridiculous as possible: the 
former apes out of deference to the person aped; the 
latter mimicks out of contempt or disregard. 
Mimickry belongs to the merry-andrew or buffoon, 
aping to the weakling who has no originality in him- 
self. Show-people display their talents in mimicking 


530 


the cries of birds cr beasts, for the entertainment of 
the gaping crowd; weak and vain people, who wish to 
be admired for that which they have nut in themselves, 
ape the dress, the manners, the voice, the mode of 
speech, and the like, of some one who is above them. 
Mimickry excites laughter from that which is bur- 
lesque in it; aping excites laughter from that which is 
absurd and unsuitable in it; mockery excites laughter 
from the malicious temper of those who enjoy it. 


TO FOLLOW, IMITATE. 


Follow, v. To follow, succeed; imitate, in Latin 
vmitatus, participle of imitor, from the Greek prpéw to 
mimick and éyovos alike, signifies to do or make alike. 

Both these terms denote the regulating our actions 
by sumething that offers itself to us, or is set before us; 
but we follow that which is either internal or external ; 
we imitate that only which is external: we either fol- 
low the dictates of our own minds or the suggestions 
of others: but we imitate the conduct of others; in 
regard to external objects we follow either a rule or an 
example; but we zmitate an example only: we follow 
the footsteps of our forefathers; we imitate their vir- 
tues and their perfections: it is advisable for young 
persons to follow as closely as possible the good ex- 
ample of those who are older and wiser than them- 
selves; 


And I with the same greediness did seek, 

As water when I thirst, to swallow Greek; 

Which I did only learn that I might know 

Those great examples which I follow now. 
DENHAM. 


It is the bounden duty of every Christian to imitate 
the example df our blessed Saviour to the utmost of 
his power; ‘ The imitators of Milton seem to place all 
the excellency of that sort of writing in the use of un- 
couth or antique words.’—JoHNSON. 

To follow aud imitate may both be applied to that 
which is good cr bad: the former to any action; but 
ihe latter only to the behaviour or the external man- 
ners: we may follow a person in his career of virtue 
or vice; we imitate his gestures, tone of voice, and the 
like. Parents should be guarded in all their words and 
actions; for whatever may be their example, whether 
virtuous or vicious, it will in all probability be followed 
by their children: those who have the charge of young 
people should be particularly careful to avoid all bad 
habits of gesture, voice, or speech; as there is a much 
greater propensity to imitate what is ridiculous than 
what is becoming. 


TO COPY, TRANSCRIBE. 


Copy is probably changed from the Latin capio to 
take, because we take that from an object which we 
copy; transcribe, in Latin transcribo, that is, trans 
over and seribo, signifies literally to write over from 
something else, to make to pass over in writing from 
one body to another. 

To copy respects the matter; to transcribe respects 
simply the act of writing. What is copied must be 
taken immediately from the original, with which it 
must exactly correspond; what is transcribed may be 
taken from the copy, but not necessarily in an entire 
state. Things are copied for the sake of getting the 
contents: they are often transcribed for the sake of 
clearness and fair writing. A copier should be very 
exact; a transcriber should be 4 good writer. Law- 
yers copy deeds, and have them afterward frequently 
transcribed as occasion requires. T'ranscribe is some- 
times used to signify a literal copy ina figurative appli- 
cation; ‘ Aristotle tells us that the world is a copy or 
transcript of those ideas which are in the mind of the 
First Being, and that those ideas which are in the mind 
of man are a transcript of the world. To this we 
may add that words are the transcript of those ideas 
which are in the mind of man, and that writing or 
printing are the transcript of words.’—Appison. 


COPY, MODEL, PATTERN, SPECIMEN. 


Copy, from the verb 8) copy (v. To copy), marks either 
the thing from which we copy or the thing copied ; mo- 
del, in French modéle, Latin modulus a little mode or 
measure, signifies the thing that serves asa measure, or 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


that is made after a measure; pattern, which isa ya- 
riation of patron, from the French patron, Latin pa- 
tronus, signifies the thing that directs; specimen, in 
Latin specimen, from specio to behold, signifies what 
is looked at for the purpose of forming our judge- 
ment by it. ‘ 

* A copy and a model may be both employed eithes 
as an original work or as a work formed after an origi- 
nal. In the former sense, copy is used in relation toim 
pressions, manuscripts, or writings, which are made te 
be copied by the printer, the writer, or the engraver: 
model is used in every other case, whether in morality 
or the arts: the proof will seldom be faulty when the 
copy is clear andcorrect. There can be no good wri- 
ting formed after a bad copy, or in anextended applica- 
tion of the terms, the poet or fhe artist may copy after 
nature ; ‘ Longinus has observed that the description of 
love in Sappho is an exact copy of nature, and that al 
the circumstances which follow one another in sucha 
hurry of sentiments, notwithstanding they appear re- 
pugnant.to each other, are really such as happen in the 
phrensies of love.—-Appison. No human being has 
ever presented us with a perfect model of virtue; the 
classick writers of antiquity ought to be carefully pe- 
rused by all who wish to acquire a pure style, of 
which they contain unquestionably the best models ; 
‘Socrates recommends to Alcibiades, as the model of 
his devotions, a short prayer which a Greek poet com- 
posed for the use of his friends.’—Appison. 

Respecting these words, however, it is here farther 
to be observed, that a copy requires the closest imita- 
tion possible in every particular, but a model ought only 
to serve as a general rule: the former must be literally 
retraced by a mechanical process in all its lines and 
figures; it leaves nothing to be supplied by the judge- 
ment or will of the executor: A model often consists 
of little more than the outlines and proportions, while 
the dimensions and decorations are left to the choice of 
the workman. One who is anxious to acquire a fine 
hand wil! in the first instance rather imitate the errours 
of his copy than attempt any improvement of his own. 
A mau of genius will not suffer himself to be cramped 
by a slavish adherence to any model however perfect. 

In the second sense copy is used for painting, and 
model for relief. A copy ought to be faithful, a modef 
ought to be just; the former should delineate exactly 
what is delineated by the original; the latter should 
adhere to the precise rules of proportion observed in 
the original. The pictures of Raphael do not lose 
their attractions even in bad copies: the simple models 
of antiquity often equal in value originals of modern 
conception. 

Pattern and specimen approach nearest to model in 
signification: the idea of guidance or direction is pro 
minent in them. The model always serves to guide in 
the execution of a work; the pattern serves either tc 
regulate the work, or simply to determine the choice: 
the specimen helps only to form the opinion. The 
architect builds according to a certain model; ‘A 
fault it would be if some king should build his mansion- 
house by the model of Solomon’s palace.’--HooxreR 
The mechanick makes any thing according to a pat 
tern, Or a person fixes on having a thing according tc 
the pattern offered to him; ‘A gentleman sends to my 
shop fora pattern of stuff; if he like it, he compares the 
pattern with the whole piece, and probably we bar- 
gain.—Swirr. The nature and value of things are 
estimated by the specimen shown of them; ‘Several 
persons have exhibited specimens of this art before 
multitudes of beholders.—Appison. A model is al- 
ways some whole complete in itself; a pattern may be 
either a whole or the part of a whole; a specimen is 
always a part. Models of ships, bridges, or other 
pieces of mechanism are sometimes constructed foe 
the purpose of explaining most effectually the nature 
and design of the invention: whenever the make, 
colour, or materials of any article, either of conve- 
nience or luxury, is an object of consideration, it car 
not be so rightly determined by any means as by pro- 
ducing a similar article to serve as a pattern: a single 
seiitence in a book may be a sufficient specimen of the 
whole performance. 

In the moral sense pattern respects the whole con 
duct or behaviour; specimen only individual actions 
The female who devotes her time and attention to the 


* Vide Girard: *‘ Copie, modéle.” 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES, 


management of her family and the education of her 
offspring is a pattern to those of her sex who depute 
the whole concern to the care of others, A person 
gives but an unfortunate specimen of his boasted sin- 
cerity, who is found guilty of an evasion; ‘ Xeno- 
phon, in the life of his imaginary prince, whom he de- 
scribes as a pattern for real ones, is always celebra- 
ting the philanthropy or good-nature of his hero.’—- 
Appison. ‘We know nothing of the scanty jargon 
of our barbarous ancestors; but we have specimens 
of our language when it began to be adapted to civil 
and religious purposes, and find itsuch as might natu- 
rally be expected, artless and simple.’—JoHNson. 


EXAMPLE, PATTERN, ENSAMPLE. 


Example, in Latin exemplum, very probably changed 
from exsimulum and exsimulo or simulo, signifies the 
thing framed according to a likeness; pattern, v. Copy ; 
ensample signifies that which is done according to a 
sample or example. 

All these words are taken for that which ought to be 
followed: but the example must be followed generally ; 

he pattern must be followed particularly, not only as 
o what, but how a thing is to be done’ the former 
serves as a guide to the judgement; the latterto guide 
the actions, The example comprehends what is either 
to be followed or avoided; the pattern only that which 
is to be followed or copied; the ensample is a species 
of example, the word being employed only in the solemn 
style. ‘lhe example may be presented either in the ob- 
ject itself, or the description of it; the pattern displays 
itself most completely in the object itself; the ensam- 
ple exists only in the description. Those who know 
what is right should set the example of practising it; 
and those who persist in doing wrong, must be made 
an example to deter others from doing the same ; 


The king of men his hardy host inspires 
With loud command, with great examples fires. 
Pops. 


Every one, let his age and station be what they may, may 
afford a pattern of Christian virtue; the child may be 
a pattern to his playmates of diligence and dutifulness ; 
the citizen may be a pattern to his fellow-citizens of 
sobriety and conformity to the laws; the soldier may 
be a pattern of obedience to his comrades; ‘ The fairy 
way of writing, as Mr. Dryden calls it, is more difficult 
than any other that depends upon the poet’s fancy, be- 
cause he has no pattern to follow in it.’--Appison. 
Our Saviour has left us an example of Christian per- 
fection, which we ought to imitate, although we can- 
not copy it: the Scripture characters are drawn as en- 
samples for our learning ; 

Sir Knight, that doest that voyage rashly take, 

By this forbidden way in my despight, 

Doest by other’s death ensample take —SprnsER. 


EXAMPLE, PRECEDENT. 


Example, v. Example; precedent, from the Latin 
precedens preceding, signifies by distinction that pre- 
ceding which is entitled to notice. 

Both these terms apply to that which may be fol- 
lowed or made arule; but the example is commonly 
present or before our eyes; the precedent is properly 
something past: the example may derive its authority 
from the individual; the precedent acquires its savc- 
tion from time and common consent: we are led by the 
example, or we copy the example; we are guided or 
governed by the precedent. ‘The former is a private 
and often a partial affair; the latter is a publick and 
often a national concern: we quote examples in litera- 
ture, and precedents in law; 

Thames! the most loy'd of all the ocean’s sons, 

O could I flow like thee! and make thy stream 

My great example, as itis my theme.—DrnuHam. 


At the revolution they threw a politick veil over every 
circumstance which might furnish a precedent for any 
future departure from what they had then settled for 
ever.’--BURKE. 


EXAMPLE, INSTANCE. 


Example (v. Example, pattern) refers in this case to 
‘he thing ; instance, from the Latin insto, signifies that 
zich stands or serves as a resting point. 


531 


The example is set forth by way of illustration o1 
instruction; the instance is adduced ky way of evi- 
dence or proof. Every instance may serve as an 
example, but every example is not an instance. The 
example consists of moral or intellectua! objects; the 
instance consists of actions only. Rules are illustrated 
by examples ; 


Let me, my son, an ancient fact unfold, 
A great example drawn from times of old.—Pore. 


Characters are illustrated by instances ; ‘Many in 
stances may be produced, from good authorities, that 
children actually suck in the several passions and de- 
praved inclinations of their nurses.—Strrerite. The 
best mode of instructing children is by furnishing them 
with examples for every rule that is laid down; the 
Roman history furnishes us with many extraordinary 
instances of self-devotion for their country. 


FIGURE, METAPHOR, ALLEGORY, EMBLEM 
SYMBOL, TYPE. 


Figure, in Latin figura, from fingo to feign, signifies 
any thing painted or feigned by the mind; metaphor, 
in Greek peragopd, from peradéow to transfer, signifies 
a transfer of one object to another; allegory, in Greek 
ddAnyopia, trom d@AAos another thing, and dyopetw to 
relate, signifies the relation of something under a bor- 
rowed form; emblem, in Greek &uBAnua, from éuBddd\w 
to impress, signifies the thing stamped on asa mark; 
symbol, from the Greek ovpBdéAdw to consider atten- 
tively, signifies the thing cast or conceived in the mind, 
from its analogy to represent something else; type, in 
Greek réros, from rézrw to strike or stamp, signifies 
an image of something that is stamped on something 
else. 

Likeness between two objects by which one is made 
to represent the other, is the common idea in the sig- 
nification of these terms. Figure is the most general 
of these terms, comprehending every thing which ig 
Jigured by means of the imagination; the rest are but 
modes of the figure. The figure consists either in 
words or in things generally: we may have a figure 
in expression, a figure on paper, a figure on wood or | 
stone, and the like. It is the business of the imagina- 
tion to draw figures out of any thing; ‘The spring 
bears the same figure among the seasons of the year, 
that the morning does among the divisions of the dav, 
or youth among the stages of life.—Appison. The 
metaphor and allegory consist of a representation by 
means of words only: the figure, in this case, is any 
representation which the mind makes to itself of a re- 
semblance between objects, which is properly a figure 
of thought, which when clothed in words is a figure of 
speech: the metaphor isa figure of speech of the sim- 
plest kind, by which a word acquires other meanings 
besides that which is originally affixed to it; as when 
the term head, which properly signifies a part of the 
body, is applied to the leader of an army; ‘No man 
had a happier manner of expressing the affections of 
one sense by metaphors taken from another than Mil 
ton”—Burkr. The allegory is a continued metaphor 
when attributes, modes and actions are applied to the 
objects thus figured, as inthe allegory of sin and death 
in Milton; ‘ Virgil has cast the whole system of Pla- 
tonick philosophy, so far as regards the soul of man, 
into beautiful allegories..—ADDISON. 

The emblem is that sort of figure of thought by which 
we make corporeal objects to stand for moral proper- 
ties: thus the dove is represented as the emblem of 
meekness, or the bee-hive is conceived to be the emblem 
of industry ; ‘The stork’s the emblem of true piety.’— 
Beaumont. The symbol is that species of emblem 
which is converted into a constituted sign among men, 
thus the olive and laurel are the symbols of peace, and 
have been recognised as such among barbarous as well 
as enlightened nations; ‘I need not mention the just- 
ness of thought which is observed in the generation of 
these symbolical persons (in Milton’s allegory of sin 
and death).’—Appison. The type is that species of 
emblem by which one object is made to represent an 
other mystically ; it is, therefore, only employed in re- 
ligious matters, particularly in relation to the coming, 
the office, and the death of our Saviour; in this man 
ner the offering of Isaac is considered as a type of out 

/ Saviour’s offering himself as an atoning sacrifice 


532 


All the remarkable events under the law were types 
of Christ.’—Brair. 


PARABLE, ALLEGORY. 


Parable,in French parabole, Greek rapaBoAn from 
rapaBddhw signifies what is thrown out or set before 
one, in lieu of something which it resembles, allegory, 
v. Figure. 

* Both these terms imply a veiled mode of speech, 
which serves more or less to conceal the main object 
of the discourse by presenting it under the appearance 
of something else, which accords with it in most of the 
particulars: the parable is mostly employed for moral 
purposes ; the allegory in describing historical events. 

The parable substitutes some other subject or agent, 
who is represented under a character that is suitable 
to the one referred to. In the allegory are introduced 
strange and arbitrary persons in the place of the real 
personages, or imaginary characteristicks and circum- 
stances are ascribed to real persons. 

The parable is principally employed in the sacred 
writings ;. the allegory forms a grand feature in the 
productions of the eastern nations. 


SIMILE, SIMILITUDE, COMPARISON. 


Simile and similitude are both drawn from the Latin 
similis like: the former signifying the thing that is like; 
the latter either the thing that is like, or the quality of 
being like: in the former sense only it is to be compared 
with simile, when employed as a figure of speech or 
thought; every thing is a szmzle which associates ob- 
jects together on account of any real or supposed like- 
ness between them; but a similitude signifies a pro- 
longed or continued simile. The latter may be ex- 
pressed in a few words, as when we say the god-like 
Achilles; but the former enters into minute circum- 
stances of comparison, as when Homer compares any 
of his heroes fighting and defending themselves against 
multitudes to lions who are attacked by dogs and men. 
Every simile is more or less a comparison, but every 
comparison is not a simile: the latter compares things 
only as far as they are alike; but the former extends 
to those things which are different: in this manner, 
there may be a comparison between large things and 
small, although there can be no good simile; ‘'‘There 
are also several noble similes and allusions in the first 
book of Paradise Lost.,-—Appison. $ h as havea 
natural bent to solitude (to carry on the former szmili- 
tude) are like waters which may be forced into foun- 
tains.,—Popz. ‘Your image of worshipping once a 
year in a certain place, in imitation of the Jews, is but 
a comparison, and simile non est idem.’—JOHNSON. 


LIKENESS, RESEMBLANCE, SIMILARITY, 
OR SIMILITUDE. 


Likeness denotes the quality of being alike (v. 
Equal) ; resemblance, from resemble, compounded of 
re and semble, in French sembler, Latin simulo, signi- 
fies putting on the form of another thing; similarity, 
in Latin similaritas, from similis,in Greek bpayéds 


like, from the Hebrew SnD an image, denotes the ab- 
stract property of likeness. 

Likeness is the most general, and at the same time 
the most familiar, term of the three; it respects either 
external or internal properties: resemblance respects 
only the external properties; similarity only the in- 
ternal properties: we speak of a likeness between two 
persons; of a resemblance in the cast of the eye, a re- 
semblance in the form or figure; of a similarity in age 
and disposition. 

Likeness is said only of that whioh is actual; re- 
semblance may be said of that which is apparent: the 
likeness consists of something specifick; the resem- 
blance may be only partial and contingent. A thing 
is said to be, but not to appear, lzke another; it may, 
however, have the shadow of a resemblance : whatever 
things are alike are alike in their essential properties; 
but they may resemble in a partial degree, or in certain 
particulars, but are otherwise essentially different. 
We are most like the Divine Being’in the act of doing 
good; there is nothing existing in nature which has 
not certain points of resemblance with something else. 


* Vide Abbe Girard: “ Parable, allegorie.” 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


_ Similarity, or similitude, which is a higher term, 
is in the moral application, in regard to likeness, what 
resemblance is in the physical sense: what is alike has’ 
the same nature; what is similar has certain features 
of similarity; in this sense feelings are alike, senti- 
ments are alike, persons are alike; but cases are simi 
lar, circumstances are similar, conditions are similar. 
Likeness excludes the idea of difference; similarity 
includes only the idea of casual likeness; 


With friendly hand I hold the glass 

To all promisce’ous as they pass; 

Should folly there her likeness view, 

I fret not that the mirror’s true.—Moore. 


So, faint resemblance! on the marble tomb 
The well-dissembled lover stooping stands, 
For ever silent and for ever sad.—THOoMson. 


‘Rochefoucault frequently makes use of the antithesis, 
a mode of speaking the most tiresome of any, by the 
similarity of the periods.—Warron. ‘ As it addeth 
deformity to an ape to be so like a man, so the simeli- 
tude of superstition to religion makes it the more de- 
formed.’—Bacon. 


LIKENESS, PICTURE, IMAGE, EFFIGY 


In the former article likeness is considered as an ab- 
stract term, but in connexion with the words picture 
gnd image it signifies the representation of likeness ; 
picture, in Latin pictura, from pingo to paint, signi- 
fies the thing painted; zmage, in Latin zmago, con- 
tracted from imitago, comes from imitor to imitate, 
signifying an imitation; efigy,in Latin effigies, from 
efingo, signifies that which was formed after another 
thing. 

Likeness is a general and indefinite term; picture 
and image express something positively like. A like. 
ness is the work of nature or art; if it be the work of 
man, itis sketched by the pencil, and is more or lesa 
real; 


God, Moses first, then David, did inspire, 

To compose anthems for his heav’nly choir; 

To th’ one the style of friend he did impart, 

On th’ other stamp’d the likeness of his heart. 
DENHAM. 


A picture is either the work of design or accident; it 
may be drawn by the pencil or the pen, or it may be 
found in the incidental resemblances of things; it is 
more or Jess exact ; 


Or else the comick muse 
Holds to the world a picture of itself.—THomson. 


The image lies in the nature of things, and is more o1 
less striking; ‘ The mind of man is an zmage, not only 
of God’s spirituality, but of his infinity.—Souru. It 
is the peculiar excellence of the painter to produce a 
likeness; the withering and falling off of the leaves 
from the trees in autumn is a picture of human nature 
in its decline; children are frequently the very image 
of their parents. 

A likeness is that which is to represent the actual 
likeness ; but an effigy is an artificial or arbitrary like- 
ness; ‘T have read somewhere that one of the popes 
refused to accept an edition of a saint’s works, which 
were presented to him, because the saint in his effigies 
before the book, was drawn withuut a beard.’—App1- 
son. It may be represented on wood or stone, or in 
the figure of a person, or in the copy of the figure, 
Artists produce likenesses in different manners; they 
carve effigies, or take impressions from those that are 
carved. Hence any thing dressed up in the figure of 
a man to represent a particular person is termed his 


effigy. 


o——— 


TO CONTRIVE, DEVISE, INVENT. 


Contrive, in French controuver, compounded of con 
and trouver, signifies to find out by putting together ; 
devise, compounded of de and vise, in Latin visus 
seen, signifies to show or present to the mind; invent, 
in Latin inventus, participle of invenio, compounded 
of zn and venio, signifies to come or bring into the 
mind. 

To contrive and devise do not express so much as to 
invent: we contrive and devise in small matters; we 
invent in those of greater moment. Contriving ane 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. 


eevrsing respect the manner of doing things; inventing 
comprehends the action and the thing itself; the former 
are but the new fashioning of things that already 
exist; the latter is, as it were, the creation of some- 
thing new: to contrive and devise are intentional ac- 
tions, the result of a specifick effort; invention natu- 
rally arises from the exertion of an inherent power: 
we require thought and combination to contrive or 
devise; ingenuity is the faculty which is exerted in 
inventing ; 

My sentence is for open war; of wiles 

More unexpert I boast not; them let those 

Contrive who need, or when they need, not now. 

MILTON. 


The briskest nectar 
Shall be his drink, and all th’ ambrosial cates 
Art can devise for wanton appetite, 
Furnish his banquet.—Nass. 


* Architecture, painting, and statuary, were invented 
with the design to lift up human nature.’—ApDDISON. 

Contriving requires even less exercise of the 
thoughts than devising ;: we contrive on familiar and 
common occasions; we devise in seasons of difficulty 
and trial. A centrivance is simple and obvious to a 
plain understanding: a device is complex and far- 
fetched; it requires a ready conception and a degree 
of art. 

Contrivances serve to supply a deficiency, or in- 
clease a convenience; devices are employed to extri- 
cate from danger, to remove an evil, or forward a 
scheme: the history of Robinson Crusoe derives consi- 
derable interest from the relation of the various con- 
trivances, by which he’ provided himself with the first 
articles of necessity and comfort; the history of robbers 
and adventurers is full of the various devices by which 
they endeavour to carry on their projects of plunder, 
or elude the vigilance of their pursuers; the history of 
civilized society contains an account of the various 
inventions which have contributed to the enjoyment 
or improvement of mankind. 


2 


DEVICE, CONTRIVANCE. 


These nouns, derived from the preceding verbs, 
have also a similar distinction. 

There is an exercise of art displayed in both these 
actions; but the former has most of ingenuity, trick, 
or cunning; the latter more of deduction and plain 
judgement in it. A device always consists of some 
invention or something newly made; a contrivance 
mostly respects the mode, arrangement, or disposition 
of things. Artists are employed in conceiving devices ; 
men in general use contrivances for the ordinary con- 
cerns. 

A device is often employed for bad and fraudulent 
purposes ; contrivances mostly serve for innocent pur- 
poses of domestick life. Beggars have various de- 
vices for giving themselves the appearance of wretch- 
edness and exciting the compassion of the spectator. 
Those who are reduced to the necessity of supplying 
their wants commonly succeed by forming contri- 
vances of which they had not before any conception. 
Devices are the work of the human understanding 
only; contrivances are likewise formed by animals. 

Men employ devices with an intention either to 
deceive or to please others; ‘ As I have long lived in 
Kent, and there often heard how the Kentish men 
evaded the conqueror by carrying green boughs over 
their heads; it put me in mind of practising this de- 
vice against Mr. Simper.’—Stretr. Animals have 
their contrivances either to supply some want or to 
remove some evil; ‘ All the temples as well as houses 
of the Athenians were the effects of Nestor’s (the 
architect) study and labour, insomuch that it was said, 
“ Sure Nestor will now be famous; for the habitations 
of gods, as well as men, are built by his contrivance.”’’ 
—STEELE. 


TO CONCERT, CONTRIVE, MANAGE. 


Concert is either a variation of consort a compa- 
nion, or from the Latin concerto to debate together; 
contrive, from contrivi, perfect of contero to bruise to- 
gether, signifies to pound or put together in the mind 
so as to form a composition; manage, in French me- 


533 


\ 
nager, compounded of the Latin manus and ago, sig- 
nifies to lead by the hand. 

There is a secret understanding in concerting; 
invention in contriving; execution in managing. 
There is mostly contrivance and management in con- 
certing; but there is not always concerting in con- 
trivance or management. Measures are concerted; 
schemes ate contrived; affairs are managed. 

Two parties at least are requisite in concerting, one 
is sufficient for contriving andmanaging. Concerting 
is always employed in all secret transactions; contre- 
vance and management are used indifferently, 

Robders who have determined on any scheme of 
plunder concert together the means of carrying their 
project into execution; ‘ Modern statesmen are con 
certing schemes and engaged in the depth of politicks, 
at the time when their forefathers were laid down 
quietly to rest, and had nothing in their heads but 
dreams.’—STEELE. ‘Thieves contrive various devices 
to elude the vigilance of the police; ‘ When Cesar 
was one of the masters of the mint, he placed the figure 
of an elephant upon the reverse of the publick money: 
the word Cesar signifying an elephant in the Punick 
language. ‘This was artfully contrived by Cesar; be- 
cause it was not lawful for a private man to stamp his 
own figure upon the coin of the commonwealth.’— 
Appison. ‘Those who have any thing bad to do 
manage their concerns in the dark; ‘ It is the great act 
and secret of Christianity, if I may use that phrase, 
to manage our actions to the best advantage.’-—Ap 
DISON. 

Those who are debarred the opportunity of seeing 
each other unrestrainedly, concert measures for meet- 
ing privately. The ingenuity of a person is frequently 
displayed in the contrivances by which he strives to 
help himself out of his troubles. Whenever there are 
many parties interested in a concern, it is never so well 
managed as when it is in the hands of one individual 
suitably qualified. 


DESIGN, PURPOSE, INTEND, MEAN. 


Design, from the Latin designare, signifies to mag j 
out as with a pen or pencil; purpose, like propose 
comes from the Latin proposui, perfect of propono 
signifying to set before one’s mind as an object of pur 
suit; intend, in Latin intendo to bend towards, signi 
fies the bending of the mind towards an object; mean, 
in Saxon maenen, German, &¢c. meinen, is probably 
connected with the word mind, signifying to have in 
the mind. 

Design and purpose are terms of higher import than 
intend and mean, which are in familiar use; the latte. 
still more so than the former. The design embraces 
many objects; the purpose consists of only one:* the 
former supposes something studied and methodical, it 
requires reflection; the latter supposes something fixed 
and determinate, it requires resolution. A design is 
attainable; a purpose is steady. We speak of the de- 
sign as it regards the thing conceived; we speak of the 
purpose as it regards the temper of the person. Men 
of a sanguine or aspiring character are apt to form de- 
signs which cannot be carried into execution; who- 
ever wishes to keep true to his purpose must not listen 
to many counsellors; 


Jove honours me and favours my designs, 
. His pleasure guides me, and his will confines. 
Pore 


Proud as he is, that iron heart retains 
His stubborn purpose, and his friends disdains. 
Pork. 


The purpose is the thing proposed or set before the 
mind ; the intention is the thing to which the mind 
bends or inclines: purpose and zntend differ therefore 
both in the nature of the action and the object; we 
purpose seriously; we-intend vaguely: we set abou! 
that which we¢wrpose ; we may delay that which wa 
have only intended: the execution of one’s purpose 
rests mostly with one’s self; the fulfilment of an zn- 
tention depends upon circumstances: a man of a reso~ 
lute temper is not to be diverted from his purpose by 
trifling objects; we may be disappointed in our inten: 
tions by a variety of unforeseen but uncontrollable 
events. 


* Vide Trusler: ‘Intention, design.” 


534 


Mean, which is a term altogether of colloquial use, 
differs but little from intend, except that it is used for 
more familiar objects: to mean is simply to have in 
the mind; to zntend is to lean with the mind towards 
any thing. 

Purpose is always applied to some proximate or de- 
finite object; 

And I persuade me God hath not permitted 
His strength again to grow, were not his purpose 
To use him further yet. 


Intend and mean to that which is general or remote; 
‘The gods would not have delivered a soul into the 
body, which hath arms and legs, instruments of doing, 
but that it were intended the mind should employ them.’ 
—SIDNEY. 


And life more perfect have attain’d than fate 
Meant me, by venturing higher than my lot. 
MIiLTon. 


We purpose to set out at a certain time or go a cer- 
tain route; we mean to set out as soon as we can, and 
go the way that shall be found most agreeable; the 
moralist destgns by his writings to effect a reformation 
in the manners of men: a writer purposes to treat on 
a given subject in some particular manner; it is ridi- 
culous to lay down rules which are not intended to be 
pore an honest man always means to satisfy his cre- 
itors. 

Design and purpose are taken sometimes in the 
abstract sense; zntend and mean always in connexion 
with the agent who intends or means : we see a design 
in the whole creation, which leads us to reflect on the 
wiscom and goodness of the Creator; whenever we 
see any thing done we are led to inquire the purpose 
‘for which it is done; or are desirous of knowing the 
intention of the person for so doing: things are said to 
be done with a design, in opposition to that which hap- 
pens by chance; they are said to be done for a purpose, 
in reference to the immediate purpose which is ex- 
pected to result from them. Design, when not ex- 
pressly qualified by a contrary epithet, is used in a bad 
sense in connexion with a particular agent; purpose, 
intention, and meaning in an indifferent sense: a de- 
signing person is full of latent and interested designs ; 


His deep design unknown, the hosts approve 
Atrides’ speech.—Poprr. 


There is nothing so good that it may not be made to 
serve the purposes of those who are bad; 
Change this purpose, 
Which, being so horrible, so bloody, must 
Lead on to some foul issue. 


The intentions of a man must always be taken into 
the account when we are forming an estimate of his 
actions; ‘f wish others the same zntention and greater 
successes.’—TzmpLe. Ignorant people frequently 
mean much better than they do. 

Nothing can evince greater depravity of mind than 
designedly to rob another of his good name; when a 
person wishes to get any information he purposely 
directs his discourse to the subject upon which he 
desires to be informed ; if we unintentionally incur the 
displeasure of another, it is to be reckoned our mis- 
fortune rather than our fault; it is not enough for our 
endeavours to be well meant, if they be not also well 
directed ; 


Then first Polydamus the silence broke, 

Long weigh’d the signal, and to Hector spoke: 

How oft, my brother! thy reproach I bear, 

For words well meant and sentiments sincere. 
Pops. 


—_—_— 


DESIGN, PLAN, SCHEME, PROJECT. 


Design, v. To design; plan, in French plan, comes 
from pcane or plain, in Latin planus, smooth or even, 
signifying in general any plane place, or in particular 
the even surface on which a building is raised ; and by 
an extended application the sketch of the plane surface 
of any building or object; scheme, in Latin schema, 
Greek oxijua the form or figure, signifies the thing 
drawn out in the mind; project, in Latin projectus, 
from projicio, compounded of pro and jacio, signifies 
w Cast or put forth, that is, the thing proposed. 

Arrangement is the idea common to these terms: 


ENGLISH SYNONYMES. | 


the design includes the thing that is to be brought 
about; the plan includes the means by which it is to 
be brought about: a design was formed in the time of 
James I. for overturning the government of the coun 
try; the plan by which this was to have been realized, 
consisted in placing gunpowder under the parliament: 
house and blowing up the assembly ; ‘ Is he a prudent 
man, as to his temporal estate, that lays designs only 
for a day without any prospect to the remaining part 
of his life?—T1LLorson. ‘It was at Marseilles that 
Virgil formed the plan, and collected the materials, of 
all those excellent pieces which he afterward finished.’ 
—WaALSH. 

A design is to be estimated according to its intrinsick 
worth; a plan is to be estimated according to its rela- 
tive value, or fitness for the design: a design is noble 
or wicked; a plan is practicable: every founder of a 
charitable institution may be supposed to have a good 
design ; but he may adopt an erroneous plan for cb- 
taining the end proposed. 

Scheme and project respect both the end and the 
means, which makes them analogous to design and 
plan: the design stimulates to action; the plan de- 
termines the mode of action: the scheme and project 
consist most in speculation: the design and plan are 
equally practical, and suited to the ordinary and im- 
mediate circumstances of life: the scheme and project 
are contrived or conceived for extraordinary or rare 
occasions: no man takes any step without a design ; 
a general forms the plan of his campaign; adventu- 
rous men are alwaysforming schemes forgaining money; 
ambitious monarchs are full of projects for increasing 
their dominions; 


The happy people in their waxen cells 
Sat tending publick cares, and planning schemeg 
Of temperance for winter poor.—THoMSON. 


‘ Manhood is led on from hope to hope, and from pro 
ject to project. —JOHNSON. 

Scheme and project differ principally in the magni- 
tude of the objects to which they are applied; the 
former being much less vast and extensive than the 
latter: a scheme may be formed by an individual for 
attaining any trifling advantage; projects are mostly 
conceived in matters of state, or of publick interest; 
the metropolis abounds with persons whose inventive 
faculties are busy in devising schemes, either of a 
commercial, a literary, a philosophical, or political 
description, by which they propose great advantages 
to the publick, but still greater to themselves ; the pro 
ject of universal conquest which entered into the wild 
speculations of Alexander the Great, did not, unfortu 
nately for the world, perish at his death. 


TO PURPOSE, PROPOSE, 


We purpose (v. To design) that which is near ai 
hand, or immediately to be set about ; we propose that 
which is more distant: the former requires the setting 
before one’s mind, the latter requires deliberation and 
plan. We purpose many things which we never think 
worth while doing: but we ought not to propose any 
thing to ourselves, which is not of too much import- 
ance to be lightly adopted or rejected. We purpose 
to go to town on a certain day ; 


When listening Philomela deigns 
To let them joy, and purposes in thought 
Elate to make her night excel their day. 
THOMSON. 


We propose to spend our time in a particular study 
‘There are bur two plans on which any man can 
propose to conduct himself through the dangers and 
distresses of human life.’—Buatr. 


INTENT, INTENSE. 


Intent and intense are both derived from the verb 
to intend, signifying to stretch towards a point, or to 
a great degree: the former is said only of the person 
or mind; the latter qualifies things in general: a per 
son is intent when his mind is on the stretch towards 
an object; his application is intense when his mind is 
for a continuance closely fixed on certain objects: cold 
is intense when it seems to be wound up to its highest 
pitch; ‘ There is an evil spirit continually active and 


ENGLiSH SYNONY™MES 


mtent to seduce.’—Soutn. ‘Mutual favours naturally 
beget an intense affection in generous minds.’—Spre- 
TATOR. 


SAKE, ACCOUNT, REASON, PURPOSE, END. 


These terms, all employed adverbially, modify or 
connect propositions: hence, one says, for his sake, on 
his acceunt, for this reason, for this purpose, and to 
this end. 

Sake, which comes from the word to seek, is mostly 
said of persons; what is done for a person’s sake is the 
same as because of his seeking or at his desire; one 
may, however, say in regard to things, for the sake of 
good order, implying what good order requires : account 
is indifferently employed for persons or things; what 
is done on a person’s account is done in his behalf, 
and for his interest; what is done on account of indis- 
position is done in consequence of it, the indisposition 
being the cause: reason, purpose, and end are applied 
to things only: we speak of the reason as the thing 
that justifies; we explain why we do a thing when 


THE 


538 


we say we d¢ it for ‘ais or tha. reason ; we speak of 
the purpose and the end by way of explaining the 
nature of the thing: the propriety of measures cannot 
be known unless we know the purpose for which they 
were done; nor will a prudent person be satisfied 
to follow any course, unless he knows to what end it 
will lead. 


Aa 


EXPEDIENT, RESOURCE. 


The expedient is an artificial means; the resource 
is a natural means: a cunning man is fruitful in 
expedients ; a fortunate man abounds in resources: 
Robinson Crusoe adopted every expedient in order to 
prolong his existence, at a time when his resources were 
at the lowest ebb; ‘ When there happens to be any 
thing ridiculous in a visage, the best expedient is for 
the owner to be pleasant upon himself.’—STrete. 
‘Since the accomplishment of the revolution, France 
has destroyed every resource of the state which de 
pends upon opinion.’—Burkxr. 


END. 


4 


afime at ate 


Ms 


IS-URBANA 


LINO 


UNIVERSITY OF IL 


88689 _ 


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